2-1-1

Mechanism of Greenhouse Effect

Infrared rays

Further increase in greenhouse gascauses:

Infrared rays

Sunlight

Greenhouse Gas

Earth Land Ocean

Sunlight

Greenhouse Gas

Earth Land Ocean

In spite of high light transmissivity, greenhouse gases such as CO2 absorb infrared rays (heat) and then reflect some of the radiation to the earth’s surface (re-radiation mechanism).

©JAERO

2-1-2

Contribution of Greenhouse Gases to Global Warming

Source: Ministry of the Environment, Annual Report on the Environment, the Sound Material-Cycle Society and Biodiversity in Japan 2019, with others

(Note) Figures may not add up to the totals due to rounding. GHGs: Greenhouse Gases

Dinitrogen monoxide (N2O)1.6%

Methane 2.3%

Chlorofluorocarbon andother gases 4.0%

Total emissionsin FY2017

1.29 billion t-CO2 Carbon dioxide (CO2)92.1%

Ozone-friendlyChlorofluorocarbon etc. below 0.5%

Ozone-unfriendlyChlorofluorocarbon14%

Direct contribution to global warming ofGHGs emitted by human activities

after the Industrial Revolution

Methane 20%

Dinitrogenmonoxide (N2O)

6%

Carbon dioxide (CO2)60%

©JAERO

Direct contribution to global warming ofGHGs emitted by Japan

(for the single year of fiscal 2017)

2-1-3

Changes in CO2 Emissions from Fossil Fuels and Atmospheric CO2 Concentration in Japan

Source: CDIAC, Global Fossil-Fuel Carbon Emissions, with others

(Note) Figures may not add up to the totals due to rounding.

CO

2 C

on

cen

trat

ion

CO

2 E

mis

sio

ns

Changes in CO2 Emissions from Fossil Fuels and Atmospheric CO2 Concentration in Japan

397.7ppm（2014）

36.14

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

(ppm)(billion t-CO2)

1750 60 70 80 90 1800 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1900 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 2000 0201 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 13 14121110 (year)

12.03

6.68

2.33

15.10

Others (cement production + exhaust gas from incineration)

Natural GasOilCoal, wood, etc.CO2 concentration (ppm)

CO2 concentration (ppm)

Global CO2 emissions

Industrial Revolution

©JAERO

World War II

2-1-4

Historical Trends in the World's CO2 Emissions

Source: The Institute of Energy Economics, Japan, FY2020 Handbook of Energy & Economic Statistics in Japan

(Note) Figures may not add up to the totals due to rounding. Until 1990, Russia's CO2 emissions are included in "Other countries".

CO

2 E

mis

sio

ns

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

01971 1973 1980 1990 2000 2010 2015 (year)

141

156

178

205

231

306

325 325 328

3

346

7

8210

0

4 4

30

57 6

211

4

2303

1

4

34

6

522

5

485

4

934

5

385

4

45

6

374

3

56

46

5

33

74

2016 2017

42 46 46 48 56 52 49 48

1010

9 9

1410

2211

14

31

1112 11

1515 15

80 92 91

20 2116

22

9

11 9

53

6075

68

76

98

103 105

46

5

33

74

48

11

15

93

22

107

©JAERO

(100million t-CO2)

U.S.A.

Italy

Brazil

Canada

Japan

South Korea

U.K.

Russia

Other countries

Germany

China

France

India

2-1-5 Source: Japan Meteorological Agency website

Changes in Average Temperatures

：

：

：

Dotted line (black)

Dotted line (blue)

Solid line (red)

Reference value is the 30-year average from 1981 to 2010.

Deviation from the reference value each year (difference from the 1981 to 2010 average)

(Deviation in 2019 was +0.43℃)

Deviation in the 5-year moving average

Long-term trends

(Rising at a rate of about 0.74℃/100 years)

：

：

：

Dotted line (black)

Dotted line (blue)

Solid line (red)

Reference value is the 30-year average from 1981 to 2010.

＊The 15 observation sites are in Abashiri, Nemuro, Suttsu, Yamagata, Ishinomaki, Fushiki, Iida, Choshi, Sakai, Hamada, Hikone, Miyazaki, Tadotsu, Naze, Ishigaki.

