Memory Interventions that Enhance Academic Learning

Milton J. Dehn, Ed.D., NCSPSchoolhouse Educational Services

November 2014

Notice of Copyright, 2014

This PowerPoint and accompanying materials are copyrighted by Milton J. Dehn and Schoolhouse Educational Services, LLC. All rights reserved. No photocopying, electronic display, or electronic dissemination of these materials is allowed without written permission. For permission, contact milt@psychprocesses.com

Workshop Information Sources

• Chapter in Essentials of Planning, Selecting, and Tailoring Interventions for Unique Learners

• Working Memory and Academic Learning• Long-Term Memory Problems in Children • Helping Students Remember• Essentials of Processing Assessment, 2nd Ed.• www.psychprocesses.com • www.SchoolhouseEducationalServices.com

Presentation Overview

1. Reducing cognitive load in the classroom2. Working memory accommodations3. Working memory strategies 4. Working memory exercises5. Long-term memory strategies

Memory Interventions

1. They are evidence-based; brain-based2. One-on-one, small group, classroom wide3. Through trained parents/teachers4. Includes direct and consultation/training5. Kindergarten through adulthood6. Exercises vs strategies7. Some tied with academic skills & study skills8. Accommodations included

Working Memory Definition

1. ST retention + processing = WM2. “WM: the limited capacity to retain

information while simultaneously manipulating the same or other information for a short period of time”

3. Keeping information in mind from moment to moment

4. STM is part of WM; WM “manages” STM as needed Video Link

Approaches to Improving WM

1. Reduce the “cognitive load” imposed on the student (Tier I)

2. Directly increase WM capacity through the use of training exercises (Tiers II and III)

3. The student can make more effective use of existing WM capabilities by learning to use strategies (Tiers 1 – 3))

4. Accommodations

Cognitive Load Theory

1. WM is a combination of processing & storage2. “Cognitive Load” is the processing portion3. Processing & storage both draw on WM capacity4. Can focus attention on only 1 aspect of WM at a time5. The greater the processing demands/longer the

processing, the more info. lost from WM/STM6. If focus on retention, processing may suffer7. Cognitive load is the main determinant of retention

in WM (and STM)

Retention as a Function of Cognitive Load

What Causes High Cognitive Load

1. Novelty2. Complexity3. Disorganization4. Multi-tasking5. Verbosity6. Environmental distractions7. Irrelevant thoughts

Coping with Cognitive Load: Switching

1. To retain info. in WM, one must frequently switch from processing to refreshing the info.

2. If the processing (cognitive load) is demanding, there will be less switching and more info. will be lost

3. Example: remember steps while completing an online task

4. Switching is difficult for young children

Cognitive Load in the Classroom

1. Instruction easily overloads WM1. By the nature of the material2. By the manner it is presented

2. Focus on designing instruction that reduces cognitive load

3. Typical classroom learning activities easily overload WM

4. Load also created by the learner’s processing

Reducing Cognitive Load

1. Well designed instruction reduces load1. Leaves capacity for retention & encoding of info.

2. Or, allow processing without need to remember; e.g. facts in writing are available

3. Or, processing reminders are available4. Teach students to alternate between

processing and refreshing 5. Students learn under low load conditions

Reducing Cognitive Load

1. Only one step, process at a time2. Allow time for processing and rehearsal 3. Allow self-paced processing4. Provide external memory aids5. Quite learning environment6. Organized materials and presentations7. Worked, partially-completed examples

1. Keep adding more for student to complete

Reducing Cognitive Load

1. Sequence material from simple to complex2. Present material in an integrated way3. Include visual presentation4. Side by side information (being able to see as

all the information in an integrated fashion) better than stacked information (e.g. computers)

5. Deliver directions “just in time”

Cognitive Load and Automaticity

1. Mastery or fluency frees up WM resources1. Reading decoding and reading comprehension

2. Math problem solving3. Written language

1. Organization and coordination4. Long-term structures free up WM5. Automaticity equals faster processing

WM Accommodations

1. Extended testing time2. Repeating information3. Repeating information in a simplified manner4. Providing written checklists and reminders of

step-by-step procedures5. One task at a time6. Slow down presentation7. Preferential seating to reduce distraction8. Provide prompts and cues

WM and Written Expression

1. Signs of WM overload during written expression: omitting words, repeating words, forgetting what was going to say, can‘t start

