MEDIEVAL STRINGED INSTRUMENTS: Germanic Lyres:

Frame Harps

Citoles and Gitterns (Cetera, Guitarra, etc.)

Lutes

Psaltery (gusli, hammered dulcimer, etc.)

Fiddles

HOW WERE THEY MADE? Medieval instruments were generally carved from a single block of wood for the body and neck, rather than assembled from thin pieces of wood. The back was normally integral with the sides, and was carved from a piece of light hard wood. The soundboard (top) was a separate piece of light, usually soft wood, that was attached to the body with glue or nails. Renaissance and model instruments were assembled from thin bent pieces for the sides, and plates were attached to the top and bottom. The neck is a separate piece from the body block. Medieval Instrument bodies are carved from a single block like this:

Medieval Instrument bodies are carved from a single block:

Renaissance and modern instruments are made from many parts of thin wood assembled together.

HOW DO WE KNOW HOW THEY WERE MADE? We have both some surviving instruments, and some textual evidence that describes how instruments were made.

WARWICK CASTLE GITTERN/CITOLE (English 15th century) GITTERN (German, 15th century) TROSSINGEN LYRE (Germany, 6th century) GDANSK REBEC (Gdansk, 13th century) VENUS REBEC (Austria 15th century) CITERONE (Italian 14th century) ST. CATHERINE DE VIGRI FIDDLE (Italy, 15th Century)

The main block was best made of a hard, non-porous wood to best "hold in the sound." Albertus Magnus in his De Vegetabilis (1206-1280) suggested sycamore or maple, though apricot, walnut, almond and ebony all are mentioned in the various texts. The soundboard needed to be made out of a more porous wood, and be readily able to resonate the sound. The earlier skins of the east were rejected in favor of fir or spruce, as mentioned by Albertus and Konrad von Megenberg's Das Buch der Natur. Konrad also mentions that the instrument has a better and smoother sound if the surfaces of the wood are finished and smooth. Several writers mention varnishes, including a 1440 Turkish treatise suggesting a varnish of powered glass and glue. The strings themselves had a variety of materials. The arabs preferred spun silk strings, as they believed they had a better tone, could endure more tension, and held their tuning well. The Europeans preferred gut strings made from sheep's gut. This enduring argument is made by Amarcius in the 11th Century, Liederhandschrift in the 12th century, the Franciscan Bartholomeus Anglicus in his De Proprietatus Rerum (1230), Hugo con Tromberg in 1280 or so, and John of Trevisa in 1398. The technique for making gut strings is described in great detail in the Secretum Philosophorum (14th century), and I will not repeat it here. A contrasting voice is heard in The Summa Musica of the 13th century noting that metal strings of silver or bronze are superior to gut.

WHAT ARE GOOD WOODS? BODY BLOCK: The body block is best made from a light weight hard wood.

MAPLE Generally the best option. Regular maple is common and relatively easy to find. “Flamed” or “quilt” maple is gorgeous, but harder to work and much more expensive for good pieces. Makes a “bright” instrument with good projection.

CHERRY Good light wood, easier to work than maple, and can have very nice color. “Flamed” cherry is rare, but can be found. Makes a “bright” instrument with medium projection.

WALNUT Good mid-weight wood. Can be very pretty with wild grains, especially in claro-walnut, but more complex grains can be difficult to work. Makes a “warm” instrument with good projection.

FRUIT WOODS (Apple, Pear, Butternut, etc.)

Generally work fine – are very similar to cherry in ease of working. Main difficulty is usually finding blocks large enough that are not too expensive. Usually bright toned with medium projection.

WILLOW European willow is heavier than maple, but also can make a very nice instrument. Hard to find outside of Europe. Warm toned with medium projection.

SYCAMORE Either English (which has a beautiful grain) or American. Very similar to maple (the American variety is actually a kind of maple), and can have very pretty grain patterns. Can be a bit harder to find than maple in the US. Bright with good projection.

EUROPEAN BOXWOOD Often used in period for both string and woodwind instruments. Carves very easily with a very fine grain. Makes a bright instrument with good projection. ASIAN BOXWOOD IS NOT THE SAME WOOD – it is a softwood that will not work.