Deviation from the reference value at the 15 observation sites* in Japan

(Average deviation in 2019 was +0.92℃)

Deviation in the 5-year moving average

Long-term trends

(Rising at a rate of about 1.24℃/100 years)

Deviation in the Annual Average Temperature Worldwide (1891 to 2019)

Deviation in the Annual Average Temperature in Japan (1898 to 2019)

©JAERO

1900 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 2000 10 20 (year)

Trend=0.74 (℃/100 years)

Deviation in the Annual Average Temperature Worldwide

Diff

eren

ce (℃

) fr

om th

e A

vera

ge, 1

981-

2010

Diff

eren

ce (℃

) fr

om th

e A

vera

ge, 1

981-

2010

Deviation in the Annual Average Temperature in Japan

Trend=1.24 (℃/100 years)

1.0

0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1.0

-1.51890

1900 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 2000 10 20 (year)1890

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

-2.0

Japan Meterological Agency

Japan Meterological Agency

2-1-6 Source: (＊1,＊2) Japan Meteorological Agency website, (＊3) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 5th Assessment Report - Climate Change 2013, and Ministry of the Environment(＊3) Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology; the Japan Meteorological Agency; Ministry of the Environment; Climate Change and Its Impacts in Japan FY2012

(＊4)Ministry of the Environment, MEXT, MLIT, MAFF, Japan Meteorological Agency ; Climate Change Observation, Forecasting and Impact Assessment Integrated Report 2018

Historical Temperatures and Predictions of Warming due to Increasing CO2Hi

stor

ical

Tem

pera

ture

sPr

edic

ted

Tem

pera

ture

s

World

Japan

World

Japan

Rising at a rate of about 0.74℃/100 years＊1

Rising at a rate of about 1.24℃/100 years＊2

Average temperatures at the end of the 21st century to rise 1.5℃ higher than at the end of the 20th century＊3

Rising 0.5 to 5.4℃ by 2100＊4

○RCP 2.6 scenario (lower stabilization scenario: assuming that the temperature rise is kept below 2 ℃): 0.5 to 1.7 ℃ rise

○RCP 8.5 scenario (high-level reference scenario: assuming no policy mitigation measures): 3.4 to 5.4 ℃ rise

(RCP scenario is a scenario calculated from the idea of the concentration of greenhouse gases to be stabilized in the future,

assuming policy mitigation measures)

©JAERO

2-1-7

Efforts Toward Solving the Problem of Global Warming

(Note) 1st greenhouse gas emission reductions agreement period: 2008 to 2012; Kyoto Protocol took effect Feb. 16, 2005 IPCC: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change COP: Conference of the Parties CMP: Meeting of the Parties (to the Kyoto Protocol) CDM: Clean Development Mechanism CMA: Meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement

Nov. 1988 Geneva, Switzerland IPCC established Established the first venue for discussions between governments on global warming

Mar. 1995 Berlin, Germany COP1 Decided to discuss international agreements on numerical targets for greenhouse gas emission reductions

Jul. 1996 Geneva, Switzerland COP2 Declared that legally binding numerical targets for greenhouse gas emission reductions should be adopted at COP3

Dec. 1997 Kyoto, Japan COP3 Set numerical targets for greenhouse gas emission reductions during the 1st greenhouse gas emission reductions agreement period (adopted the Kyoto Protocol)

Nov. 1998 Buenos Aires, Argentina COP4 Adopted the Buenos Aires Plan of Action for determining issues from the Kyoto Protocol at COP6

Oct.-Nov. 1999 Bonn, Germany COP5 Many countries recognized the importance of bringing the Kyoto Protocol into effect by 2002

Nov. 2000 The Hague, Netherlands COP6 Failed to agree on measures on global warming, such as emissions-trading and offsets for carbon sinks in forests

Jul. 2001 Bonn, Germany Resumption of COP6 Agreed to offsets for forest carbon sinks

Oct.-Nov. 2001 Marrakesh, Morocco COP7 Final agreement on the operational rules for the Kyoto Protocol

Oct.-Nov. 2002 New Delhi, India COP8 Progress toward the early adoption of the Kyoto Protocol

Dec. 2003 Milan, Italy COP9 Discussed detailed rules for implementing the Kyoto Protocol

Dec. 2004 Buenos Aires, Argentina COP10 Signatories confirmed definite achievements in the emissions reduction agreement

Nov.-Dec. 2005 Montreal, Canada COP11 & CMP1 Made improvements, such as full establishment of operational rules for the Kyoto Protocol and the CDM

