Medieval Times

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© 2000 McDONALD PUBLISHING CO. i MEDIEVAL TIMES

Medieval Timesby Walter A. Hazen

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE TITLE

1 Introduction to the Middle Ages2 Barbarian Invasions3 Charlemagne4 The Vikings5 The Feudal System6 The Medieval Manor7 Lords and Nobles8 Serfs9 Knights and Knighthood

10 Tournaments11 Castle Life12 Food and Clothing13 The Medieval Church14 The Powers of the Church15 The Role of the Monasteries16 Legends and Myths17 Health and Medicine18 The Crusades19 Results of the Crusades20 The Black Death21 Medieval Fairs22 Towns23 Townspeople24 Guilds25 Schools and Universities26 Art and Architecture27 The End of the Middle Ages28 Check Your Understanding

This book helps teach students about medieval times. It begins with the barbarian invasions ofEurope that resulted in the fall of the Western Roman Empire, and it concludes with the events that ledto the Renaissance. Students will enjoy reading and learning about such high-interest topics asfeudalism, knighthood, castle life, legends and myths, medicine, the Crusades, and the Black Death.

Each activity sheet presents clear and concise information and then tests students’ understandingwith a variety of objective, subjective, and critical thinking questions and activities. Page 28 may beused as a review or to assess students’ knowledge of medieval times.

© 2000 McDONALD PUBLISHING CO. ii MEDIEVAL TIMES

AnswersPage 1

1. b 4. b2. a 5. a3. c 6. c7. In the Middle Ages, the Church was the only

institution that stood for law and order. Todaygovernment maintains law and order. TheChurch of the Middle Ages was much morepowerful than churches today.

Page 21. the fall of the Roman Empire2. Rome’s policy of expansion, high taxes, decline

in morals, corruption in government3. Germanic tribes that took over the Roman

Empire did not maintain any centralgovernment.

4. While the Roman Empire was at its peak, thegovernment was strong so people did not needto offer services to lords in return for protectionand land.

5. Answers will vary, but students should indicatethat conditions were “dark” because of thesocial chaos that existed and the loss of culturethat occurred.

Page 31. F 4. F2. T 5. T3. F 6. T7. Answers will vary, but students should note that

Charlemagne was quite powerful and an alliancewith him would benefit the Church.

1. Norway, Sweden, Denmark2. overpopulation, scarcity of land3. England4. Sweden5. Leif Ericson6. Northmen7. Central government broke down completely and

gave rise to feudalism.

Page 51. A 5. D2. F 6. C3. B 7. Answers will vary.4. E

Page 61. Peasants’ huts, a mill, various craftsmen’s shops,

and a small church were located around themanor house of a lord. Beyond this living areawere fields used for farming and pasture.

2. A large manor could produce everything itneeded on the premises.

3. One field was planted in the spring, and anotherwas planted in the fall. A third field was leftfallow, or idle, each year to maintain its fertility.

4. Although serfs owned the land, they had to givepart of what was grown and raised there to thelord.

Page71. F 5. T2. T 6. F3. T 7. F4. T 8. T9. Armies were formed when a lord called all of

his vassals to come to his aid. They, in turn,summoned their vassals, and so on.

Page 81. Serfs were able to own land and could not be

bought and sold.2. Some serfs were able to buy their freedom.

Others won their freedom by fleeing to a townand successfully hiding for a year and a day.

3. After the Crusades, lords desired greateragricultural production.

4. Serfs worked the land and were considered partof the property. They were not free to leave themanor without permission.

Page 91. B 5. A2. D 6. C3. F 7. Answers will vary.4. E

Page 101. Falconry2. twelfth3. melee4. Jousts5. lists6. Answers will vary. Students may note that the

tournaments were competitive and thatspectators sat in stands and cheered for theirfavorite competitors.

CHESS 5. BAILEY2. DRAWBRIDGE 6. KEEP3. BASE 7. QUOITS4. MOAT

Page 121. Strong spices helped disguise the taste of food

that had been dried, salted, or had started to gobad.

2. Today people use utensils and do not throwscraps onto the floor.

3. Nobles often wore brightly colored clothing ofsilk, satin, or velvet. Peasants wore clothesmade of homespun cloth or animal skin.

4. Monks and nuns led a simple life. They wereexpected to be concerned with the ways of Godrather than with worldly items such as clothing.

Page 131. a 4. a2. c 5. b3. c 6. a7. Priests provided guidance and performed

baptisms, weddings, and burials.

Page 141. E 4. F2. D 5. A3. C 6. B7. Answers will vary. Students may note that

people feared excommunication, which theybelieved sentenced them to a life in hell afterthey died.

Page 151. O2. F3. F4. O5. F6. Many of the accomplishments of the Greeks and

Romans would have been lost, Christianitymight not be as widespread, and someagricultural developments might not have beenmade.

Page 161. Camelot 5. unicorn2. Guenevere 6. Dragons3. Merlin 7. Answers will vary.4. troubadours

Page 171. Doctors believed disease was caused by the

build-up of one of the four humours (basicfluids) in the human body. Bloodletting allowed“excess” blood to escape.

2. Crusaders brought back the knowledge thatillnesses result from natural causes.

3. Answers will vary. The knowledge that sanitaryconditions help prevent disease would have beenespecially helpful.

Page 181. The purpose of the Crusades was to free the

Holy Land from Moslem control.2. Christians who visited the Holy Land were

being persecuted by the Turks.3. Knights’ reasons for fighting included religious

zeal, the desire for adventure or glory, and thehope of obtaining land and riches.

4. Many merchants participated because of theirinterest in increased trade, while many prisonersand serfs participated to gain their freedom.

Page 191. Goods traveling to and from the Middle East

passed through the cities and resulted ineconomic growth.

2. The money a lord earned by granting a chartercould be used to finance his participation in theCrusades.

3. Many lords sold their serfs and land to finance acampaign. Many serfs escaped or were freedwhen lords were killed in battle during theCrusades.

4. Crusaders were impressed by the libraries andadvanced scientific knowledge they saw duringtheir contact with the Arab and Byzantinecultures.

Page 201. b 5. c2. b 6. Paris: 37,500 deaths3. a Venice: 25,000 deaths4. b Nuremberg: 5,000 deaths

Page 211. Travel was dangerous and roads were poor.2. Trade played a major role in fairs held after the

Crusades.3. The news and ideas exchanged at medieval fairs

helped bring about the end of the Middle Ages.4. Answers will vary.

© 2000 McDONALD PUBLISHING CO. iii MEDIEVAL TIMES

© 2000 McDONALD PUBLISHING CO. iv MEDIEVAL TIMES

Page 221. F 5. T2. T 6. F3. F 7. Answers will vary.4. F

Page 231. D2. C3. B4. A5. E6. Most water at the time was unfit to drink.7. Apprentices received food and lodging.8. Answers will vary.

Page 241. Merchant guilds were organizations of

businessmen engaged in trade. Craft guildswere made up of craftsmen and journeymenwho produced goods.

2. Workers who did not join a guild could not dobusiness in a town or had to pay a fee to do so.

3. Guilds assured quality workmanship, fixed hours,set wages, established prices, and judged the workof journeymen who wished to become masters.Guilds were involved in town government; builthospitals, orphanages, and schools; providedmembers with various kinds of insurance; andpaid for the funerals of guild members.

4. Answers will vary. Students might note that liketoday’s labor unions, guilds were concernedwith such things as hours, wages, and workingconditions.

Page 251. b 4. a2. c 5. c3. c 6. Answers will vary.

