LETTER

The role of the AntofagastaCalama Lineament in oredeposit deformation in the Andes of northern Chile

Carlos Palacios & Luis E. Ramrez & Brian Townley &Marcelo Solari & Nelson Guerra

Received: 29 May 2006 /Accepted: 10 November 2006 / Published online: 7 December 2006# Springer-Verlag 2006

Abstract During the Late JurassicEarly Oligocene inter-val, widespread hydrothermal copper mineralization eventsoccurred in association with the geological evolution of thesouthern segment of the central Andes, giving rise to fourNS-trending metallogenic belts of eastward-decreasing age:Late Jurassic, Early Cretaceous, Late PaleoceneEarlyEocene, and Late EoceneEarly Oligocene. The Antofa-gastaCalama Lineament (ACL) consists of an importantdextral strike-slip NE-trending fault system. Deformationalong the ACL system is evidenced by a right-lateraldisplacement of the Late PaleoceneEarly Eocene metal-logenic belts. Furthermore, clockwise rotation of the EarlyCretaceous Mantos Blancos copper deposit and the LatePaleocene Lomas Bayas porphyry copper occurred. In theLate EoceneEarly Oligocene metallogenic belt, a sigmoi-dal deflection and a clockwise rotation is observed in theACL. The ACL is thought to have controlled theemplacement of Early Oligocene porphyry copper deposits(3437 Ma; Toki, Genoveva, Quetena, and Opache),whereas it deflected the Late Eocene porphyry copper belt(4144 Ma; Esperanza, Telgrafo, Centinela, and Polo Surore deposits). These observations suggest that right-lateraldisplacement of the ACL was active during the EarlyOligocene. We propose that the described structural featuresneed to be considered in future exploration programs withinthis extensively gravel-covered region of northern Chile.

Keywords Copper deposits . Lineaments . Northern Chile

Introduction

The southern segment of the central Andes is one of themost important copper belts in the world, related to 140 Maof geologic evolution (Fig. 1). The Andean Cordillera is anorogen developed along a convergent plate margin, formedover a long-lived east-dipping subduction system. Duringthe Jurassic, the magmatic arc was located along the currentCoastal Range of northern Chile and has since migrated200 km eastward to its present position along the axis of theWestern Andean Cordillera. Two major stages of arcdevelopment are recognized in the geological evolution ofthe southern segment of the central Andes: (1) an EarlyJurassicEarly Cretaceous stage, when a magmatic arcback arc basin pair developed, mainly during an extensionaltectonic regime (Maksaev and Zentilli 2002) and (2) a LateCretaceousHolocene stage, when the arc system shifted toa compressive tectonic setting in which fold and thrust beltsdeveloped (Maksaev and Zentilli 2002). During the LateJurassicEarly Oligocene interval, hydrothermal coppermineralization events occurred along the orogen, givingrise to four NS-trending metallogenic belts of eastward-decreasing age: Late Jurassic, Early Cretaceous, LatePaleoceneEarly Eocene, and Late EoceneEarly Oligo-cene (Fig. 1; Camus 2003). Each one of these belts isrelated to intra-arc magmatism and major strike-slip faultsystems. Copper-bearing stocks occur along NS-strikingmaster faults within an intra-arc structural system, as wellas along subsidiary faults (e.g., Camus 2003; Perell et al.2003). However, Richards et al. (2001); Tosdal andRichards (2001); Chernicoff et al. (2002), and Richards(2003) also point out the role of NW-trending, orogen-

Miner Deposita (2007) 42:301308DOI 10.1007/s00126-006-0113-3

Editorial handling: R. King

C. Palacios (*) : L. E. Ramrez :B. Townley :M. SolariDepartamento de Geologa, Universidad de Chile,Santiago, Chilee-mail: cpalacio@ing.uchile.cl

N. GuerraDepartamento de Geociencias, Universidad Catlica del Norte,Antofagasta, Chile

oblique structures in the control of Andean porphyry copperemplacement. Regional paleomagnetic data reported byRoperch et al. (1999) and Arriagada et al. (2003) indicateclockwise tectonic rotations of up to 65 within the forearcand the pre-Cordillera domains of the southern segment ofthe central Andes. The apparent relationship betweentectonic rotations and structural trends suggests thatrotations occurred mainly during the EoceneEarly Oligo-cene Incaic orogenic event (Arriagada et al. 2003).Furthermore, Arriagada et al. (2003) proposed that theAntofagastaCalama Lineament (ACL) and the NNEcurvature of the Atacama Fault System (AFS) in theCoastal Range were formed during the Incaic deformationevent in response to differential EW shortening (Fig. 1).The paleomagnetic results demonstrate that tectonic defor-mations in the forearc and the western slopes of the WesternCordillera are key elements, which should be taken intoaccount during structural modeling and exploration of oredeposits located in the vicinity of the ACL, as the tectonicrotations are restricted to the south and within the ACLdomain (Arriagada et al. 2003).

