MEDIA MONITORING TO PROMOTE DEMOCRATIC ......Democratic Elections An NDI Handbook for Citizen...

An NDI Handbook for Citizen OrganizationsRobert Norris and Patrick Merloe

MEDIA MONITORINGTO PROMOTEDEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS

MEDIA MONITORINGTO PROMOTEDEMOCRATIC ELECTIONS

N A T I O N A L D E M O C R A T I C I N S T I T U T E F O R I N T E R N A T I O N A L A F F A I R S ( N D I )

Media Monitoringto Promote

Democratic ElectionsAn NDI Handbook for Citizen Organizations

Robert Norris and Patrick Merloe

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Norris, Robert, 1954- Media monitoring to promote democratic elections : an NDI handbook forcitizen organizations / Robert Norris and Patrick Merloe.p. cm.ISBN 1-880134-33-01. Election monitoring--Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Mass media and public opinion. 3. Mass media--Political aspects. I. Merloe, Patrick.II. National Democratic Institute for International Affairs. III. Title.

JF1081 .N67 2002324.6'5--dc212002009308

Copyright © National Democratic Institute for International Affairs (NDI) 2002.Washington, DC. All rights reserved. Portions of this work may be reproducedand/or translated for noncommercial purposes provided NDI is acknowledgedas the source of the material and is sent copies of any translation.

M E D I A M O N I T O R I N G

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The National Democratic Institute for International Affairs (NDI) is a nonprofit organization work-

ing to strengthen and expand democracy worldwide. Calling on a global network of volunteer

experts, NDI provides practical assistance to civic and political leaders advancing democratic val-

ues, practices and institutions. NDI works with democrats in every region of the world to build

political and civic organizations, safeguard elections, and promote citizen participation, open-

ness and accountability in government.

Democracy depends on legislatures that represent citizens and oversee the executive, indepen-

dent judiciaries that safeguard the rule of law, political parties that are open and accountable,

and elections in which voters freely choose their representatives in government. Acting as a cat-

alyst for democratic development, NDI bolsters the institutions and processes that allow democracy

to flourish.

Build Political and Civic Organizations: NDI helps build the stable, broad-based and well-

organized institutions that form the foundation of a strong civic culture. Democracy depends on

these mediating institutions—the voice of an informed citizenry, which link citizens to their gov-

ernment and to one another by providing avenues for participation in public policy.

Safeguard Elections: NDI promotes open and democratic elections. Political parties and gov-

ernments have asked NDI to study electoral codes and to recommend improvements. The Institute

also provides technical assistance for political parties and civic groups to conduct voter educa-

tion campaigns and to organize election monitoring programs. NDI is a world leader in election

monitoring having organized international delegations to monitor elections in dozens of coun-

tries, helping to ensure that polling results reflect the will of the people.

Promote Openness and Accountability: NDI responds to requests from leaders of govern-

ment, parliament, political parties and civic groups seeking advice on matters from legislative

procedures to constituent service to the balance of civil-military relations in a democracy. NDI

works to build legislatures and local governments that are professional, accountable, open and

responsive to their citizens.

International cooperation is key to promoting democracy effectively and efficiently. It also con-

veys a deeper message to new and emerging democracies that while autocracies are inherently

isolated and fearful of the outside world, democracies can count on international allies and an

active support system. Headquartered in Washington D.C., with field offices in every region of

the world, NDI complements the skills of its staff by enlisting volunteer experts from around the

globe, many of whom are veterans of democratic struggles in their own countries and share valu-

able perspectives on democratic development.

NATIONAL DEMOCRATIC INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

2030 M STREET, N. W., FIFTH FLOOR

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20036-3306, USA

TEL +1 202 728 5500

FAX +1 202 728 5520

E-MAIL [email protected]

WEBSITE HTTP://WWW.NDI.ORG

ABOUT NDIBoard of DirectorsMadeleine K. AlbrightChairman

Rachelle HorowitzVice Chair

Kenneth F. Melley Secretary

Eugene Eidenberg Treasurer

Kenneth D. Wollack President

Bernard W. Aronson J. Brian Atwood Harriet C. Babbitt Elizabeth Frawley Bagley Joan Baggett Calambokidis Barbara J. Easterling Geraldine A. FerraroSam Gejdenson Patrick J. Griffin Joan Anderson Growe Shirley Robinson Hall Harold Hongju Koh Peter B. Kovler Elliott F. KulickNat LaCour Lewis Manilow Constance J. MilsteinMolly Raiser Nicholas A. Rey Susan E. RiceNancy H. RubinElaine K. ShocasMarva A. SmallsMichael R. SteedMaurice TempelsmanArturo Valenzuela

Senior Advisory CommitteeWilliam V. AlexanderMichael D. BarnesJohn BrademasBill BradleyEmanuel Cleaver, IIMario M. CuomoPatricia M. DerianChristopher DoddMichael S. DukakisThomas F. EagletonMartin FrostRichard N. GardnerRichard A. GephardtJohn T. JoycePeter G. KellyPaul G. Kirk, Jr.John LewisDonald F. McHenryAbner J. MikvaAzie Taylor MortonDaniel Patrick MoynihanCharles S. RobbStephen J. SolarzTheodore C. SorensenEsteban E. TorresAnne WexlerAndrew J. Young

Chairmen EmeritiPaul G. Kirk, Jr.Walter F. MondaleCharles T. Manatt

This handbook was prepared by the National Democratic Institute forInternational Affairs (NDI) to assist civic organizations, journalist associations,political parties and others worldwide who are working to support freedom ofthe press, to ensure that political competitors are able to communicate theirmessages to the public through the mass communications media and to guar-antee citizens the information necessary to make informed political choices.The handbook reflects NDI’s 17 years of experience working with civic andpolitical leaders to promote democratic reform and political integrity.

NDI wishes to recognize the efforts of those around the globe who have advo-cated for media freedom and developed mechanisms to monitor the mediaand inform citizens about the nature of information they are receiving. Likejournalists, these activists often operate under difficult political circumstancesand put themselves at personal risk by conducting their activities. NDI has hadthe privilege of working with many of these individuals on a wide range ofissues, including media monitoring, and the lessons learned from these expe-riences are among those reflected in this handbook. NDI also recognizes thepioneering work of international nongovernmental and intergovernmentalorganizations in both advocating for media freedoms and monitoring themedia. For reference, NDI has included in the appendices of the handbook alist of both international and domestic organizations active in these efforts.

Robert Norris, a long-time NDI advisor and former NDI field representative ina number of countries, and Patrick Merloe, NDI Senior Associate and Directorof Programs on Elections and Political Processes, authored this handbook. Thehandbook draws largely on Bob Norris’ experience in assisting Slovak mediamonitoring efforts as an NDI resident representative in Slovakia during therun-up to the 1998 parliamentary elections, and his experience in media mon-itoring efforts in Guyana, Uganda, Montenegro and other countries. Thehandbook also draws on Pat Merloe’s experience in assisting media monitor-ing and broader election monitoring activities in more than 50 countries aroundthe world.

Professor Thomas Lansner, who teaches International Media and Communicationsat Columbia University provided, on a voluntary basis, his expertise and time toassist in developing the methodology described herein. He also reviewed anearly draft of the handbook. Holly Ruthrauff, NDI Senior Program Officer forElection and Political Processes, served as principal editor of this handbook andcontributed significantly to its content. Suanne Buggy, NDI Program Officer,and Linda Patterson, NDI Program Assistant, also edited the handbook and con-tributed to its development. Other present and former NDI staff contributed tothe development of media monitoring materials that preceded this handbook,including Almami Cyllah, former NDI field representative in Kenya and Haiti,and former NDI interns Nicole Lesniak, Joe Longobardo, and Marta McLellan.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSi-5


i-6 NDI wishes to express special thanks to the leaders of the Slovak media mon-itoring organization MEMO’98, including Marek Mracka, Rastislav Kuzel, AnnaNogova and Andrej Bartosiewicz. NDI supported the efforts that led to thefounding of MEMO’98 jointly by Slovakia’s Helsinki Citizens’ Assembly and theAssociation for Support of Local Democracy. The Institute then aidedMEMO’98’s monitoring and reporting on the media’s behavior during the elec-tion period and afterward. NDI drew upon its experience in assisting mediamonitoring efforts in more than a dozen countries to help MEMO’98 developa monitoring methodology based on best practices identified elsewhere. InSlovakia and other countries, NDI drew upon principles and analysis set forthin the 1993 study by Sandra Colliver and Patrick Merloe published by Article19, the Global Campaign for Free Expression (London), entitled, Guidelines forElection Broadcasting in Transitional Democracies, and the Institute appreciatesArticle 19’s cooperation and continuing contributions to media monitoringaround the world.