Page 261. ABBEY 7. DOMED2. ARCHES 8. THICK3. SECULAR 9. STAINED4. GOTHIC 10. BUTTRESSES5. SPIRES 11. ROME6. TWELFTH 12. CATHEDRAL

Page 271. CONSTANTINOPLE — The fall of this

capital of the old Eastern Roman Empire wasone of the events that ended the Middle Ages.

2. COLUMBUS — His discovery of Americashifted European interest to the West.

3. CRUSADES — These military expeditions toregain the Holy Land helped cause the declineof feudalism.

4. RENAISSANCE — This rebirth of learningsparked other European nations to imitate whatwas happening in Italy.

5. ITALY — This European country was wherethe Renaissance began.

6. People began to show interest in the arts and thewritings of the ancient Greeks and Romans.Society became concerned with the individual inthe present world rather than the individual’ssoul in the hereafter.

Page 28Answers may vary slightly.

1. 4, 5, 2, 1, 6, 32. The fall of the Roman Empire, coupled with

invasions by barbaric German tribes andVikings, caused a breakdown of law and orderin Europe. Feudalism developed as a way tokeep people safe.

3. Feudalism was a system in which people offeredtheir services to a powerful lord in return forprotection. A lord granted fiefs, or plots of land,to vassals. Serfs worked the land in the serviceof their lord. In times of war, all vassals had tocome to the aid of their lord.

4. The Church was the only institution in theMiddle Ages that stood for law and order, and itexerted tremendous influence over the people.The Church collected taxes, punished criminals,maintained hospitals, and established schools. Itpreserved the knowledge and works of theancient Greeks and Romans. Everyone fearedthe Church’s power of excommunication.

5. A noble boy became a page at age seven. Hewas sent to live in a manor house to learnmanners and hunting. At fourteen, a boybecame a squire. He helped his lord and learnedbasic warfare. At twenty-one, he underwent areligious ceremony and was dubbed a knight.

6. Town life was crowded and dangerous.Conditions were dirty and there were frequentfires. The middle class began when manytownspeople became craftsmen and merchants.

7. The Crusades drew lords away from their manorsand resulted in the freeing of many serfs. Ascrusaders returned to Europe with foreign goods,trade with the East increased. The end of theMiddle Ages and the beginning of theRenaissance occurred in large part becausecrusaders were intellectually stimulated byEastern advancements in education and the arts.

Name

Introduction to the Middle Ages

© 2000 McDONALD PUBLISHING CO. 1 MEDIEVAL TIMES

1. The period of history known as ancienttimes is said to have begun witha. the fall of the Roman Empireb. the start of the Egyptian calendarc. the founding of the Christian Church

2. The Middle Ages spanned approximatelya. 1000 yearsb. 500 yearsc. 4000 years

3. Modern times date from about the yeara. 1000 b. 476 c. 1500

4. A manor was a. a local churchb. a lord’s estatec. a medieval town

5. The word renaissance meansa. rebirth of learningb. time of troublesc. decline in culture

6. The Renaissance is considered part ofa. ancient timesb. the Middle Agesc. modern times

7. How was the role of the Church in the Middle Ages different from the role ofchurches today?

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Historians divide recorded history into three periods: ancient times, medieval timesor the Middle Ages, and modern times. Ancient times range from the start of theEgyptian calendar about 4400 B.C. to the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 A.D.Medieval times span the years from the fall of Rome to Columbus’s arrival in Americain 1492. For the sake of simplicity, medieval times are said to have begun in 500 andto have ended in 1500. All history after that time is referred to as modern times.

Italian scholars of the fifteenth century were the first to use the term Middle Ages todescribe medieval times. They viewed their period of history, the Renaissance (a wordmeaning “a rebirth of learning”), as far more advanced than the Middle Ages. To them, theMiddle Ages fell between the ancient civilizations of Greece and Rome, and the Renaissance.

The period of the Middle Ages was unlike any other time in history. There were fewtowns until the latter part of the age, and life centered around manors, the largeestates of lords. Travel was dangerous during the Middle Ages because centralgovernments were weak and there was little protection for those who moved fromplace to place. Civil power was in the hands of feudal lords, who were constantlywarring among themselves. Caught in the middle of this turmoil were the commonpeople. Most of these people were poor farmers called serfs. Society was sounsettled that the inhabitants of a manor often lived their entire lives within a five mileradius of where they were born.

During this difficult age, the Church played a dominant role. It was the oneinstitution in Europe that stood for law and order, and it exerted tremendous powerthroughout the thousand-year period of the Middle Ages.

Circle the letter of each correct answer.

Name

The period known as the Middle Ages beganwith the fall of the Roman Empire in the latter partof the fifth century. This fall took place gradually,resulting in a completely different way of life inWestern Europe.

Until the third century A.D., the Roman Empire,for the most part, was at peace. Its government wasstable, and its citizens were prosperous andproductive. Rome’s policy of expansion, however,

caused the empire to grow so large that it was difficult for Rome to govern the entireregion. Taxes skyrocketed, morals declined, and the government grew corrupt. Thesefactors made the empire weak and vulnerable to invasions by barbarian tribes to the north.

As the Roman Empire grew weaker, Germanic tribes north of the Rhine and Danuberivers began to invade it. They had chipped away at the fringes of the empire for manyyears, and in the third and fourth centuries they moved deeper into the area. Finally, theyconquered the city of Rome itself in 476, and the great Roman Empire came to an end.

The barbarians that conquered Rome had little respect for learning and culture.They plundered and set fires at will, destroying libraries and works of art. The centralgovernment collapsed, and roads and bridges fell into ruin. Organized society as theRomans knew it disappeared, and a period known as the Dark Ages descended uponEurope. Out of this social disorder and confusion came the beginning of a neweconomic, social, and political system known as feudalism. Under feudalism, peopleoffered their services to powerful lords in return for protection and land. Feudalismbecame more solidly established throughout Europe four hundred years later after thedeath of Charlemagne. Charlemagne had been the only Germanic ruler powerfulenough to maintain some type of law and order in Europe.

1. What event marks the end of ancient times? ____________________________

2. What factors brought about the fall of Rome?

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3. Why did law and order break down in Europe after the fall of Rome?

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4. How did feudalism differ from the system that existed while the Roman Empirewas at its peak?

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5. What does the term “Dark Ages” imply?

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Barbarian Invasions

EUROPE

Medi ter ranean Sea

ATLANTICOCEAN

AFRICA

Black Sea

RomanEmpire

ASIA

NorthSea R

hine R. DanubeR

.

One of the Germanic tribes that overran theRoman Empire in the fifth century was the Franks.They seized control of the Roman province of Gaul.Part of this area eventually became France.

In the eighth century, a Frankish ruler namedCharlemagne (also called Charles the Great)established an empire that included most of WesternEurope. Within its borders lay what are now France,Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, as well as partsof present-day Spain and Italy. UnderCharlemagne’s rule, much of Europe was united forthe first time in four hundred years. Although it only lasted forty-six years,Charlemagne’s empire brought some stability to a troubled continent.

Despite the fact that Charlemagne himself never learned to write, he encouragededucation by establishing schools throughout his empire. He started a palace school atcourt and invited the leading scholars of the day to teach there. A devout Christian, healso spread Christianity among the groups he conquered. Charlemagne’s method ofconverting the Saxons and other tribes was to present them with a simple choice: theycould accept the Christian faith or be killed. Under the circumstances, many agreed toaccept Christianity.

