Measurement of Cutting Forces in CNC Turning Centers: A Review

8/9/2019 Measurement of Cutting Forces in CNC Turning Centers: A Review

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IPASJ International Journal of Mechanical Engineering (IIJME)Web Site: http://www.ipasj.org/IIJME/IIJME.htm

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Volume 3, Issue 5, May 2015 ISSN 2321-6441

Volume 3, Issue 5, May 2015 Page 77

ABSTRACT

The condition of a cutting tool is an important factor in any metal cutting process. Methods for detecting and monitoring the

wear on a cutting tool is therefore crucial in most metal cutting processes and several researches have been carried out to

develop on-line tool condition monitoring systems. Cutting force is the most important technological parameter to be controlledin a machining process. This paper presents a review of some of the methods that have been employed to measure the cutting

forces in CNC turning centers and discusses their practical implementation issues. The study of measurement helps us to

analyze the effect of the process parameters such as cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut on cutting forces in CNC turning

centers for minimal energy consumption. The various graphs show the effect of the different parameters on the generated

cutting force during turning.

Keywords: Cutting Force, Cutting Tool, Depth of cut, Feedrate, Process Parameters, Turning.

1. INTRODUCTION

Machining of components is a major manufacturing process in the metal cutting industry. Turning is the preferred

machining process used for metal removal process in manufacturing industry that involves generation of high cutting

forces and temperature and it is always current for research. The industry is continuously trying to improve the lathe so

as to get better products at less cost and with no rejections. To achieve this, a lot of research work is done to identify theoptimum conditions for metal cutting. Some CNC machines are also provided with the 'adaptive control system' which

modifies the system parameters online according to the feedback so as to get the optimum machining quality. Since the

force exerted to do the machining plays a central role in determining the quality of final product it becomes imperative

to understand the effect of forces acting on cutting tool of lathe and hence it is necessary to devise an instrument that is

capable of measuring the forces on lathe. This also requires understanding the nature of forces acting on the lathe so as

to decide the type of instrument that will effectively measure these forces. A lower cutting force is always preferred for

long tool life, lower deflection, lesser power consumption and improved surface finish. Finding process parameters that

optimize cutting force is an important task towards enhancing efficiency of machining process. The machining

parameters-that affects power consumption during turning process are cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut. Higher

the cutting parameters, higher the power consumption. Hence, focusing on these parameters by cutting force

measurement method is expected to give significant impact on power reduction.

Several researchers have proposed a sensor-less and real-time cutting force estimation method based on the disturbance

observer theory [11, 13, and 34]. A considerable amount of investigation has been directed towards the prediction

and measurement of cutting forces. Due to the complex tool configurations/cutting conditions of metal cutting

operations and some unknown factors and stresses, theoretical cutting force calculations failed to produce accurate

results. Therefore, experimental measurement of the cutting forces became unavoidable.

Here an attempt is made to give a brief review on various approaches for measuring cutting forces and the effect of

cutting parameters on cutting forces in turning. Analysis of cutting technology, optimization of cutting parameters and

improvement of cutting processes are achieved by the measurement of cutting forces.

2. MONITORING OF CUTTING FORCES

Cutting force is the most sensitive indicators of machining performance. Both the static and the dynamic components of

the cutting force contain information about the state of chip formation and cutting tool. Machining forces can be

measured directly or indirectly; the direct measurement requires the mounting of a dynamometer on the machine tool.

For indirect measuring, detect the power consumed by the spindle or feed drive motors and using these data to calculate

the principal and cutting forces.

Sensors installed inside the machine tools for monitoring the cutting force are called as “external” sensors [28]. This is

Measurement of Cutting Forces in CNC Turning

Centers: A Review1B.Bindu , Dr. B. Vinod

2

1 Assistant Professor, Dept. of Robotics and Automation Engineering, PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu

2 Head, Dept. of Robotics and Automation Engineering, PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu







contrast to “internal” sensors – current sensors for servo and spindle motors installed on NC machine tools.

Commercially available dynamometers measure cutting force using quartz piezoelectric transducers [18].

Commercial numerically-controlled machine tools having servo motors in a feed drive or spindle motors have current

sensors for motion control. When torque induces motor disturbance, armature current is modified by the servo

controller to cancel its influence, so cutting force is calculated from a motor’s armature current – probably the cheapestway to monitor cutting loads because no extra sensors are needed.