You generally want to avoid very heavy hard woods for the body block (oak, ebony, paduak, cocobolo, etc.) as they are 1) much more expensive for larger blocks 2) harder to work and can wreck your tools 3) don’t have as much resonance. You generally want to avoid soft woods for the body block (pine, tulip, spruce, fir, etc.) as they 1) will deaden the sound because too soft 2) more prone to warp under tension 3) easier to damage. SOUNDBOARD The soundboard is best made from the lightest, stiffest wood. The best wood to use is usually a variety of Spruce. There are multiple versions: Sitka Spruce – is the most “generic” you will normally find. It is light and stiff. Usually the easiest and cheapest to find. Engelmann Spruce – is slightly softer than Sitka and more expensive. It creates a more complex sound, but at the sacrifice of volume. European Spruce – is a broad term used either for central European (sometimes called “German” spruce) or for Alpine (Italian Alps) wood. Alpine spruce is what is used for the best violins, and can be very expensive. German spruce is mostly from Eastern Europe, and has a great tone, but can be a bit hard to find. Generally more expensive than Sitka. Adirondack Spruce – wide grained and a little harder to work, but has very good sound. Harder to find and more expensive. There are a couple of other woods that can be used as soundboards: White Pine – doesn’t have quite as good a projection as spruce, but is a perfectly good wood for the purpose. Best selected with a narrow (“tight”) grain and must have no knots.

Cedar – Western Red Cedar is used in some modern classical guitars, has a much warmer tone with less projection than spruce. Its darker, more red color can make for a striking contrast to a lighter colored body block, and it does have a nice sound. It is softer than spruce, so you can damage it more easily. Maple – maple was used in some soundboards, mostly in lyres and psalteries. It doesn’t generate as much energy as spruce, so doesn’t project quite as well, but it is stiff and strong and holds up very well. FINGERBOARDS, TAILPIECES, AND PEGS: Here you want hardness. For the tailpiece and pegs, there is a chance of the strings cutting into or through the wood, so you need something that is strong. For the pegs, weight is less of an issue, so very hard woods like ebony, ironwood, tropical hardwoods like cocobolo or wenge, are all fine. Bone or ivory was often also used in period. For tailpieces you don’t want something too heavy, as it also has to carry some of the vibration energy of the strings. Maple, walnut, or some lighter tropical hardwoods like padauk are all good. The fingerboard needs to be something hard enough that being rubbed constantly or possibly dug into by nails will not mark or harm it. Maple is the softest wood that will tolerate that – walnut, tropical hardwoods like ebony, etc. will work. Technically white oak will work for any of these, but it generally is not used because it is very difficult to work because of its grain. Do NOT use softwoods for the fingerboard, pegs, or tailpiece. A softwood fingerboard with mark up and scoop out with use. Softwood pegs or tailpiece will usually be cut through by thinner strings. BRIDGE: For the bridge you want something hard and light. Historically everything from maple to ivory to amber or even bronze were used for bridges. For bowed strings, because the bridge has to be tall, it is better to make out of a lighter hardwood like maple to reduce the weight. For plucked strings, harder woods transmit the vibration better, so ebony, bone, etc. all are fine. WOOD PREPARATION Generally you want dry, seasoned wood. Green wood is easier to carve, but will take a long time to dry out before you can seal it, and is highly likely to warp or split while drying and seasoning. Dry, seasoned wood is already stable, so do you do not have to worry about the block warping or splitting while you are working it. It is harder and more dense, so will require a bit more energy to carve.

GRAINS: Generally you want the grain to be as straight as possible in the lateral direction of the body of the instrument (grain going parallel to the strings).

Kind of grain you will mostly find. Grain basically goes in direction of strings, but has some wave or form. This is fine and will work okay for the body block. This is not great for soundboard.

Avoid this – you cannot have knots in the body, or grain going in every direction. It will make it very difficult to carve, and increases chances of splitting or checking (deep scratches on surface).

Best option for soundboards especially. Long straight tight grains. Also good for body block but harder to find.

Avoid this kind of pattern for soundboards. Wide grains that narrow to very fine tight grains will make the board vibrate unevenly, and will potentially cause splitting. Can be used for body block, but not ideal.