After Charlemagne’s death in 814, his empire fell apart. Once again, Europe wasweak and open to invasion. This time, the invaders were the Northmen or Vikings, whostreamed down from Scandinavia and terrorized the people living in the area that oncemade up Charlemagne’s empire. It was because of the cruelty of the Vikings thatfeudalism became fully developed in Europe.

Determine whether each statement below is true or false. Write T or F in the blanks.

1. ____ Charlemagne’s empire included all of Western Europe.2. ____ Present-day France grew out of what was once part of the Roman province

of Gaul.3. ____ Charlemagne’s empire lasted over 400 years.4. ____ In addition to being a powerful ruler, Charlemagne was a well-educated

scholar.5. ____ Charlemagne forced pagan people to convert to Christianity.

6. ____ The Vikings were fierce invaders from Scandinavia.

7. On Christmas Day in the year 800, Pope Leo III, head of the Roman CatholicChurch, crowned Charlemagne emperor of the Romans (although Charlemagneruled over Germans and other peoples as well). Why do you think such supportand recognition was given to the Frankish ruler?

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Name

Charlemagne


Charlemagne’sEmpireATLANTIC

OCEAN

NorthSea

Several groups of invaders attacked Western Europeduring the ninth and tenth centuries, but the most fearedwere the Vikings, or Northmen. They came in long, sleekboats and struck without warning. Armed with long-handledaxes, they often killed everyone they encountered, includingwomen and children. Their main goal was to stealvaluables. They singled out monasteries, where they knewthey would probably find gold and silver. After stealing all

the treasure their ships would hold, they burned everything in sight and then fled.The behavior of the Vikings was rather puzzling. In their homeland of Scandinavia,

they were remarkably democratic and freedom-loving. Yet in their dealings with outsiders,they were cruel and merciless. Historians believe the Vikings were driven from what isnow Norway, Sweden, and Denmark by overpopulation and scarcity of land.

One group of Vikings called Danes overran and settled England. Another group,the Norse, invaded France, Ireland, Iceland, and other parts of Europe. A small groupof Norse led by an explorer named Leif Ericson sailed to America around the year1000. A group from Sweden rowed up the rivers of the area that is now Russia. Therethey built forts and engaged in trade. They were called the Rus, a name from whichthe word Russia might have originated.

The Viking invasions caused central government in Europe to break downcompletely, leading to the rise of feudalism. The only way people could protectthemselves from the Viking invasions was to become part of a manor. Stronggovernments did not appear again until the Crusades began in the eleventh century.

Fill in the blanks to complete the following statements.

1. The Vikings came from the Scandinavian countries of _______________,

_______________, and _______________.

2. _____________________ and _____________________ may have motivated theVikings to invade Europe in the ninth and tenth centuries.

3. The Danes invaded _______________ and then settled there.

4. A group of Vikings from what is now _______________ sailed up the rivers of Russia.

5. _______________ led a group of Vikings who sailed to North America around 1000.

6. The Vikings were also called _________________.

7. What effect did the Viking invasions have on Europe?

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Name


The Vikings

Name

The Feudal SystemWhen Charlemagne’s empire collapsed and the Vikings swarmed down from

Scandinavia in the ninth and tenth centuries, the feudal system became the way of lifethroughout Europe. The need for protection and the owing of allegiance playedimportant roles in this system.

Feudal society was organized like a pyramid. At the top was the king, who wassupposed to be all-powerful. In truth, however, the king often had no more power thanthe strongest noble. Below the king were powerful lords such as princes, dukes, earls,and counts. Next in the hierarchy came barons and viscounts, followed by numerouslesser lords and knights. At the bottom of the pyramid were the common people. Mostof these were serfs, or peasants bound to the soil. This meant that they wereconsidered part of a lord’s property.

A king or powerful noble who granted land to another lord was called an overlord. Thelord who received the land then became the higher lord’s vassal. Taking an oath of loyaltycalled homage, a vassal promised to supply his lord with knights or soldiers in times ofcombat and to perform other services. The land granted by one lord to another was calleda fief. The ceremony that surrounded the granting of a fief was known as investiture.

The organization of feudal society was not as simple as it sounds. More often thannot, land was divided and subdivided to the point that a lord might act as both agranter and receiver of land. In such cases, he would owe allegiance to a higher lordand demand allegiance from those below him. Furthermore, it was possible for alesser lord or knight to receive land from several higher lords and owe allegiance tothem all. Such arrangements created great confusion in times of combat.

The entire system of feudalism was supported by the serfs. In return for protectionfrom invaders and roving bandits, peasants agreed to work a lord’s land and give upcertain freedoms. In addition to protection, serfs received several small plots of landwhich they used to raise livestock and grow crops for themselves.

Write the letter that matches the term on the right with the phrase on the left.

1. ____ land granted by one lord to another A. fief

2. ____ a lord who received land from another lord B. homage

3. ____ an oath of loyalty sworn to a higher lord C. investiture

4. ____ a peasant bound to the soil D. overlord

5. ____ a lord who granted land to a lesser lord E. serf

6. ____ the ceremony which involved the granting of land F. vassal

7. During the medieval period, the law of primogeniture governed the inheritance ofall land. According to this law, the eldest son of a noble inherited the entire familyestate upon the death of his father. His younger brothers and his sisters, if hehad any, received nothing. In your opinion, was this law fair? Explain.

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Name

The Medieval ManorThe basic economic unit of feudal times was the manor. A manor was the estate of

a lord and consisted of all his land and the people he controlled. These people werehis knights, and the serfs who worked his land. Some manors were large, while otherswere quite small.

The focal point of the manor was the castle or manor house of the lord. Clusteredaround the lord’s home were the huts of the peasants, a mill, and a variety of othercraft shops. A large manor might have a miller, a carpenter, a blacksmith, and variousother tradesmen. The services these workers provided made the estate self-sufficient.Most manors also had a small church where the village priest addressed the dailyneeds of the manor’s inhabitants.

Part of the lord’s land was used as meadow and common pasture, but most wasreserved for farming. At the time, farming involved a three-field system of cultivation.One field was planted in the spring, and a second was planted in the fall. To keep thesoil from wearing out, one field was left fallow, or idle, each year. Scattered among thethree fields were plots that the serfs used as their own. Although the plots technicallybelonged to the serfs, the lord took his share of what was grown and raised there,including pigs, chickens, and livestock.

The lord of the manor, along with his family and any knights in attendance,performed no labor. They were sustained by the labor of the serfs, who toiled longhours under wretched conditions. Only on Sundays and feast days were the serfsallowed any rest from their grueling work.

1. Describe the layout of a typical manor.

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2. What made a large manor self-sufficient?

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3. Explain the three-field system of cultivation.

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4. Why weren’t the serfs’ plots truly their own?

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Name

Lords and NoblesDuring medieval times every lord was a noble, but every noble was not a lord. To

be a lord, one had to own land and have control over the people who lived and laboredon that land. Many nobles were simply knights who either fought as soldiers for hire orwho lived at their lord’s expense and served as household troops.

Some of the more powerful lords had a number of manors and divided their timeamong them. Most lords, however, ruled over only one manor. Most ruled from amanor house, since only the wealthier and more powerful lords could afford a castle.

Lords and nobles performed no labor. They spent their time fighting and engagingin games. Sometimes they fought foreign invaders, but usually they were involved inquarrels among themselves over land or feudal obligations. During times of warfare,the lord called on all his vassals to come to his aid. In turn, the vassals summonedtheir vassals. This is how an army was formed.

