Mechanical and Water Absorption Behavior of Sisal and Banana Fiber Composites
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Transcript of Mechanical and Water Absorption Behavior of Sisal and Banana Fiber Composites
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
A Composite Material is a macroscopic combination of two or more
distinct materials, having a recognizable interface between them . Composites
are used not only for their structural properties, but also for electrical, thermal,
tribological, and environmental applications. It consists of reinforcing stiffer
phase and the matrix phase. The resulting composite material has a balance of
structural properties that is superior to either constituent material alone.
Composites typically have a fiber or particle phase that is stiffer and stronger
than the continuous matrix phase and serve as the principal load carrying
members. The matrix acts as a load transfer medium between fibers, and in less
ideal cases where the loads are complex, the matrix may even have to bear loads
transverse to the fiber axis. The matrix is more ductile than the fibers and thus
acts as a source of composite toughness. The matrix also serves to protect the
fibers from environmental damage before, during and after composite processing. A hybrid composite is a !" composite which has more than one
fiber as a reinforcement phase embedded into a single matrix phase.
#ybridization provides the designers with an added degree of freedom in
manufacturing composites to achieve high specific stiffness, high specific
strength, enhanced dimensional stability, energy absorption, increased failure
strain, corrosive resistance as well as reduced cost during fabrication
Composites made of a single reinforcing material system may not be suitable if
it undergoes different loading conditions during the service life. #ybrid
composites may be the best solution for such applications.$ormally, one of the
fibers in a hybrid composite is a high% modulus and high%cost fiber and the other
is usually a low%modulus fiber. The high%modulus fiber provides the stiffness
and load bearing &ualities, whereas the low%modulus fiber ma'es the composite
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more damage tolerant and 'eeps the material cost low. The mechanical
properties of a hybrid composite can be varied by changing volume ratio and
stac'ing se&uence of different plies. #igh%modulus fibers are widely used in
many aerospace applications because of their high specific modulus. #owever,
the impact strength of composites made of such high%modulus fibers is
generally lower than conventional steel alloys or glass reinforced composites.
An effective method of improving the impact properties of high%modulus fiber
composites is to add some percentage of low%modulus fibers. Most composite
materials experience time varying internal disturbance of moisture and
temperature during their service life time which can cause swelling and
plasticization of the resin, distortion of laminate, deterioration of fiber(resin
bond etc. )ecause of the high performance laminates and composites especially
in aerospace, the effect of moisture(temperature environment has become an
important aspect of composite material behavior. In this pro*ect wor' the
behavior of sisal and banana hybrid composites with epoxy resin was described.
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1.1 WHY WE HAVE TAKEN THIS WORK?
The basic reason for wor'ing on such a topic arises from the fact that
composites are vulnerable to environmental degradation. A moist environment,
coupled with high or low temperature conditions is extremely detrimental for
composites. There have been several efforts made by researchers in the last few
years to establish the much needed correlation between the mechanical
properties of the material and the moist environment or similar hydrothermal
conditions, sub*ected to thermal shoc's, spi'es, ambient + sub ambient
temperatures. )ut most research has been on the mechanical aspects rather than
the physical + chemical interface and how this brings in change in the internal
mechanical properties and affects a variety of other morphological changes.
The focus of our research has been to understand the physical changes
that ta'e place at the bonding interface between the fibers and the matrix, as it is
of prime importance due to its lin' to the stress transfer, distribution of load, and
it also governs the damage accumulation + propagation. This has wide
significance in aerospace applications, because the aircraft components are
exposed to harsh moist environment.
#ence our pro*ect wor' aims at the mechanical characterization of the
sisal and banana fiber reinforced hybrid composites.
1.2 COMPOSITE MATERIAL
A composite material is defined as a material system which consists of
two or more distinctly differing materials which are insoluble in each other and
differ in chemical composition.
The ancient gyptians manufactured composites. -attle and daub is one
of the oldest man%made composite materials, at over /// years old.
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Examples
-ood is a good example of a natural composite, combination of
cellulose fiber and lignin. The cellulose fiber provides strength andthe lignin is the 0glue0 that bonds and stabilizes the fiber.
Adobe bric's are a good example for ancient composite. The
combination of mud and straw forms a composite that is stronger
than either the mud or the straw by itself.
Concrete reinforced with steel rebar.
1.! PHASES O" COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Composites are combinations of two phases.
Matrix phase.
!einforcement phase.
"#$ 1.1 P%ases &' (&mp&s#)e ma)e*#als
a+MATRI, PHASE
It is primary phase, having continuous character.
It holds the reinforcement phase.
More ductile.
2ess hard.
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Examples
"olymers.
Metals.
Ceramics.
-+REIN"ORCEMENT PHASE
It also called dispersed phase.
3tronger than matrix phase.
Examples
ibers.
"articles.
la'es.
1. PROPERTIES O" COMPOSITES
Composites can be very strong and stiff, yet very light in -eight,
so ratios of strength%to%weight and stiffness%to%weight are several
times greater than steel or aluminum.
atigue properties are generally better than for common
engineering metals.
Toughness is often greater than most of the metals.
Composites can be designed that do not corrode li'e steel.
"ossible to achieve combinations of properties not attainable with
metals, ceramics, or polymers alone.
1./ ADVANTA0ES O" COMPOSITE MATERIALS
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3tronger and stiffer than metals on a density basis for the same
strength, lighter than steel by 4/5 and aluminum by /5. #ence
3uperior stiffness%to%weight ratios.
ssentially inert in most corrosive environments. )enefits include
lower maintenance and replacement costs.
It can be compounded to closely match surrounding structures to
minimize thermal stresses.
Composites can be formed into many complex shapes during
fabrication, even providing finished, styled surfaces in the process.