Other arguments suggesting that the ACL corresponds toa major fault system are:

Behn et al. (2001), using the residual intensity of thetotal magnetic field of an aeromagnetic survey,demonstrated a NE-trending lineament. This lineamentcoincides with the ACL.

Cameron et al. (2002), Cameron and Leybourne(2005), and Leybourne and Cameron (2006), basedon topographic lineament and recent epicenters ofmajor earthquakes locations, proposed the ACL as aprobably major fault zone.

Gtze and Krause (2002) evidenced that high-gravityanomalies deviate substantially at the Coastal Rangeand the pre-Cordillera, after the strike of the ACL.

Jacques (2003) recognized a NNE-trending lineamentin the Pacific Ocean floor, which coincides with thesouthwestern projection of the ACL.

Simple observation of the satellite image (Fig. 1)allows us to note that the Central Valley is dextrallydisplaced by the ACL.

It is important to indicate that most of the ACL iscovered by gravels as an alluvium-filled morphologicdepression. The most recent exploration successes innorthern Chile have occurred in covered areas along theACL (e.g., Spence, Toki, Genoveva, Quetena, Opache, andEsperanza porphyry copper deposits). In this study, wediscuss the role played by the ACL in the displacement ofthe different NS-trending metallogenic belts in the Andes ofnorthern Chile, suggesting the importance of the ACL onthe distribution and deformation of the longitudinal metal-logenic belts. Our aim is to provide insight on a possible

structural tool for mining exploration within an extensivelygravel-covered region of northern Chile.

The late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous copper belts

The AFS, exposed along the Coastal Range of northernChile, is comprised of a complex association of NS-trending mylonitic, cataclastic and brittle fault zones(Scheuber and Gonzlez 1999). It has a long history ofdeformation ranging from the Early Jurassic to Recent. TheJurassicEarly Cretaceous tectonic evolution of the CoastalRange has been interpreted in terms of coupling anddecoupling between the SE-bound downgoing oceanicplate and the overriding South American continent. Be-tween 195 and 155 Ma, an intra-arc magmatic belt systemwas spatially related with the NS-trending left-lateral AFS.However, between 160 Ma and the end of the Jurassic anddue to foundering of the subducting plate, subductionrollback, and decoupling, an EW-trending extensionalregime developed. At the end of the Jurassic to the EarlyCretaceous, seismic coupling of the subducted plate issuggested by the return of sinistral strike-slip styledeformation (Scheuber and Gonzlez 1999). During thePaleocene Incaic EW compression, the faults of the AFSwere reactivated, and the formation of the present CoastalRange probably occurred (Arriagada et al. 2003). Regionalpaleomagnetic data indicate local 25 to 40 clockwiseblock rotations in the Coastal Cordillera, south and withinthe ACL during the Paleocene, as a response to the Incaicdeformation (Roperch et al. 1999; Arriagada et al. 2003).Two NS-aligned copper belts developed along the AFSdomains. The oldest belt comprises Late Jurassic strata-

