Measurement and Significant Figures - Notre dame … · Web viewA sample of 100.0 mL of oxygen has...

Textbook Notes Unit 4 Term 4

Air: Chemistry and the Atmosphere

Gases in the AtmosphereA.3 PROPERTIES OF GASES pg. 305What three reasons make atmospheric gases seem to be nothing? 1. _____________________________

2.____________________________________ 3._________________________________

A.4 PRESSURE pg. 309-311

In science, pressure is __________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

The equation for pressure is:

pressure is __________________ proportional to force.

pressure is _________________ proportional to area.

Use the example of someone stepping on your foot to explain the relationship between pressure and force and pressure and area.

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

What is the International System of Units (SI) and why is it important?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Explain how base units are different from derived units.

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

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Complete Table 4.3 for the units relative to chemistry

SI UNITS FOR SELECTED PHYSICAL QUANTITIESThe Seven Base Units of SI

Physical Quantity Name SymbolLength

Mass

Time

Temperature

Amount of substance

Some Derived UnitsArea

Volume

Force

Pressure

Explain one newton of force in terms of a bar of soap. __________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Which quantity in the table above depends on its mass and gravity? _______________________

Explain on pascal in terms of bread and butter. ________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

What unit is commonly used to express many pressures? ________________________________

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A.5 Applications of Pressure pg. 311

Write the answers and show work for the calculations. You need to use the formula for pressure.

1. a. _________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

b. ___________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

2. SHOW WORK

____________________________________

3. ___________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

A.7 ATOMS AND MOLECULES IN MOTION pg. 314-315

Describe the attractions of the molecules in a gas compared to the attractions of molecules in liquids and solids.

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Describe the spacing between gas molecules: _________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

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Describe the direction of the paths of gas molecules: ___________________________________

Describe the speed of gas molecules: _______________________________________________

What has to happen to make gas molecules change direction? ____________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

What happens to produce gas pressure? _____________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

What determines the average speed of the gas molecules? _______________________________

What is kinetic energy also known as? ______________________________________________

What is kinetic energy associated with? _____________________________________________

What two factors determine an object’s kinetic energy? ________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

A.8 PRESSURE-VOLUME BEHAVIOR OF GASES pg. 316-318Make an illustration combining Figures 4.15 and 4.16 and explain (in your own words) what it shows about the relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas.

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

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What is the name of the law that represents the inverse relationship between pressure and volume of a gas when the temperature is constant?

______________________________

Write the equation for this law when there are both an initial and final pressure and volume.

A.8 Supplement: Boyle’s LawIn this activity you will solve the following problems using Boyle’s law, which describes the pressure-volume relationship for a gas. Show your setup for all problems.

1. A sample of 100.0 mL of oxygen has a pressure of 10.50 kPa. The pressure is then changed to 9.91 kPa. Assume that temperature remains constant.a. Predict whether the volume will increase or decrease. ___________________

b. What is the new volume of the gas?

Volume = ___________________

2. A flask containing 95.0 cm3 of hydrogen was collected at a pressure of 731 mm of mercury. At what pressure would the volume of hydrogen be 70.0 cm3? Assume that temperature remains constant.

a. Predict whether the pressure will increase or decrease. ___________________

b. What is the pressure of the gas at 70 cm3?

Pressure = ___________________

3. A gas has a volume of 50.0 m3. Assuming that temperature remains constant, what volume would the gas occupy

a. if the pressure is doubled?

Volume = ___________________

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b. if the pressure is cut in half?

Volume = ___________________

c. if the pressure is tripled?

Volume = ___________________

4. A scuba diver inflates a balloon to 0.25 ft3 at a depth of 99 ft (where the pressure is about 4 atm). Assume that temperature remains constant.

a. In its ascent, will the balloon increase or decrease in volume? ________________

b. What will the volume of the balloon be at the surface (1.0 atm)?

Volume = ___________________

5. A gas is confined in a cylinder with a movable piston at one end. When the volume of the cylinder is 760.0 cm3, the pressure of the gas is 125.0 kPa. When the cylinder volume is reduced to 450.0 cm3, what is the pressure in kPa? Assume that temperature remains constant.

Pressure = ___________________

A.9 Predicting Gas Behavior: Pressure-Volume pg. 319

1. a. __________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

b. ___________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

c. ___________________________________________________________________________

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______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

2. a. __________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

b. SHOW WORK

_____________________________

c. ___________________________________________________________________________3. a.

b. ___________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

c. ___________________________________________________________________________

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______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

d. ___________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

e. SHOW WORK

____________________________________A.11 TEMPERATURE-VOLUME BEHAVIOR OF GASES p. 322-323What is the name of the law that represents the direct relationship between volume and temperature of a gas when the pressure is constant?

