Memory Management 2010

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Chapter 4:Memory Management

Basic Memory ManagementRelocation and protectionSwappingVirtual MemoryPagingSegmentationPaging with segmentation

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Ideally programmers want memory that is◦ large◦ fast◦ non volatile

Memory hierarchy ◦ small amount of fast, expensive memory –

cache ◦ some medium-speed, medium price, volatile

main memory RAM)◦ Tens of hundreds of gigabytes of slow, cheap

, non-volatile disk storage

Memory manager handles the memory hierarchy

Memory manager :Memory manager :◦which parts of memory are in use

and which parts are not in use◦Allocate and deallocate memory◦Manage swapping between main

memory and disk when main memory is too small to hold all the processes.

Operating System Concepts

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Basic Memory ManagementMonoprogramming without Swapping or Paging

Three simple ways of organizing memory

- an operating system with one user process

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Multiprogramming with Fixed Partitions

Fixed memory partitions◦separate input queues for each

partition◦single input queue

1. When job arrives, it can be put into the input queue for the smallest partition large enough o hold it.

2. May be small jobs have to wait to get into memory, even though plenty of memory is free.

Whenever a partition becomes free, the job closest to the front of the queue that fits in it could be loaded into the empty partition and run.

Search the whole input queue and pick the largest job that fits.

At least one small partition Job may not be skipped over

more than k times.

Input queue – collection of processes on the disk that are waiting to be brought into memory to run the program.

User programs go through several steps before being run.


Multistep Processing of a User Program Multistep Processing of a User Program


Logical vs. Physical Address Logical vs. Physical Address SpaceSpace

Logical address – generated by the CPU; also referred to as virtual address.

Physical address – address seen by the memory unit.

Logical and physical addresses are the same in compile-time and load-time address-binding schemes;

logical (virtual) and physical addresses differ in execution-time address-binding scheme.


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Relocation and Protection

Cannot be sure where program will be loaded in memory◦ address locations of variables, code routines

cannot be absolute◦ must keep a program out of other processes’

partitions

RelocationRelocationWhen a program is linked the

linker must know at what address the program will begin in memory.

Call to a procedure at absolute address 100

Program is Loaded in partition 1100K+100


Dynamic relocation using a relocation Dynamic relocation using a relocation registerregister


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Protection

Divide memory into blocks of 2-KB bytes4-bit protection code to each block (IBM)PSW contained 4-bit keyUse base and limit values

◦ address locations added to base value to map to physical address

◦ address locations larger than limit value is an error

Hardware Support for Relocation and Limit Hardware Support for Relocation and Limit RegistersRegisters


SwappingSwapping A process can be swapped temporarily out of memory to a

backing store, and then brought back into memory for continued execution.

Backing store – fast disk large enough to accommodate copies of all memory images for all users; must provide direct access to these memory images.


Schematic View of Schematic View of SwappingSwapping


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Swapping (1)

Memory allocation changes as ◦ processes come into memory◦ leave memory

Shaded regions are unused memory


swappingComplicates allocation and

deallocation of memory as well as keeping track of it….

Memory compaction : moving one by one all the processes downward as far as possible.

It is usually not done because it requires a lot of CPU time.

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When memory is assigned dynamically os must manage it.

Two ways to keep track of memory usage◦Bitmaps◦Linked list.


Memory Management with Bit Maps

Part of memory with 5 processes, 3 holes◦ tick marks show allocation units◦ shaded regions are free

Corresponding bit mapSame information as a list


Size of allocation unit is important design issue

Smaller the allocation unit the larger the bitmap

Larger the allocation unit , smaller bitmap , but memory may be wasted in the last unit of the process.

Problem : searching a bitmap for a given length is slow operation


Memory Management with Linked Lists

Four neighbour combinations for the terminating

process X


When the processes and holes are kept on a list sorted by address, several algorithms can be used to allocate memory for a newly created process.