Fig. 1 a Image of the southern segment, Central Andes of northernChile showing the location of ore deposits. Shaded relief image wasobtained from Shuttle Radar Topographic Mapping Mission 90 mdigital elevation model (DEM) of northern Chile. Copper deposits ofthe Late Jurassic (blue triangles stratabound volcanic-hosted depos-its), Early Cretaceous (green circles porphyry copper and breccia-stylehydrothermal deposits), Late PaleoceneEarly Eocene (orange circlescopper porphyries; orange squares epithermal deposits) and LateEoceneEarly Oligocene (red circles copper porphyries). b Oredeposit distribution and location of metallogenic belts. In sky blue isthe AntofagastaCalama Lineament. The location of the AtacamaFault System and the Domeyko Fault Zone are also indicated. Oredeposits: 1 Buena Esperanza; 2 Gimena; 3 Mantos de la Luna; 4Mantos del Pacfico; 5 Carolina de Michilla; 6 Ivn; 7 Caleta delCobre; 8 Santo Domingo; 9 Puntillas; 10 Posadas; 11 Antucoya; 12Buey Muerto; 13 Mantos Blancos; 14 Mocha; 15 Cerro Colorado; 16SN; 17 Faride; 18 Spence; 19 Sierra Gorda; 20 Lomas Bayas; 21 SanCristbal; 22 El Pen; 23 Guanaco; 24 Quebrada Blanca; 25 Ujina;26 Collahuasi; 27 El Abra; 28 Radomiro Tomic; 29 Chuquicamata; 30M & M; 31 Toki; 32 Quetana y Genoveva; 33 Apache; 34 Esperanza;35 Telgrafo; 36 Centinela; 37 Polo Sur; 38 Gaby Sur; 39Chimborazo; 40 Zaldvar; 41 La Escondida

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bound, volcanic-hosted, and vein-type copper deposits,located along the western side of the Coastal Range andformed between 155 and 170 Ma (Boric et al. 1990; Vivalloand Henrquez 1998; Maksaev et al. 2006a; Trist et al.

2006). The second metallogenic belt consists of EarlyCretaceous breccia-style hydrothermal mineralization andporphyry copper deposits, occurring along the eastern slopeof the Coastal Range of northern Chile (Perell et al. 2003;

Miner Deposita (2007) 42:301308 303

Camus 2003; Ramrez et al. 2006). Although K/Ar sericiteages indicate that the porphyries were formed between 132and 137 Ma (Perell et al. 2003), recent U-Pb zirconSHRIMP data indicate that the porphyries were emplacedbetween 141 and 142 Ma (Maksaev et al. 2006b). A similarage is reported in the Mantos Blancos breccia-style copperdeposit (Ramrez et al. 2006). The largest deposit in theCoastal Range is Mantos Blancos (500 Mt at 1.0% Cu) inwhich the feeder of mineralization is a magmatic-hydro-thermal breccia complex (Ramrez et al. 2006). The MantosBlancos orebody is located close to the north of the ACL,where the NNE curvature of the AFS occurs (Fig. 2a).Paleomagnetic data in the deposit indicate a clockwiseblock rotation between 30 and 40 (Ramrez 2006).Geophysical and geologic restoration of the MantosBlancos orebody suggest that the faults controlling themineralization were originally NS aligned, coinciding withthe inferred extensional direction regime during the LateJurassicEarly Cretaceous (Fig. 2b; Ramrez 2006).

Late PaleoceneEarly Eocene porphyry copperand precious-metal epithermal belt

In the Central Valley, located east of the Coastal Range,several NS- and NE- to NNE-striking faults and lineamentsoccur. The NS-trending faults are mainly sub-verticaldextral strike-slip structures, whereas the NE- to NNE-striking faults are SE-verging imbricate reverse faults orright-lateral structures (Williams 1992; Arriagada et al.2003). In this zone, a NS-trending belt occurs, whichcomprises porphyry copper and Au-Ag epithermal miner-alization formed between 53 and 60 Ma (Fig. 1; Camus2003). However, close to the north and south of the ACL,the Spence and Lomas Bayas porphyry copper deposits areN20E aligned (Fig. 3b and c; Rowland and Clark 2001;Camus 2003; Cameron and Leybourne 2005). Paleomag-netic data in the Lomas Bayas district evidence a 20clockwise block rotation (Arriagada et al. 2003). A simplerestoration indicates that the stocks and breccia pipes of theLomas Bayas porphyry copper probably were originally NSaligned, following the general orientation of the orogen.Furthermore, a discontinuity of the Late PaleoceneEarly

Fig. 2 a Distribution of themain Late Jurassic and EarlyCretaceous copper deposits.b Details of the Mantos Blancosorebody indicating ore gradedistribution at the elevation of700 m above the sea level. iCurrent position of the deposit(Ramrez et al. 2006), ii Geo-logic restoration of the depositbefore the clockwise block rota-tions (30) as a consequenceof activity of the ACL (Ramrez2006)

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Eocene metallogenic belt supports a right-lateral displace-ment along the ACL (Fig. 1).