______________________________

Write the equation for this law when there are both an initial and final volume and temperature.

A.11 Supplement: Charles’ LawUse Charles’ law, which describes the pressure–volume relationship for a gas, to solve the following problems. Show your setup on each one. For some questions, it may be necessary to convert temperature(s) to kelvins. C + 273 = K

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1. The temperature of a gas is 0.0 °C and the temperature is changed so the gas volume doubles.

a. Was the temperature increased or decreased? ___________________

b. What is the new temperature of the gas? Assume pressure does not change.

Temperature = ___________________

2. A gas has a volume of 10.0 m3 at standard temperature (273 K). What volume will the gas occupy if: a. the kelvin temperature is doubled at constant pressure?

Volume = ___________________

b. the kelvin temperature is reduced to one-fourth of its original value at constant pressure?

Volume = ___________________

3. Suppose 500.0 mL of oxygen is collected at 25 °C. What will the volume be if the temperature is increased to 50 °C and pressure remains constant?

Volume = ___________________

4. A gas occupies a volume of 560.0 cm3 at a temperature of 120 °C. In °C, to what temperature must the gas be lowered if it is to occupy 400.0 cm3 without a change in pressure?

Temperature = ___________________

5. Suppose 100.0 mL of nitrogen is collected at 210.0 °C. If the temperature of the gas is increased to 60.0 °C at constant pressure, how much will the gas volume increase?

Volume = ___________________

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A.12 Predicting Gas Behavior: Temperature-Volume pg. 323

1. ____________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

2. a. _________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

b. ___________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

3. a. __________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

b. SHOW WORK

_____________________________4.a. __________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

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b. SHOW WORK Convert 0C to K by adding 273. Then use the formula

__________________

c.

d. ___________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

A.13 TEMPERATURE-PRESSURE BEHAVIOR OF GASES pg. 324The law that represents the direct relationship between temperature and pressure of a gas when the volume is constant is Gay-Lussac’s Law

Write the equation for this law when there are both an initial and final temperature and pressure.

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A.13 Supplement: Temperature-Pressure Relationships Solve the following problems, showing your set up for each one. For some questions, it may be necessary to convert temperature(s) to kelvins. Assume volume remains constant in each scenario.

1. An automobile tire has a pressure of 199 kPa at 20.0 °C. After driving, the tire temperature rises to 80.0 °C.

a. Predict whether the pressure will increase or decrease.

___________________________b. What is the new pressure of the gas?

Pressure = ___________________

2. A cylinder of helium sitting in the sun has a pressure of 2000.0 kPa and a temperature of 51.0 °C. The cylinder is then taken indoors and cooled to 20.0 °C.

a. Predict whether the pressure will increase or decrease.

___________________b. What is the new pressure of the gas?

Pressure = ___________________

3. To what temperature must a sample of nitrogen gas originally at 22.0 °C and 0.700 atm be heated so that its pressure increases to 1.25 atm?

Temperature = ___________________

4. The gaseous contents in an aerosol can are under a pressure of 3.00 atm at 25 °C. If the can will rupture at pressures greater than 4.00 atm, what is the highest Celsius temperature to which it can be exposed?

Temperature = ___________________

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5. An emptied gasoline can containing residual gasoline vapors has been stored in a garage since the summer―when the temperature was 303 K and the pressure was 102 kPa. What would be the pressure of the gas in the can be during the winter, when the temperature was 273 K?

Pressure = ___________________

Explain how the pressure change might affect the opening of the can.

6. A can of tennis balls are pressurized to 1.75 atm in a factory at 86.0 °F. If taken out on a wintry day of 10.0 °C, how much would the internal pressure of the tennis balls change?

Pressure = ___________________

A.14 Read Developing Skills Using Gas Relationships pg. 324-325

1.a. __________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________b.

_____________________________________________________________________________

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c. ___________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________2. ______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________3. ______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________4. ______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________5. ______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

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Section A Study GuideComplete the following questions using your knowledge of gas laws and gas properties.

1. From your observations in this section, cite evidence for the following statements.

Statement Evidence

a. Air is composed of matter

b. Air exerts pressure

2. What is pressure?_________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

3. A student uses a spray can containing compressed nitrogen gas to clean her computer circuit board. Draw pictures of the gas molecules as they would appear (use 10 molecules of N2):

a.) inside the can b.) outside the can

4. Communicate the relationship between volume and pressure of a gas graphically (sketch a graph, left) and verbally (write a few sentences, right).