Acoustic emission (AE) analysis of machining processes has been long studied (e.g. [41]). More thorough review can

be found in [29, 39]. Except for a few commercially successful products, few implementations exist in current practical

machining. In this paper we discuss mainly on the methods of cutting force measurement, other TCM are not covered

here.

3. CUTTING FORCE MEASUREMENT BY DYNAMOMETER

Dynamometer can measure three perpendicular cutting force components during turning, and the measured numerical

values can be stored in computer by data acquisition system. The basic principle and general method of measurement is

schematically shown in Figure 1. Strain gauge type dynamometers are inexpensive but less accurate and inconsistent,

whereas, the piezoelectric type are highly accurate, reliable and consistent but are very expensive. Turning

dynamometers may be strain gauge or piezoelectric type and may be of one, two or three dimensions capable to monitor

all forces FX(thrust force), FY(feed force)and FZ(tangential force). Table 1 summarizes general methods for force

measurements. (Source: Kistler, 1998 -A Guide to Measurement of Force). With piezoelectric no power supply is

needed and the deformation to generate a signal is very small.

Table 1: General methods for force measurements and characteristics

The single point cutting tools have only one cutting force during machining. But that force is resolved into two or three

components for ease of analysis and exploitation. Figure 2 visualizes how the single cutting force in turning is resolved

into three components along the three orthogonal directions; X, Y and Z. These three components are:

FZ (Ft): called the main or major component as it is the largest in magnitude. It is also called power component. Cutting

force acts in tangential direction.Fy (Fa): may not be that large in magnitude but is responsible for causing dimensional inaccuracy and vibration. Feed

Force acts in the direction of feed (axial direction).

FX (Fr): It, even if larger than FY, is least harmful and hence least significant. Thrust Force acts in radial direction.

The heart of a system for measuring cutting forces is the actual instrument, a dynamometer. Dynamometers based on

the piezoelectric principle output a charge proportional to the measurand. These charges are then passed on via a high

insulation cable to the charge amplifier for conversion into proportional voltages. A reliable connection between the

dynamometer and the in-line charge amplifier is of paramount importance to measurement stability. Both ends of the

cables are provided with robust connectors that ensure the connection to the stationary dynamometer achieves IP67

(International Protection) degree of protection.

For lathes with a turret-head style tool holder, the 3-component measuring system is used. The exact position of the tool

edge is ensured by the tool holder fixture on the turret head. Figure 3 shows the schematic of the experimental setup for

carrying out the experiment. Workpiece is mounted in the chuck of the lathe headstock. Kistler three-component piezoelectric dynamometer is selected for force measurement. Output of the dynamometer is amplified by charge

amplifier and data are collected in the PC by using data acquisition system Dynoware.

Device TypeTypical range ofrated capacities

Typical uncertainty% of reading

Typical temperature sensitivityand operating range

% of reading per °C

Strain gauge load cells:Semiconductor gauges

Thin film gaugesFoil gauges

0.01 N to 10 kN0.1 N to 1 MN5 N to 50 MN

0.2 to 10.02 to 10.02 to 1

0.02(-40°C to +80°C)0.02(-40°C to +80°C)0.01(-40°C to +80°C)

Piezoelectric crystal 1.5 mN to 120 MN 0.3 to 1 0.02(-190°C to +200°C)

Hydraulic 500 N to 5 MN 0.25 to 5 0.05(+5°C to +40°C)

Pneumatic 10 N to 500 kN 0.1 to 2 0.05(+5°C to +40°C)

LVDT, capacitive, turning-fork, vibrating wire 10 mN to 1 MN 0.02 to 2 0.02(-40°C to +80°C)

Magnetostrictive 2 kN to 50 MN 0.5 to 2 0.04(-40°C to +80°C)

Gyroscopic 50 N to 250 N 0.001 0.0001(-10°C to +40°C)

Force balance 0.25 N to 20 N 0.0001 0.0001(-10°C to +40°C)







Figure 1 General principle of measurement.

Figure 2 Cutting forces during turning for single point tool.

Figure 3 Schematic diagram of the experimental setup

The effects of cutting forces, feedrate and depth of cut by using Kistler three-component piezoelectric dynamometer,

charge amplifier for force measurements are shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5. Graphs can be plotted for different sets ofvelocity, feed and depth of cut for further analysis. Initial diameter of the bar = 25mm, Bar material = MS, Cutting tool

material = HSS.