First fitNext fitBest fitWorst fitQuick fit


ALGORITHM: First fit :

◦ scan the list of segments until it finds a hole that is big enough to hold process.

◦ The hole is then broken up into two pieces, one for the process and one for the unused memory.

Next fit : ◦ It works the same way as first fit, except

that it keeps track of where it is finds a suitable hole.

◦ The next time it is called to find the hole, it starts searching the list from the place where it left off last time, instead of always at the begging as first fit does.

Best fit : ◦The memory manager scans entire list

of segments and takes the smallest hole that is adequate.

Worst fit : ◦The memory manager scans entire list

of segments and takes the largest available hole .


Quick fit :

◦The memory manager maintains separate lists for common size requested.

◦With quick fit, finding a hole of the required size is extremely fast

◦when a process terminates or is swapped out, finding its neighbours to see if a merge is possible is expensive.

ExampleConsider a swapping system in

which memory consists of the following hole sizes in memory order :

10 4 20 18 7 9 12 15 which hole is taken for successive

requests of a. 12 b. 10 c. 9 for first fit? Repeat the question

for best fit, worst fit, and next fit.


Virtual MemorySplit program into pieces called

overlays.Swapping of overlays in and out

done by system

Ex: 16-MB program can run on 4-MB machine….


Virtual MemoryVirtual address : program

generated address◦Virtual address space is divided up

into units called pages.Physical address : address seen

by memory unit◦Physical address space is divided

into unit called page frame.◦Page and page frame are always

same size.

Memory-Management Unit Memory-Management Unit ((MMUMMU))Hardware device that maps virtual

to physical address.

In MMU scheme, the value in the relocation register is added to every address generated by a user process at the time it is sent to memory.

The user program deals with logical addresses; it never sees the real physical addresses.



Virtual MemoryPaging (1)

The position and function of the MMU


Paging (2)

The relation between virtual addresses and physical memory addresses given by page table


Page Tables (1)

Internal operation of MMU with 16 bit,4 KB pages


Page TableThe page number is used as an

index into the page table, yielding the number of the page frame…

P/A bit is o, trap to the OS.P/A bit is 1, the page frame

number found in the page table is copied to the high order 3 bits of the output register…


Page Tables Entry

Typical page table entry Page frame number: Goal of page

mapping to locate this value. Present/absent bit: If 1-entry is valid

and can be used. If 0-virtual page to which the entry belongs is not currently in memory.

Protection bit: It tells that what kind of access are permitted.


Page Table EntryModified and referenced bits : It keep track

of page usage. When a page is written to ,the h/w automatically sets the modified bit.◦ if the page in it has been modified (i.e. is “dirty”), it

must be written back. ◦ If it has not been modified (i.e. is “clean”), it can be

just be abandoned.Referenced Bit: It is set whenever a page is

referenced either for reading or writing. Its value help the O.S choose a page to evict when a page fault occurs.

Caching : This feature is important for page that map onto device reg. rather than memory.

Machine that have separate I/O space and do not use memory mapped I/O do not need this bit.

Page Table

Page table can be extremely large

The mapping must be fast◦Each process needs its own page

table◦Mapping must be done on every

memory referenceSolution :◦single page table consisting of an

array of fast hardware register◦ExpensiveIt can be entirely in main memory


Two-Level Paging Two-Level Paging ExampleExample

A logical address (on 32-bit machine with 4K page size) is divided into:◦ a page number consisting of 20 bits.◦ a page offset consisting of 12 bits.

Since the page table is paged, the page number is further divided into:◦ a 10-bit page number. ◦ a 10-bit page offset.

Thus, a logical address is as follows:

here pi is an index into the outer page table, and p2 is the displacement within the page of the outer page table.


page number page offset

pi p2 d

10 10 12


Two Level Page Tables

In this method avoid keeping all the page tables in memory all time. Those that are not needed should not be kept around.