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___________________________

___________________________

___________________________

___________________________

___________________________

___________________________


5. The volume of a container is halved by pushing down the attached piston. What will happen to the pressure, if temperature remains constant?

_________________________________________________________________________________

6. Calculate the new volume of a 7.0 L balloon if the pressure is reduced from 1.0 atmosphere to 0.80 atmosphere (assume the temperature remains constant).

Volume =_____________________________

7. Explain Charles’ Law.

8. What is the new volume of a 7.0 L balloon when it is brought from a location where the temperature is 30 C to a location where the temperature is 25 C (pressure remains unchanged at 1.0 atmosphere)?

Volume =_____________________________

9. Communicate the relationship between pressure and temperature of a gas graphically (left) and verbally (right).

10. How would an increase in the temperature of a gas stored in a rigid metal container impact the pressure of that gas?

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___________________________

___________________________

___________________________

___________________________

___________________________

___________________________


11. Solve for the unknown variable in each scenario using your knowledge of the gas laws. It may be necessary to convert some temperatures to kelvins. If a box is shaded, that variable is considered to be a constant in the given scenario.

P1 V1 T1 P2 V2 T2

Latex balloon ? 22 °C 3.40 L 51 °C

Used tire 30 psi 20 °C 38 psi ?

Weather balloon 104 kPa 1350 L ? 1400 L

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Acids in the AtmosphereC.1 p. 363 ACID RAIN

1. Define acid rain _____________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

What is the pH of pure water? ____________ What is it classified as? _____________________

What 3 atmospheric gases are dissolved by water that evaporates from the surface of the Earth?

________________________ _______________________ ____________________________

What acid is formed that causes rainwater to have an acidic pH? __________________________

What 3 natural events also contribute to the acidity of precipitation?

________________________ _______________________ ____________________________

Study the map shown in figure 4.51. What is the pH for Chattanooga? _____________________

What happens to lake organisms due to acid rain? _____________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

Building made of what three materials are susceptible to acid rain damage?

________________________ _______________________ ____________________________Why does acid rain often show up hundreds of kilometers from the source of air contamination?

______________________________________________________________________________

National SO2 emissions have decreased steadily since the early 1980s because of what Amendments? ________________________

Explain why these Amendments have helped clean up the air:

The power plants have been able to cut their SO2 emissions by doing what 2 things:

_________________________________ _______________________________________

Look at fig. 4.54. What is the largest source of each emission:

SO2__________________________________ NO2 __________________________________

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C.3 p. 370 PREVENTING ACID RAIN

1. a. How is the large-scale generation of SO2 easier to control than the generation of NO2?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

b. How is the large-scale generation of SO2 harder to control than the generation of NO2?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

2. What is one of your ideas for how the government could encourage decreasing emissions?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

3. What could you do in your life to help decrease emissions?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

C.6 pg. 374 START AT THE BOTTOM WITH The pH Scale

What does the symbol pH stand for? _______________________________________________

The hydronium ion is also known as a proton with the symbol H+.

What does the pH scale express? ___________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

C.7 INTERPRETING THE pH SCALE pg. 3741. omit2.Solution Classification Molarity H+ or Molarity OH-

a. milk

b. stomach fluid

c. drain cleaner

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d. cola

e. sugar water

f. ammonia

3. ______________________________________

4. ______________________________________

5.omit

Air Pollution: Sources, Effects, and SolutionsD.1 p. 384 SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTANTS

What produces almost every major air contaminant? _________________________________

What is the pollutant that is an exception ___________________________

Where is it most common to find pollutants from human sources? [three sources]

________________________ _______________________ ____________________________

What is a primary air pollutant?__________________________________________________

Example: _____________________________________________________________________What is a secondary air pollutant?________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Example: _____________________________________________________________________

What is are particle pollutant?____________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Two Examples: ________________________________________________________________

What is are synthetic substances?__________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Two Examples: ________________________________________________________________

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D.2 p. 385 IDENTIFYING MAJOR AIR CONTAMINANTSStudy the table on pg. 386 to answer these questions

1. What is the main source of U.S. air contaminants? __________________________________

2. For which contaminants is one-third or more contributed by: a. industry _______________________________________

b. transportation __________________________________

c. fuel combustion for homes & industry _______________________________________

3. Name the one general type of volatile organic compound (VOC) that might be associated with transportation. ____________________________________

Explain its source _______________________________________________________________

4. Based on the table’s data, would the replacement of gasoline fueled vehicles by gasoline-electric hybrid vehicles eliminate transportation as a source of SO2 emissions? _________________

Why? ________________________________________________________________________

5. Half the total mass of human generated air contaminants come from what source? _________________________________________

6. Name three other times air is contaminated: _______________________________________

____________________________________ _________________________________________

D.3 p. 386-390 SMOG: HAZARDOUS TO YOUR HEALTH

Describe smog by telling how it is produced and where the word comes from.