The inherent characteristics of composites typically allow
production to be established for a small fraction of the cost that
would be re&uired in metallic fabrication.
6ood dimensional stability 7extremely low coefficient of thermal
expansion8.
1./ CLASSI"ICATION O" COMPOSITES
1./.1 ASED ON MATRI, MATERIAL
Metal Matrix Composites 7MMC8
Ceramic Matrix Composites 7CMC8
"olymer Matrix Composites 7"MC8
a+ Me)al ma)*#x (&mp&s#)es MMC+
The matrix in these composites is a ductile material. These composites can
be used at higher service temperature than their base metal counter parts. This
reinforcement in these materials may improve specific stuffiness, specific
strength, abrasion resistance, creep resistance and dimensional stability. The
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MMCs is light in weight and resist wear and thermal distortion, so it mainly
used in automobile industry. Metal matrix composites are much more
expensive those "MCs and therefore, their use are somewhat restricted.
-+ Ce*am#(3ma)*#x (&mp&s#)es CMC+
9ne of the main ob*ectives in producing CMCs is to increase the
toughness. Ceramics materials are inherent resistants to oxidation and
deterioration at elevated temperature: were it not for their disposition to brittle
racture, some of these materials would be idea candidates for use in higher
temperature and serve%stress applications, specifically for components in
automobile an air craft gas turbine engines. The developments of CMCs has
aged behind mostly for remain reason, most processing route involve higher
temperature and only employed with high temperature reinforcements.
(+ P&l4me* ma)*#x (&mp&s#)es PMC+
The most common matrix materials for composites are polymeric.
"olyester and vinyl esters are the most widely used and least expensive polymer
resins. These matrix materials are basically used for fiber glass reinforced
composites. or mutations of a large number resin provide a wide range of
properties for these materials. The epoxies are more expensive and in addition
to wide range of ranging commercials applications, also find use in "MCs for
aerospace applications. The main disadvantages of "MCs are their low
maximum wor'ing temperature high coefficients of thermal expansion and
hence dimensional instability and sensitivity to radiation and moisture. The
strength and stuffiness are low compared with metals and ceramics.
1./.2 ASED ON MATERIAL STRUCTURE
"articulate reinforcement composites 7"!C8
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iber reinforcement composites 7!C8
2aminar composites 72C8
a+ Pa*)#(5la)e *e#6'&*(eme6) (&mp&s#)es PRC+
"articulate reinforcements have dimensions that are approximately e&ual
in all directions. The shape of the reinforcing particles may be spherical, cubic,
platelet or any regular or irregular geometry. These composites can be classified
as two sub groups; i8 2arge particle composites ii8
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a reasonable price8. #ybrid composites are usually used when a combination of
properties of different types of fiber wants to be achieved, or when longitudinal
as well as lateral mechanical performances are re&uired.
#ybrid composites are more advanced composites as compared to
conventional !" composites. #ybrids can have more than one reinforcing
phase and a single matrix phase or single reinforcing phase with multiple matrix
phases or multiple reinforcing and multiple matrix phases. They have better
flexibility as compared to other fiber reinforced composites. $ormally it
contains a high modulus fiber with low modulus fiber.The high%modulus fiber
provides the stiffness and load bearing &ualities, whereas the low%modulus fiber
ma'es the composite more damage tolerant and 'eeps the material cost low. The
mechanical properties of a hybrid composite can be varied by changing volume
ratio and stac'ing se&uence of different plies.
1.7.1 ADVANTA0ES O" HYRID COMPOSITES
They offer better flexibility in the selection of fiber and matrix materials,
which helps in better tailoring of the mechanical properties. or example
the modulus, strength,fatigue performance etc of glass reinforced
composites can be enhanced by inclusion of carbon fibers.
)etter wear resistance
2ow thermal expansion coefficient
Combination of high tensile strength and high failure strain
)etter impact and flexural properties
!educed overall cost of the composite
2ow notch sensitivity
$on catastrophic
1.7.2 TYPES O" HYRID COMPOSITE
There are several types of hybrid composites characterized as;
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Interply or tow%by%tow, in which tows of the two or more constituent
types of fiber are mixed in a regular or random manner:
3andwich hybrids, also 'nown as cor%shell, in which one material is
sandwiched between two layers of another:
Interply or laminated, where alternate layers of the two 7ormore8
materials are stac'ed in a regular manner:
Intimately mixed hybrids, where the constituent fibers are made to mix as
randomly as possible so that no over%concentration of any one type is
present in the material: other 'inds, such as those reinforced with ribs,
pultruded wires, thin veils of fiber or combinations of the above.
1.7.! APPLICATION O" HYRIDS
#elicopter rotor blades and drive shafts.
Ailerons and floor panels of aircrafts.
In automobile sector they are used in transmission units, chassis
members,3uspensions, and structural body parts of cars and lorries.
C!"(A!" hybrids are used for ma'ing bicycle frames.
In sports industries Tennis rac&uets, fishing rods, s'is, golf club shafts,
yacht hulls,#oc'ey stic's and paddles
In medical world they are used for ma'ing orthoses.
1.7.! NATURAL "IER COMPOSITES
iber%reinforced polymer composites have played a dominant role for along time in a variety of applications for their high specific strength and
modulus. The manufacture, use and removal of traditional fiber=reinforced
plastic, usually made of glass, carbon or aramid fibers=reinforced thermoplastic
and thermoset resins are considered critically because of environmental
problems. )y natural fiber composites we mean a composite material that is
reinforced with fibers, particles or platelets from natural or renewable resources,
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in contrast to for example carbon or aramide fibers that have to be synthesized.
$atural fibers include those made from plant, animal and mineral sources.
$atural fibers can be classified according to their origin. The detailed
classification.