Second-level page tables

Top-level page table

Implementation of Page Implementation of Page TableTablePage table is kept in main memory.Page-table base register (PTBR) points

to the page table.Page-table length register (PRLR)

indicates size of the page table.In this scheme every data/instruction

access requires two memory accesses. One for the page table and one for the data/instruction.

The two memory access problem can be solved by the use of a special fast-lookup hardware cache called associative memory or translation look-aside buffers (TLBs)



TLBs – Translation Lookaside Buffers`

A TLB to speed up pagingTo see virtual page is present in TLB –

comparing all the entries simultaneously.

Paging Hardware With TLBPaging Hardware With TLB


Inverted Page TableInverted Page TableOne entry for each page frame of

memory.Entry consists of the virtual

address of the page stored in that real memory location, with information about the process that owns that page.

Decreases memory needed to store each page table, but increases time needed to search the table when a page reference occurs.

Use hash table to limit the search to one — or at most a few — page-table entries.


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Inverted Page Tables

Comparison of a traditional page table with an inverted page table

Inverted Page Table Inverted Page Table ArchitectureArchitecture


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Page Replacement Algorithms

Page fault forces choice ◦which page must be removed◦make room for incoming page

Modified page must first be saved◦unmodified just overwritten

Better not to choose an often used page◦will probably need to be brought

back in soon

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FIFO Page Replacement Algorithm

Maintain a linked list of all pages ◦ in order they came into memory◦ With the page at the head of the list the

oldest one and the page at the tail the most recent arrival.

Page at beginning of list replaced

Disadvantage◦ Throwing out heavily used page.


FIFO Page Replacement

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Second Chance Page Replacement Algorithm

Operation of a second chance◦ pages sorted in FIFO order◦ if fault occurs at time 20, A has R bit set

(numbers above pages are loading times)


Second-Chance (clock) Page-Replacement Algorithm

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The Clock Page Replacement Algorithm

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Optimal Page Replacement Algorithm

◦Optimal but unrealizable

◦Working: One of these pages will be referenced on the very next instruction.

◦Other pages may not be referenced until 10, 100 and or perhaps1000 instruction later.

◦ Each page can be labelled with the number of instruction that will be executed before that page is first referenced.

Optimal Page Replacement Algorithm

◦The page with the highest label should be removed.

◦At the time of page fault , the OS has no way of knowing when each of the page will be referenced next.

Not Recently Used :• When a process is started up, both page

bits for all its pages are set to 0 by the O.S.

• Periodically (e.g. on each clock interrupt), the R bit is cleared, to distinguish pages that have not been referenced recently from those that have been.


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Not Recently Used Page Replacement Algorithm

Pages are classified1. not referenced, not modified(0 0)

1. Best page to replace

2. not referenced, modified(0 1)1. Not quite good , because the page will need to be

written out before replacement

3. referenced, not modified(1 0)1. It probably will be used again soon

4. referenced, modified(1 1)1. It probably will be used again soon , and the page

will need to be written out to disk before replacement

NRU removes page at random◦lowest numbered nonempty class

◦It is better to remove a modified page that has not been referenced in at least one clock tick than a clean page that is in heavy us.

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Least Recently Used (LRU)Assume pages used recently will used

again soon◦throw out page that has been unused for

longest timeMust keep a linked list of pages

◦most recently used at front, least at rear◦update this list every memory

reference !! Finding a page in the list, deleting it, and then moving it to the front is a very time consuming operation, even in hardware.

Alternatively keep counter in each page table entry ◦choose page with lowest value counter

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LRU using Matrix

0,1,2,3,2,1,0,3,2,3: the row whose value is lowest is the last recently used.

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NOT FREQUENTLY USED:

It requires a software counter associated with each page, initially zero.

At each clock interrupt the o.s. scans all the pages in memory.

For each page the R bit ,which is 0 or 1 , is added to the counter.

The counters are an attempt to keep track of how often each page has been referenced.

When page fault occurs, the page with the lowest counter is chosen for replacement.

Problem: It never forgets anything.