The drafting, production and distribution of this document were made possibleby a grant from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID).The Center for Democracy and Governance of USAID’s Bureau for Democracy,Conflict & Humanitarian Assistance provided valuable encouragement for thisproject throughout its development. We hope that those who use this hand-book will contact NDI with any comments, suggestions or requests.

Kenneth WollackPresident, NDI


TABLE OF CONTENTSi-7


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i-5

FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i-11

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

CHAPTER TWO: INITIATING A MEDIA MONITORING PROJECT . . . . . . . . 5Developing Project Goals and a Strategic Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5Creating a Mission Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6Analyzing the Legal and Regulatory Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6Deciding What Outlets to Monitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7Deciding What Subjects to Monitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Securing Funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11Public Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

CHAPTER THREE: PLANNING AND ORGANIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13Establishing the Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13Developing a Public Relations Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14Developing a Timeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Choosing a Headquarters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Recruiting Monitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Team Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17Additional Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18Planning and Rehearsal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

CHAPTER FOUR: THE BASICS OF MONITORING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23Quantitative Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23Qualitative Assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25Other Content-Based Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29Presentation of Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30Final Reports on Election Coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

CHAPTER FIVE: MONITORING INSTRUCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35Television News . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35Radio News . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38Newspapers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39Direct Access and Public Affairs Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

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CHAPTER SIX: REPORTING YOUR RESULTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47Languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48The Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48Press Conferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

CHAPTER SEVEN: CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF RESOURCES FOR MEDIA MONITORING IN THE ELECTION CONTEXT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

ABOUT THE AUTHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

SELECTED NDI PUBLICATIONS ON ELECTION MONITORING . . . . . . . . . 134

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TABLE OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1List of Organizations that Monitor Media Conduct in Elections or Assist Media Monitoring by Other Organizations . . . . . . . . . 56

APPENDIX 2Assessing the Legal Framework Concerning Media and Elections . . . . . . . 58

APPENDIX 3International Human Rights Provisions on Democratic Elections and Freedom of Expression. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

APPENDIX 4Sample Organizational Timeline for Media Monitoring Project. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

APPENDIX 5ASample Nonpartisan Monitoring Pledge Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

APPENDIX 5BSample Media Monitoring Code of Conduct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

APPENDIX 6Sample Media Monitoring Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

APPENDIX 7ASample Media Code of Conduct—Guyana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

APPENDIX 7BMalawi Electoral Commission: Procedures for Media Coverage of Parliamentary and Presidential Elections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

APPENDIX 8ASample Media Monitoring Report—Slovakia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

APPENDIX 8BSample Media Monitoring Report—Bulgaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

APPENDIX 8CSample Media Monitoring Report—Peru. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

APPENDIX 8DSample Media Monitoring Report—Togo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

FOREWORDi-11


The will of the people—expressed in genuine, democratic elections—isthe basis of authority of any democratic government. That authority can-not be established unless voters make a free and informed choice among

the political contestants. The mass communications media provide informationto most voters that is essential to the choice they exercise at the ballot box.Therefore, proper media conduct toward all political parties and candidates,as well as proper media conduct in the presentation of information that is rel-evant to electoral choices, are crucial to achieving democratic elections.

Monitoring media conduct—when done impartially, proficiently and based ona credible methodology—establishes whether this key aspect of an electionprocess contributes to or subverts the democratic nature of elections. Mediamonitoring can measure the amount of coverage of electoral subjects, thepresence or absence of news bias, appropriateness of media access for politi-cal competitors and the adequacy of information conveyed to voters throughnews, direct political messages, public information programming and votereducation announcements. Media monitoring can help demonstrate that polit-ical competitors and the public at large should have confidence in the media,electoral authorities and the government that is responsible for providing gen-uine elections. Shortcomings in media conduct can be identified throughmonitoring in time for corrective action. Abuse of the mass media’s power toaffect voter choices also can be documented, which allows the population andthe international community to appropriately characterize the true nature ofthe electoral process.

In effect, media monitoring in the electoral context addresses the interactionof several fundamental human rights, including: the right to genuine elec-tions; the right of voters to receive accurate and sufficient information uponwhich to make a choice among electoral contestants; the right of electoralcompetitors to express their messages in a campaign to win the support ofthe electorate; and the right of the media to seek and impart information. Allof these rights are affirmed by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights andevery other major international human rights instrument. The relevant provi-sions of several of these documents appear in the appendices to this handbook.These documents create international obligations among states, while the con-stitutions and laws of every democracy protect civil and political rights relatedto genuine elections and freedom of expression.

Of course, there is more to an election process than the role of the media.Media monitoring should be treated as part of broader election monitoringefforts. An evaluation of the nature of an election process should address numer-ous factors, including among others: the legal framework for elections; legalrecognition of political parties and the qualification of parties and candidatesfor the ballot; delimitation of election districts; accuracy of the voter rolls; free-

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dom of movement to campaign; incidence of election-related violence, intim-idation and vote-buying; performance of the electoral administration; theintegrity of the voting, counting and tabulating of results; and functioning ofcomplaint mechanisms. This media monitoring handbook therefore should bereviewed along with other materials, such as: NDI’s Handbook on How DomesticOrganizations Monitor Elections: An A to Z Guide; Promoting Legal Frameworksfor Democratic Elections: An NDI Guide for Developing Election Laws and LawCommentaries; Building Confidence in the Voter Registration Process: An NDIMonitoring Guide for Political Parties and Civic Organizations; The Quick Countand Election Observation: An NDI Handbook for Civic Organizations and PoliticalParties; and other materials.

While it is impossible to have democracy in a country without genuine elec-tions, the democratic process extends beyond election day. Democraticgovernance requires an active and informed citizenry, and the media play avital role in providing citizens with information they need to exercise theirright to take part in governmental and public affairs. The skills developed inmedia monitoring to promote democratic elections can be applied directly innon-electoral periods. Monitoring the media can continue to be important forpromoting integrity in the broader political process. Media monitoring effortsalso can produce knowledge, skills and a network to advocate for law and reg-ulatory reform, as well as for the promotion of professional responsibilities byjournalist associations and for improvements in media self-regulation.

Experience demonstrates that media monitoring is effective when taken on bydedicated citizens, who pledge themselves to act impartially, work diligently,carefully analyze the data they collect and present it responsibly. This activityhas been conducted successfully by a number of civic groups around the world.It has also been performed successfully by journalist associations, which havea special interest in ensuring the integrity of media conduct during electoralperiods and beyond. International organizations sometimes monitor the mediaor, like NDI, assist others in accomplishing this work. Electoral authorities,media oversight bodies and others also sometimes conduct media monitor-ing. It is hoped that this handbook will be helpful to any such effort.

This handbook takes a step-by-step approach to organizing a media moni-toring project. It covers considerations in deciding whether to initiate a project,the project’s planning and organization, as well as media monitoring method-ologies for various media and political subjects. The reader will find specificinstructions for monitors in the text and discussion of reporting the findingsof monitors. The appendices present examples of monitoring forms, nonpar-tisanship pledges and codes of conduct, relevant international human rightsprovisions and sample reports from several media monitoring projects.

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It must be stressed that this handbook is not intended to set forth a definitiveor exclusive way of monitoring the media. Rather it presents a synthesis oflessons learned in hopes of providing useful assistance to those preparing tomonitor the media in a wide variety of circumstances, with varying degrees ofexperience and resources. The authors greatly appreciate the cooperation thatmany groups and individuals have provided over the years in helping them tobetter understand approaches to monitoring the media. Many of these groupsare mentioned in the text or are listed in Appendix 1.

It is hoped that those involved in monitoring the media will find this hand-book useful. NDI looks forward to learning from other democratic activistsabout ways to improve media monitoring and monitoring election processesmore generally.

Robert Norris and Patrick Merloe

June 2002

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction“The only sure bulwark of continuing liberty is a government strong enough to protect the interests of the people, and a people strong enough and well enough informed to maintain its sovereign control over its government.” Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Fireside Chat, April 14, 1938

No democracy can thrive unless citizens havethe information they need to make free andinformed choices among those who seek

their authority to govern. The mass communicationsmedia—radio, television and printed publications—provide the means by which most citizens receiveinformation that is central to making political choic-es. In every country, therefore, a critical question ispresented: How can citizens be certain that the infor-mation that they read or hear in the media isaccurate, fair and comprehensive?