When they were not fighting, lords and nobles occupied themselves with huntingand tournaments, mock battles in which armed horsemen were sometimes killed.Meanwhile, their ladies busied themselves with running the household and receivingguests. A noble lady performed no labor. Her main role in medieval society was toprovide heirs for her husband’s estate.


1. ____ Every nobleman in medieval times was lord of a manor.

2. ____ Not every medieval lord lived in a castle.

3. ____ Some lords had more than one manor.

4. ____ Lords and nobles spent some of their time engaged in fighting.

5. ____ Tournaments were mock battles that involved armed horsemen.

6. ____ Women of noble families labored hard and long while the males in thefamilies enjoyed lives of leisure.

7. ____ The main role of noble ladies in medieval times was to educate theirchildren.

8. ____ Medieval lords often fought one another over land and other matters.

9. How were armies formed in medieval times?

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Name

There were always workers called freemen who lived on manorsand paid rent to a lord, but most manor workers were serfs. Serfcomes from a Latin term meaning “slave.” This meaning is not truly

accurate. Although they were often treated brutally, serfs hadmore rights than slaves. For example, serfs owned someland and they could not be bought and sold. However, serfswere bound to the soil. They were considered part of theproperty and could not leave the manor without permission.Even if a serf’s lord left the manor and a new lord took over,the serfs had to remain there.

Most serfs were farmers. They spent a great deal of time working in the landlord’sfields and were also required to give the landlord a portion of the crops they grew intheir own fields. They toiled long hours and were equipped with very primitive woodenplows, sickles, and hoes. The serfs lived in run-down huts that had no windows orfloors, and they usually cooked outside to avoid burning down their thatched dwellings.Although eggs and cheese were sometimes available, serfs usually had only blackbread and cabbage. They rarely ate meat.

The serfs’ lives improved substantially toward the end of the medieval period. Afterthe Crusades, increased trade brought a greater demand for agricultural products.Naturally, serfs were treated better since the lord desired greater production from hisland. Also, since many lords needed money, serfs could sometimes sell their holdingsand buy their freedom. Furthermore, many serfs fled the manors to start a new life inone of the many towns that was developing. Any serf who ran away and hid safely in atown for a year and a day was declared by law to be a free person.


1. How was the life of a serf different from the life associated with a slave?_________________________________________________________________

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2. Describe two ways a serf could attain freedom during the later Middle Ages.

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3. Why were serfs treated better after the Crusades?

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4. In what way were serfs “bound to the soil”?_________________________________________________________________

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Serfs

Name

Although common peasants fought in the armies ofmedieval lords, the professional soldiers of the time wereknights. They were the aristocrats of the battlefield.

Only the sons of noblemen could become knights.When a noble lad was seven, he was sent to live in thecastle or manor house of a great lord. While there,he was taught courtly manners, how to hunt usinghawks and falcons, and perhaps how to sing andplay a lute. During this time, he was known as apage.

When a page reached the age of fourteen, hebecame a squire. As a squire, a boy learned how to use a sword, a lance, and abattle-ax. He practiced jousting with a quintain, a post made to resemble an opposingknight. He also looked after his master’s horses and made sure his master’s armorwas polished and free of rust. He helped his lord into his armor and accompanied himto battle, assisting him in any way he could.

At the age of 21, a deserving squire became a knight at an elaborate dubbingceremony. Kneeling before his lord or possibly even his king, the knight-to-be receivedan accolade, a tap on the shoulder with the flat side of a sword. This symbolic gesture,along with the lord’s pronouncement “I dub thee knight,” officially welcomed the squireinto the world of knighthood.

Once knighted, a young man was expected to observe a special code of conductcalled chivalry. The rules of chivalry required that a knight swear to be honest, to bebrave, and to display fairness in combat. He also promised to show respect to womenand to the Church. Some knights lived up to the code, but unfortunately many did not.


1. ____ knight’s code of conduct A. squire

2. ____ professional soldier of medieval times B. chivalry

3. ____ knight-in-training from ages 7 through 14 C. quintain

4. ____ tap on the shoulder with a sword D. knight

5. ____ knight-in-training from ages 14 through 21 E. accolade

6. ____ post used for jousting practice F. page

7. What emotions do you think a noble lad experienced upon being sent to live inthe house of another lord to begin his training for knighthood?

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Knights and Knighthood

Name

TournamentsMedieval knights spent their time between battles engaged in games and sports. A

popular indoor game was chess, which knights considered as challenging mentally aswarfare was physically. Outdoors, knights devoted many hours to hunting and falconry.Falconry is a form of hunting in which trained falcons or hawks are used to catch otherbirds.

By far the most popular leisure activity of medieval times, however, was the tournament.A tournament was a contest involving two teams of knights. When the first tournamentwas held during the 1100s, its purpose was to serve as practice for war. In thistournament, two groups of knights engaged in a free-for-all called a tourney or melee. Thebattle lasted all day and ranged over a large area of the countryside. The stakes werehigh; knights were often killed, and those who were captured were either held for ransomor had to surrender their horses and armor to the victors. The fact that good farmland andother property was destroyed in a melee mattered little to the participants.

By the thirteenth century, the Church’s criticism of tournaments caused the conteststo be toned down. Participants began using blunted instruments, and individual boutscalled jousts were introduced. Cheered on by ladies and gentlemen seated inbleachers, knights on horseback charged each other with lances. The purpose of ajoust was to knock the opposing knight from his horse. According to the rules of fairplay, a knight was supposed to aim above the waist and strike his opponent’s shield. Alow blow was considered unsportsmanlike and gave rise to the expression “hittingbelow the belt.”

In the fifteenth century, jousting was replaced by tilting. In tilting, two knights armedwith lances charged at each other in the lists, narrow lanes separated by a railing sothe horses would not meet. Tilting remained a popular form of entertainment until theseventeenth century, when it gave way to less combative sports.

Fill in the blanks to complete the following statements.

1. _______________ is a form of hunting in which a bird of prey is used to catchother birds.

2. The first tournaments were held in the _______________ century.

3. A no-holds-barred contest between two groups of knights was called a tourney or

_______________.

4. _______________ were contests between two knights who tried to unhorse eachother. These contests were considered to be toned-down versions of tourneys.

5. Narrow lanes in which knights on horseback charged each other with lances were called

_______________.

6. How were medieval tournaments similar to sporting events today?

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Castle LifeUntil the number of towns greatly increased, life in the Middle Ages centered around

the castles and manor houses of feudal lords. Everyone from knight to serf dependedon these fortified structures for safety during this period of almost constant warfare.

Most castles were not made of stone, especially during the early Middle Ages.When castles were first built in the ninth century, they were constructed of timber andearth. Only later did some lords build castles of stone or brick.

The typical stone castle was built on a high ridge for security. Its strongest pointwas the donjon or keep, a tower that was between 50 and 60 feet tall. At its base, thewalls of the keep were 20 feet thick, narrowing to between 7 and 14 feet as they rose.The keep was the center of castle life. At the bottom were storerooms and areaswhere servants and knights lived. At the top were rooms for the lord and his family. Inbetween was the great hall, where meetings were held and meals were served.

Castles built on flat ground were surrounded by ditches filled with stakes. Otherswere encircled by water-filled moats. Spanning the moat was a drawbridge that couldbe pulled up in times of danger. If the castle was under attack, serfs from the manorhurried across the drawbridge before it was lifted, seeking safety in the bailey, the largecourtyard surrounded by the castle’s outer walls.

During periods when it was not safe to venture out, noble families passed the timeby playing games such as chess, backgammon, and checkers. Knights practiced tiltingand fencing, and they played quoits, a game similar to horseshoes.