A6#mal "#-e*s M#6e*al "#-e*s Pla6) "#-e*s
Animal hair
3il' fiber
Avian fiber
Asbestos
Ceramic fibers
Metal fibers
3eed fiber
2eaf fiber
3'in fiber
ruit fiber
3tal' fiber
Ta-le 1.1 Class#'#(a)#&6 &' 6a)5*al '#-e*s
A6#mal "#-e*
Animal fiber generally comprise proteins: examples mohair, wool, sil',
alpaca, angora. Animal hair 7wool or hair8 are the fibers ta'en from animals or
hairy mammals. .g. 3heep>s wool, goat hair 7cashmere, mohair8, alpaca hair,
horse hair, etc. 3il' fiber are the fibers collected from dried saliva of bugs or
insects during the preparation of cocoons. xamples include sil' from sil'
worms. Avian fiber are the fibers from birds, e.g. feathers and feather fiber.
M#6e*al '#-e*
Mineral fibers are naturally occurring fiber or slightly modified fiber
procured from minerals. These can be categorized into the following categories;
Asbestos is the only naturally occurring mineral fiber. ?ariations are serpentine
and amphiboles, anthophyllite. Ceramic fibers includes glass fibers 76lass wood
and @uartz8, aluminium oxide, silicon carbide, and boron carbide. Metal fibers
includes aluminium fibers
Pla6) '#-e*
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"lant fibers are generally comprised mainly of cellulose; examples
include cotton, *ute, flax, ramie, sisal and hemp. Cellulose fibers serve in the
manufacture of paper and cloth. This fiber can be further categorizes into
following as ; 3eed fiber are the fibers collected from the seed and seed case
e.g. cotton and 'apo'. 2eaf fibe are the fibers collected from the leaves e.g. sisal
and agave. 3'in fiber are the fibers are collected from the s'in or bast
surrounding the stem of their respective plant. These fibers have higher tensile
strength than other fibers. Therefore, these fibers are used for durable yarn,
fabric, pac'aging, and paper. 3ome examples are flax, *ute, banana, hemp, and
soybean. ruit fiber are the fibers are collected from the fruit of the plant, e.g.
coconut 7coir8 fiber. 3tal' fiber are the fibers are actually the stal's of the plant.
.g. straws of wheat, rice, barley, and other crops including bamboo and grass.
Tree wood is also such a fiber. $atural fiber composites are by no means new to
man'ind. Already the ancient gyptians used clay that was reinforced by straw
to build walls. In the beginning of the /th century wood% or cotton fiber
reinforced phenol% or melamine formaldehyde resins were fabricated and used
in electrical applications for their non%conductive and heat%resistant properties.
At present day natural fiber composites are mainly found in automotive and
building industry and then mostly in applications where load bearing capacity
and dimensional stability under moist and high thermal conditions are of second
order importance. or example, flax fiber reinforced polyolefins are extensively
used today in the automotive industry, but the fiber acts mainly as filler materialin non%structural interior panels $atural fiber composites used for structural
purposes do exist, but then usually with synthetic thermoset matrices which of
course limit the environmental benefits.
The natural fiber composites can be very cost effective material for
following applications;
• )uilding and construction industry; panels for partition and false ceiling,
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partition boards, wall, floor, window and door frames, roof tiles, mobile
or pre%fabricated buildings which can be used in times of natural
calamities such as floods, cyclones, earth&ua'es, etc.
• 3torage devices; post%boxes, grain storage silos, bio%gas containers, etc.
• urniture; chair, table, shower, bath units, etc.
• lectric devices; electrical appliances, pipes, etc.
• veryday applications; lampshades, suitcases, helmets, etc.
• Transportation; automobile and railway coach interior, boat, etc.
$atural fibers are generally lignocellulosic in nature, consisting of helically wound cellulose micro fibrils in a matrix of lignin and hemicellulose.
According to a ood and Agricultural 9rganization survey, Tanzania and )razil
produce the largest amount of sisal. #ene&uen is grown in Mexico. Abaca and
hemp are grown in the "hilippines. The largest producers of *ute are India,
China, and )angladesh. "resently, the annual production of natural fibers in
India is about million tons as compared to worldwide production of about B
million tons. The detail information of fibers and the countries of origin are
presented in table 1.
"IERS COUNTRIES
lax )orneo
#emp ugoslavia, china
3un
hemp
$igeria, 6uyana, 3iera 2eone, India
!amie #ondurus, Mauritius
Dute India, gypt, 6uyana, Damaica, 6hana, Malawi, 3udan, Tanzania
Eneaf Ira&, Tanzania, Damaica, 3outh Africa, Cuba, Togo
3isal ast Africa, )ahamas, Anti&ua, Eenya,
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)anana India
Ta-le.1.2 "#-e*s a68 (&56)*#es &' &*#$#6
$atural fibres such as *ute, sisal, pineapple, abaca and coir have been
studied as a reinforcement and filler in composites. 6rowing attention is
nowadays being paid to sisal and banana fiber due to its availability and its
enhanced properties . #ence, research and development efforts have been
underway to find new use areas for sisal and banana, including utilization of
sisal and banana as reinforcement in polymer composites . Although there are
several reports in the literature which discuss the mechanical behavior of natural
fiber reinforced polymer composites. #owever, very limited wor' has been
done on mechanical behavior of sisal and banana fiber reinforced epoxy
composites. Against this bac'ground, the present research wor' has been
underta'en, with an ob*ective to explore the potential of sisal ans banana fiber
as a reinforcing material in hybrid composites and to investigate its effect on the
mechanical behavior of the resulting composites. The present wor' thus aims to
develop this new class of natural fiber based hybrid composites and to analyze
their mechanical behavior by experimentation.