FIGURED WOOD Figured wood is wood that has a pretty grain. These woods can be gorgeous, but the figure is caused by waviness in the grain of the wood, which can make them much harder to carve and sand, and more prone to splitting when working. They are also 3-5x more expensive than a non-figured piece of the same kind of wood. Small pieces can be great though for tailpiece/fingerboards to have as an accent on the instrument.

FLAMED MAPLE QUILTED MAPLE FLAMED or FIGURED CHERRY

FLAMED or FIGURED WALNUT

FLAMED or FIGURED CLARO WALNUT

WHAT TOOLS DO YOU NEED? The tool kit for instrument making hasn’t changed much since medieval times. Other than some “powered” variants, the tools found in a violin makers workshop of today vary little from what you would see in a 14th or 15th century workshop. Pretty much everything can be made with a simple workbench and some hand tools, and a lot of patience. SAWS: You will need two saws. One saw will need to be heavy duty, as it will need to be able to cut through a block of hard wood that is 2”-4”(5-10cm) thick. The other will need to be a smaller coping saw to cut small parts or to cut soundholes.

Traditional Frame Saw: This is what the medieval people would have used.

Normal Rip Saw – the kind you would find in a standard hardware store.

Japanese Kataba Saw – more exotic, but the thinner blade and pull rather than push cutting can make cutting through thick hardwoods much easier.

Standard Coping Saw. Basically this is the modern smaller version of the traditional Frame Saw. Good for small bits and detail work.

If you have access to a powered table saw, band saw, or scroll saw, you can use those as well. Just be very careful to leave all of your fingers on your hands. Most handheld powered scroll saws will have a very difficult time cutting through more than an inch of hardwood, so would not work to cut through 2”+ blocks. CHISELS: You’ll need two kinds of chisels – a straight chisel for doing edging and cutting, and a spoon chisel to help clear material from the body block.

DRILL: A hand drill works, but a modern powered drill is much easier. You’ll need bits up to ½” diameter. FILES: Good files and rasps are helpful for shaping things like the curve of the neck, or the curve of the body or peghead. It is perfectly fine to substitute a “powered” file like a Dremel or other rotary tool to make the work faster and easier. Mini-files are also good to have on hand if you want to do small detailed accents, like a rosette, or detailing on the tailpiece. KNIVES: Small carving knives again help with shaping details like the peghead, tailpiece, or neck. Again, it is perfectly fine to substitute a Dremel or rotary tool for this same action.

SCRAPERS/PLANES/SANDPAPER: Used to smooth out the surfaces of the wood. Planes are used on flat surfaces, but do take a little getting used to the technique of. Scrapers are like the blade of the plane without a body – basically your hand becomes the body of the plane and you manually scrape the wood smooth. Sandpaper smooths the wood by abrading it with small bits of stone.

You need some way of smoothing the wood. Planes and scrapers are faster than sandpaper, but are harder to use. Sandpaper used in increasing fineness takes longer, but is very difficult to “mess up” with. Power sanders can work, but you have to be careful not to gouge into the wood with them. For sandpaper, I’d recommend 60 grit start to shape, a 120-150 grit to smooth the wood, and a 220 grit to finish the wood. If you want to spend the extra time for the true mirror finish, you can continue to 400 grain and even 600 grain to polish the wood. Maple, for example, sanded to 600 grain is reflective on a hard angle. If you are using a wax or oil finish, it is worth it to polish the wood. If you are using a varnish, going beyond 220 doesn’t have as much of an effect. CLAMPS: You will need some way to clamp the pieces together – the soundboard to the body block, the fingerboard to the neck, braces to the soundboard, etc. Fairly standard C-clamps or wooden clamps will work fine for this.

However, there are some other methods, including using handweights, large rubberbands, tape, etc.

There is a specialized kind of clamp called an edge or violin clamp. These are used to attach the soundboard or backboard to the body of the instrument, and are purchased in clusters. They are not too hard to find, but can get expensive if you need a lot of them.