Decide which words could be used to fill the blanks in the sentencesbeneath the puzzle. Then complete the puzzle by writing those wordsone letter per blank.

1. C ___ ___ ___ ___

2. ___ ___ A ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___

3. ___ ___ S ___

4. ___ ___ ___ T

5. ___ ___ ___ L ___ ___

6. ___ E ___ ___

7. ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ S

1. __________ was a popular indoor game enjoyed by noble families.

2. During times of attack, a __________ that crossed over a moat was lifted to makea castle more secure.

3. At its __________, the walls of a typical castle’s keep were twenty feet thick.

4. A __________ was a water-filled ditch that surrounded some castles.

5. The __________ was a courtyard surrounded by the outer walls of a castle.

6. The strongest part of a castle was a tower known as the __________.

7. _________ was a game similar to horseshoes.


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Food and ClothingThe food people ate during the Middle Ages was determined by their wealth. Peas

and beans were common in the diet of serfs, along with black bread, pork, andsometimes eggs and cheese. Noble families, of course, ate a wider variety of foods.Their meats included eel, boar, fish, swan, and peacock, which they supplemented withvarious puddings and pastries. Food was served on slabs of thick bread calledtrenchers. Trenchers doubled as plates and as instruments to soak up juices from thefoods being eaten. At the conclusion of a meal, the trenchers were sometimes given tothe poor to eat.

Table manners were not very refined in the Middle Ages. Diners did not use forks orspoons, and they tossed bones and scraps onto the floor for the dogs and cats to eat.Some diners used napkins, but others simply wiped their hands on the tablecloth.

Serfs’ clothing was as simple as their diet. Men wore blouses of either homespuncloth or animal skin, with a leather or woolen jacket. Women wore long tunics. Whenthe weather permitted it, the rich wore brightly colored clothing of silk, satin, and velvet.Men wore a mantle or a cape with a cowl that could be pulled over the head forwarmth. Ladies sometimes wore tall conical hats and adorned their hair with flowers.Nobles took such pride in their clothing that laws were passed forbidding commonersfrom wearing anything similar to it.

1. In the Middle Ages, food was often scarce during winter. Fish and vegetables weresometimes dried, and meat was salted to preserve it. This changed the taste andtexture of the foods. At times food was so scarce that people had to eat items thathad started to go bad. Why do you think strong spices were in great demandduring the Middle Ages?

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2. How has mealtime etiquette changed since medieval times?

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3. How was the clothing of the nobility different from that of the peasants?

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4. During the Middle Ages, people’s clothing reflected their power and wealth.Monks and nuns wore very simple clothing. Why do you think such clothing wasappropriate for these men and women?

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The Medieval ChurchThe Church that was so important in the lives of medieval people was known as the

Catholic Church. In 1054 the Church split into the Roman Catholic Church and theEastern Orthodox Church. The Roman Catholic Church was centered in Rome, while theEastern Orthodox Church was headquartered in Constantinople in what is now Turkey.

The Church was the only institution in the Middle Ages that stood for law and order.It collected taxes, punished criminals, maintained hospitals, and set up schools.Without the Church, it’s likely that the knowledge and art of the time would have beenlost forever.

The Pope was the head of the Roman Catholic Church. The word pope comesfrom the Latin word papa, which means “father.” Below the Pope in church hierarchywere the archbishops, who had supreme authority in the various provinces. Next camebishops, whose domains were referred to as dioceses. A diocese consisted of severalparishes, which were similar to counties. In each diocese there was usually a townwith a cathedral, a large church presided over by a bishop.

At the bottom of the Church hierarchy were the village priests, whose authorityextended over the local communities, or parishes. Priests were usually of peasantorigin and poorly educated, but in some ways they were the most important officials ofthe Church. People on the manors looked to priests for help and guidance in theirdaily lives. Priests performed baptisms, weddings, and burials.

Between the Pope and the archbishops were a group of bishops referred to as theCollege of Cardinals. The cardinals served as advisers to the Pope. Since theeleventh century, cardinals have selected a new pope when one dies.


1. The Eastern Orthodox Church was centered ina. Constantinople b. Rome c. Paris

2. The title “Pope” comes from a Latin word meaninga. leader b. head c. father

3. The Church that maintained order in the Middle Ages wasa. Baptist b. Lutheran c. Catholic

4. The religious leader of a parish was thea. priest b. bishop c. archbishop

5. A cathedral was the large church of aa. priest b. bishop c. cardinal

6. Beginning in the eleventh century, popes have been selected bya. the College of Cardinals b. Europe’s kings c. members of the Church

7. Why were village priests so important to people on the manors?

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The Powers of the ChurchFew institutions in history have had the power held by the Catholic Church during

the Middle Ages. Probably the most significant power of the Church was the power ofexcommunication. Any person who angered Church authorities could beexcommunicated, or cut off from all Church services. The person could not receive thesacraments and therefore, according to the Church, had no chance for salvation.When the same principle was applied to an entire nation, the decree was called aninterdict. When a nation was under an interdict, no services could be held, nomarriages were permitted, and no christenings or proper burials could take place. Aninterdict stayed in place until the ruler who had displeased the Church gave in to thedemands of the Pope.

Another power of the medieval Church was the Truce of God. In an attempt to bringsome order to a chaotic age, the Church forbid feudal warfare from Thursday evening(some sources say Wednesday morning) until Monday morning, and on holidays. TheChurch also decreed the Peace of God, designed to forbid fighting around holy placesand to protect those who did not fight.

One of the strongest powers of the Church lay with the Holy Inquisition. TheInquisition was a special court whose purpose was to seek out and punish heretics,people whose beliefs went against the teachings of the Church. The Inquisitionsometimes relied on torture to attain confessions and was known to burn people whorefused to change their beliefs and accept the views of the Church.

Finally, an economic power of the Church was the tithe. The tithe was a sum ofmoney each person was required to pay to the Church. Anyone who didn’t pay thetithe risked excommunication.

Write letters in the blanks to match the terms on the right with the phrases on the left.

1. ____ a sum of money each person was required topay to the Church

2. ____ a Church court that tried heretics

3. ____ a decree that cut an entire nation off from theservices of the Church

4. ____ a decree that forbade fighting on weekends

5. ____ a decree that cut an individual off from theservices of the Church

6. ____ a person who went against the teachings ofthe Church

7. What prevented the people from simply ignoring the Church and doing as theywished?

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A. excommunication

B. heretic

C. interdict

D. Inquisition

E. tithe

F. Truce of God

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When the Western Roman Empire fell in 476 and theperiod known as the Dark Ages began, learning did not stopcompletely. Thanks to the efforts of a small group ofdedicated people, much of what the Greeks and Romanshad learned and written down was copied and preserved forfuture generations.

From the earliest years of Christianity, some men (andlater women) withdrew to remote regions to devote their livesto religious pursuits. People who shun all worldly comfortsfor a life of such solitude are called hermits. In time, groupsof hermits came together and established monasteries. The hermits were then referredto as monks. Sometime around the year 500, a monk named Benedict (later SaintBenedict of Nursia) established a set of rules that all devotees were required to follow.The Benedictine Rule required that monks swear to the three vows of obedience,poverty, and chastity. By accepting the vow of chastity, a monk promised never tomarry.

The monasteries of the Middle Ages made notable contributions to civilization. Inaddition to copying and preserving ancient manuscripts, the monks operated schools,hospitals, and orphanages, and provided safe havens for weary travelers. They alsohelped spread Christianity among the German and Viking invaders who overranWestern Europe.