Nov. 2006 Nairobi, Kenya COP12 &CMP2 Made improvements, including a framework for the future after the Kyoto Protocol (from 2013 on), for supporting developing countries and changes to the CDM

Dec. 2007 Bali, Indonesia COP13 & CMP3 Discussed the framework for after 2013 and support for developing countries (adopted the Bali Roadmap)

Dec. 2008 Poznan, Poland COP14 & CMP4 Discussions held with the aim of reaching agreement on the framework after 2013 by the end of 2009

Dec. 2009 Copenhagen, Denmark COP15 & CMP5 Decided to keep the Copenhagen Accord on the table

Nov.-Dec. 2010 Cancun, Mexico COP16 & CMP6 Formally determined the content of the Copenhagen Accord

Nov.-Dec. 2011 Durban, South Africa COP17 & CMP7 Extended the Kyoto Protocol and adopted the Durban Platform for bringing a new legal framework into place in 2020

Nov.-Dec. 2012 Doha, Qatar COP18 & CMP8 Adopted the Doha Climate Gateway, incorporating elements such as an action plan for creating a new framework in force to 2020, as well as an 8-year extension of the Kyoto Protocol

Nov. 2013 Warsaw, Poland COP19 & CMP9 Laid the groundwork for agreement on the framework after 2020

Dec. 2014 Lima, Peru COP20 & CMP10 Adopted the Lima Statement for Climate Action

Dec. 2015 Paris, France COP21 & CMP11 Adopted the Paris Agreement

Nov. 2016 Makelash, Morocco COP22 & CMP12, CMA1 Discussion over the implementation guidelines of the Paris Agreement

Dec. 2018 Katowice, Poland COP24 & CMP14, CMA1-3 Adopted implementation guidelines for the Paris Agreement for full operation of the Paris Agreement after 2020

Nov. 2017 Bonn, Germany COP23 & CMP13, CMA1-2 Implementation guideline of Paris Agreement negotiation, basic design of promotional dialogue, promotion of global climate action

Dec. 2019 Madrid, Spain COP25 & CMP15、CMA2 Discussion over the implementation guidelines in the Paris Agreement Article 6 (Market Mechanism)

Month/Year Location DescriptionOrganization

Source: Press Releases Material of the Ministry of the Environment

©JAERO

2-1-8

Current Status of GHG Emissions of Major Countries

Source: Greenhouse Gas Inventory Office of Japan website

Canada U.S.A. Japan Russia EU U.K. Germany France Italy Spain

©JAERO

30

20

10

0

-10

-20

-30

-40

-50

18.9

1.5

17.9

1.3

－32.4

－14.5

－23.4

－17.4

－40.6

－27.5

Emission ratio in 2017 [Base year of the Framework Convention on Climate Change (1990)]

（％）

2-1-9

Lifecycle-Assessed CO2 Emissions Intensity of Japan's Energy Sources

Source: Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry, Comprehensive Assessment of Life Cycle CO2 Emissions from Power Generation Technologies in Japan (July 2016)

19

1,000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

Fuel Combustion

Facilities / Operations

[g-CO2/kWh (sending end)]

(Note)CO2 emissions intensity is calculated from all energy consumed in mining, plant construction, fuel transports, refining, plant operations and maintenance, etc. as well as burning of fuel.Date for nuclear power: 1) includes spent fuel reprocessing in Japan (under development), MOX fuel use in thermal reactors (assuming recycling once) and disposal of high level radioactive waste, and 2) is based on the capacity-weighted average of CO2 emissions intensi-ties of existing BWR and PWR plants in Japan, which are 19g- CO2/kWh and 20g- CO2/kWh respectively.

Coal Fired

79

864

943

Oil Fired

123

476

599

98

376

474

43

695

738

LNG Fired LNG Combined Solar

(For housing)Wind

(One installation on land)Nuclear Geothermal

13

Hydroelectric (small & medium-sized)

11

CO

2 E

mis

sion

s In

tens

ity

PowerSource

（　 ） BWR:19PWR:20

38 26

©JAERO

2-1-10

(Note) Degree of difficulty of importing fuel = (difficulty of ensuring world energy resources) + (difficulty of ensuring resources from supplier to Japan) = (Imbalance in location of resource reserve + imbalance in volume exported) x (political & economic stability of each country) + (imbalance in suppliers to Japan) x (political & economic stability of each country) Countries are rated on their political and economic stability on a 10 step scale of 0.1 to 1.0 by Nippon Export and Investment Insurance; for example, Australia is rated a 0.1, while Afghanistan is a 1.0.