The experimental results show the following points:

The cutting force and feed force are low at high cutting speed and comparatively high at low cutting speed. This is

because as cutting speed increases the chips are thinner and shear angle increases thus decreasing chip reduction

coefficient and chip strains. That means the plastic deformation of metal takes place with less strain because of greater

shear angle, the force and power consumption being low.

The cutting force and feed force are low at low feed and depth of cut and comparatively high at high feed and high

depth of cut. The greater the feed and depth of cut , larger the cross sectional area of the uncut chip, the volume of the

deformed metal and consequently the greater is the resistance of the material to chip formation and larger is the

force Fz will be in turning operation.

Feed is the most significant variable affecting cutting force followed by depth of cut and cutting speed. The interaction

of feed and depth of cut is the next influencing factor on the cutting force.

The most important requirements for a dynamometer are high stiffness, sensitivity and accuracy. The stiffness of the

selected dynamometer should be high to ensure that the deflection will not affect the operation, the sensitivity and







accuracies are within the range of ±1%. For avoiding the vibration affects on the recorded forces, select the

dynamometers which have the natural frequency at least four times the values of the frequency of the exciting vibration.

Figure 4 Effect of Depth of Cut on Cutting Force for 550 and 220 RPM.

Figure 5 Effect of Feed Rate on Cutting Force 550 and 220 RPM.

4. CUTTING FORCE MONITORING BY MOTOR CURRENT SENSING

Altintas proposed the detection of tool breakage by monitoring the periodic cutting force using the feed motor current

[10].Mannan and Broms are amongst the few who have studied the relationship between axis motor currents and

cutting loads [44-46]. The method is particularly simple and inexpensive when a Hall effect sensor is used. Broms [46]

examined how the phase current of the three-phase a.c. induction motor driving one of the axes of a CNC machine

changed when the axis was subjected to cutting load. He found that the range of the current (equal to twice the

amplitude) increased with heavier cuts.

Experiments on machines equipped with a.c. motors have shown that motor current changes under drive load only

when the axis is moving. No change in current is observed when the axis is stationary. This means that a.c. motorcurrent sensing can only be used for measuring active forces and not passive forces. Thus, for instance, in a cylindrical

turning operation, the method will not be able to measure the radial cutting force because it is passive. Experimental

results shows that the method proposed can measure tangential, axial, and radial cutting forces with an error of less

than 10%, 5% and 25%, respectively. ANFIS (Adaptive Neural Fuzzy Inference Systems) is used to re-evaluate the

performance of motor current based cutting force estimation technique. ANFIS has been able to improve the prediction

performance

Here, we could assume that the Kistler dynamometer is highly accurate. Hence, the variance in the dynamometer

readings can be assumed to be equal (approximately) to that of the machining process. This figure can then be

subtracted from the observed variance in the corresponding motor-current based force estimate.

Several cylindrical turning tests were performed under nominally identical input conditions and the resulting variances

of interest with respect to Fy and Fz (Fx could not be estimated through motor current measurement because it is the

passive force in a cylindrical turning operation). The results are shown in Table 2[36].

The superior performance of motor current based measurement of Fz may be attributed to the fact that this axis operatesat low drive speeds and hence is unlikely to be subjected to speed and temperature dependent non-linearities and

fluctuations. Clearly, further research is required if we were to improve the performance with regard to Fy.







Table 2: Variance analysis

To separate out the influence of cutting force in motor current, influence of friction must be compensated. This is

particularly difficult when the drive is stationary, and subject to larger static friction and elastic force imposed by ball

screw or nut deformation [50]. In high-speed machining of hard materials with higher feedrate and lower depth of cut,

tool wear often greatly influences the cutting force component normal to the feed direction, making it difficult to

observe this influence on spindle motor current [2].

The motor current based technique is applicable for measuring cutting force components along one or more of the axis

motions. The method is not applicable when the desired force component is passive and is directed parallel to a

machine axis.

5. SENSOR-LESS CUTTING FORCE MONITORING METHOD

A sensor-less cutting force monitoring method that can estimate the cutting force without an external sensor by using

information from the position and current was developed based on Disturbance Observer (DOB) theory [14] in a

turning control system. The main advantage is that the additional complexity is kept to a minimum while reducing the

cost of the condition monitoring system. The motor thrust force is represented by Fmotor; the friction force, by Ffric;

the cutting force, by Fcut; the moving table mass, by M; the acceleration in the feed direction, by a; and the electrical

current, by Ia. Thus, the equation of motion is described as given in Equation (1).

