MEASURING ACTIVITY

Yusron Sugiarto

PURPOSE!

Projection

MEASURING EQUIPMENT

To achieve any degree of precision, the measuring equipment used must be precisely manufactured with reference to the same standard of length.

Requirement

You must be able to assess the correctnessof size of the work by adopting a sensitive touch or ‘feel’ between the instrument and work

Vernier caliper

These instruments are capable of external, internal, step and depth measurements and are available in a range of measuring capacities from 150 mm to 1000 mm.

Vernier caliper adjustment

To take a measurement, slacken both locking screws A and B. Move the sliding jaw along the beam until it contacts the surface of the work being measured.

Tighten locking screw B. Adjust the nut C until the correct ‘feel’ is obtained, then tighten locking screw A. Re-check ‘feel’ to ensure that nothing has moved. When you are satisfied, take the reading on the instrument.

Electronic caliper

The electronic caliper is a modern-designed precision measuring instrument which has an electronic measuring unit with an LCD digital readout giving direct readings in imperial or metric units with a resolution of 0.0005 or 0.01 mm.

Vernier height gauge

In this case the beam, carrying the fixed scale, is attached to a heavy base. The vernier scale carries a jaw upon which various attachments can be clamped.Height gauges are available in a range of capacitiesreading from zero up to 1000 mm.

Vernier depth gauge

Accurate depths can be measured using the vernier depth gauge again employing the same principles. Depth gauges are available in a range of capacities from 150 mm to 300 mm.These are also available as an easy-to-read dial depth gauge and anelectronic model with an LCD digital readout operating in the same way as the caliper models.

Vernier bevel protractor

As well as linear measurement, vernier scales can equally well be used to determine angularmeasurement. The vernier bevel protractor again uses the principle of two scales, one moving and one fixed.

The moving or vernier scale is divided into 12 equal parts which occupy the same space as 23 degrees on the fixed scale.This means that each division on the vernier scale is 23/12 degrees

Micrometers

The micrometer relies for its measuring accuracy on the accuracy of the spindle screw thread. The spindle is rotated in a fixed nut by means of the thimble, which opens and closes the distance between the ends of the spindle and anvil

Modern-designed external micrometers are available with an LCD digital readout giving direct readings in either imperial or metric units with a resolution of 0.00005 or 0.001 mm.

Direct reading digital micrometer

Internal micrometer

The internal micrometer is designed for inside measurement and consists of a micrometer measuring head to which may be added external rods to cover a wide range of measurements and a spacing collar to make up for the limited range of the micrometer head.

Depth micrometer

The depth micrometer is used for measuring the depths of holes, slots, recesses and similar applications.The micrometer principle is the same as for the other instruments; however, the readings with this instrument increase as the thimble is screwed on, resulting in the numbering of sleeve and thimble graduations in the opposite direction to those on the external andinternal micrometers.

HAND PROCESSES

Hand tools are used to remove small amounts of material, usually from small areas of the work piece.

This may be done because • no machine is available, • the work piece is too large to go on a machine, • the shape is too intricate or simply that it would be tooexpensive to set up a machine to do the work.

Hand processes

Hand processesThe hacksaw (gergaji besi)Cold chisels (pemahat)Scrapers (pegikis)

Engineer’s hammers (martil)screwdriver (obeng)etc

The hacksaw

• The hacksaw is used to cut metal. • Where large amounts of waste metal have to be removed, this is more easily done by hacksawing away the surplus rather than by filing.

The hacksaw blade fits into a hacksaw frame on two holding pins, one of which is adjustable in order to tension the blade. The hacksaw frame should be rigid, hold the blade in correct alignment, tension the blade easily and have a comfortable grip.

The standard hacksaw blade is 300 mm long x 13 mm wide x 0.65 mm thick and is available with 14, 18, 24 and 32 teeth per 25 mm; i.e. for every 25 mm length of bladethere are 14 teeth, 18 teeth and so on.

• A hacksaw blade should be chosen to suit the type of material being cut, whether hard or soft, and the nature of the cut, whether thick section or thin.

• Two important factors in the choice of a blade are the pitch, or distance between each tooth and the material from which the blade is made.