Source: Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry, A Quantitative Evaluation of the Fuel Supply Stability of Nuclear Power (April 2008), and others

Various Power Sources in Terms of CO2 Emissions and Stability of Energy Resource Procurement

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

00 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Difficult

Easy

Low

Nuclear Power (uranium)

High

Emissions (kg-CO2/kWh) of CO2

Excellent stability of fuel supply, minimal CO2 emissions

Excellent stability of fuel supply, but high in CO2 emissions

Diff

icul

ty in

Impo

rtin

g F

uel (

with

oil

as 1

00)

Natural gas(LNG combined)

Oil

Coal

©JAERO

2-1-11

Japan’s Changes in CO2 Emissions by Sector

Source: Greenhouse Gas Inventory Office of Japan

(Note) The numerical values show the indirect emissions (CO2 emissions associated with power generation or heat generation are allocated to individual end demand sectors according to the electricity and heat consumption).

CO

2 E

mis

sio

ns

©JAERO

(100 million t-CO2)14

12

10

8

6

4

2

01990 95 2000 05 10 15 1614131211 (FY)

Total CO2 emissions FY2018: 1.14 billion t-CO2

Waste（2.5％）

Industrial processes（4.1％）

Households（14.6％）

Offices /commercial buildings（17.2％）

Transportation sector（18.5％）

Industrial sector（35.0％）

Energy conversionsector（7.9％）17 18

1.0 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 1.0

5.0 4.9 4.8 4.7 4.3 4.4 4.6 4.6 4.5 4.3 4.2

1.3

0.70.2

0.3

1.5

0.7

0.3

0.6

0.3

0.60.3

0.5

0.3

0.5

0.3

0.5

0.3

0.5 0.3

0.5 0.3

0.50.3

0.5

1.6 1.7

1.81.9

2.1 2.11.9

1.9 1.8

1.31.6 1.9 2.2

2.0 2.2 2.3 2.42.3

2.2 2.1

2.1 2.5 2.6 2.4

2.3 2.32.3 2.2 2.2

2.2 2.2

0.9

4.0

0.3

0.5

1.7

2.0

2.1

0.9

4.1

0.3

0.5

1.9

2.1

2.1

2-1-12

Changes in GHGs Emissions in Japan

Source: Greenhouse Gas Inventory Office of Japan

NF₃(Nitrogen trifluoride)

SF₆(Sulfur hexafluoride)

(Perfluorocarbons)PFCs

(Hydrofluorocarbons)HFCs

(Nitrous oxide)N₂O

(Methane)CH₄

(Carbon dioxide)CO₂

©JAERO

(FY)

1,500

1,400

1,300

1,200

1,100

1,000

0

(million t-CO2)

0908 10 12 13 14 16 181715110706050403020120009998979695949392911990

2-1-13

Increase/Decrease in CO2 Emissions by Sector in Japan

(Note) The numerical values show the increase and decrease of the indirect emissions (CO2 emissions associated with power generation or heat generation are allocated to individual end demand sectors according to the electricity and heat consumption).

Source: Greenhouse Gas Inventory Office of Japan

©JAERO

Industrial process

Industrial sector

Energy conversion sector

Waste

Households

Offices / Others

Agriculture / Others

Transportation sector

1990 91 9２ 9３ 9４ 9５ 9６ 9７ 9８ 9９ 2000 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 12 1311 17161514 (year)－40

－20

0

20

40

60

80

100

（％） (Baseline year = 1990)

2-1-14

Changes in CO2 Emissions by Energy Source

Source: Greenhouse Gas Inventory Office of Japan

(Note) Figures may not add up to the totals due to rounding.