A first-order LPF is inserted to reduce noise generated by the derivative calculation. The cutting force is estimated

through a Low-Pass Filter (LPF) as follows:

(2)

Where gcut is the cutoff frequency of the LPF, ˆ denotes an estimated value, the superscript ref denotes a reference

value, and the superscript res denotes a response value. As shown in Equation (2), the cutting force can be estimated by

using the reference current, position response, and friction force. When a noncontact mechanism such as a linear motor

and air slide is applied to movable parts, the friction force is almost zero. Figure 6 [3] shows the block diagram of a

sensor-less cutting force monitoring method. This system is called a Cutting force Observer (COB). Therefore, the

cutting force applied to the cutting point is derived from Equation (3). The cutting force estimation can be extended to amulti-linear motor, as shown in Equation (4).

Where F1, F2 are the cutting force components applied to two motors in the twin linear motor drive stage and Fi is the

cutting force components applied to multi-linear motor drive stage.

To verify the validity of the proposed method, the estimated force was compared using a dynamometer that was

mounted on the table of the twin linear motor drive stage [3]. Figure 7 [3] shows the schematic diagram of system. The

estimated value and measured value can be acquired in synchronization using the controller. Figure 8 [5] shows the

results of the cutting force monitoring by the CFOB in the case of the non-coated tool. The estimated force from the

CFOB is compared using a dynamometer. This force is the principle cutting force. The thrust force is obtained directly by CFOB. The estimation accuracy obtained was compared using a dynamometer. The maximum error in the cases of

the CFOB was 0.5 N. The accuracy depends on the resolution of the encoder.

Sl.no.

SourceFy Fz

Mean (N) Variance (N2) Mean (N) Variance (N2)

1 Dynamometer reading 485.8 84 325.8 320

2 Motor-current based estimate using ANFIS 465.2 425 326.9 580

3Variance attributable to the motor-current based cuttingforce measurement technique=variance in row2-variance inrow 1

- 383 - 260

Work material-aluminum alloy, tool holder-PDJNR2525M15, insert-DNMG150608, insert angle=55°, nose radius=0.8mm, side cutting edgeangle=32°, normal rake angle=-6°, and angle of inclination of major cutting edge= -7°. N=1000 rpm, a p=2mm.Feed rate=0.2mm/rev. workdiameter was variable but was measured. No of observations=12.







Figure 6 Effect of Feed Rate on Cutting Force 550 and 220 RPM.

Figure 7 Schematic diagram of stage system.

Figure 8 Performance of Cutting force observer (CFOB).

6. CUTTING FORCE MEASUREMENT BY SURFACE ACOUSTIC WAVE (SAW) STRAIN SENSORS

Surface acoustic wave sensors are a class of micro electro mechanical systems (MEMS) which rely on the modulation

of surface acoustic waves to sense a physical phenomenon. SAW devices can offer wireless sensor nodes a locally

passive method of operation in environments where battery or scavenged power is not viable. This section provides an

analysis of the SAW technology performance in a CNC turning application during machining [15]. The wireless

passive sensing using SAW sensors for process monitoring in machining operations are shown in Figure 9 [15].

The CNC turning operations were used to test the wireless passive SAW sensing system. This paper reports turning

forces measured in the dominating cutting force (Fc) direction and in the feed force (Ff) direction [15]. An Okuma

LT15-M machining centre was used as the test platform. A Korloy MGEHR parting off tool holder and a Sandvik

PCLNR tool holder were instrumented with passive wireless SAW strain sensing elements. Two SAW sensors wereused for the differential channel to measure the cutting force and two sensors for the feed force. The correlation

statistics is adopted in the analysis of the SAW sensor data response for performance analysis.







Figure 9 Multiple wireless sensor concept.

Continuous tests were carried out on the PCLNR tool holder with a feed rate of 0.1 mm/min and therefore the dominant

force contribution were in the cutting force direction only. Figure 11 shows the increasing amplitude and increase in

the depth of cut from the SAW differential channel output sampled at 3 kHz. The second subplot in Figure 10 is the

signal with a 10 point moving average applied to the raw signal [15].