In nations with long traditions of democracy and afree press, a number of safeguards have evolved toprotect freedom of speech, freedom of the pressand citizens’ right to information, all of which makeit easier for citizens to be well informed if theychoose to be. Likewise, in established democracies,professional journalists often have developed self-imposed rules of conduct that protect against bias.

These traditions and safeguards are less developedin countries where democratic systems are not yetestablished. It is therefore even more important forcitizens in such countries to demand media profes-sionalism and objectivity and to monitor mediacoverage of political parties, candidates, govern-ment officials and public affairs.

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There are numerous reasons why the media may failto provide adequate and accurate information tocitizens about government and politics, includinggovernment manipulation of the press, self-cen-sorship or a lack of journalistic standards. A mediamonitoring project can demonstrate the extent towhich the media has been compromised by suchissues, as well as the extent to which it is fulfillingits fundamental responsibility to the public.

A media monitoring project should begin by con-sidering the possible factors that lead to improperor inadequate coverage of public affairs. These fac-tors may include:

• Direct censorship;• Intentional manipulation of the media by gov-

ernment authorities;• Intentional manipulation of the media by other

partisan forces;• Intentional manipulation of the media by pri-

vate interests;• Media self-censorship arising from fear of

recrimination from government or privateinterests or from actual threats of violencedirected against media outlets or journalists;

• Prejudice;• Corruption;• Inadequate access to government or political

sources; and

2 • Incompetence, including a lack of under-standing of traditions relating to the rights andobligations of the media by owners, editors orreporters.

The perception that such problems exist is reasonenough to launch a media monitoring effort. If thepublic, political parties, candidates or others lack con-fidence in the media, then a media monitoringproject will serve an important purpose. Whether theultimate findings of the project reassure a skepticalaudience that they can trust the media or alert themthat they should question the information theyreceive, a well organized media monitoring projectwill be a valuable contribution to the public interest.

Although a lack of confidence in, or the perceptionof improper or inadequate coverage by, the mediamay be the cause for initiating a media monitoringproject, the purpose of such a project is to docu-ment media performance in a professional,systematic and objective manner. At its most basiclevel, media monitoring to promote democratic elec-tions consists of an independent, impartialobservation of media behavior during the electionperiod. It involves an analysis of a government’sactions and/or inaction to ensure the media’s rightsto gather and impart information to the electorate.Media monitoring concentrates on whether the elec-toral contestants have access to the media on anon-discriminatory basis to present sufficient mes-sages about their platforms to the citizens so thatpotential voters can appreciate the differencesamong them. It also concentrates on whether citi-zens receive accurate and sufficient informationthrough the media so that they can make aninformed choice at the ballot box.

C H A P T E R O N E : B A C K G R O U N D C O N S I D E R A T I O N S

Media monitoring examines whether news cover-age of the electoral candidates, government andpolitical affairs is sufficient and free of bias, inaccu-racies and other factors that can undermine genuinepolitical choice on election day. The analysis alsocan examine the media’s ability to criticize theactions and/or inaction of the government and theruling political parties. In addition, it can addressthe ability of the media to operate independently.In some countries, media monitoring has also exam-ined the presentation of voter and civic educationthrough the media to determine whether it is polit-ically neutral and sufficient to address thepopulation’s need for information about the elec-toral process.

Determining Who Controls the MediaWhile the media have certain internationally recog-nized rights to freely gather and impart information,they also have responsibilities to citizens regardingthe information they provide. These responsibilitiesbecome especially sensitive during elections.

Determining who controls the media is one of theprimary factors that must be considered before ini-

At its most basic level, media monitoring to promote democratic elections consists of an independent, impartial observation of mediabehavior during the election period.

When approaching media monitoring,four principal issues should be considered:

• How the government acts to ensure thenews media’s right to gather and impartinformation and ideas;

• How the government and the news mediaact to provide access to political partiesand candidates so that they may effec-tively and directly communicate with thepublic during election campaign periods;

• How the government and the media actto ensure accurate and fair coverage ofpolitical parties and candidates in newsand information reporting; and

• How the government and media act toeducate the electorate about how andwhy to vote.

tiating a media monitoring project. Because of thedifferent rights and responsibilities of state-con-trolled and privately-controlled media, it is usefuland important to examine those outlets separately.

State-Controlled MediaTelevision, radio and newspapers owned or con-trolled by the state should be held to the higheststandards of accuracy and fairness, objectivity andbalance. Government in a democracy is by defini-tion derived from the people, and the will of thepeople is the basis of authority for democratic gov-ernment. State media therefore—like all stateresources—are the property of the citizens. Theymust be used in the public’s interest and not for theprivate or political interests of a person or specificpolitical party. All state-owned and state-controlledmedia therefore have an important obligation toprovide citizens with accurate, impartial and bal-anced coverage regardless of which political partyor parties are in power. It is proper and even nec-essary for citizens’ organizations, political partiesand candidates to insist on media fairness, balanceand accuracy and to call upon government author-ities to manage public media in a way thatsafeguards citizens’ rights to the information theyneed as voters.

Private Broadcast Media Some television and radio stations are privatelyowned, and the owners’ right to freedom of thepress should preclude government interference. Yet,privately controlled broadcast media should be heldto high standards because of the influence of broad-cast media over public opinion, and because of thepublic nature of transmitting electronic programs.These media have ethical responsibilities to the pub-lic to present accurate information and thereforeshould cover political candidates and public affairsin an accurate, impartial and balanced manner. Inaddition, the use of the airwaves, even by privateinterests, brings with it public responsibilities.

It is generally accepted that the airwaves are a pub-lic resource. Their use by private broadcasters istherefore subject to government licensing and adegree of regulation to protect the public’s inter-ests. The interest in protecting the public’s right to

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receive accurate and sufficient information aboutelectoral contestants must be balanced against therights of private broadcasters to operate free ofunwarranted government regulation. This providesa basis for: requiring bias-free reporting; nondis-crimination in broadcast access provided to politicalcontestants; and, at least where access to state-con-trolled broadcasting would be insufficient to meetthe public’s interest in receiving information aboutpolitical choices, cooperation in providing free orstate-funded broadcast time to political contestants.

Private Print MediaPrivately owned newspapers are usually treated dif-ferently by media monitors than state-controlledmedia and private broadcast media when consider-ing media bias and access. In an environment thatis free of unwarranted and improper governmentregulation, anyone with relatively modest means canprint and distribute a newspaper with relative ease.

However, it is important to determine whether thegovernment creates barriers that hinder press free-doms, for example through licensing requirements,restrictions or duties on the import and access tonewsprint and/or printing equipment. Other issues toexamine include the distribution mechanisms for printmedia, which are sometimes government controlled.Governments also can interfere with press freedomsthrough decisions about placement of governmentadvertisements and/or use of subsidies—and the threatof ending or withholding such sources of revenue.

In many countries, there are a large number of pri-vate newspapers and magazines that present a widevariety of political views. Political parties may evenprint and distribute newspapers to present theirviews. Of course, questions always should be con-sidered about how widely privately ownednewspapers and magazines are circulated and whatoverall percentage of the population reads printmedia. Close scrutiny of whether professional oblig-ations are being met is especially important wheremedia pluralism is restricted in practice and a smallnumber of print media have a large impact on pub-lic opinion.

CHAPTER TWO

Initiating a MediaMonitoring Project:Developing a Strategy,Deciding What Media Outlets & Subjects to Monitor

Once a decision has been reached about thenecessity of media monitoring, the work ofinitiating a media monitoring project can

begin. The first phase of project development includes:developing project goals and a strategic plan; creat-ing a mission statement; analyzing the relevant legalframework; deciding what outlets and subjects to mon-itor; and securing funding for the project.

DEVELOPING PROJECT GOALS AND ASTRATEGIC PLANThe first step in initiating a media monitoring pro-ject is thinking strategically about the intendedimpact of the project and creating a list of projectgoals and objectives. This exercise will be the foun-dation for the entire project. Possible goals andobjectives could include:

• Publicizing results with the hope of allayingconcerns about unsubstantiated problems;

• Publicizing results with the hope of alertingcitizens of the need to question their sourcesof information prior to an election;

• Convincing government authorities to enforceexisting laws and regulations;

• Influencing journalists, editors and media own-ers to provide information that is more accurate,impartial and fair;

• Encouraging journalist associations to activelypromote adherance to professional standards;

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• Advocating for new laws to protect freedom ofthe press, citizens’ rights to information and polit-ical contestants’ rights to political expression;

• Educating other domestic civic organizationsand international organizations about howmedia behavior has affected the pre-electionenvironment; and

• Gaining skills that can be used to promote fairmedia practices beyond the elections.