2. Have the student express it orally first3. Teacher “stores” it and says what student

said as student writes4. Teacher writes part of sentence so that

student just needs to use closure to finish

WM and Math

1. Math demands a lot of both WM and LTM2. Lighten the load by allowing written step-by-

step procedures3. Help to identify story problem words that

indicate the math procedures involved4. Allow access to arithmetic fact tables5. No timed math tests6. Allow calculators

WM and Basic Reading Skills

1. Support student during decoding and blending

2. Prompt by saying the first phoneme in a syllable

3. Say the segmented phonemes/syllables slowly after student has sounded them out

4. Have student say blended word smoothly again after correct pronunciation

WM Rehearsal Strategies

1. Most have by age 10; 1st graders can learn2. Serial and cumulative repetitive process3. Good maintenance if overlearned4. Increase length of list as student progresses5. Require trainees to do during WM exercises 6. More effective than elaborate strategies?

Rehearsal Training Steps

1. Repeat first word until next delivered then add next word to the repetition if cumulative

2. Or, deliver and repeat entire sequence at once3. Have student repeat sequence several times,

then pause, then ask for response4. Listen to see if student maintains correct

sequence while rehearsing5. Have the student say the words faster6. First aloud, then whisper, then subvocal

Criteria for Effective WM Exercises

1. Consistent high cognitive workloads2. Processing and storage required during task3. Program is adaptive4. Extensive practice time5. Evidence base cited6. More than visual-spatial; some kind of verbal

processing and retention required7. Encourages/requires a conscious strategy

Cogmed Training Details

1. Adaptive, game-like, internet-based training, records everything

2. 25 sessions, 30 minutes each with 8 exercises, over 5 weeks

3. Child can do without assistance4. Should not encourage use of strategiesLink

Research on Cogmed Training

1. Improved WM, especially visual-spatial2. Fluid reasoning sometimes improves3. Math and reading sometimes improve4. ADHD kids improved in WM; less hyperactivity5. Holmes et al. found substantial and sustained

gains in WM and math6. Two reviews critical; poor research design7. Recent study with proper design: WM

improved

Lumosity and Brain HQ

1. Numerous exercises; more than memory2. Exercises based on research3. Lots of n-back exercises4. Are adaptive and appropriate5. Affordable yearly, family plans6. Can monitor learner’s progress

WM Training Impact on Brain

1. Takeuchi et al. (2010)2. Adaptive training with 2 N-Back visual tasks3. Increase in white matter correlated with

amount of training & improved performance4. Mainly adjacent to the corpus callosum and

in white matter parietal region5. Increased transfer of info, at the dorsolateral

prefrontal cortex, location of executive WM

Why WM Brain Training Works

“the experience of taxing WM to its limits over a sustained period of time may induce long-term plasticity through either improving the efficiency of neuronal responses or extending the cortical map serving WM. The training program may also promote self-awareness and the development of compensatory strategies.” Westerberg et al., 2007).

Hands-On, WM Exercises

1. Compliance with online training is a concern2. Oral responding not allowed with online

training3. A trainer, parent, or peer administers these4. With all exercises, require a longer span as

progress is made

Oral WM Exercises

1. Letters, numbers, words, sentences 2. Non-words are ideal3. Remember last word in sentence4. Paraphrasing5. Require aloud rehearsal when child

can not maintain sequence6. Practice switching

Hands-On Exercises: N-Back

1. Challenging task but easily administered2. Shown to improve WM capacity3. Remember stimulus n-items back4. Do it repetitively5. Deck of cards ideal; prevents practice effects6. Parents and children can practice at home7. n-back task8. What strategy would you teach the child for

succeeding at this?

N-Back Procedures

1. Display cards one at a time for 1-2 seconds2. Start over after 1st error3. Should get 10 consecutive correct 3 times

before going to next N4. 10-15 minutes of daily practice for 4 weeks5. More challenging: A double n-back6. Establish baseline 7. Encourage strategy use; example of how it

works

Using Arithmetic Flashcards

1. Learner calculates and states the answer2. Remember the answers in sequence

4 + 3 = 79 – 3 = 6Response: 7, 6

Counting Span

1. Count the number of items on each card2. Remember the total on each card in correct

sequence

Visual-Spatial Recall

1. Use a grid and put pieces in various locations2. Learner views for 5 seconds3. Must place pieces in correct locations4. Enlarge grid and add more pieces to keep it

challenging5. Most challenging, rotate grid after viewing

Concerns About LTM Interventions

1. With multiple steps, strategies create too much cognitive load (a dilemma)

2. Exercises need to be daily for extended number of weeks

3. Some strategies difficult to generalize; content specific

4. Does improved memory functioning transfer to improved academics?

Basic LTM Strategies that Apply to All

1. Rehearsal (same as for WM)2. Dual encoding3. Elaboration4. Semantic clustering5. Self-testing6. Visualizing7. Visual Mnemonics8. Metamemory training9. Errorless learning10. Accommodations