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Simulating LRU in Software

The aging algorithm simulates LRU in software

Note 6 pages for 5 clock ticks, (a) – (e)

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The Working Set Page Replacement Algorithm (1)

Demand paging: Pages are loaded only on demand not in advance.

During any phase of execution the process reference only a relatively small fraction of its pages.

Working set: The set of pages that a process is currently using is called its working set.

Thrashing : A program causing page fault every few instruction is said to be thrashing.

Working set model: Many paging systems try to keep track of each process’ working set and make sure that it is in memory before letting the process run. This approach is called the working set model. ◦ It is greatly reduce the page fault rate.

Prepaging : Loading of page before letting process run is called prepaging.


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The Working Set Page Replacement Algorithm

Current Virtual Time: Amount of CPU time a process has actually used has since it started

Working set of process is the set of pages it has referenced during the past (T) seconds of virtual time.

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The WSClock Page Replacement Algorithm

The WSClock Page Replacement Algorithm

1. R =0 •If the page is clean, remove

if the page is dirty(cant remove immediately) – to avoid process switch write to disk is scheduled but hand is advanced and the algorithm continues with next page.

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Review of Page Replacement Algorithms

Consider the following page reference string :

◦ 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7◦ How many page fault occur in the

following replacement algorithms, assuming three frames.

I. FIFOII. LRUIII. Optimal

Example:Given a system with four page frames, the

following table indicates page, load time, last reference time, dirty bit, and reference bit.

Page L.T. Last reference

Dirty bit

Ref. bit

0 167 374 1 1

1 321 321 0 0

2 254 306 1 0

3 154 331 0 1

Which page will FIFO replace?◦ Ans : 3◦ FIFO selects the page loaded first, page 3 at

time 154Which page will LRU replace?

◦ Ans : 2Which page will NRU replace?

◦ Ans:1◦ NRU first looks for a clean page that was not

recently referenced.Which page will second chance replace?

◦ Second chance first checks the oldest page –page 3◦ Reference bit 1, it is reset and load time replace with

current time◦ Same for 0◦ So page 2 is selected

Given reference to the following pages by a program,0 9 0 1 8 1 8 7 8 7 1 2 8 2 7 8 2 3 8 3

How many page fault will occur if the program has three page frames available to it and uses:

1. FIFO 2. LRU 3. optimal replacement

On a simple paging system with 224 bytes of physical memory, 256 pages of logical address space and a page size of 210 bytes,

a. How many bytes are in page frame?b. How many bits in the physical address

specify the page frame number?c. How many entries are in the page table?d. What is the size of the logical address space?e. How many bits are needed to store an entry

in the page table? Assume each page table entry contains a valid/invalid bit in addition to the page frame number.

On a simple paging system with a page table containing 64 entries of 11 bits (including valid/invalid bit) each and a page size of 512 bytes,

a. How many bits are in the logical address specify the offset within the page?

b. How many bits are in the a logical address?

c. What is the size of the logical address space?

d. How many bits in the physical address specify the page frame number?

e. How many bits in the physical address specify the offset within the page frame?

Before Page Fault after

- - - 0 1 0 - -0 - - 9 2 9 0

-9 0 - 0 2 9 0

- 9 0 - 1 3 1 9

01 9 0

8 4 8 1 9

8 1 9

1 4 8 1 9

8 1 9

8 4 7 8 1

8 1 9

7 5 7 8 1

7 8 1

8 5 7 8 1

7 8 1

7 5 7 8 1

7 8 1

1 5 2 7 8

7 8 1

2 6 2 7 8

2 7 8

8 6 2 7 8

Before Page Fault after2 7 8 2 6 2 7 82 7 8 7 6 2 7 82 7 8 8 6 2 7 82 7 8 2 6 2 7 82 7 8 3 7 3 2 73 2 7 8 8 8 3 28 3 2 3 8 8 3 2

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Design Issues for Paging SystemsLocal versus Global Allocation Policies (1)

Original configurationLocal page

replacementGlobal page

replacement

Local versus Global Allocation Policiesfixed fraction of memory VS dynamic

If working set grows thrashing will result even if free page frame ,If working set shrinks local algorithm waste memory

The system must continually decide how many page frames to assign to each process.