Once the goals of the project are identified and pri-oritized, creating a mission statement anddeveloping a strategic plan should be the next steps.A strategic plan should address: analysis of the legalframework and related issues affecting media per-formance in the electoral context; determining whatmedia to monitor; deciding upon what subjects tomonitor; deciding when to begin and the durationof the project along with a corresponding timelinefor project activities; deciding upon the project’sorganizational form and name; adopting the mon-itoring methodology; determining the types ofstaffing needed; recruiting and training staff; devel-oping a press and public relations strategy and plan;deciding on methods and procedures for develop-ing and releasing reports; considering longer-rangeactivity beyond elections; and developing an actionplan for funding the project. The strategic plan willclarify many questions for project organizers andwill set the foundation for funding proposals. Thesepoints are discussed below in more detail.

6 CREATING A MISSION STATEMENTSome time should be spent contemplating how topresent the project to the public. How will the pro-ject’s goals be explained? What will the projectaccomplish? Why was the project initiated?Developing a mission statement that will accom-pany all of the project’s public pronouncements canbe an effective way to answer these questions forthe media and the public. The accompanying textbox presents an example of a mission statementfrom MEMO‘98, a Slovak media monitoring project.It addresses some of these concerns, while allowingflexibility to adapt to changing circumstances.

ANALYZING THE LEGAL AND REGULATORYFRAMEWORKBefore beginning a media monitoring project, it isnecessary to understand the relevant laws and reg-ulations. The project therefore should develop a

C H A P T E R T W O : I N I T I A T I N G A M O N I T O R I N G P R O J E C T

thorough analysis of the legal framework that is rel-evant to media performance in the electoral context,including the constitution, laws, regulations andinternational obligations and standards.

This analysis should also include any self-regulatorymechanisms that media owners or journalist associ-ations may have adopted, such as codes of conductto ensure professional standards and complaintreview boards. The analysis also should identify anydifferences in the legal regime prior to, versus dur-ing, the official election campaign period.

One of the first steps in initiating a project is to holda series of discussions with people who are familiarwith the existing legal and regulatory framework,including lawyers, law professors, lawmakers, jour-nalists, other civic activists and political party leaders,to identify relevant legal questions that could impede

A mission statement succinctly presents the purpose of the project, for example:

MEMO‘98 Mission Statement1. To monitor and report on media fairness concerning the treatment of political parties, public

policy issues and civil and political rights;2. To improve the knowledge, legal awareness and information base of the citizenry, with regard

to public affairs and governance;3. To advocate citizens’ rights to receive information from official sources, including but not restrict-

ed to all levels of executive administration on national, regional and state levels;4. To advocate for freedom of expression, including the right to seek, receive and impart infor-

mation and ideas pertinent to citizens being accurately and adequately informed about politicaland governmental processes;

5. To monitor and ensure transparency both of the ownership of private media and the process ofappointment of the respective boards of the public media;

6. To advocate adoption of appropriate legislation pertaining to the media, the provision of infor-mation to the citizenry and the right to political expression;

7. To educate and train citizens, journalists, state administrators and local government officials toimpart, seek and receive information;

8. To increase transparency of the decision-making process of both the state administrative andlocal governments, in order to provide for public discussion of bills, regulations and guidelinesby public authorities on all levels;

9. To advocate citizens’ responsibility and citizens’ involvement in public affairs;10. To aid and cooperate with other domestic and international groups and organizations with sim-

ilar aims and intentions; and11. To conduct other activities consistent with the above aims and intentions.

or promote presentation of accurate, fair and suffi-cient political coverage by the media. Appendix 2contains a list of questions that should be consideredto accurately assess the relevant legal framework. Athorough and comprehensive media monitoring pro-ject should attempt to understand all of thesequestions and assess the impact of such factors on themedia’s performance in the electoral period. (Also seeAppendix 3 for relevant provisions from internation-al human rights documents.)

An analysis of contextual issues should help to shapethe design of the project, as well as provide back-ground information for reports. It is important,however, that analysis of contextual matters not beconfused with data presented on the monitoring ofmedia conduct. A thorough monitoring project willseparately address contextual, qualitative and quan-titative issues.

The accompanying text box provides an exampleof a media monitoring project that addressed con-textual issues that were imbedded in the country’slegal and regulatory framework. To the greatestextent possible, this information should be provid-ed as background for all media monitoring efforts.

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DECIDING WHAT OUTLETS TO MONITORIn the context of an election, it is critical to under-stand whether voters are getting the information theyneed to make informed choices at the ballot box andwhether political contestants are getting a fair chanceto persuade voters to support them. To answer thesequestions, it is necessary to identify where voters getthe information they use to make political choices.

The obvious sources for information are newspa-pers, radio and television. Information also isavailable directly from political parties and candi-dates, family members, friends, colleagues andtraditional opinion leaders in the society.

Macedonia—European Institute for the MediaEvaluating Contextual FactorsIn 1994, the European Institute for the Media (EIM) launched a media monitoring effort in Macedonia. Theorganization published a report entitled “The 1994 Parliamentary and Presidential Elections in the FormerYugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM), Monitoring of the Election Coverage in the Mass Media,” whichcombined analysis of the legal and regulatory framework for the media with an ambitious effort to monitorthe media’s coverage of the elections. Monitors interviewed a wide range of people including media out-let owners, publishers, editors, reporters, etc. They reviewed the historical and regulatory background inthe country. They looked at financing sources of media outlets, circulation data, programming, and licens-ing and distribution methods. They also looked at professional journalism standards, training and practice.They examined perceptions of political fear and self-censorship and government attempts to limit accessand influence news. They also monitored coverage of political subjects both quantitatively and qualitative-ly. This project attempted not only monitoring coverage to see that news reported the campaign fairly andfully, but they sought to influence the media and the government to develop professional and open tradi-tions. Other groups (for example, Open Society Fund) joined EIM in supporting a set of guidelines for electionbroadcasting.

C O U N T R Y N O T E

In the context of an election, it is critical tounderstand whether voters are getting theinformation they need to make informedchoices at the ballot box and whether polit-ical contestants are getting a fair chance topersuade voters to support them.

8 It is necessary to determine the relative importanceof specific media outlets as sources of information.Because conclusive answers will not be availablewithout a separate research project on this subject,common sense and intuition must be employed.The following are some possible sources to consultwhen addressing this question.

PollingBy far the best source to consult is a professionalresearch survey that analyzes where voters get infor-mation about politics and government. It will benecessary to determine whether such research hasbeen done, or whether a polling company might beinvestigating this question. If not, the media moni-toring project could consider whether it has the timeand resources to conduct such a poll. Scholars mayhave conducted studies on this issue, so it is impor-tant to check sources at universities.

Ratings Data for Broadcast MediaRatings data for news and public affairs program-ming that concern the elections is another source toconsult to understand where the public gets infor-mation upon which it makes political choices. It isimportant to determine whether the data are bro-ken down by region, language or other relevantfactors. Both advertisers and marketing directors oftelevision and radio stations employ these data whentrying to convince businesses to advertise on theiroutlets and when setting advertising rates, so thisinformation may be widely available. Ultimately, itwill be necessary to thoroughly examine these dataand decide how they relate to the project’s goals.

Circulation Data For NewspapersFor print media, data should be available thatdescribes circulation and readership in some detail.These data will indicate which newspapers and mag-azines are read by how many people and where theylive. Try to relate these facts to the project by explor-ing whether or not the data are useful. If, for example,the biggest selling newspaper is a tabloid that stress-es sports, entertainment or other matters irrelevantto the election, then it should be excluded from theproject despite the high circulation levels—unless it


runs some high-profile political coverage. Project orga-nizers should use common sense in making suchjudgments after reading the papers and consultinglocal citizens to understand for what reasons thesepublications are purchased and read.

Other ConsiderationsLanguage differences, literacy rates, voter registra-tion records and other demographic data shouldplay a role when deciding which media outlets tomonitor. The significance of registration rates indetermining a media monitoring program can beseen in the instance of a rural country with a low lit-eracy rate and high registration. In such a country,monitoring of newspapers would not likely be a pri-ority, while radio may be the most important media.Knowing the percentage of registered voters alsowill provide the monitoring program with valuabledemographic information, such as whether themajority of eligible voters exhibit particular charac-teristics that could impact the influence of the mediaon their voting behavior. For instance, if 60 percentof the registered voters are below 30 years old, thenthey may be more likely to be influenced by newertechnologies than by more traditional ones.Additional characteristics to look for include gender,employment, religion and education. Also determinethe range of broadcast signals and whether thereare significant populations that live in remote areasnot reached by either print or electronic media.