Three types of hacksaw blade are available• All hard – this type is made from hardened high-speed steel. these blades have a long blade life but are also very brittle and are easily broken if twisted during sawing. For this reason they are best suited to the skilled user.

• Flexible – this type of blade is also made from high-speed steel, but with only the teeth hardened. This results in a flexible blade with hard teeth which is virtually unbreakable and can therefore be used by the less experienced user or when sawing in an awkward position. The blade life is reduced due to the problem of fully hardening the teeth only.

• Bimetallic – this type of blade consists of a narrow cutting-edge strip of hardened high-speed steel joined to a tough alloy-steel back by electron beam welding. This blade combines the qualities of hardness of the all-hard blade and the unbreakable qualities of the flexible blade, resulting in a shatterproof blade with long life andfast-cutting properties.

Cold chisels

• Cold chisels are used for cutting metal.

• They are made from high-carbon steel, hardenedand tempered at the cutting end.

• The opposite end, which is struck by the hammer, is not hardened but is left to withstand the hammer blows without chipping.

Cold chisels are classified as ‘flat’ or ‘cross-cut’, according to the shape of the point

‘Flat’ cold chisel ‘Cross-cut’ cold chisel

This chisel has a broad flat point and is used to cut thin sheet metal, remove rivet heads or split corroded nuts. The cutting edge is ground to an angle of approximately 60º

This chisel has a narrower point than the flat chisel and is used to cut keyways, narrow grooves, square corners and holes in sheet metal too small for the flatchisel

Using the chiselWhen using a cold chisel on sheet-material, great care must be taken not to distort the metal. To prevent distortion, the sheet must be properly supported. A small sheet is best held in a vice. A large sheet can be supported by using two metal bars securely clamped.

To remove a section from the centre of a plate, the plate can be supported on soft metal. It is best to mark out the shape required, drill a series of holes in the waste material, and use the chisel to break through between the holes

ScrapersScraping, unlike filing or chiseling, is not done to remove a great deal of material. The material is removed selectively in small amounts, usually to give a flat or a good bearing surface.

The purpose of scraping is thereforeto remove high spots to make the surface flat or circular, and at the same time to createsmall pockets in which lubricant can be held between the two surfaces.

The flat scraper, for use on flat surfaces, resembles a hand file thinned down at the point, but it does not have any teeth cut on it.

The three-square or triangular scraper, are commonly used to remove the sharp edges from curved surfaces and holes

Engineer’s hammers

The engineer’s hammer consists of a hardened and tempered steel head, varying in massfrom 0.1 kg to about 1 kg, firmly fixed on a tough wooden handle, usually hickory or ash

The flat striking surface is known as the face, and the opposite end is called the pein.

The most commonly used is the ball-pein, which has a hemispherical end andis used for riveting over the ends of pins and rivets.

Ball-pein hammer

For use with soft metal such as aluminum or with finished components where the work piece could be damaged if struck by an engineer’s hammer, a range of hammers is available with soft faces, usually hide, copper or a tough plastic such as nylon. The soft faces are usually in the form of replaceable inserts screwed into the head or into a recess in the face

screwdrivers• The screwdriver is one of the most common tools, and is also the one most misused.• Screwdrivers should be used only to tighten or loosen screws. They should never be used to chisel, open tins, scrape off paint or lever off tight parts such as collars on shafts.

There are two types of screw slot: the straight slot and the cross slot, i.e. ‘pozidriv’ or ‘supadriv’. Always select the screwdriver to suit the size of screw head and the type of slot – use of the incorrect size or type results in damage to both the screwdriver blade and the screw head and in a screw very difficult to loosen or tighten.

Straight slots in screws are machined with parallel sides. It is essential that any screwdriver used in such a slot has the sides of the blade parallel to slightly tapered up to about 10, (a). A screwdriver sharpened to a point like a chisel will not locatecorrectly and will require great force to keep it in the slot, Fig(b). Various blade lengths are available with corresponding width and thickness to suit the screw size.

Powered hand toolsThe main advantages of powered hand tools are the reduction of manual effort and the speeding up of the operation. The operator, being less fatigued, is able to carry out the task more efficiently, and the speeding up of the operation results in lower production costs.

Air-operated tools: (a) hand drill (b) screwdriver (c) impact wrench(d) grinder (e) metal shears (f) hammer

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