CO

2 E

mis

sion

s

Natural Gas(22%)

Coal(41%)

Oil(38%)

Total CO2 emissions from energy sources in FY2017: 1.11 billion t-CO2

Oil Coal Natural Gas

©JAERO

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

01990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2011 2012 2013 201720152014 (FY)

(100 million t-CO2)

6.4 6.6 6.8 6.7 6.4 6.4 6.3 6.1 5.7 5.3 4.9 5.2 5.3 5.1 4.6 4.4 4.2

3.1 3.03.2 3.4

3.2 3.6 3.9 4.14.2

4.2

1.51.6 1.7 1.7

1.92.0

4.4

2.1

4.2 4.4

2.42.5

4.7

2.5

4.7

2.6

4.64.5

2.42.4

2016

4.3

4.5

2.51.1 1.21.3 1.4

2-1-15

Measures by Japan’s Electric Power Industry to Reduce CO2 Emissions

Source: The Federation of Electric Power Companies, Environmental Action Plan by the Japanese Electric Utility Industry (September 2015)

1. 2020 Targets for Reducing Domestic Emissions from Business Activities

Target Standards

Foundations for Establishing Targets

2.Strengthen Cooperation between Entities

3.Promote International Contributions

4.Development of Innovative Technologies

○ From the perspective of simultaneously achieving S+3E--the prerequisite of ensuring Safety (S), along with the (3 Es) of Energy security, Economic viability and Environmental conservation, and under the premise of pursuing an ideal mix of energy sources, take steps on both the electricity demand and supply side and continue to strive to realize a low-carbon society.

○ When newly installing thermal generation, use the highest standard of technology that can be applied economically (BAT), according to the scale of the plant, in order to achieve a potential reduction that is forecast to be up to 7 million tons of CO2. *1, *2

Recognize that in order to reduce electricity-related CO2 emissions and improve the emissions factor, cooperation is essential between the government, which makes energy policies including those for nuclear power and renewable energy, and customers who use electricity via generation, transmission and distribution, and retailing. In addition to company's own efforts, linkages between the main players should be strengthened.○ From the perspective of getting customers to use electricity more efficiently, we will help them achieve CO2 reductions by spreading the use of highly

efficient electrical devices and through energy and CO2 conserving initiatives. ○ Work to introduce smart meters, as a green technology to help customers achieve more efficient use of electricity.

Contribute to reducing CO2 in various countries by spreading overseas the technology and know-how gained by electricity companies in Japan.○ Support shifting to low carbon output in developing countries and transfer or supply Japanese power generation technologies via international partner-

ship (GSEP) activities for energy efficiency, such as assessing coal-fired equipment and CO2 reduction initiatives.○ Aim for a global shift to low carbon through the development and introduction of advanced and feasible electric power technologies based on trends

in international schemes including Joint Crediting Mechanism (JCM).(Note) There is potential for a reduction of up to 500 million tons/year of CO2 from coal fired power plants in the OECD and Asian developing countries in

2020 if high-efficiency plants are introduced and operations are improved.

Continue to work to develop technologies that contribute to environmental protection on both the electricity demand and supply sides.○ Develop technologies for the use of nuclear power○ Thermal technologies that reduce environmental impact (A-USC, IGCC, CCS etc.)○ Manage the large-scale introduction of renewable energy (improvement of thermal plant load following, stabilization of transmission and distribution

networks, increased adoption of biomass and geothermal generation, etc.)○ Develop technologies for the efficient use of energy

Each participating company shall put together initiatives according to their business structure and strive to realize a low-carbon society.○ Promote the use of nuclear energy under the prerequisite of ensuring safety.

・In addition to implementing thorough safety measures at nuclear power plants, based on the lessons learned and knowledge gained from the Fukushima nuclear power plant accident, take independent, continuous steps to improve safety, not restricted to regulatory standards.

・In order to gain the broad understanding of everybody in society, including residents living near plants, in addition to providing careful explanations, strive to safely and stably operate plants whose safe operation has been confirmed.

○ Promote the use of renewable energies・Utilize hydro, geothermal, solar, wind and bio-mass energy sources.・Promote technological R&D etc. for dealing with fluctuations in output of renewable energy sources.

Investigate measures for dealing with fluctuations in the output of solar power. Investigate introducing and expanding wind power generation, utilizing tie lines between regions.○ Strive to improve the efficiency of thermal plants, etc.

・When developing thermal generation, use the highest standard of technology that can be applied economically (BAT), according to the scale of the plant.・Strive to maintain the appropriate thermal efficiency of existing plants.

○ Strive to provide customer energy efficiency and low carbon services that contribute to a low carbon society.・Strive to provide energy efficiency and low carbon services based on customer needs for a low carbon society in the field of electricity retailing.