1.9 SYNTHETIC "IRE COMPOSITES
Man%made fibres may come from natural raw materials or synthetic
chemicals. Many types of fibres are manufactured from natural cellulose,
including rayon: modal and the more recently developed 2yocell. Cellulose
based fibres are of two types, regenerated or pure cellulose such as from the
cupro%ammonium process and modified cellulose such as cellulose acetates.
Examples
6lass fibres
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Carbon fibres
Aramid fibres
The most common types of fibers used in advanced composites for
structural applications are the fiberglass, aramid, and carbon. The fiberglass is
the least expensive and carbon being the most expensive. The cost of aramid
fibers is about the same as the lower grades of the carbon fiber. 9ther high%
strength high%modulus fibers such as boron are at the present time considered to
be economically prohibitive.
Ca*-&6 "#-e*s
The graphite or carbon fiber is made from three types of polymer
precursors polyacrylonitrile 7"A$8 fiber, rayon fiber, and pitch. The tensile
stress%strain curve is linear to the point of rupture. Although there are many
carbon fibers available on the open mar'et, they can be arbitrarily divided into
three grades as shown in Table F. They have lower thermal expansion
coefficients than both the glass and aramid fibers. The carbon fiber is ananisotropic material, and its transverse modulus are an order of magnitude less
than its longitudinal modulus. The material has a very high fatigue and creep
resistance.
3ince its tensile strength decreases with increasing modulus, its strain at
rupture will also be much lower. )ecause of the material brittleness at higher
modulus, it becomes critical in *oint and connection details, which can have
high stress concentrations. As a result of this phenomenon, carbon composite
laminates are more effective with adhesive bonding that eliminates mechanical
fasteners.
A*am#8 '#-e*s
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These are synthetic organic fibers consisting of aromatic polyamides.
The aramid fibers have excellent fatigue and creep resistance. Although there
are several commercial grades of aramid fibers available, the two most common
ones used in structural applications are EevlarG H and EevlarG H. The oungs
Modulus curve for EevlarG H is linear to a value of 4F 6"a but then becomes
slightly concave upward to a value of 1// 6"a at rupture: whereas, for EevlarG
H the curve is linear to a value of 1 6"a at rupture. As an anisotropic
material, its transverse and shear modulus are an order of magnitude less than
those in the longitudinal direction. The fibers can have difficulty achieving a
chemical or mechanical bond with the resin
0lass "#-e*s
The glass fibers are divided into three classes , %glass, 3%glass and C%
glass. The %glass is designated for electrical use and the 3%glass for high
strength. The C%glass is for high corrosion resistance, and it is uncommon for
civil engineering application. 9f the three fibers, the %glass is the most
common reinforcement material used in civil structures. It is produced from
lime%alumina%borosilicate which can be easily obtained from abundance of raw
materials li'e sand. The fibers are drawn into very fine filaments with
diameters ranging from to1FJ1/% m. The glass fiber strength and modulus
can degrade with increasing temperature. Although the glass material creeps
under a sustained load, it can be designed to perform satisfactorily. The fiber
itself is regarded as an isotropic material and has a lower thermal expansion
coefficient than that of steel.Among these synthetic fibers, the fiberglass is the
least expensive and carbon being the most expensive. 3o the glass fiber uses in
most of the applications due its economic factor and its enhanced properties.
1.1: RESIN SYSTEMS
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The resin is another important constituents in composites. The two
classes of resins are the thermoplastics and thermosets. A thermoplastic resin
remains a solid at room temperature. It melts when heated and solidifies when
cooled. The long%chain polymers do not chemically cross lin'. )ecause they
do not cure permanently, they are undesirable for structural application.
Conversely, a thermosetting resin will cure permanently by irreversible cross
lin'ing at elevated temperatures. This characteristic ma'es the thermoset resin
composites very desirable for structural applications. The most common resins
used in composites are the unsaturated polyesters, epoxies, and vinyl esters: the
least common ones are the polyurethanes and phenolics.
a+ Ep&x#es
The epoxies used in composites are mainly the glycidyl ethers and
amines. The material properties and cure rates can be formulated to meet the
re&uired performance. poxies are generally found in marine, automotive,
electrical and appliance applications. The high viscosity in epoxy resins limits
it use to certain processes such as molding, filament winding, and hand lay%up.
The right curing agent should be carefully selected because it will affect the
type of chemical reaction, pot life and final material properties. Although
epoxies can be expensive, it may be worth the cost when high performance is
re&uired.
-+ V#64l Es)e*s
The vinyl ester resins were developed to ta'e advantage of both the
wor'ability of the epoxy resins and the fast curing of the polyesters. The vinyl
ester has higher physical properties than polyesters but costs less than epoxies.
The acrylic esters are dissolved in a styrene monomer to produce vinyl ester
resins which are cured with organic peroxides. A composite product containing
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a vinyl ester resin can withstand high toughness demand and offer excellent
corrosion resistance.
(+ P&l45*e)%a6es
"olyurethanes are produced by combining polyisocyanate and polyol in a
reaction in*ection molding process or in a reinforced reaction in*ection molding
process. They are cured into very tough and high corrosion resistance materials
which are found in many high performance paint coatings.
8+ P%e6&l#(s
The phenolic resins are made from phenols and formaldehyde, and theyare divided into resole and novolac resins. The resoles are prepared under
al'aline conditions with formaldehyde(phenol 7("8 ratios greater than one. 9n
the contrary, novolacs are prepared under acidic conditions with (" ratios less
than one. !esoles are cured by applying heat and(or by adding acids. $ovolacs
are cured when reacting chemically with methylene groups in the hardener. The
phenolics are rated for good resistance to high temperature, good thermal
stability, and low smo'e generation.
e+ P&l4es)e*s
It is produced by the condensation polymerization of dicarboxylic acids
and dihydric alcohols. The formulation contains an unsaturated material such as
maleic anhydride or fumaric acid which is a part of the dicarboxylic acid
component. The formulation affects the viscosity, reactivity, resiliency and heat
deflection temperature 7#
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modulus, and #
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. The filament winding process can be automated to wrap resin%wetted
fibers around a mandrel to produce circular or polygonal shapes.