No of pages proportional to process size.

Allocation must be updated dynamically

PFF(page fault frequency) : It tells when to increase or decrease a process page allocation but says nothing about which page to replace..

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Load ControlDespite good designs, system may

still thrash

When PFF algorithm indicates ◦some processes need more memory ◦but no processes need less

Solution :Reduce number of processes competing for memory◦swap one or more to disk, divide up

pages they held◦reconsider degree of multiprogramming

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Page Size (1) Small page size

◦internal fragmentation ◦programs need many pages, larger

page tables Large page size

◦programs need less pages, smaller page tables

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Page Size (2) s = average process size in bytes

◦ p = page size in bytes◦ e = each page entry requires e bytes◦ no. of pages needed per process =s/p◦ Page table space=se/p bytes◦ Internal fragmentation = p/2◦ Total overhead due to the page table and I.F. loss is

given by

2

s e poverhead

p

page table space space

internal fragmentatio

n

Optimized when

2p se

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Separate Instruction and Data Spaces

One address spaceSeparate I and D

spaces

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Shared Pages

Two processes sharing same program : sharing its page table

Shared PagesProgram text can be shared

Separate table for I-space and D-space

Each process has two pointers in its process table

Special data structures are needed to keep track of shared pages.

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Cleaning PolicyPaging works best when there are

plenty of free page frames.

Need for a background process, paging daemon◦periodically inspects state of memory

When too few frames are free◦selects pages to evict using a

replacement algorithm

To implement - two-hand circular list (clock)

◦Front hand controlled by paging daemon

◦Back hand is used for page replacement

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Implementation IssuesOperating System Involvement with Paging

Four times when OS involved with paging

1. Process creation determine program size create page table

2. Process execution MMU reset for new process TLB flushed

3. Page fault time determine virtual address causing

fault swap target page out, needed page in

4. Process termination time release page table, pages

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Page Fault Handling (1)1. Hardware traps to kernel, saving

the program counter on the stack.

2. Assembly code routine is started to save the General registers and other info.

3. OS determines page fault, tries to discover which virtual page needed

4. OS checks validity of address, seeks page frame

5. If selected frame is dirty, write it to disk , context switch take place, suspending faulting process and letting another process until disk transfer

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Page Fault Handling (2)

o OS brings schedules new page in from disk

o Page table updatedo Faulting instruction backed up to

the state when it began o Faulting process scheduledo Registers restoredo Program continues

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Backing Store

(a) Paging to static swap area

(b) Backing up pages dynamically

SwappingSpecial area on the disk-swap

areaAllocate space in advance : copy

entire process image to the swap area

Do not allocate in advance◦Allocate disk space for each page

when it is swapped out and deallocate when swap back in

◦There must be table per process telling for each page on disk where it is.

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Segmentation (1)

One-dimensional address space with growing tables

One table may bump into another

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Segmentation (2): provide machine with many completely independent address space

Allows each table to grow or shrink, independently

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Segmentation (3)

Comparison of paging and segmentation

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Implementation of Pure Segmentation

(a)-(d) Development of checkerboarding(e) Removal of the checkerboarding by

compaction

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Segmentation with Paging: MULTICS

Descriptor segment points to page tables

Segment descriptor

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Segmentation with Paging: MULTICS (2)

A 34-bit MULTICS virtual address

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Conversion of a 2-part MULTICS address into a main memory address

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Simplified version of the MULTICS TLB

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Segmentation with Paging: Pentium (1)

A Pentium selector

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Segmentation with Paging: Pentium(2)

Pentium code segment descriptor

Data segments differ slightly

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Conversion of a (selector, offset) pair to a linear address

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Mapping of a linear address onto a physical address

Memory Management 2010

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