*1: Review these targets and action plans as necessary based on trends in energy and environmental policies, technology development in Japan and overseas, and changes in the business environment, etc., while promoting the PDCA cycle.*2: Maximum reduction potential based on a comparison of the effect of adopting the BAT for the development of the main electricity sources from FY2013 onward instead of conventional technologies.

©JAERO

2-1-16

Historical Trends in CO2 Emissions from Electricity Generation in Japan

Source:The Electric Power Council for a Low Carbon Society, Follow-up Results of Initiatives Towards a Low-carbon Society

(Note) The marker (◆,■) indicates user-end CO2 emissions coefficient after the Kyoto Mechanism credit was reflected and CO2 emissions after adjustment. The electric utility industry targeted approximately a 20% reduction (approx. 0.34kg-CO2/kWh reduction) for the average of 5 years between fiscal 2008 and fiscal 2012, compared to 1990. Regarding the figures for FY 2014, there are no actual results as a council, but they are the sum of the achievements of member companies.

Sal

es E

lect

ric

Po

wer

CO

2 E

mis

sio

ns

Co

effi

cien

t

CO

2 E

mis

sio

ns

©JAERO

CO2 emissions

CO2 emissions coefficient

Sales electric power

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2018 (FY)

(billion t-CO2)

0.461

0.463

0.372

0.370

803.6

1,000

750

500

250

0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0

0.9

0.6

0.3

0

(TWh) （kg-CO2/kWh）

Approx. 0.34kg-CO2/kWhreduction for

the average of 5 years

The 1st commitment period ofthe Kyoto Protocol

2-1-17

Thermal Efficiency and T&D Loss Factor in Japan

Source: Agency for Natural Resources and Energy, Japan Electric Utilities Handbook, with others

(Note) Lower Heating Value: Estimated from the higher heating value standard based on the conversion factor from the Comprehensive Energy Statistics (FY2010).

48.6

51.8

55.6（FY1999）

59.0（FY2007）

60.0（FY2013）

46.1（FY2014）

1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2014 (FY)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

（％）

Gross thermal efficiency(maximum designed value)

Gross thermal efficiency(actual average)

©JAERO

2-1-18

Comparison of CO2 Emissions Coefficient by Country

Source:＊1 The Electric Power Council for a Low Carbon Society, Efforts against Global Warming in the Electricity Business ＊2 IEA, WORLD ENERGY BALANCES（2019 Edition)

(Note) The figures contain Combined Heat and Power (CHP) plants. The figures of Japan contain non-utility generation facilities.

©JAERO

CO

2 emissio

ns co

efficient (

＊1)B

reakdo

wn

of N

on

-fossil-fu

el Gen

eration

(

＊2)

(2017)

6

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0

(kg-CO2/kWh)

0

20

40

60

80

100

（％）

0.060.14

0.470.4 0.42

0.640.72

0.34

0.22

72

9

8

15

60

8

12

123 20

7

10

43

8

18

3 9

8

12

24

32

21

29

2

France Canada JapanGermany U.S.A. China IndiaItalyU.K.

Nuclear

Hydroelectric

Renewables, Waste

2-2-1

Mechanisms in the Development of Acid Rain

Emission of SO2 (sulfur dioxide) and NOx (nitrogen oxide)

(Conversion)

SO2→SO42－・H2SO4

NOx→NO3－・HNO3

Acid Rain Generated

Impacts

Impacts of Acid RainDirect effects on trees and vegetation

Lower pH in lakes, etc.

Increased concentration of toxic metals

Elution of toxic metals, such as aluminum

Leaching of bases, such as calcium

(Soil/Vegetation Systems) (Atmospheric Systems)

Air monitoring stations

(Land/Water Systems)Impacts

Lakes

Rivers

Impacts

(Advection)

(Diffusion)

©JAERO

2-2-2

SOx and NOx Emissions per Unit of Electricity Generated in Major Countries

※10 electric power companies and Electric Power Development Co. Ltd.

Source: The Federation of Electric Power Companies

U.S.A. Canada U.K. France Germany Italy Japan

SOx: sulfur oxides

NOx: nitrogen oxides

©JAERO

Em

issi

on

s

(Thermal Power Plant)（g/kWh） (2017)3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0

0.50.4

2.1

1.3

0.2

0.7

0.2

0.8

0.5

1.0

0.1

0.4

0.20.3