Keep in mind that the goal in examining these fac-tors is to understand where voters get the informationthey use to make choices at the ballot box. The mostwidely watched television programs, the most lis-tened to radio shows and the most consultednewspapers are the targets. Resource limitations like-ly will require these choices to be prioritized.

Monitoring Political Coverage on the InternetIncreasingly, the Internet is becoming a source ofpolitical information and may be a focus of mediamonitoring. The organization and nature of theInternet present specific challenges. However, theright to free political expression of persons who usethe Internet to communicate ideas, including com-

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petitors for political office, and the right of citizensto utilize the Internet to seek and receive informa-tion upon which to make free and informed politicalchoices, correspond with the purposes of mediamonitoring. There are a variety of sources on theInternet to consider for monitoring purposes, includ-ing: news services that cover political subjects andother issues that are relevant to electoral choices;websites of political parties and candidates; web-sites set up to parody party and candidate websites,sometimes used to incite hatred and violence; web-sites presented by independent political analysts;and numerous other sources.

A media monitoring project could develop a list ofwebsites to monitor regularly, using methodologiessimilar to those used for newspapers described inChapter 5. Text, photos and other material couldbe assessed, as well as qualitative factors (such aspositive, negative and neutral tone of material) andother criteria described in Chapter 4. In addition,Internet search engines could be used to locate the

names of political parties, candidates and otherpolitical subjects being monitored in order to seewhether additional sources are providing relevantinformation about them.

In many countries, access to the Internet is restrict-ed to small segments of the population; nonetheless,media monitoring projects should consider the rel-ative importance of the Internet to the conditionssurrounding specific elections. Obtaining comput-ers, printers and funding for Internet use can beincorporated into budgets and proposals. It mayalso be possible to place an Internet monitoring teamat a university or other place where access could beprovided to the project free or at a reduced cost.

DECIDING WHAT SUBJECTS TO MONITORWhether monitoring daily news shows or all pro-gramming, the primary focus should be limited toprograms that have relevance to the upcoming elec-tions. The daily weather report usually will be

Determining Which Outlets to Monitor

MexicoIn 1994, the Mexican Academy of Human Rights (AMDH), in collaboration with Civic Alliance’s (AlianzaCívica) election monitoring effort, examined opinion poll data and determined that, of the various Mexicanmass media, television was the most influential in disseminating information that affected public opinion.The Academy determined in particular that two television channels stood out beyond others in this regard.Based on this analysis, the project then concentrated on the news program coverage of the 1994 federalelections by those two television channels.

MontenegroThe Association of Young Journalists of Montenegro reviewed academic research and opinion data prior tothe 2002 elections and determined that television programming between 4:00 pm and midnight had thebiggest impact on public opinion, while for radio the time of the biggest audience was 10:00 am to 4:00pm. This helped the association shape its monitoring effort.

PeruIn Peru’s 2000 elections, the broad election monitoring group Transparency (Transparencia) also examinedacademic and public opinion studies on media impact, selecting for its monitoring the six most widely viewedtelevision broadcast and two cable channels, as well as the seven most widely read newspapers over a cer-tain cost and six most widely read under that cost, which are mostly tabloids. The tabloids played an importantrole in carrying out negative, smear campaigns against opposition presidential candidates in that election.


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irrelevant to the project goals (although misleadingforecasts about weather on election day could con-ceivably be aired with the intention of increasing ordecreasing voter turnout). Sporting events are usu-ally irrelevant (although appearances of politicalfigures in the crowd, the use of party insignia onuniforms, etc., could be relevant). A story about thedeath of a celebrity would usually be irrelevant(although an implication of foul play by a politicalfigure or incompetence in an investigation by a gov-ernment authority might make it relevant).

Usually, if a show or a story on the news is com-pletely unrelated to political events, a monitor neednot record its length or comment on its content. Itis coverage of the elections and issues that impacton a voter’s choice at the ballot box that are the pri-mary concern. Of the relevant stories, it will benecessary to determine the specific subjects thatwill be measured. These will depend on the specificsof the upcoming election, such as who or what willbe on the ballot.

Parties and CandidatesBoth political parties and candidates can be “polit-ical subjects” that are tracked in media monitoring.In most parliamentary elections, particularly in coun-tries that use proportional representation to allocateparliamentary seats, parties are the real choicesoffered to voters. If there are several parties seek-ing seats in an upcoming parliamentary election,the coverage of these parties will be the main focusof the media monitoring project. When the primeminister or an opposition party leader or candidateis covered in the news, record these data separate-ly, but include them in the total amount of time

devoted to the party he or she represents. If it is apresidential election or a mayoral contest, or anyelection with individual candidates, then coverageof these individuals will be the primary focus. Thiswill be the case in elections for executive branchpositions and in single-member-district elections forlegislative bodies.

One problem that must be considered is whetheror not to cover parties or candidates that havedecided to boycott or are barred from participat-ing in the election. There are circumstances inwhich such actors are important to the country’spolitical process, and omitting them from the mon-itoring results would distort the political picture.In other circumstances, such parties or candidatesmay be unimportant political forces. The inclusionor omission of such actors is an important decisionthat should be explained to the public by the pro-ject. The decision, and the public explanation aboutit, should not be presented as taking sides on themerits of the boycott.

ReferendaReferenda about important issues of governmentalpolicy, often about proposed constitutions or con-stitutional amendments, are central to a country’spolitical process. Campaigns to promote and tooppose such propositions are prime subjects formedia monitoring. Practically all of the issues andmethodologies discussed in this handbook applyand should be adapted to media conduct towardreferenda.

GovernmentCoverage of legitimate government activities pre-sents a separate and difficult problem. News outletsshould give citizens relevant information aboutimportant government activities. Yet, such cover-age naturally gives the ruling party or coalition adistinct advantage in reaching voters with their mes-sage. Most incumbent governments are well awareof this opportunity and tend to exploit it by pre-senting new initiatives, opening new roads, talkingmore about public education, the environment orother issues important to voters during the run-upto an election.

It is coverage of the elections and issues thatimpact on a voter’s choice at the ballot boxthat are the primary concern. These willdepend on the specifics of the upcoming elec-tion, such as who or what will be on the ballot.

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It can be difficult to distinguish between importantgovernment activities and campaign events. Monitorsmust use clear criteria to make such distinctions. Theproject may decide to report on governmental cov-erage separately from coverage of political candidates.However, once the official campaign begins, it isproper to count all coverage of government officialsas part of the coverage of the governing parties andincumbent candidates. It is possible to show the gov-ernment data separately and present combined dataas well.

Relevant Public Policy IssuesMedia monitoring projects may also examine cov-erage of public policy issues that are relevant toelectoral competition. These issues can range fromtreatment of news about economic performanceforecasts, to passage and/or implementation of keylegislation on issues related to the environment, edu-cation, social services or electoral reform. Coverageof incidence of politically motivated violence can besignificant in some countries as can informationabout national peace and reconciliation processes.It may also be important to monitor for incidenceof inciting hatred and/or violence. Determiningwhich issues should be included in or excluded frommonitoring can be a complex process of weighingmany subjective factors. It is also difficult to gaugethe impact of such coverage on electoral choices.Monitoring such issues falls beyond the scope ofmethodologies discussed in this handbook.

SECURING FUNDINGMedia monitoring is a costly activity and a groupmust have adequate funding to undertake such aproject. This section gives an overview of how agroup might pursue funding for such a project.

Calculate the CostThe first step in securing funding is to calculate theestimated cost of the project. The project requiresfull-time staff, technical equipment, office space andsupplies. Develop a simple budget to calculate theestimated cost. A discussion of staffing and a list ofneeded supplies for the project can be found inChapter Three of this handbook. Budget consider-

ations should include the cost of printing and dis-tributing reports and other aspects of acommunications plan.

Identify Potential Funding SourcesThe next step is to identify potential funding sources,both in the local and international communities.Although local fundraising may be difficult in manycountries, in-kind contributions might be possible.For instance, is there a local company or NGO thatmight be able to loan a computer, TV or VCR forthe length of the project? Obtaining and keepingtrack of such contributions can be helpful in attract-ing other funders.

International sources of funding vary between coun-tries, but typically they include foreign embassies,bilateral and multilateral development assistanceagencies, intergovernmental organizations and inter-national nongovernmental organizations. Speak tocolleagues in the NGO community and compile alist of potential funders.