PEG REAMER: There is one very specialized tool you will need that doesn’t really have another use outside of making instruments. This is a peg reamer. It is a tapered drill that cuts the hole for the peg at the same angle as the peg is gently tapered. Generally speaking a violin peg reamer is what you would get, as it can handle relatively small pegs from ¼”tip to as large as ½”. There are also reamers for zither pins, if you are using those to make a psaltery.

If you are feeling very adventurous and want to make your own pegs, you would also need a matching PEG SHAVER (that cuts the peg stems to the same taper as the reamer cuts the holes, and basically works like a pencil sharpener) and some kind of small lathe to turn the pegs. Generally speaking, though, for your first instruments I would recommend just using purchased violin or lute pegs, and/or zither pins.

WHAT TO USE FOR STINGS? The traditional material is GUT, which is sheep’s (or goat’s) intestine that has been rendered into thin strips and twisted together to make strings of various thicknesses. The ability to make STEEL strings did not exist in medieval period. Metal strings were made of either precious metals (silver and even gold) or bronze, usually phosphor bronze. The only things normally strung in metal were the psaltery and the clarsach style harps. Everything else (lyres, gitterns, fiddles, lutes, etc.) were strung in gut. (Weird exception – a few Nordic instruments were strung in horsehair). Steel strings on any instrument didn’t appear until the 17th century. Steel strings on instruments like the violin weren’t used until after WWII. Gut strings have a great complex sound, especially for bowed strings. However, they have several disadvantages. They are expensive, they are very sensitive to humidity and temperature changes (which throw them out of tune), and they are abraded by fingernails (and will eventually break). If you want gut strings, good dealers are: https://www.gamutmusic.com/ https://earlymusicshop.com/collections/plain-gut-strings https://nristringshop.co.uk/strings.html For plucked strings, there are other, easier to use alternatives. Nylon strings (for harps or classical guitars) are a good substitute for gut. There is a particular kind of nylon string called Nylgut made by Aquila which is meant to particularly simulate the sound of gut for lutes and other plucked strings. Some dealers for those are: https://aquilacorde.com/en/ https://www.bostoncatlines.com/strings https://www.aquilausa.com/nylgut-type-d-copper-nge-cd When stringing an instrument, there are four variables that determine the pitch of the strings: THICKNESS, DENSITY, LENGTH, and TENSION.

Doubling the length of the string goes up one octave. Roughly speaking, doubling the tension of the string also goes up roughly one octave. Roughly speaking, doubling the diameter of the string drops the pitch an octave. Instruments like harps and psalteries where the strings are different lengths can sometimes be strung entirely in one diameter of string, with the length alone being sufficient to change the pitches. Instruments like lyres where the strings are all the same length will require different thicknesses for different pitches. Instruments like gitterns and fiddles, where the strings all are the same length but range a LOT in pitches require different thickness and different tensions. For example, the four strings on a standard violin if strung in gut would be:

STRING PITCH STRING LENGTH STRING TENSION STRING DIAMETER

G (low string) 32cm 3 kg 1.36 mm

d (middle string) 32cm 3.6 kg 1.00 mm

a’ (middle string) 32cm 4.5 kg 0.74 mm

e’ (high string) 32cm 5 kg 0.52 mm

Normally speaking, tension should be 3-8kg for most strings for medium and small sized instruments. Less than 3kg and the string gets floppy and thuddy. More than 8 kg and the string is likely to break or put too much tension on the instrument itself. Conveniently, there are a number of STRING CALCULATORS out there so you can just plug in the sounding length of the string, and the rough tension you want, and the calculator will tell you what diameter it should be based on the type of string. For gut strings, a good one is GAMUT strings calculator: http://www.gamutstrings.com/calculators/calculator.htm This string calculator lets you also choose the material (density) as well: https://www.cs.helsinki.fi/u/wikla/mus/Calcs/wwwscalc.html