F. The layup process engages a hand or machine buildup of mats of fibers
that are held together permanently by a resin system. This method
enables numerous layers of different fiber orientations to be built up to a
desired sheet thic'ness and product shape. The hand lay%up method is
simple one, easy to handle and low cost to manufacturing.
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"#$5*e 1.2 Des#$6 p%#l&s&p%4
or instance, using this integrated design philosophy, a composite
chassis%less trailer is manufactured with a F/ 5 weight reduction compared to aconventional trailer provided with a steel chassis.
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A polymeric composite materials is made up of at least two materials; a
fiber and a matrix. These are combined to exploit the individual characteristics,
thereby providing additional &ualities that they are unable to provide
individually .They differ mar'edly from metals in the following ways
Composites are mostly orthotropic and inhomogeneous.
6enerally stiffness is less than that of steels leading to greater
attention to local and overall structural stability.
Materials properties are influenced by the manufacturing process,
temperature and the environment.
urthermore, when comparing composite materials to metals it is found that;
They are lighter, leading to excellent specific strength and stiffness
values.
They have very good environmental resistance and do not corrode
li'e many metals.
They have readily formed into complex shapes.
They have low thermal conductivity.
A composite material can ta'e a number of different forms. The material
may be orthotropic, such as unidirectional reinforced polymer, where thestrength and stiffness in the fiber direction considerably exceeds that at H/ ° to
the fiber. It may be planer%isotropic, such as random chopped strand glass mat
reinforced polymer.
1.1; RE
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"olymer composite materials consists of laminate of resin impregnated
fibers which are unidirectional or orthogonally aligned angle%ply or randomly
orientated systems. It is also possible to provide a mixture of fiber arrays in
laminate when fabricating a composite material to meet the re&uired loading
situation .This freedom to tailor%ma'e composite materials with specific
re&uired properties introduces an additional complexity in the design analyses
of these systems over those of the conventional ones.
"#-e* sele()#&6
The fiber reinforcement provides the structural performance re&uired of the final part. The fibers or filaments come in many chemical types and forms
and are the primary contributor to the stiffness, strength and other properties of
the composite.
Res#6 sele()#&6
They are viscous li&uids that are capable of hardening permanently. The
resins that are used in fiber%reinforced composites are sometimes referred to as
′ polymers′. "olymers can be classified under two types, according to the effect
of heat on their properties.
Thermoplastic !esins.
Thermosetting !esins 7"olyester and epoxy%#igh elastic model8.
Thermoplastics soften with heating and eventually melt, hardening again
with cooling. Typical thermoplastics include nylon, polypropylene, and A)3,
and these can be reinforcement, although usually only with short, chopped
fibers such as glass.
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Thermosetting materials, or ′thermosets′, formed from a chemical
reaction, where the resin and hardener or resin and catalyst are mixed and then
undergo a non%reversible chemical reaction to form a hard, infusible product.
The determination of whether to use a thermoplastic or thermosetting
resin depends largely on the application. Thermosetting resins are preferred
because of their increased ability to withstand elevated temperatures. It is
expected that the composite spring will be at a wor'ing temperature of 1// ° to
1///° and hence thermosetting resins are chosen as thermoplastic wor's well
only for cold and ambient wor'ing conditions.
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
=Me(%a6#(al a68 >a)e* a-s&*p)#&6 -e%a#&* &'
s#sal@-a6a6a '#-e* *e#6'&*(e8 p&l4es)e* %4-*#8 (&mp&s#)es -4
N.Ve6a)es%>a*a6 a68 A.Ela4ape*5malB presented that the
tensile, flexural, impact and water absorption tests were carried out
using banana(epoxy composite material. Initially, optimum fiber
length and weight percentage were determined. To improve the
mechanical properties, banana fiber was hybridised with sisal fiber.
This study showed that addition of sisal fiber in banana(epoxycomposites of up to B/5 by weight results in increasing the
mechanical properties and decreasing the moisture absorption
property. Morphological analysis was carried out to observe
fracture behaviour and fiber pull%out of the samples using scanning
electron microscope.
=S)584 &6 Me(%a6#(al C%a*a()e*#s)#(s &' U6#8#*e()#&6al
S#sal@0lass "#-e* Re#6'&*(e8 P&l4es)e* H4-*#8 C&mp&s#)es -4
Sa6a4.M.RB presented that this paper presents the mechanical
behavior of sisal(glass fiber reinforced polyester hybrid
composites. 3isal fiber has been hybridized with glass fiber
reinforced polyester using hand lay%up process to improve the
mechanical properties. Test specimens were prepared using glass
fiber768(sisal fiber of F/(G/, B/(B/ and G/(F/ weight fraction
ratios as per A3TM standards and mechanical properties li'e
tensile, impact and flexural strength of sisal (glass fiber reinforced
polyester are evaluated and compared. The results shows that
tensile strength of F/56%G/5sisal composition and flexural
strength of G/56%F/5sisal composition and impact 3trength of B/56%B/5sisal composition is found to be better than the
remaining two compositions .=Me(%a6#(al P*&pe*)#es &' Ep&x4 ase8 H4-*#8 C&mp&s#)es Re#6'&*(e8
>#)% S#sal@SIC@0lass "#-e*s -4 A*p#)%a.0.RB presented that development of
the "olymer Composites with natural fibers and fillers as a sustainable
alternative material for some engineering applications, particularly in aerospace
applications and automobile applications are being investigated. $atural fiber
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composites such as sisal, *ute, hemp and coir polymer composites appear more
attractive due to their higher specific strength, lightweight and biodegradability
and low cost. In this study, sisal(glass(3ic fiber reinforced epoxy composites are
prepared and their mechanical properties such as tensile strength, flexural
strength and impact strength are evaluated. Composites of silicon carbide filler
7without filler, F, + H-t 58 sisal fiber and glass fiber are investigated and
results show that the composites without filler better results compared to the
composites with silicon carbide filler.