Monks did not spend each day entirely occupied with prayer and meditation.Because monasteries were self-supporting institutions, monks had to grow the foodthey ate. As a result, they made important contributions to agriculture. It was themonks, for example, who often taught local serfs how to make use of the three-fieldsystem of farming.

Decide whether each statement below is fact or opinion. Write F or O in the blanks.

1. ____ Saint Benedict was the greatest saint who ever lived.

2. ____ Monasteries played an important role in preserving the knowledge of theancient Greeks and Romans.

3. ____ Saint Benedict established a set of rules for monks to follow.

4. ____ Monks were more religious than the other clergy of the Catholic Church.

5. ____ Monks were good farmers who passed their methods of agriculture on tothe serfs.

6. In what ways might western civilization be different if none of the achievements ofthe monks had ever been made?

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The Role of Monasteries

Many legends and myths existed during the MiddleAges, and some of them have persisted to this day. Oneof the better known legends is about King Arthur, who wassaid to have ruled England from his court at Camelot.

Supported by his lovely wife Guenevere andassisted by the magician Merlin, the legendary KingArthur and his Knights of the Round Table fought anddefeated the Saxons who invaded England in thesixth century. Throughout the Middle Ages, travelingpoets called troubadours went around singing poetic

verses along with the latest news. They told of the mighty deeds of Arthur and hisknights. The King Arthur with whom most people are familiar, however, is quitepossibly just a legend. There is some evidence that a king named Arthur lived inEngland about the same time as the legendary king, but his deeds pale in comparisonto the Arthur of literary fame.

Belief in mythical animals was also common during medieval times. Two of theseanimals are the dragon and the unicorn. The dragon was thought to be a huge beast,measuring about forty feet in length. It was said to have wings like a bird, a long taillike an alligator, and claws resembling those of an eagle. Worst of all, it was said tobreathe fire. Although medieval writers described the unicorn in various ways, they allagreed that the animal had a horn protruding from the middle of its head.

Fill in the blanks to complete the following statements about legends and myths.

1. King Arthur’s court was said to be located at _______________.

2. _______________ was King Arthur’s wife.

3. _______________ was a magician who assisted King Arthur.

4. Traveling _______________ sang the praises of Arthur and his Knights of theRound Table.

5. A _______________ was a mythical animal with a horn on its head.

6. _______________ were believed to be huge, fire-breathing beasts.

7. In addition to the legend of King Arthur, there are many legends about exceptionalknights. What adventures might be included in a legend about a knight?

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Legends and Myths

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Health and MedicineMedieval medicine was very primitive, especially during the early Middle Ages from

500 to 1000. For centuries, medical practice was associated with religion and ritual.Since many people thought that disease was caused by demons, they believed curescould only be attained through such methods as prayer, sacrifice, and the wearing ofamulets, or magic charms. It was believed that a common form of tuberculosis couldbe cured by the touch of a king’s hand. Therefore, people who wished to ridthemselves of the disease sought help from kings. It is said that one French king“touched” 1500 afflicted people at one sitting.

Much of medieval medicine was based on the theories of Hippocrates, an ancientGreek physician. His theories state that disease was caused by an excess of one of

the four humours (basic fluids) in the human body:black bile, blood, phlegm, and yellow bile. As a

result of Hippocrates’ theories, a typical treatmentfor disease in the Middle Ages was bloodletting.

This procedure involved letting blood flow outof a vein in order to release the excesshumour. Other typical treatments for diseaseincluded giving the patient substances toinduce vomiting, purgatives to empty thebowels, or diuretics to increase the release ofurine. With such primitive methods, the death

rate was high. One epidemic, the bubonic plague or “Black Death,” is estimated tohave killed from one-fourth to one-half of Europe’s population in the fourteenth century.

Thanks to knowledge that trickled into Europe as a result of the Crusades (religiouswars that took place between 1096 and 1291), some medical advances did take placein the latter part of the Middle Ages. For example, people began to realize that diseasehas natural causes. However, the poor hygiene of the day resulted in a short lifeexpectancy for nobles and serfs. Human waste was dumped onto the streets, and pigsand other animals roamed freely in houses and around towns. Disease was very hardto control.

1. What was the purpose of bloodletting?

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2. What medical information did Europe acquire as a result of the Crusades?

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3. What modern medical knowledge might have helped in controlling disease duringthe Middle Ages?

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Beginning in 1096, a series of religious wars betweenChristians and Mohammedans (Muslims) began that wouldresult in the end of feudalism and change European life forever.These wars were the Crusades.

In the eleventh century, invaders known as the Seljuk Turksconquered the Holy Land (Palestine) and threatened to takeConstantinople, the capital of the Byzantine or Eastern RomanEmpire which served as the center of the Eastern OrthodoxChurch. The Byzantine emperor immediately appealed to PopeUrban II in Rome for military aid. The Pope was sympathetic to theplea, especially since Christians making pilgrimages to the place ofJesus’ birth were being severely persecuted by the Turks. At ameeting held in Clermont, France, in 1095, Pope Urban II called for acrusade (holy war) to recapture the Holy Land from the Muslims.

The response to the Pope’s plea was overwhelming. Lords and knights volunteeredfor a variety of reasons, such as religious zeal, the desire for adventure or glory, andthe hope of obtaining land and riches. Prisoners and serfs were granted freedom inreturn for military service. Merchants participated, motivated by the possibilities ofincreased trade.

Even children played a part in the crusades. There were two Children’s Crusadesin 1212. Thousands of children set out from France, while another group departedfrom what is now Germany. Neither Children’s Crusade was successful.

From 1096 to 1291, there were eight major Crusades. Although the crusadersfailed to gain permanent control of Palestine, they succeeded in gaining safe passagefor Christians who went on pilgrimages to the Holy Land.

1. What was the purpose of the Crusades?

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2. For what reason was Pope Urban II supportive of the Crusades?__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. What were some of the reasons knights were anxious to participate in the Crusades?

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4. How was a typical merchant’s reason for fighting in the Crusades different fromthe reasons prisoners and serfs participated? Explain.

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The Crusades

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Results of the CrusadesThe two-hundred-year period of the Crusades had major effects on Western

Europe. Feudalism declined, trade increased, and a revival of learning took place. Inshort, the Crusades helped start the period historians refer to as modern times.

When the Crusades began in the eleventh century, many lords sold their serfs andland to finance a campaign. Other lords raised money for an expedition by granting acharter to a town or village they owned. The people would pay the lord for a charterwhich designated the town or village as free. With so many lords in the Holy Land,many serfs ran away. Others gained freedom when their lords were killed. Suchcircumstances weakened feudalism and eventually increased the power of kings.

Just as important as the decline of feudalism was the increase in trade and theeconomic growth of port cities along the Mediterranean Sea. As goods traveling to andfrom the Middle East passed through these cities, commerce and shipbuildingflourished.

Finally, Europeans were stimulated intellectually from their contact with Arab andByzantine cultures. Everywhere the crusaders went they saw great cities with beautifulpalaces and other impressive buildings. They also encountered many libraries and leftthe Holy Land impressed by the scientific knowledge the Arabs had accumulated. Thenew ideas they brought back to Europe helped bring about the Renaissance, a time ofgreat focus on learning and renewed interest in the arts. The Renaissance began inthe thirteenth century.

1. How did the Crusades affect cities such as Venice and Genoa that bordered theMediterranean Sea?

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2. Why did some lords grant charters during the eleventh century?

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3. How did the Crusades bring about the decline of feudalism?

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4. How did the Crusades affect Europe intellectually?