FINISHES: There are four kinds of finishes you can use on the instrument. Three are historical, one is modern. OIL/BEESWAX The simplest finish to do is an oiled/beeswax finish. Historically this was used for instruments in the middle ages and beyond (especially for modern folk instruments). This simply seals the wood and keeps it basically protected. It darkens the wood a little, and does enhance figure. This will need to be periodically re-applied to the instrument. Oil/beeswax finish is relatively inexpensive and easy to do. You wipe on the material, let it sit for a few minutes to soak in, wipe off any excess, and rub in the rest until nothing comes off on your fingers. Do this again the next day or so, and that is pretty much it. You can make the finish yourself by combining beeswax with oil (best is mineral oil) in a 1/3 ratio (1 oz. beeswax to 3 oz. oil). Alternatively, there are a number of pre-made brands of the mixture out there. OIL VARNISHES Oil varnishes are what are used on fine violins and guitars. You can purchase these pre-made, as making them yourself takes long practice and can be difficult. They create a beautiful shining finish on the instrument that is very durable, but they are difficult to apply and take a very long time to dry (as much as a year). Normally multiple coats must be applied, allowing each to dry and re-sanded before applying the next. Most oil varnishes will darken wood and add a slight yellowish to red tint. This method is historical. SHELLAC or SPIRIT VARNISH The lac bug produces a resin like material that when dissolved in alcohol produces a liquid that can be applied to wood as a sealant resulting in a beautiful glossy finish. It is sometimes referred to as “spirit varnish.” “French Polish” is a way of applying shellac with cotton cloth in a series of lots of layers, each finely sanded and refinished before the next is applied. Again, you can purchase this as a pre-made product. This is less time consuming than oil varnish (as in it doesn’t take as many days to dry), but it normally requires a few more layers, so can be a little labor intensive. Most shellac’s add a slight yellowing to the wood, but there are clear

variants that are pretty close to purely clear. The resultant surface is beautiful, but can cloud with extreme humidity and is not quite as durable as the oil varnish. This is a historical method. POLYURETHANE The very modern finish is polyurethane, which can be either brushed on or sprayed on, and can be found in both an oil version (slow drying and thicker) or spirit version (quick drying but thinner). If you want the simplest method of creating a high gloss, exceptionally durable finish, then go for spirit polyurethane. It dries in minutes, can be sanded in an hour or two, takes about 3-5 coats and can be finished in a day or two. Visually it is functionally indistinguishable from oil or spirit natural varnishes, and has the superior protection of the oil finishes. Polyurethane will slightly darken wood, but the clear versions do not have any yellowing tendency. This obviously is NOT a historical method. BARE WOOD Technically it is period to leave the wood completely bare, and just play on the wood as is. The main reasons for adding a finish are to protect the wood and to seal it. Sealing the wood keeps moisture from creeping in, which can swell or warp the wood, and deaden the sound. The varnishes also protect the wood from scratches, rot, stains, insects, and other destructive elements. But if your climate is particularly dry, or if you aren’t as concerned about it, then you don’t have to apply any finish at all.

BASIC TECHNIQUES: The majority of instruments are going to be made by the following steps:

1. Cut out the body block 2. Hollow the body block 3. Cut out the soundboard 4. (add any ornaments to soundboard) 5. Attach the soundboard 6. Make any fittings (fingerboard, tailpiece, pegs, bridge, etc.) 7. Attach fittings (drill holes for pegs) 8. Apply finish 9. Attach strings and tune

CUTTING OUT THE BODY BLOCK: Draw the pattern on BOTH sides of the block of wood as best as you can line them up. This is to make sure that your cuts are as cleanly vertical as possible. Using whatever saw you are using, cut out the rough shape of the instrument. For the first pass, you don’t have to be exactly perfect – just get it roughly to the shape. HOLLOW OUT THE BODY BLOCK: There are several techniques to doing this. Drill and chisel method:

1. Mark a ½ drill bit with a depth marker to the depth of the cavity in the body. 2. Drill a honeycomb of holes in the area to be hollowed, putting the holes as close together as you can. 3. Using the spoon chisel, remove as much of the honeycombed wood as you can (the holes make it

pretty quick and difficult to split all the way down the block). 4. Using the straight chisel, clean the inner walls to be straight down to the floor (this can also be done

with a dremel). Router Method: Use a table or hand router to rout out the inner cavity. If you have access to power tools this is the fastest method, though it is more difficult to do with round bodied instruments where the cavity depth changes. Chisel Method: Historically they used a spoon chisel to remove the entire amount. It can be done this way, but it is the slowest and most tedious, and you do have to be careful not to create splits in the wood while you are doing it.