2.1 OECTIVES O" THE RESEARCH WORK
The ob*ectives of the pro*ect are outlined below.
To develop a new class of hybrid polymer composites to explore the
potential of sisal and banana fiber.
valuation of mechanical properties such as; tensile strength, flexural
strength, tensile modulus, impact strength and water
absorption test.
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CHAPTER3!
MATERIALS METHODS AND PREPARATION O"
COMPOSITE
This chapter describes the details of processing of the composites and the
experimental procedures followed for their mechanical characterization. The
raw materials used in this wor' are
1. 3isal fiber
. )anana fiber fiber
F. poxy resin
. Alumina as filler
!.1 SISAL "IER
3isal fibre is derived from the leaves of the plant. It is
usually obtained by machine decortications in which the leaf is
crushed between rollers and then mechanically scraped. The fibre
is then washed and dried by mechanical or natural means. The
dried fibre represents only 5 of the total weight of the leaf. 9nce
it is dried the fibre is mechanically double brushed. The lustrous
strands, usually creamy white, average from 4/ to 1/ cm in length
and /. to /. mm in diameter. Then we have collected this sisal
fiber from 6opichettyplayam, rode. 3isal fibre is fairly coarse and
inflexible. It is valued for cordage use because of its strength,
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durability, ability to stretch, affinity for certain dyestuffs, and
resistance to deterioration in saltwater. 3isal fiber is fully
biodegradable, green composites were fabricated with soy protein
resin modified with gelatin. 3isal fiber, modified soy protein resins,
and composites were characterized for their mechanical and
thermal properties. It is highly renewable resource of energy. 3isal
fibre is exceptionally durable and a low maintenancewith minimal
wear and tear.
Chemical Composition of 3isal iber;
Kses of sisal fibre;
#igh grade sisal
fibres are long andare made into yarns
7either on their own
or in blends with wool
or acrylic8 and used in
carpets. Medium
grade fibres are made into cordage, ropes and twine, for agricultural and
industrial use: they are particular useful in a marine environment as they are
resistant to deterioration by salt water. 2ow grade shorter fibres are valued in
the paper industry because of the high content of cellulose and hemicellulose:
they help to strengthen recycled paper.
9ne of the traditional uses for sisal is baler twine, as the fibre is long
lasting and flexible. This use, however, has greatly decreased as the twine is
28
Cellulose B5
#emicelluloses 15
2ignin H.H5
-axes 5
Total 1//5
http://textilelearner.blogspot.com/2012/03/chemical-composition-of-textile-fiber.htmlhttp://textilelearner.blogspot.com/2012/03/chemical-composition-of-textile-fiber.html
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being replaced by polypropylene and at the same time new harvesting
technology uses much less twine. 3isal is still the best material for ma'ing
dartboards. 3isal is used commonly in the shipping industry for mooring small
craft, lashing, and handling cargo.
3isal is being used in composites instead of fibreglass to reinforce
components if the automotive and aircraft industry. 3isal is also being used in
the construction industry as cement reinforcement for low cost housing, as
plaster reinforcement and for roofing materials, as well as insulation. 3isal is
also great as a buffing cloth as it is strong enough to polish steel, and soft
enough not to scratch it. Another use for sisal is as a geotextile in land
reclamation, stabilisation of slopes and road construction. It also ma'es good
cat scratching posts.
!.2 a6a6a '#-e*
)anana fiber, a ligno%cellulosic fiber, obtained from the
pseudo%stem of banana plant 7Musa sepientum8, is a bast fiber with
relatively good mechanical properties. )anana plant is a large
perennial herb with leaf sheaths that form pseudo stem. Its height
can be 1/%/ feet 7F./%1. meters8 surrounding with 4%1 large
leaves. The leaves are up to H feet long and feet wide 7.G meters
and /.1 meter8. )anana plant is available throughout Thailand and
3outheast Asian, India, )angladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia,
"hilippines, #awaii, and some "acific islands. Then we have
collected banana fiber from 6opichettypalayam, rode for this
research wor'.
C%a*a()e*#s)#(s &' a6a6a "#-e*
)anana fiber is a natural bast fiber. It has its own physical and chemical
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characteristics and many other properties that ma'e it a fine &uality fiber.
• Appearance of banana fiber is similar to that of bamboo fiber and ramie
fiber, but its fineness and spinnability is better than the two.
• The chemical composition of banana fiber is cellulose, hemicellulose, and
lignin.
• It is highly strong fiber.
• It has smaller elongation.
• It has somewhat shiny appearance depending upon the extraction +
spinning process.
• It is light weight.
• It has strong moisture absorption &uality. It absorbs as well as releases
moisture very fast.
• It is bio% degradable and has no negative effect on environment and thus
can be categorized as eco%friendly fiber.
• Its average fineness is //$m.
It can be spun through almost all the methods of spinning including ring
spinning, open%end spinning, bast fiber spinning, and semi%worsted spinning
among others.
APPLICATIONS O" ANANA "IER
In the recent past, banana fiber had a very limited application and was
primarily used for ma'ing items li'e ropes, mats, and some other composite
30
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materials. -ith the increasing environmental awareness and growing
importance of eco%friendly fabrics, banana fiber has also been recognized for all
its good &ualities and now its application is increasing in other fields too such as
apparel garments and home furnishings.