Shop Your ProposalRegardless of who are the potential funders, they willrequire a project proposal or concept paper. Draft aconcept paper explaining your proposed activity, whatyou hope to achieve and what makes your group qual-ified to carry it out. Include a rough estimate of thecost of the project and be prepared to present a fair-ly detailed budget as well. The paper should be clearand concise. Next, schedule meetings with the appro-priate representatives of potential funding organizationsto share your ideas and find out whether resourcesmight be available and how to apply.

PUBLIC RELATIONSDeveloping a comprehensive and professionalapproach to the press and public relations is a crit-ical part of any media monitoring project. ChaptersThree and Six contain information about staffing andconsiderations for approaching the press and broad-er public relations. The press and public relationssecretary should develop an overall communicationsplan that is approved by the project’s leadership,which will guide the project’s activities in these areas.

Don’t struggle too long with the question ofwhen to launch a media monitoring effort.The answer is: NOW! It is never too early to

begin a project, and there is unlikely to be a timewhen the project will not be useful to a country’sdemocratic development.

Usually the idea of monitoring emerges in the con-text of an upcoming election. A project that beginswell before election day has numerous advantages.The project will be more effective if it has sufficienttime to establish its credibility, and monitoring willhave more impact if results are available over alonger period of time. An early monitoring effortalso can help those advocating for changes in mediaaccess and coverage by allowing time for necessaryreforms. However, since it may take considerabletime to organize and gain funding, it may not bepossible to launch a project until the electionapproaches. (See Appendix 4 for a sample timelinefor organizing a media monitoring project.)

The monitoring project will be valuable to charac-terizing the nature of the election process and howthe media performs its crucial role in the pre-elec-tion period. Media monitoring efforts in a numberof countries have continued to contribute after theelections to civil society’s ability to ensure againstmedia bias and to advocate for media freedoms. Inseveral countries, media monitoring findings have beencentral to post-election reforms. (See, for example, theCountry Note at the end of Chapter 4.)

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ESTABLISHING THE ORGANIZATIONA monitoring project may succeed or fail in large partbased on perceptions about individuals and organi-zations participating in the project. Not only mustthe monitoring results be accurate, impartial and pro-fessionally done, the project must be perceived asnonpartisan, objective and professional.

Media monitoring projects are faced with a built-indilemma: if results illustrate that some media outletsare biased or fail in their duty to report on the elec-tions accurately and fairly, those outlets may reactby attacking the project’s credibility.

The initial announcement of the media monitoringplan therefore is very important. With this in mind,some outreach will be necessary prior to beginningthe project to assess how the project is likely to be

CHAPTER THREE

Planning andOrganization:When to Start, Timeline, Recruiting Monitors & Team Structure

A project that begins well before election day hasnumerous advantages. The project will be moreeffective if it has sufficient time to establish itscredibility, and monitoring will have more impactif results are available over a longer period of time.An early monitoring effort also can help thoseadvocating for changes in media access and cov-erage by allowing time for necessary reforms.

14 greeted and whether there might be powerful inter-ests intent on discrediting the project’s reports.

If the media monitoring project’s leaders or the civicorganizations affiliated with the media monitoringproject have solid reputations for impartiality andprofessionalism, the problem may be minimized.However, if the individuals or organizations are per-ceived as allied with certain political parties orpolitical figures, then extra steps must be taken toestablish the project’s credibility.

One approach is to conduct the project in partner-ship with a second group that will enhance theperception of impartiality and effectiveness. A sec-ond approach is to invite noted individuals to conductthe project with a stated degree of autonomy. A thirdoption is to establish a new organization. In anyevent, it is wise to consider establishing an oversightor advisory board for the project comprised of high-ly respected individuals with reputations forimpartiality and professionalism, one or more of whoknows the media profession as an academic or for-mer practitioner. It is not always necessary or possibleto form such a board, but it should be considered.

Leaders of the project and monitors also will be scru-tinized, so care should be taken to establishcredentials for impartiality and professionalism beforegoing public. The monitors should be civic-mindedpeople, who are not currently engaged in a partic-ular partisan effort. Monitors should be asked to puttheir political biases aside. Express rules about impar-tiality and accuracy should be established andenforced. Monitors can be asked to sign a pledge tomaintain complete objectivity and to lay aside theirown partisan opinions prior to undertaking the pro-

C H A P T E R T H R E E : P L A N N I N G A N D O R G A N I Z I N G

ject. The project can also issue and publicize a codeof conduct for its activities. (See Appendices 5A-Bfor a sample pledge form and code of conduct.)

DEVELOPING A PUBLIC RELATIONS STRATEGYEvery media monitoring project should have adetailed public relations strategy that outlines whatthe project is, its goals, methodology and report-ing plan. This strategy should be used to inform thepublic, political parties and candidates, electoralauthorities, relevant government agencies andmedia outlets about the project. Meetings alsoshould be set up with parties, electoral authorities,editorial boards and others to introduce the pro-ject. At an appropriate time, a press conferenceshould be scheduled to publicly announce thelaunch of the project. Coverage of the monitoringproject itself should be monitored to determinewhere friendly and unfriendly sources are in themedia for future public relations activities. (SeeChapter Six for a detailed discussion of public rela-tions strategy and organizing press conferences.) Inmany countries, journalist associations, civic orga-nizations concerned with freedom of expression anddemocratic elections, and representatives of theinternational community will be important allies forthe project. Their support should be solicited as earlyas possible.

Creating a Name and LogoThe first step in implementing a good public rela-tions strategy is developing a name and an easilyrecognized logo. This will help sell your messageand publicize your efforts. The importance of thisinitial task should not be underestimated as thename and logo will serve a wide-range of purpos-es, including attracting monitors, supporters andfunders. A project website can also be a helpful wayto promote the effort and make information regard-ing the effort easily accessible to the public. (SeeAppendix 1 for a list of media monitoring organi-zations along with their website addresses.)

Not only must the monitoring results be accu-rate, impartial and professionally done, theproject must be perceived as nonpartisan,objective and professional.

DEVELOPING A TIMELINEAs the media monitoring project develops, it is impor-tant to periodically review the progress of the projectand plan ahead. Review and revise the project cal-endar on a regular basis. Look closely at how muchtime remains before the election. Keep in mind howmuch time will be needed for a rehearsal, how manyreports will be issued prior to the elections, how longit will take to analyze data and prepare a report andhow often results will be released.

Although there is no rule about how often reportsshould be issued, it is a good idea to have a sizeablecollection of data well ahead of an election and toissue reports more frequently as the election nears.It is helpful to release data at regular intervals (e.g.,every Thursday or every second Tuesday), so that thepress and other interested parties can plan on whenthey will receive the information. It also is importantfor media monitors to issue reports beginning at leastseveral weeks, if not months, before an election toallow citizens to understand the nature of the media’sperformance, to adjust their perceptions of the reli-ability of media-provided political information andto allow an opportunity for the media to correct biasand deficiencies in their coverage.

Once the pre-monitoring work has been complet-ed, including: the analysis of the operational contextfor the media and the legal framework for freedomof expression; preliminary fundraising; recruitmentof a good staff for the project; development of themethodology; establishment of a clear division oflabor; and the procurement of adequate space andfacilities, the project is ready to rehearse and beginmonitoring. (Appendix 4 provides an example of atypical timeline for the pre-monitoring period.)

After the rehearsal is complete, continue with themonitoring and go forward as planned. If unfore-seen problems are encountered, take time to resolvethem, bearing in mind that it is important to devel-op a schedule that will be kept for the duration ofthe project. Once the project is announced andresults are released, there will be little chance tochange the methods. Be careful about setting expec-

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tations on release of reports. For example, if the pro-ject announces that it will issue bi-weekly reportsuntil six weeks before the election and then weeklyreports until the election, this schedule must be met.

CHOOSING A LOCATIONThere should be a central office for the project thatshould contain all of the equipment, newspapers,tapes and necessary forms. The office should be cen-trally located, secure and have a reliable electricitysource. This headquarters also should be the venuefor training and other meetings. Having a centraloffice is essential for ensuring that monitors reporton time, conduct their activities and turn in theirforms. If the media monitoring project is part of alarger election monitoring organization or journal-ist association, ample separate space should be setaside for the project.

In some countries, more than one city is critical tothe electoral and political process, and it is not pos-sible to monitor broadcast and print media from onelocation. National media can be monitored alongwith local media in the country’s main city, but sep-arate monitoring centers might be required for otherlocations. In circumstances where a significant num-ber of cities would qualify, it might be best toconduct projects separately and release reports local-ly, while making them available in the national office.Otherwise, local data or reports should be incorpo-rated into the periodic national reports.