After you have finished hollowing out the block, you can go back and clean up the outer walls so that they are in the correct shape and form. If you are doing a tapered neck, now is also when you would shape the neck. CUT OUT THE SOUNDBOARD: Draw the pattern on the soundboard with a little bit of give on the edges, and cut it out from the piece of wood. ADD ANY BRACES OR ORNAMENTS TO THE SOUNDBOARD If you are doing soundholes, rosettes, or other such ornaments to the soundboard, add them to the board before you attach it to the body. If you are adding any internal braces to the board, add them now as well. Note that braces should not touch the body walls – you want the soundboard to be able to vibrate freely. ATTACH THE SOUNDBOARD TO THE BODY This will involve gluing (or nailing) the soundboard to the body block, and clamping it in place until the glue dries. After the glue dries, you may need to clean up the edges of the soundboard so that they are flush with the body block. MAKE ANY FITTINGS “Fittings” includes the fingerboard, pegs, tailpiece, bridge(s), nut, or any other parts that are mostly associated with the string path on the instrument. The fingerboard must be fit carefully to lie flush with the body block neck and soundboard (if it overlaps the soundboard). It is generally recommended at this point to just buy pegs. If you are adding fixed frets to an instrument, here is a handy fret calculator so you can figure out the spacing of the frets: https://manchesterguitartech.co.uk/fret-and-nut-calculators/fret-calculator/ ATTACH FITTINGS This involves gluing the fingerboard to the body block. Drilling the holes for pegs in the peghead (and in the tail for the endpeg). And drilling holes in the pegs and tailpiece to attach the strings. Generally in most medieval instruments, the tailpiece is tied on to the instrument, and the bridge is a “floating” bridge that is not glued to the body (exception is the psaltery), but is held against the body by the tension of the strings. The peg holes have to reamed to accept the friction pegs. FINISHING After all the parts are together, the instrument should receive its final sanding and finishing. Generally speaking, time spent here is the difference between a good instrument and a really nice instrument. Taking your time getting all the scratches out of the wood, and applying a good finish, makes the instrument look much more beautiful. ATTACH STRINGS AND TUNE Push in all the pegs, loop on the tailpiece (if the instrument has one), and start tying on the strings, generally starting from the center and working outwards. Generally speaking, it is good to bring up the tension slowly. You will hear all sorts of horrible groans and pings as the instrument settles under tension – don’t panic about that. Check the instrument for cracks and splits as you tighten the strings. If you see cracks or breaks occurring, stop (as you don’t want the chance of injury should the instrument violently break).

It normally will take a while for strings to settle into tuning when first strung. Gut strings can take a full day or two to stretch out, and will need to be re-tuned during that process. Nylon strings can take a while to stretch out, but once they’ve stabilized, they tend to stay in tune requiring only minor adjustment. SIMPLE INSTRUMENTS:

Germanic Lyre

Standard method –

Alternate method –

TUNING is highly variable. Normal would be six diatonic notes in a major scale starting on G, C, or D.

PSALTERY

ZITHER PIN:

https://www.harpkit.com/standard-zither-pin.html Steel Strings: https://www.harpkit.com/bulk-music-wire.html Brass or Bronze Strings: https://www.fortepiano.com/index.php/products-menu-item/wire-menu-item TUNING: normally a diatonic scale starting on G, C, or D.

Rebec/Gittern GITTERN (plucked string variant)

REBEC (bowed string variant)

Difference is in the height of the bridge and fingerboard (both are taller in the bowed string variant), and in the shape of the soundholes (gittern uses rosette, rebec uses crescents).

TUNING: can use violin strings, so would be “D a e” (standard rebec) or “D a d” or “D G d” (open tune gittern)

It is possible to do a simple SPADE HEAD instead of the scroll head as well.

FIDDLE

This plan shows two options – one with the off-the-fingerboard bordune string; or it can be done with just all

five strings on the fingerboard. Number of strings can also be reduced to just four total.

TUNING would use viola strings, open tuning C G c g c’ or D G d g d’. If using four strings, C G c g (or D G d g).