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The Black DeathWar, famine, and disease killed over half of Europe’s population between the years

1300 and 1450. The worst of these disasters was the Black Death, or bubonic plague.In just a few years, this disease wiped out at least one-fourth of the population ofWestern Europe.

Where did this terrible disease come from? In 1347, the city of Kaffa on the BlackSea in Russia was under siege by the Mongols, a warlike Asiatic people. After a year,many Mongol warriors began dying of the plague. In order to wipe out the populationof Kaffa, the Mongol commander ordered his men to use a machine called a catapultto hurl all soldiers who had the disease over the city’s walls. As a result, most ofKaffa’s inhabitants became infected and died. A few, however, survived and escaped.They unknowingly carried the disease to the ports of Genoa and Venice in what is nowItaly. The plague spread from these ports to the rest of Europe.

The bubonic plague caused death quickly. The telltale symptom was black spots onthe skin. These spots were caused by a swelling of the lymph glands. Because theymisunderstood the cause of the disease and believed that God was punishing them fortheir sins, many people fled congested cities and manors to more isolated areas whichthey thought were safer.

Today, thanks to advances in medical science, people know that the bubonic plagueis transmitted to humans by fleas from infected rats. Through antibiotics, propersanitation, and the elimination of vermin, the disease can be quickly brought undercontrol.


1. The Black Death that raged through medieval Europe began in thea. 13th century b. 14th century c. 15th century

2. The Black Death spread to Europe from the Russian city ofa. Venice b. Kaffa c. Genoa

3. The Asiatic people who brought the Black Death to Europe were thea. Mongols b. Huns c. Russians

4. The bubonic plague is transmitted to humans bya. roaches b. fleas c. flies

5. The bubonic plague can be controlled through the elimination ofa. dogs b. infected birds c. rats

6. At the time the Black Death struck Europe in the 1300s, Paris had a population ofabout 150,000, Venice had a population of roughly 100,000, and Nuremberg (acity in Germany) had a population of approximately 20,000. If roughly one-fourthof the inhabitants of these cities died of the disease, how many people died ineach city?

Paris: ____________ deaths Venice: ___________ deaths

Nuremberg: _______ deaths


Because travel was dangerous and roads were in poorcondition, trade was almost nonexistent during most of theMiddle Ages. People made do with what they had and couldonly dream of the exotic goods and riches of the East.

Prospects for a revival of trade, however, increasedgreatly with the Crusades. Europeans began to show arenewed interest in the world around them. Theirattention was directed toward the East, where advancedcultures had prospered while Europeans had flounderedduring the Dark Ages. A natural outgrowth of this interestin trade was the medieval fair.

Cities had held fairs even during feudal times, but these fairs were solely for fun. Peoplegathered on holidays and holy days for games, sports, and dancing. The fairs thatdeveloped as a result of the Crusades added a new element: trade. Groups of merchantsfrom the East who traveled together for protection received permission from cities to set upstalls in designated areas where they could display their wares. When Europeanmerchants erected booths for their goods too, the medieval fair was born. Medievalmerchants offered such wares as leather saddles, clothing, armor, and copper pots.

For fair-goers interested in things other than trade, the medieval fair provided avariety of entertainment that included dancing, wrestling, and games of chance. Therewere also acrobats, jugglers, and animal acts. In some ways, the medieval fairresembled the county fair of today.

Trade and entertainment aside, the greatest benefit of the medieval fair was that itpromoted the exchange of news and ideas. In time, this exchange helped bring aboutthe end of the Middle Ages in Europe.

1. Why was trade nearly nonexistent during most of the Middle Ages?

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2. What was the biggest difference between a fair held before the Crusades and oneheld after the Crusades?

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3. How did fairs help bring an end to the Middle Ages?

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4. What aspect of a medieval fair do you think you would have enjoyed most? Why?

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Medieval Fairs

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TownsThe number of towns increased greatly during the later Middle Ages. Some towns,

such as the old Roman towns that had survived the Germanic invasions of the fifthcentury, existed during the early Middle Ages. Others sprang up around castles duringfeudal times. In general, however, there were few towns until the thirteenth century.

Towns developed in places that offered a geographical advantage. Some originatedin areas where trade routes came together. Others were built near rivers or along thesea where there were good harbors and fishing ports. Still others sprang up nearmonasteries, which, like the lord’s castle, offered some degree of protection duringunstable times. In addition to Paris and London, important medieval towns includedVenice, Genoa, and Naples in Italy; Lubeck, Hamburg, and Bremen in Germany; andBruges and Ghent in Belgium.

Medieval towns were crowded and dangerous. Because of limited space, houseswere often three or four stories high. Their top stories projected so far into the streetsthat houses on opposite sides of the street almost touched. Since nearly all houseswere constructed of wood, fire was a constant threat. When fires did break out, theusual result was that the entire town burned. Some towns were destroyed and rebuiltseveral times. For example, the city of Rouen in France was completely destroyed sixtimes between the years 1200 and 1225.

Medieval towns were unsanitary. Garbage was thrown onto the streets, animals ranabout freely, and drinking water was impure. As a result, disease was widespread.Towns were also unsafe, especially at night. With no street lights or police force tooffer security, people who ventured out alone after dark were often robbed ormurdered. Therefore, people usually traveled in groups for protection.


1. ____ No Roman towns survived the barbarian invasions of the fifth century.

2. ____ Some medieval towns sprang up at crossroads where trade routes met.

3. ____ Ghent was a famous medieval town in Germany.

4. ____ Most of the buildings in a medieval town were made of stone.

5. ____ Medieval towns posed health hazards for residents.

6. ____ Medieval towns had well-trained police forces.

7. On the lines below, contrast medieval towns with the towns and cities of today.Explain at least three differences.

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TownspeopleThe revival of town life in the late Middle Ages saw the rise of a new class called

the bourgeoisie, or middle class. It consisted of shopkeepers, merchants, mastercraftsmen, bankers, and skilled workers. In time, many professional people becamepart of the bourgeoisie as well. In England, members of the middle class were calledburgesses. In France, they were known as bourgeois, and in Germany they werecalled burgers. Of course, not all townspeople belonged to the bourgeoisie. Manywere unskilled laborers, including serfs who had run away from manors.

Townspeople generally ate only two meals each day: the first at 10 a.m. and thesecond at 6 p.m. The typical middle class townsman arose early and began the daywithout a meal. He returned home at 10 a.m. This was when his wife had the firstmeal of the day prepared. Supper was the last meal of the day. It was hearty andoften consisted of eels, roasts, puddings, and pastries. Because water in mostmedieval towns was unfit to drink, diners drank ale, wine, or beer with all meals.

Many townspeople were craftsmen. They worked as bakers, weavers, tanners,cobblers, fletchers (makers of arrows), and various smiths (metal workers). Acraftsman who owned a shop was called a master, and the skilled workers who workedfor him were called journeymen. Young lads who were learning a trade from a masterwere known as apprentices. Apprentices were not paid for their labor, but they didreceive food and lodging in addition to their training.


1. ____ a member of the middle class in England A. master

2. ____ a young lad learning a trade B. burger

3. ____ a German member of the middle class C. apprentice

4. ____ a shop owner D. burgess

5. ____ a hired shop worker who received wages for his labor E. journeyman

6. Why wasn’t water part of the medieval diet?

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7. What compensation did apprentices receive for their labor?

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8. What are some things that are characteristic of a middle class lifestyle in today’ssociety?

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GuildsAll business and industry within a medieval town was regulated by organizations

called guilds. Merchant guilds consisted of businessmen engaged in trade. Craftguilds were made up of master craftsmen and journeymen who produced specificgoods. Any person who was not a guild member could not do business in a town orhad to pay a special fee to do so.