RECRUITING MONITORSOne of the first challenges in establishing a mediamonitoring project is determining how to attractand retain a dedicated staff. This will be an ongo-ing and critical task.

All monitors must understand that they should com-mit themselves to the project for its duration. Projectleaders should discuss with monitors their plans forthe entire term of the project. Leaders should askprospective monitors questions in this regard, suchas: Do monitors have vacations planned? If they are

16 students, when are their exams? Are there weddingsor conferences they must attend? Are other jobs like-ly to interfere at particular times? Are there familyobligations, such as crops to harvest or other tasksthat are likely to interfere with monitoring activitiesfor significant amounts of time? While any personmay need reasonable time away from the project,leaders must be able to anticipate scheduling issuesand should avoid staff availability problems.

Volunteers or Paid Staff?There is a benefit to using volunteers as media mon-itors. Aside from budgetary issues, the use ofvolunteers helps instill a tradition of civic involve-ment that will provide long-term benefits wellbeyond the completion of a particular project. Thosemotivated by concern for their country rather thanby financial considerations may be more likely tobe energized by the project and become long-termcivic activists who will fight to ensure that theircountry becomes a strong democracy.

However, there are also good reasons to pay mediamonitors. More than most civic projects, monitor-ing the media requires trained and dedicated peoplewho can spend significant amounts of time on theproject. These monitors will not be easily replacedshould personal or professional matters interferewith their involvement. The continuity and credi-bility of the project depends, to a large measure,on the consistency of the standards kept through-out the project’s life. It might be unrealistic or unfairto ask volunteers to devote so much to a projectwith no remuneration. It may therefore be wise topay modest fees to the monitors to ensure the con-tinuity and integrity of the project.


The Recruitment ProcessWhether or not monitors are paid, they can berecruited in the same way people are recruited forother political or civic efforts:

• Making personal contacts among those alreadyinterested in monitoring the media;

• Contacting university professors to ask fornames of interested students;

• Posting signs on campus and calling meetingsto explain the project; and

• Advertising in newspapers or on the Internet.

Also, it may be an option to approach other civicgroups and offer to include them as sponsoring part-ners. Once a few dedicated monitors are enlisted,they can seek help from their friends or colleagues,which is a valuable way to complete the monitor-ing staff needs.

Motivating and Retaining Volunteers and Paid StaffAs noted above, credibility of the media monitoringproject depends on the consistency of standards ofimpartiality and professionalism. The best way toensure this consistency is through retention of well-trained, dedicated and highly motivated staff, bothvolunteer and paid. Those who join the monitoringproject do so based on an understanding of the pro-ject’s mission, and their motivation is likely to bebased on advancing that mission. Thorough train-ing will reinforce that commitment. Clearassignments and instructions for completing themsuccessfully are also important. Attention should bepaid to be sure that monitors have the materials thatthey need when they conduct their assignments andthey should be thanked for their efforts.

Showing appreciation is not only the right thing todo; it is essential to retaining good staff. The projectdirector and team leaders should assess volunteerand paid staff levels of satisfaction and determine ifthe project can take reasonable steps to maintainand improve it. Providing staff with t-shirts, hats,buttons and stickers with the project’s name andlogo can play an important role in establishing staff

The continuity and credibility of the projectdepends, to a large measure, on the con-sistency of the standards kept throughoutthe project’s life.

cohesion and morale. Allowing staff to attend pressconferences, giving them copies of all reports so theycan see the results of their work and holding cele-brations to mark achievements are also important.

TEAM STRUCTUREOnce a core team is together, there is the task oftraining the staff and the monitors to do their jobsprofessionally and impartially. Sufficient time shouldbe taken to ensure this is done correctly. Initial plan-ning and care are likely to determine success orfailure for the entire project. Following are somesuggestions about staff positions, duties and howthese positions might evolve.

Project DirectorAs the project is initiated, an ideal project directormay be apparent based on past experiences. It alsomay be necessary to recruit a director from outside,or it may be possible to identify someone for thistask as monitors are being recruited. It oftenbecomes immediately apparent who on the coreteam is the most dedicated, who is spending themost time on the project, who is most engaged indiscussion about the project’s purpose and activi-ties, who seems to win respect from the monitorsand who understands the project best. This personcould be the project director.

It is important that the project director be givenample authority to decide on the structure of theproject. The project director also should be ulti-mately responsible for discharging or overseeingthe project’s many organizational tasks. Theseinclude: dealing with budgeting and payroll mat-ters; scheduling monitors to view specific programs;designing, distributing, collecting and analyzingreport forms; entering data into a spreadsheet pro-gram; producing charts and graphs; writing reports;

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organizing press conferences; preparing oral pre-sentations of data and responding to the press; andlabeling and storing report forms and tapes of pro-grams and copies of newspapers for the files. Theproject director should be responsible for findingthe people to get all of this done and providingthem with adequate supervision and guidance.Additionally, the project director should be at pub-lic presentations either as the lead spokesperson oras a secondary spokesperson, and be available toanswer technical questions on methods and results.

Team LeadersDepending on what outlets and programming willbe monitored, groups should be broken into teams.Television and radio require slightly different meth-ods of monitoring, and print media requires adrastically different method. It is therefore advisableto employ one, two or three different leaders whounderstand these respective methods and who cantrain monitors and help gather and analyze results.Team leaders also can compare the forms filed bythe monitors. When discrepancies occur, the leadercan consult with the monitors and/or reexamine thestory to decide on the correct evaluation. Team lead-ers also can train monitors in monitoring methodsto ensure a unified approach, while also ensuringthat each program is monitored on time. Finally,team leaders should be responsible for recordingindividual programs and making sure that all theforms are returned by a specified date.

MonitorsThe number of monitors needed will depend on thenumber of “monitoring events” to be covered. Eachbroadcast program and each edition of a newspa-per that is monitored is counted as one monitoringevent. Monitors will have to be recruited, trained,and tested in simulation exercises and assigned toteams to cover and analyze each monitoring event.Monitoring a half-hour news program can take upto one and one half hours per team to tape, set up,review the broadcast two times for accuracy andcomplete monitoring forms for subsequent analysis.Monitors can be assigned to cover more than onemonitoring event but must remain alert and diligent.

Showing appreciation is not only the right thingto do; it is essential to retaining good staff.

18 Data Analyst and Data Input AssistantsA good computer, good spreadsheet software anda proficient computer assistant are important to makedata accurate and understandable for the audience.The data analyst will need assistance with enteringdata every day. Depending on the size of the pro-ject (number of media and monitoring events), oneor more data input assistants will be required. In thedays prior to the release of a report, the analyst willneed time and support to produce the graphic pre-sentation of data.

WriterIn addition to the analyst, a good writer will beneeded to explain graphic presentations and inte-grate the graphics with other information into awritten report and/or statement for public release.All of this will require input from team leaders andmonitors to make sure that the final interpretationsand conclusions are accurate and relevant.

Press and Public Relations SecretaryThe first duty of the press and public relations sec-retary will be formulating contact lists of mailingaddresses, e-mail addresses, telephone and fax num-bers for all media outlets, reporters and editors oflocal and international media, advocacy, humanrights and civic groups, political parties and candi-dates, international organizations and embassies,media regulatory bodies, electoral authorities andelected and appointed government officials. Mostof these people should be invited to press confer-ences, and all should receive press releases and


copies of reports. The press and public relations sec-retary also will be responsible for preparing for thepress conferences and distributing reports. (SeeChapter Six for a more detailed discussion of publicrelations strategy and conduct of press conferences.)

SpokespersonEvery monitoring project must have an officialspokesperson to conduct press conferences and rep-resent the project in meetings with editorial boards,civic and political leaders and representatives of theinternational community. The spokesperson must becarefully chosen to establish and maintain the cred-ibility of the project. While the spokesperson may notbe involved in the everyday activities of the project,it is vital that she or he have a strong understandingof the objectives, methodology and findings of themonitoring project.

ADDITIONAL TASKSFollowing are descriptions of other jobs that needto be done on an ongoing basis. Either the projectdirector or a designated staff person should beassigned to each.

Every monitoring project must have an offi-cial spokesperson. The spokesperson mustbe carefully chosen to establish and main-tain the credibility of the project.