Figure 11 shows the 6 mm cut in more detail and compares the response to the dynamometer and highlights thedynamic signal content from irregular chip formation showing up as force fluctuations around the steady state cutting

force amplitude.

Single SAW sensor interrupted cutting force tests were carried out using the MGEHR tool holder shown below in

Figure 12 shows the interrupted signal response and a section of the signal summarizing a slot pass from the workpiece

during a spindle rotation. Figure 12 shows the SAW sensor signal lagging the Kistler signals as the cutting tool

disengages and subsequently lagging again as the cutting tool re-engages.

Figure 10 Depth of cut changes on SAW force response amplitude.

Figure 11 Cutting force differential channel continuous cutting.






Volume 3, Issue 5, May 2015 4

Figure 12 Interrupted cutting results.

A clear systematic and repeatable deviation in the difference signal is showing the SAW sensor response lagging the

Kistler 9263 signal. This occurs as the cutting tip disengages and again when it reengages with the workpiece. Figure

13(a) presents the difference between the Kistler and differential SAW sensor signal. Figure 13(b) shows the Rsq

summary for each spindlespeed.

Figure 13 [15] demonstrates that while The strain response lag is present in the system, the performance is constant

across the presented machining speeds. It is possible therefore that the bandwidth limitations associated with the SAW

system are dominated by the wireless interrogation methods applied. At 2000 RPM the cutting edge engagement is four

times faster than at 500 RPM and demonstrate no reduction in the SAW systems performance.

Figure 13 Interrupted difference summary and R sq analysis summary.

Dynamic cutting has demonstrated a physical and systematic lag between the SAW sensor signal and the Kistler sensor

signal. The difference plots and unusual data points identified by the regression analysis have shown that the R sq value

reduction is directly caused by the SAW sensor signals slight lag during the cutting tips engagement and

disengagement with the aluminum workpiece. This graphical method has identified two different signal deviation

characteristics and explains the nature of the three sensors correlation analysis.

As shown in this paper, the SAW measurement system has shown excellent correlation to the Kistler signals but with a

much higher signal to noise ratio. Coherent accumulations and a resulting averaged signal can improve the signal to

noise ratio but at the cost of a system bandwidth reduction. Currently investigations into the system bandwidth are

being further explored using the dynamic calibration r ig explained in [27].

A passive wireless SAW sensing system has been presented in a machine monitoring context where the strain

generated during a machining process on a CNC turning tool holder was measured and indirectly related to the cutting

force. Rapid step change responses measured by the reference sensors during interrupted cutting demonstrated a rise

time and fall time associated with the SAW system resulting in an estimated dynamic bandwidth of 1 kHz. Acoustic

wave sensors competitively priced, inherently rugged, very sensitive, and reliable, and can be interrogated passively and

wirelessly.

7. CONCLUSION

This paper gives a reliable, accurate method of cutting force measurement for on-line tool wear and breakage detection

and the prediction of surface roughness under varying cutting conditions with minimum energy consumption in a

turning process.







Acoustic emission and vibration measurements are receiving a great deal of attention due to the non-obtrusive nature of

the transducers, but important signal processing problems still remain to be solved . Current monitoring is the simplest

method for dc motor driven machine tools, but suffers from sensitivity and time lag problems. With all these methods

the tool wear or breakage are measured indirectly through another system variable. Indirect measuring is less accurate

than direct methods.From this study we can find the cutting force measurement using dynamometer devices gives more accurate values than

other methods. The effect of cutting parameters (cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut) on the force components was

studied and the performance of the dynamometer was compared with other devices.

Early methods were based on strain-gage measurement of the elastic deflection of the tool under load. Today, one of the

most commonly used dynamometers is a force-platform piezo-electric load cells.

Error categories relating to strain measurement reduced the level of recorded strain by approximately 35% due to gauge

misalignment, gauge mislocation, and unwanted signals of bending effects. There was also a self-heating effect and

thermal shock which were not eliminated completely by strain gauges. By using the Kistler technique it was possible to

eliminate most of these errors.

Force plates with quartz crystal sensors can accurately measure both very small and very large forces within their

structural load capacity. Piezoelectric force plates are very compact for an instrument with such a wide measuring

range. Their rigidity makes them robust and gives them a high factor of safety against overload. The high rigidity ofquartz crystal sensors is reflected in the very high overall stiffness, which results in a very high natural frequency and

damping in all three directions of measurement.

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