PROPERTIES O" ANANA "IER
!.! Ep&x4 *es#6
poxy resins are the most commonly used thermoset plastic
in polymer matrix composites. poxy resins are a family of
thermoset plastic materials which do not give off reaction products
when they cure and so have low cure shrin'age. They also have
good adhesion to other materials, good chemical and
environmental resistance, good chemical properties and good
insulating properties. The epoxy resins are generally manufactured by reacting epichlorohydrin with bisphenol.
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"#lle*
illers are particles added to composite material to lower the
consumption of more expensive binder material or to better some
properties of the mixtured material. Then the filler is used to
reduce the coefficient of thermal expansion and polymerization
shrin'age. It helps to improve the mechanical property of the
composite. In this connection, Alumina is used as filler. Then the
Alumina properties includes hard, wear resistant, xcellent size
and shape capability, high strength and stiffness.
!. METHODOLO0Y
The full methodology of this pro*ect wor' is shown
in figure F.F.
abrication by compression molding method
Testing of abricated iber composites
Testing of mechanical properties
"#$ !.! Me)%&8&l&$4
32
Tensile
test
lexural
test
Impact
test
-ater
absorption
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binder_(material)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binder_(material)
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!.; "ARICATION O" COMPOSITE MATERIALS
This topic deals with the fabrication stages carried out to obtain
the composite material. The materials used in our fabrication
process are as follows;
3isal fiber fiber
)anana fiber
poxy resin
#ardner
Alumina 7Al/F8
!.;.1 COMPRESSION MOULDIN0 METHOD
The composite laminate is fabricated using compression
mouding method. It is simple and mostly used method. The
compression moulding process is shown in figure
"#$ !. C&mp*ess#&6 m&5l8#6$ p*&(ess
The process of composite fabrication using hand lay%up process is listed below,
Initially, the sisal fiber and banana fiber are chopped in the size of F mm.
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The fiber and Alumina is weighed to the re&uired &uantity and it also
mixed well.
Then, prepare the matrix by mixing the poxy resin and #ardener in the
ratio of 1/;1
Then the wax is applied in the die and the prepared matrix and fiber are
mixed well using glass rod.
Then the re&uired amount of fiber matrix is placed in the s&uare shaped
die of dimension F//xF//xF mm.
Then the die is closed and loaded with the pressure of 1B// psi at a
temperature of H/C
After hour, the die is opened and the hybrid laminate of sisal fiber and
banana fiber is ta'en out.
Ktmost care has been ta'en to maintain uniformity and homogeneity of
the composite. The fabricated specimen is shown in figure F..
"#$ !.; C&mp&s#)e Lam#6a)es
The composite laminate is fabricated for different fiber
weight 758, that is shown in table.
S.N& Samples "#-e*F+ "#lle*
758
Res#6
F+S#sal a6a6a
1 S1
2 S2
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! S!
S
; S;
Ta-le !.2 C&mp&s#)#&6 O' C&mp&s#)es
!./ E,PERIMENT PROCEDURE!./.1 CUTTIN0 O" LAMINATES INTO SAMPLES O"
DESIRED DIMENSIONS
A -I! #ACE3A- blade was used to cut each laminate
into smaller pieces, for various experiments and the sized
specimens are shown in the following figures.
T$3I2 T3T% 3ample was cut into the size of 7B/xBxF8mm in accordance
with A3TM standards
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-AT! A)39!"TI9$ T3T%3ample was cut into flat shape 7F/xF/xF8mm.
"#$ !.9 Wa)e* a-s&*p)#&6 )es) spe(#me6
T$3I2 T3T -IT# )92T D9I$T% 3ample was cut into the size of
71/xBxF8mm in accordance with A3TM standard
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!./.2 TENSILE TEST
The tensile strength of a material is the maximum amount of
tensile stress that it can ta'e before faliure.
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lexural strength is defined as a materials ability to resist
deformation under load. The short beam shear 73)38 tests are
performed on the composites samples to evaluate the value of inter%
laminar shear strength 7I2338. It is a F%point bend test, which
generally promotes failure by inter%laminar shear. This test is
conductedas per A3TM standard using KTM. The dimension of the
specimen is 71Bx1FxF8mm. It is measured by loading desired
shape specimen7x%inch8 with a span length at least three times
the depth. The flexural strength is expressed as 7M"a8 . lexural
strength is about 1/ to / percent of compressive strength
depending on the type, size and volume of coarse aggregate used.
#owever the best correlation for specific materials is obtained by
laboratory tests for given materials and mix design.
"#$ !.12 Expe*#me6)al se)5p '&* 'lex5*al )es)
!./. IMPACT TEST
Impact energy is the energy which is absorbed by the
specimen when the impact load is applied. #ere, the Izod impact
test is carried out. Izod impact testing is an A3TM standard method
38
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASTMhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASTM
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of determining the impact resistance of materials. An arm held at a
specific height 7constant potential energy8 is released. The arm hits
the sample and brea's it. rom the energy absorbed by the sample,
its impact energy is determined. A notched sample is generally
used to determine impact energy and notch sensitivity. The test is
similar to the Charpy impact test but uses a different arrangement
of the specimen under test.1N The Izod impact test differs from
the Charpy impact test in that the sample is held in a cantilevered
beam configuration as opposed to a three%point bending
configuration. The impact specimen size is 7Bx1FxF8mm.
"#$ !.1! I&8 #mpa() )es)#6$ ma(%#6e
!./.; WATER ASORPTION TEST
The water absorption test is used to find the water absorption rate. The effect of
water absorption on *ute and glass reinforced hybrid composites were
investigated . The specimens were dried in an oven at B/ /C and then they were
allowed to cool till they reached room temperature. The specimens were
weighed to an accuracy of /.1mg. -ater absorption tests were conducted by
immersing the composite specimens in distilled water in plastic tub at room
39
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charpy_impact_testhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izod_impact_strength_test#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charpy_impact_testhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charpy_impact_testhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izod_impact_strength_test#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charpy_impact_test
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temperature for hours duration. 9nce in hours, the specimens were ta'en
out from the water and all surface water was removed with a clean dry cloth and
the specimens were reweighed to the nearest /.1 mg. rom these two readings,
the water absorption rate 758 was calculated. The specimen size is 7F/JF/JF8
mm.