Late EoceneEarly Oligocene porphyry copper belt

Along the Domeyko Range, the NS-trending DomeykoFault Zone (DFZ) is the main structural feature. It consistsof transpressional as well as left-lateral and right-lateralLate Eocene to Early Oligocene strike-slip faults (Reutter etal. 1996; Dilles et al. 1997; Richards et al. 2001; Richards2003). In the DFZ, the most significant Chilean porphyrycopper belt developed, constituting the largest copperconcentration in the world (Fig. 1). The copper-bearingstocks occur along NS-striking DFZ master faults (e.g.,Chuquicamata porphyry copper; Fig. 4b), forming a morethan 1,000 km long metallogenic belt (Richards 2003). Theage of mineralization is well documented between 31 and

43 Ma (Camus 2003). However, along the northernboundary of the ACL (Figs. 1 and 4c), the porphyrycopper belt is deflected to 3545E, with dike-like EarlyOligocene (3437 Ma) mineralized magmatic bodies (e.g.,Genoveva, Toki, Quetena, and Opache; Camus 2003;Rivera and Pardo 2004). South of the ACL, the porphyrycopper belt is displaced to the southwest, where orebodiesform a 40 km long, N30E-trending zone of Late Eocene(4144 Ma) ore deposits (e.g., Esperanza, Telgrafo,Centinela, and Polo Sur; Camus 2003; Perell et al.2004). At Esperanza, the porphyry-related rocks are dikesand stocks with surface dimensions of 8 to 60 m in widthand lengths of up to 400 m in a dominantly NE direction.At the deposit scale, NE-trending faults control theorientation and shape of the porphyry dikes (Perell et al.2004; Fig. 4d). Paleomagnetic data on Paleocene rocks nearthe Esperanza porphyry copper deposit and between thePolo Sur and Centinela orebodies indicate clockwise block

Fig. 3 a Distribution of LatePaleoceneEarly Eocene epi-thermal and porphyry copperdeposits. Details of the Spence(b) and Sierra Gorda (c) copperporphyries

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rotations between 35 and 45 (Arriagada et al. 2003).These geophysical and geologic data suggest that this40 km long segment of the porphyry copper belt rotatedand was separated from its original trend. This segment wasprobably originally aligned NS, following the NS-trendingregional Late EoceneEarly Oligocene metallogenic prov-ince orientation. A few kilometers to the south, in the GabySur and La Escondida cluster of porphyry copper deposits,

the metallogenic belt returns to its original NS-aligned trend(Richards et al. 2001; Richards 2003; Camus 2003).

Discussion

Available information strongly suggests that the ACLcorresponds to a major NE-trending strike-slip structure

Fig. 4 a Distribution of theLate EoceneEarly Oligoceneporphyry copper deposits alongthe DFZ to the north, within,and to the south of the ACL.b Chuquicamata porphyrycopper deposit (Camus 2003).c Toki porphyry copper deposit(Rivera and Pardo 2004).d Esperanza porphyry copperdeposit (Perell et al. 2004)

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zone oblique to the orogen that was active during the EarlyOligocene, locally controlling the emplacement of the 3437 Ma porphyry copper deposits and also rotated anddisplaced a Late Eocene (4144 Ma) segment of thedeposits. The ACL also affected the Early Cretaceous andLate PaleoceneEarly Eocene metallogenic belts. The EarlyCretaceous Mantos Blancos deposit and the Late PaleoceneLomas Bayas porphyry copper deposits were clockwiserotated. Furthermore, the Late PaleoceneEarly Eocenebelts were dextrally displaced. The occurrence of thesetypes of structure oblique to the NS orogen should beconsidered during exploration in the Andean Cordillera.From a metallogenic perspective, the cross faults, particu-larly the steep strike-slip faults, provide a natural verticalpermeability structure along which magma can ascend intothe upper crust in an overall compressive environment toform magma chambers that may exsolve a hydrothermalfluid, given the appropriate magma chemistry. From atectonic perspective, the cross faults provide a means toshorten the arc and balance convergence and crustalthickening across the northern Chilean Andes.

Acknowledgments This research was supported by FONDEF Grant1012 from CONICYT, Chile. We thank J. LeRoux, V. Maksaev, R.King, J. Richards, and B. Lehmann for detailed and constructivecomments that helped to improve the paper.

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The role of the AntofagastaCalama Lineament in ore deposit deformation in the Andes of northern ChileAbstractIntroductionThe late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous copper beltsLate PaleoceneEarly Eocene porphyry copper and precious-metal epithermal beltLate EoceneEarly Oligocene porphyry copper beltDiscussionReferences

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