A weekly list of monitoring events might look like this:State TV nightly news, 7:00 p.m. to 7:30 p.m. daily 7 eventsIndependent TV nightly news, 7:30 p.m. to 8:00 p.m. daily 7 eventsState Radio news, 12:00 p.m. to 12:30 p.m. Mon - Sat 6 eventsState Radio news, 6:00 p.m. to 6:30 p.m., daily 7 eventsNewspaper #1, daily 7 eventsNewspaper #2, Mon - Sat. 6 eventsNewspaper #3, daily 7 events

Total monitoring events each week: 47 events

Scheduling MonitorsOnce a decision has been reached about whichmedia outlets will be monitored and how often eachoutlet publishes or broadcasts relevant coverage(topics discussed below), the programs and publi-cations should be divided into logical categoriesthat represent monitoring events.

Each event can be entered onto a simple gridunder the appropriate day and posted on the wallwith a box to indicate the assigned monitors. Atleast two monitors should be assigned to eachevent to ensure against monitor bias. Once reportforms are turned in, a check mark can be enterednext to the monitor’s name on the schedulinggrid. Team leaders and other staff will have con-

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tact information for monitors who fail to turn inreports on time, and they will need to fill in gapswhen needed.

Managing monitors is an important and demand-ing responsibility that requires an organized personwho will be sensitive to the concerns of the moni-tors and understand that all events must be coveredevery week. Missing even one news program or skip-ping one newspaper can throw off the entire resultsof the project and reflect badly on the project’s cred-ibility and professionalism. It is a good idea to keepa log of monitor schedules and activities. The pro-ject director and/or team leaders need to knowwhich individuals can be counted on to be prompt,reliable and consistent. Also, if monitors are being

Slovakia—Scenario for MonitoringIn Slovakia, MEMO‘98 taped the TV Markiza news program at 7:00 p.m. each evening and STV news at7:30 p.m. Radio Twist and Slovak Radio had two daily newscasts, at noon and at 6:00 p.m. Both of thesewere taped. Newspapers were purchased every day and kept in the office. They purchased one televisionset, one video cassette recorder, two radios with timed-recording capabilities and other equipment.

Monitors were divided into five teams: one team for television, one for radio, one for newspapers, one fordata analysis and report preparation and one for press relations. Team leaders scheduled monitors to viewor listen to each news broadcast and to read each newspaper. Forms were completed by monitors andturned over to their leaders throughout the week.

On the following Sunday, a new week would begin, and the analytical team compiled the data from the pre-vious week. On Monday, the press team sent out an advisory alerting the press to the time and location ofthe weekly Thursday press conference. All quantitative time data and qualitative data concerning positive,negative and neutral ratings were entered into computer spreadsheets, and were then used to produce piecharts and bar graphs. These graphs would be used to write a summary of conclusions for the written report.

Team leaders then reviewed monitor “comments” and identified trends that were described in summary, withspecific examples for the report. Such comments tended to focus on a lack of balance within a story or onbiased language, inappropriate film footage or other unfair practices. Over time, these comments revealedclear and disturbing trends in the way particular news outlets presented the news; especially a trend onstate-owned STV to refuse time to opposition subjects to explain their side of the story. The report was com-pleted by Wednesday after the end of each monitoring period and presented in a public press conferenceon Thursday. The first report covered one week, and others tended to cover two-week periods or to presentcumulative data as the elections neared. (See Appendix 4 for a sample monitoring timeline.)


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paid based on performance, a record of who didwhat is needed.

Developing FormsMonitoring forms for each type of monitoring event,as well as data compilation and analysis forms, mustbe developed and filled in meticulously. The typesof data to collect on such forms are discussed inChapters Four and Five, and sample forms are pre-sented in the appendices.

Record KeepingIn addition to keeping logs of monitor activities, agood monitoring project should keep meticulousrecords of all relevant materials. These materialsshould be kept in an organized and secure manneron designated storage shelves or cabinets.

The project’s records should include the followingmaterials:

• Labeled copies of all videotapes of televisionprograms organized by time and date andnews outlet;

• Labeled copies of all audiotapes of radio programsorganized by time and date and news outlet;

• Copies of all monitored newspapers organizedby publication and date;

• Copies of all forms turned in by monitors filedseparately by date and news outlet;

• Copies of all other forms used for tabulationand collation of monitoring results organizedby date and news outlet;

• Copies of all brochures, press releases, reportsand other materials released by the project;and

• Records of all media coverage (newspaper clip-pings, audio and video tapes) of themonitoring project.

Obtaining SuppliesThe following is a suggested list of supplies that willbe needed to conduct a monitoring project thatincludes television, radio and newspapers.

Televisions and Radios. After scheduling monitoredevents, decide how many televisions and radios areneeded. If events occur simultaneously on differentchannels, more than one or two sets will be need-ed. Also, monitors may require sets to view tapeswhile other sets are recording programs. This canensure that all monitoring events are appropriate-ly covered.

Newspapers. A subscription to all monitored news-papers, or a system for purchasing them on a dailybasis, is necessary.

Video and Audio Recorders. Video and audiorecorders will be needed to tape events. Extrarecorders may be necessary so that tapes can beviewed or listened to while other machines are tap-ing programs. Recorders should have a function toset timers to record programs automatically. If thisis not possible, reliable staff will be needed to turnon the recording devices at the appropriate times.

Tapes. Calculate the number of audio and videotapes needed for the duration of the project andpurchase them well in advance. Make sure to pur-chase tapes that are of a reliable quality.

Earphones. Earphones may be needed to allowmonitors to work without disturbing others in theoffice, depending on the provisions and space ofthe monitoring room.

Video Camera. A video camera can be used to tapepractice news conferences and other events to help trainthose who will be speaking in public or to the press.

Computer(s), Printer(s) and Software. Computers,printers, and software are necessary for data entry,analysis, and for creating reports and other docu-ments. Secure computer backup of documents isalso required where possible.

Missing even one news program or skippingone newspaper can throw off the entireresults of the project and reflect badly onthe project’s credibility and professionalism.

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Copy Machines. Copy machines, or access to them,are needed for copying forms, reports, etc.

Stopwatches. Stopwatches are needed in amplesupply to record the times for the news stories.

Rulers. Rulers are needed in ample supply to mea-sure newspaper story size.

Pens, Paper, and Other Basic Supplies. Pens, paper,paper clips, staplers, and other basic office suppliesare needed in ample supply to conduct the project.

Shelves, Cabinets, and Other Storage Materials.Shelves, cabinets and other storage materials areneeded to store videotapes, audiotapes, newspa-pers, forms and reports.

Refreshments. Food and drinks (tea, coffee, water,etc.) help to make sure that monitors devote thenecessary time to their jobs and, depending on localcustoms, are needed to offer to visitors.

Projectors(s) and Transparency Paper. Projectorcapacity is needed to display charts and graphs atpress conferences, either projected directly from acomputer or via overhead projections of “trans-parencies.”

Sound Equipment. Sound equipment, such as micro-phones and speakers, are needed for press conferencesand other public events. In some cases the facility wherepress conferences are held may provide this equipment.

Accounting and FinanceMonitoring projects must keep meticulous accountsof funds received and all expenses paid for salaries,supplies, telecommunications, report distribution,insurance, rent and all other matters. It may be nec-essary to hire a specific person, such as an officemanager, or combine these responsibilities with anoth-er person’s tasks. It is also wise to obtain the servicesof a certified public accountant to set up accountingprocedures and to periodically review them.

PLANNING AND REHEARSAL It is very important that all of the project partici-pants—especially those who will be speakingpublicly—are able to confidently address the impar-tiality, accuracy and credibility of the methods usedby the project and be able to use this informationto defend the project against critics and skeptics.For this reason, it is necessary to practice analyzingand releasing findings before going public. Everymedia monitoring project should practice moni-toring techniques, analysis of data, reportpreparation and public presentations during a dressrehearsal period before the actual monitoringbegins. Try to anticipate the questions that will ariseand practice the responses until all the relevant staffcan confidently express themselves and defend themethodology of the project.

As part of the rehearsal, consider seeking the adviceof outside experts. This will not only help designgood methods, but it also may add further credi-bility to the project. There are numerousinternational groups that deal with media standardsor have conducted media monitoring projects, andthey might be willing to visit your office, attend apractice press conference or provide consultationsby phone, e-mail or other means. The press sectionsof international observer groups and embassiesmight be able to give useful advice as well. (SeeAppendix 1 for a list of organizations that could becontacted.)

Every media monitoring project should prac-tice monitoring techniques, analysis of data,report preparation and public presentationsduring a dress rehearsal period before theactual monitoring begins.

MEDIA MONITORING TO PROMOTE DEMOCRATIC ......Democratic Elections An NDI Handbook for Citizen...

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