At first, merchant guilds were more common than craft guilds. However, thenumber of craft guilds rose significantly as the population of towns increased alongwith the number of skilled workers. There was a separate guild for each craft. Ofcourse large cities had more guilds than smaller ones. By the year 1292, for example,Paris had nearly 130 different guilds.

The primary function of a craft guild was to assure quality workmanship among itsmembers. Guilds also fixed hours, determined wages, and established prices. Anotherimportant duty of a guild was to judge the work a journeymen submitted in order tobecome a master. A journeyman whose craftsmanship passed the scrutiny of guildjudges was then free to open his own shop and become a master.

Guilds were active in the political and social life of towns. They participated in towngovernment and often dominated it. They built hospitals, orphanages, and schools. Insome ways, they resembled modern labor unions. They looked after the welfare oftheir members and provided them with insurance against fire, flood, theft, disability, andthe health problems that often accompany old age. Guilds even paid for the funerals oftheir dead.

Some guilds remained active until the late 1700s, long after the Middle Ages hadended.

1. How did merchant guilds and craft guilds differ?

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2. What rule made it a great advantage for a worker to join a guild?

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3. List several functions performed by guilds.

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4. Explain how craft guilds were similar to modern labor unions.

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Schools and UniversitiesUntil the Crusades brought about a revival of learning in the late Middle Ages,

education was not a priority in Europe. The schools that existed were those run bypriests and monks, and their main purpose was to prepare young men and women fora life of religious service.

In addition to religion, students in early medieval schools were taught reading,writing, and arithmetic. Schools were usually for the boys of noble families only. Noblegirls were sometimes taught manners, music, and needlework by private tutors. Theonly way a girl could receive a formal education was to join a convent and become anun. The sons and daughters of peasants received no formal education at all.

Because of the Crusades, universities began to appear in the twelfth century. Atfirst there were four of importance. The University of Paris in France was a school oftheology (religion) and philosophy. The University of Bologna in northern Italy was aschool of law. The University of Salerno in southern Italy was a medical school.Oxford University in England emphasized theology and liberal arts.

Some universities started when a teacher announced his intentions to begin auniversity and a group of students agreed to pay for his services. Sometimes studentsran universities themselves and paid for them as well. At first, universities didn’tconsist of any buildings. Instead of meeting in classrooms, students met in the homeof the teacher and sat on beds of straw on the floor. Since textbooks were scarce, allteaching was done through lecture.

Some of the greatest universities in the world began from such humble beginnings.


1. Nearly all teachers in early medieval schools werea. private tutors b. monks and priests c. visiting professors

2. Which was true of early medieval schools?a. Both boys and girls attended.b. Reading, arithmetic, and several foreign languages were taught.c. Usually only boys of noble families could enroll.

3. The University of Paris was a school of philosophy anda. medicine b. liberal arts c. theology

4. The University of Salerno was located in southerna. Italy b. France c. England

5. The University of Bologna was a school ofa. medicine b. theology c. law

6. Contrast medieval universities with the universities of today.

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Art and ArchitectureThe art and architecture of the Middle Ages reflected the importance of religion in

the people’s lives. Paintings, sculptures, and buildings conveyed religious ideas. Onlytoward the end of the medieval era were more secular, or worldly, themes conveyed.

The Romanesque style of architecture used in the construction of churches andpublic buildings during the early Middle Ages imitated the architecture of ancientRome. Romanesque buildings were massive, with heavy walls, thick columns, androunded arches. Because the heavy walls had to support a domed roof, there werefew windows, and buildings were often very dark inside.

The Gothic style came into use during the twelfth century. The beautiful Gothiccathedrals built in Europe during the Middle Ages show the fine workmanship ofmedieval architects and craftsmen. The Gothic style of architecture was very differentfrom the Romanesque style. The graceful Gothic cathedrals of European cities havepointed arches, tall spires, and many stained-glass windows. Their walls are supportedby braces called flying buttresses. The Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris andWestminster Abbey in London are fine examples of Gothic architecture.

Decide which words could be used to fill the blanks in the sentences beneath thepuzzle. Then complete the puzzle by writing those words one letter per blank.

1. A ___ ___ ___ ___

2. ___ R ___ ___ ___ ___

3. ___ ___ C ___ ___ ___ ___

4. ___ ___ ___ H ___ ___

5. ___ ___ I ___ ___ ___

6. T ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___

7. ___ ___ ___ E ___

8. ___ ___ ___ C ___

9. ___ T ___ ___ ___ ___ ___

10. ___ U ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___

11. R ___ ___ ___

12. ___ ___ ___ ___ E ___ ___ ___ ___

1. Westminster ___________ is in London.2. Gothic cathedrals have pointed ___________.3. ___________ is a word that means “worldly.”4. The ___________ style of architecture replaced the Romanesque style.5. Gothic cathedrals have tall ___________.6. Gothic architecture began to appear in the ___________ century.7. ___________ roofs characterize Romanesque buildings.8. Romanesque buildings have ___________ columns.9. Gothic cathedrals are noted for their beautiful ___________-glass windows.

10. The walls of Gothic cathedrals are supported by braces called flying ___________.11. Romanesque architecture was based on the architecture of ancient ___________.12. The ___________ of Notre Dame in Paris is a classic example of the Gothic style.


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The End of the Middle AgesMost historians agree that the Middle Ages ended around 1500. Several important

events took place which mark that time period as the conclusion of one age and thebeginning of another. Two of these events occurred in 1453: the old Eastern RomanEmpire that was centered at Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks, and the HundredYears’ War between France and England ended. In addition, Columbus discovered theNew World in 1492, which greatly broadened Europe’s horizons.

The Middle Ages began drawing to a close as early as the 1300s. The Crusadeshad caused feudalism to decline, trade to increase, and towns to appear. They had alsobrought about a rebirth of education. The Renaissance, the formal name for this rebirthof learning, began in Italy and spread to other Western European nations. Painting andother forms of art flourished, and people began studying the writings of the ancientGreeks and Romans to try to understand many things about the world. Unlike theMiddle Ages, in which people focused on the hereafter, the Renaissance placedemphasis on the individual in the present world.

These new ways of thinking that came about as a result of the Crusades signaledthe end of the thousand-year period known as the Middle Ages.

Unscramble the following proper nouns which all appear in the text above, and explainhow each person, place, or thing helped end the Middle Ages.

1. PLENTONATSCION___________________________

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2. SLUMBUCO____________________

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3. SCAREDUS____________________

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4. SINCEARENAS__________________________

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5. YALIT______________

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6. How did people’s outlook on life during the Renaissance differ from people’soutlook on life during the Middle Ages?

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Check Your Understanding1. Put the following events of the Middle Ages in order from 1 to 6.

____ Feudalism begins.____ Towns flourish as lords leave to fight in the Crusades and serfs obtain their

freedom.____ The Roman Empire falls as Germanic tribes conquer the city of Rome.____ The Roman Empire grows too large and government begins to break down.____ The Middle Ages end, and the Renaissance begins.____ Charlemagne establishes a 46-year reign and brings some stability to Europe.

2. What factors contributed to the development of feudalism?

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3. Briefly describe how the system of feudalism worked.

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4. How did the Church affect life in the Middle Ages?

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5. Describe the training a noble boy went through to become a knight.

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6. What was life like in a typical medieval town?

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7. List several ways the Crusades helped bring about the end of the Middle Ages.

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Medieval Times

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