Dual Encoding

1. Instructors should make it both verbal and visual or give students time to recode

2. Instruct students to visualize verbal info.3. Instruction students to name/describe visual-

spatial info.4. Increases the number of pathways available

for retrieval

Elaboration

1. Relate new info. with previous2. Facilitates encoding and LTM organization,

consolidation, retrieval3. Teachers should provide for young child4. In-depth versus superficial processing5. Ties info. with appropriate schema6. Example: Asking and answering the “Why

does this make sense” question

Semantic Clustering

1. A form of organization2. Good for both WM and LTM3. Clusters become chunks in WM4. Have student focus on memorizing the name

of the clusters5. When item recall fails, recall cluster and think

of items in that category until specific item recognized Video Link

Self-Testing

1. Extremely effective2. Works because retrieval is required3. Can be self-testing4. First quiz immediately or within a day5. Expanding intervals like periodic review6. Not limited to items actually tested7. Can be self-testing8. Encoding specificity principle

Visualizing While Reading

1. Imagining yourself in the scene, viewing things as if you were actually there1. Imagine details and feelings2. For literature, social studies

2. Works because the personal aspects of episodic memory are usually intact

Visual Mnemonics

1. Visual mnemonics link information to something already known that will not be forgotten1. Act as a scaffold or bridge

2. Verbal not effective with verbal learning disabilities; info lost of mnemonic lost & might not remember what letters represent

3. History of mnemonics; the memory palace, Tony Buzan, Moonwalking with Einstein

Visual Mnemonics

1. For students with low verbal WM2. Link info to something already known that will not

be forgotten; Act as a scaffold or bridge 3. Creates associations and meaning4. Best when student creates images5. Interactive images best6. Ideal for those with verbal WM deficit7. Basic visualization without a mnemonic is also

beneficial

Loci

• Visual pairing of items with well known objects, e.g. household furniture

• Follow the sequence of items or rooms• Loci practice with items in student’s bedroom:

Boston settlers in sequence: Native Americans, Vikings, Pilgrims, Italians

• See video

Keyword

1. Highly effective2. Combines auditory and visual3. First, the acoustical link (keyword)4. Then, image of linked items interacting5. To retrieve, think of keyword first6. Low functioning learners do better when

keyword and image provided

Keyword Practice

• Use keywords for Denver, Colorado• Use keyword for these Spanish words:• Vaca = cow• Carta = letter• Escalera = ladderMake the images unique, interactive, but

focused on the keyword and meaning

Metamemory

1. Teach child how memory works and its limitations

2. Teach child self-awareness 3. Inform child of personal strengths and

weaknesses4. Teach about how we can control memory5. Have child keep a journal during intervention

More on Metamemory

1. This is ongoing through sessions2. Always help child understand why, when, where it

works or will benefit (conditional knowledge)3. Always show the child the data4. Reinforce progress5. Child should become expert on his/her memory6. See worksheets in Helping Student Remember

Errorless Learning

1. Especially for amnesic cases2. Prevent learning of errors; unlearning of

errors is difficult3. Prevent guessing; supply most of the answer

at first4. Allows learning through implicit system5. Learners may not recall having learned but

they can learn skills

Examples of LTM Accommodations

1. Inform student of exam dates well in advance to allow for periodic review

2. Provide review sheets in same format as tests3. Provide notes of lectures4. Allow students procedural checklists5. Recognition testing: word banks, etc.6. Extended time on testing; notes during test

Memory Interventionist Training

• For school psychologists and related professionals• Taught by Dr. Dehn• Taught once per year, beginning in fall• CEU’s from Kids, Inc.• 36-hour course• Includes neuropsych assessment of memory• Case study with supervision• Details: email milt@psychprocesses.com• www.SchoolhouseEducationalServices.com