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

What is the air quality rating? _____________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

What are synergistic interactions? _________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

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How does the geography of Los Angeles make it more likely to have trouble with smog?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

In normal conditions, how do the pollutants get moved away from a city?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

What happens to the pollutants in a temperature inversion?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Because of what two factors does Los Angeles have temperature inversions almost year-round?

____________________________________ ________________________________________

Photochemical smog is the result of the reaction of pollutants and what natural substance? ____________________________________

Fill in the chart about the two harmful and unpleasant components of photochemical smogName Formula Danger to Plants Danger to Humans

D.4 p. 390 VEHICLES AND SMOG

Use the data in Figure 4.68 to answer the following questions

1. a. Between what hours to the concentrations of NO and hydrocarbons peak? ______________

b. How does this fact relate to traffic patterns? _______________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

2. Give two reasons why a given pollutant may decrease in concentration over several hours.

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

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3. omit

4. Although ozone is necessary in the stratosphere to protect Earth from excessive UV light, at Earth’s surface, it is a major component of photochemical smog. a. Which substances are at their minimum concentrations when O3 is at its maximum? ____________b. What does this suggest about the production of O3 in polluted tropospheric air?

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

5. omitD.7 p. 394 CONTROLLING AUTOMOBILE EMISSIONS

Emissions standards for new automobiles were first authorized in what year? _______________

What three gases are specifically looked at in terms of emissions from cars?

_________________________ ____________________________ _______________________

Describe the catalytic converter by telling

what it is used for:______________________________________________________________

where it is found (specific):_______________________________________________________

why it was developed:____________________________________________________________

What is a catalyst? ______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________Give an example of an organic catalyst: _____________________________________________

How is this used? _______________________________________________________________

What is collision theory? ________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

What is activation energy?_______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

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In the catalytic converter the catalysts help speed up what conversions? Be specific

Harmful Exhaust Gases turn To Harmless Products

What did the Clean Air Act amendments do in 1990? _____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

What do you have to do as a driver because of the amendments? [fig 4.73]

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

By what percent have tailpipe emissions decreased because the amendments? _______________

D.8 p. 396-400 OZONE AND CFCS: A CONTINUED SUCCESS STORY

What is the stratospheric ozone shield?______________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

What does it do for the Earth and humans? ___________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Why is this necessary? ___________________________________________________________

What is a free radical? __________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Copy the reaction from the bottom of page 396 and explain how ozone reacts to protect the Earth

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

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What element is causing destruction to the ozone layer? ________________________________

Chlorofluorocarbons are commonly known as ___________________________

The most common chlorofluorocarbons are called ________________________

List three common places to find CFCs

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Over which continent is the ozone hole the largest? ____________________________________

What continent is equal in size to the ozone hole? _____________________________________

What did the Montreal Protocol establish a timetable for? ______________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

Give the abbreviation for the molecule that replaces CFCs in the air conditioning systems of cars. ______________________________

Describe one of the problems of this molecule: ________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Why are HFCs a possible replacement for CFCs? _____________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

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Section C Study GuideComplete the following questions.

1. Pure water has a pH of 7.0, while typical rainwater has a pH of approximately 5.6. Explain why there is a difference._________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

2. Contaminants in the atmosphere can lead to precipitation that is more acidic than normal.

a. One contaminant is SO2. Give one natural and one human-generated source of SO2.______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

b. Explain how acid rain is formed from SO2

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

c. Identify three consequences of acid rain.___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

3. Complete the following table:

Substance Acid, Base, or Neutral?VinegarMilkPure water

4. How is school bus idling potentially linked to acid rain?

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Section D Study GuideComplete the following questions.

1. Complete the following table.

Type of Pollutant

Example How It Enters the Atmosphere

Primary

Secondary

Particulate

Synthetic

2. Ozone can be both harmful and helpful to humans. Tropospheric or “ground-level” ozone is harmful while stratospheric ozone is helpful. Explain.______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

3. Identify two methods of pollution control and the type(s) of pollutants they reduce.______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

4. What specific pollutants do catalytic converters reduce?______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

5. How do catalysts speed up reactions?______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

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6. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are another example of a chemical substance that is both helpful and harmful to humans.

a. What industrial purposes have CFCs served?________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

b. How do CFCs interfere with the absorption of ultraviolet light by stratospheric ozone?________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

7. What alternatives to CFCs have been introduced? ______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

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Measurement and Significant Figures - Notre dame … · Web viewA sample of 100.0 mL of oxygen has...

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