CHAPTER
MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS O" COMPOSITES
This chapter presents the mechanical properties of the sisal
and banana fiber reinforced epoxy composites prepared for this
present investigation.
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Ta-le .1 Me(%a6#(al p*&pe*)#es &' )%e (&mp&s#)es
.1.2. E""ECT O" "IER WEI0HT F+ ON TENSILE
STREN0TH
The test results for tensile strength are shown in igures .1.
The sample 1 and B shows the pure sisal and pure banana
reinforced composites and in this composites, pure banana shows
high tensile strength. The sample ,F and shows the tensile
strength of hybrid composites and in this hybrid composites, the
sample 7 i.e 1B5 of sisal and F/5 of banana fiber8 shows the
better tensile strength. rom the results it is seen that the tensile
strength of the composite increases with increase in banana fiber
weight758.
S1 S2 S3 S4 S0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Laminate samples
Tensile strength (N/mm2)
"#$5*e .1 E''e() &' '#-e* >e#$%) F+ &6 )e6s#le s)*e6$)%
&' (&mp&s#)es
.1.!. E""ECT O" "IER WEI0HT F+ ON TENSILE
STREN0TH WITH OLT OINT
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The test results for tensile strength are shown in igures .1. The sample 1 and B
shows the pure sisal and pure banana reinforced composites and in this
composites, pure banana shows high tensile strength. The sample ,F and
shows the tensile strength of hybrid composites and in this hybrid composites,
the sample 7 i.e F/55 of sisal and 1B5 of banana fiber8 shows the better
tensile strength. rom the results it is seen that the tensile strength of the
composite increases with increase in sisal fiber weight758.
12.5
13
13.5
14
14.5
15
15.5
16
Laminate samples
Tensile strength (N/mm2)
"#$5*e .! E''e() &' '#-e* >e#$%) F+ &6 )e6s#le s)*e6$)%
&' (&mp&s#)es
.1.!. E""ECT O" "IER WEI0HT F+ ON "LE,URAL
STREN0TH
The test results for flexural strength are shown in igures
.1. The sample 1 and B shows the pure sisal and pure banana
reinforced composites and in this composites, pure banana shows
high flexural strength. The sample ,F and shows the flexural
strength of hybrid composites and in this hybrid composites, the
sample F7 i.e 1B5 of sisal and F/5 of banana fiber8 shows the
better flexural strength. rom the results it is seen that the flexural
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strength of the composite increases with increase in banana fiber
weight758.
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Laminate samples
Flexural Strength (N/mm2)
"#$5*e .! E''e() &' '#-e* le6$)% &6 'lex5*al s)*e6$)% &'
(&mp&s#)es
.1.. E""ECT O" "IER WEI0HT F+ ON IMPACT
ENER0YThe test results for impact energy are shown in igures .1.
The sample 1 and B shows the pure sisal and pure banana
reinforced composites and in this composites, pure sisal shows
high impact energy. The sample ,F. and shows the impact
energy of hybrid composites and in this hybrid composites, the
sample 7 i.e F/55 of sisal and 1B5 of banana fiber 8 shows the
better impact energy. rom the results it is seen that the impact
energy of the composite increases with increase in sisal fiber
weight758.
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S1 S2 S3 S4 S50
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Laminate samples
Impact energy (J)
"#$5*e . E''e() &' '#-e* le6$)% &6 #mpa() e6e*$4 &'
(&mp&s#)es.
.1.; E""ECT O" "IER WEI0HTF+ ON WATER
ASORPTION RATE
The test results for water absorption rate are shown in
igures .1. The sample 1 and B shows the pure sisal and pure banana reinforced composites and in this composites, pure banana
shows less water absorption rate. The sample ,F and shows the
water absorption rate of hybrid composites and in this hybrid
composites, the sample F7 i.e .B5 of sisal and .B5 of banana
fiber 8 shows the less water absorption rate. rom the results it is
seen that the water absorption rate of the composite is less in
sample F.
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S1 S2 S3 S4 S50
5
10
15
20
25
Laminated samples
Water absrptin rate (!)
"#$ .; E''e() &' '#-e* >e#$%)F+ &6 >a)e*
a-s&*p)#&6 *a)e
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CHAPTER ;
COST ESTIMATION
This chapter presents the total cost of the pro*ect. The
process of cost estimation includes materials cost, fabrication cost
and cost of testing. The cost estimation is listed in table .1
S.NO DESCRIPTIONS
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CHAPTER /
CONCLUSIONS
This experimental investigation of mechanical behavior of sisal and banana
fiber reinforced epoxy hybrid composites leads to the following conclusions;
1. This wor' shows that successful fabrication of a sisal and banana fiber
reinforced epoxy hybrid composites with different fiber weight758 is
possible by compression molding techni&ue.
. It has been noticed that the mechanical properties of the composites such
as tensile strength, flexural strength, flexural modulus, impact strength
and water absorption rate of the composites are also greatly influenced by
the fibre weight758.
RE"ERENCES
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1. Eaw A.E.: Mechanics of composite materials, Chapter 1, C!C "ress; Taylor
+ rancis 6roup, K3A, //, nd ed. I3)$; /%4HF%1FF%/
. 6hassemieh, .: $assehi, ?. "olymer Composites. //1, , B4.
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1.Ohang, .: Lia, O. CMC, //B, , 1F.