McGraw-Hill 4-1. 4 McGraw-Hill Hardware: The CPU & Storage © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc....

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Hardware: The CPU & Storage

© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

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4.1 Microchips, Miniaturization, & Mobility

Vacuum Tubes Vacuum tubes were the original logic gates of computers; they

controlled the flow of electricity in circuits. They looked like light bulbs, were hot, and burned out quickly. A circuit is a closed path that can be flowed by electric current.

Transistors Replaced Vacuum Tubes The original transistors, tiny electronic switches, were 1/100th

the size of vacuum tubes (less power used, faster, more reliable)

Transistors form part of an integrated circuit--all the parts of an electronic circuit embedded on a single silicon chip.

One integrated circuit contains more than a million transistors.© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Silicon & Semiconductors Silicon: A semiconductor made of clay and sand Semiconductor: A material whose electrical properties are

intermediate between a good conductor and a nonconductor of electricity Perfect underlayer for highly conductive, complex circuits Microchips (Microprocessors) are made from

semiconductors Chip: A tiny piece of silicon that contains millions of

microminiature integrated electronic circuits


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Miniaturization Miracles Microchips

Store and process data in electronic devices Microprocessors

The miniaturized circuitry of an entire computer processor (“brain”) on a single chip

Contains the central processing unit (CPU), which processes data into information

The development of microchips and processors has enabled the development of small, mobile electronic devices.


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4.2 The System Unit: The Basics

Binary System: the basic data-representation method for computers uses just two numbers: 0 and 1, representing the off/on states of electricity or light pulses. All data and program instructions in the computer are

represented as binary Bit: each 0 or 1 is a bit Byte: a group of 8 bits = 1 character, digit, or other value Kilobyte: 1,000 (1,024) bytes Megabyte: 1 Million (1,048,576) bytes Gigabyte: 1 Billion (1,073,741,824) bytes Terabyte: 1 Trillion (1,009,511,627,576) bytes Petabyte: 1 quadrillion bytes Exabyte: 1 quintillion bytes


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Binary coding schemes assign a unique binary code to each character. EBCDIC

Requires 8 bits per character Used for IBM mainframes

ASCII Requires 7 or 8 bits per character, depending on the version 8 bit Extended ASCII provides 256 characters Commonly used for microcomputers

Unicode Requires 16 bits per character Handles 65,536 characters—used for Chinese and

Japanese© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Machine Language A binary-type programming language (0s and 1s) built

into the CPU that is run directly by the computer Each CPU type has its own machine language

Language Translators The computer’s system software converts higher-level

language instructions and data into machine language so that the processor can “understand” what to do.


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4-114.2 The System Unit: The Basics

Computer Terms NamesBay

Power SupplySurge Protector

Voltage Regulator

UPS

MotherboardMicroprocessorChipset

DefinitionsOpening in the computer cabinet used for the installation of

electrical equipment.

This converts AC to DC to run the computer.

Protects the computer from being damaged by power spikes. Plug your computer into one.

Protects a computer against brownouts or low power conditions that happen a lot in summer.

Uninterruptible Power Supply. Battery-operated device that provides power for a limited time when there is a blackout.

The main system board of the computer (also systemboard).

The miniaturized circuitry of a computer processor.

Groups of interconnected chips on the motherboard that control information flow between the microprocessor and other system components connected to the motherboard.


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Two main types of microprocessors are made for microcomputers--one for PCs and one for Macs.

Microprocessor manufacturers are Intel, AMD, Motorola/Freescale, and IBM.

Multicore processors have more than one processor “core” on a silicon chip, which allows computers to ru faster.


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Processing Speeds Every microprocessor has a system clock built in that controls the chip’s

processing speed. Older CPU processing speeds are in megahertz

1 MHz = 1 million cycles per second Current CPU processing speeds are in gigahertz

1 GHz = 1 billion cycles per second The faster a CPU runs, the more power it consumes, and the more heat it

generates


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Processing Speeds (continued) Workstation and mainframe speeds are measured in

MIPS MIPS stands for millions of instructions per second Workstations perform at 100 MIPS or more Mainframes now perform as fast as 981,024 MIPS

Supercomputer processing speed is measured in flops Flops stands for floating-point operations per second Los Alamos Lab’s new Roadrunner has a speed of 1,105

teraflops, or 1,000 trillion operations per second.


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4.3 More on the System Unit

Parts of the CPUName

Word size

CPU

Control unit

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

Registers

Buses


Definition

The number of bits the processor can process at any one time

The central processing unit (chip) has two parts; the control unit and the ALU

The part of the CPU that deciphers instructions and carries them out

The part of the CPU that performs mathematical and logical operations

High-speed storage areas that temporarily store data during processing

Electrical data roadways used to transmit bits within the CPU and between CPU and other motherboard components

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Memory Two type of storage: primary and secondary

Primary storage = “memory,” “main memory,” “RAM”; this type of memory is temporary and volatile

Secondary storage = “storage” disks and tape; this type of memory is relatively permanent and nonvolatile


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4-174.3 More on the System Unit

How Memory WorksPrimary Memory Chips

RAM

ROM

CMOS

Flash

Explanation

Random Access Memory chips are volatile and hold:

a. Software instructions

b. Data before & after the CPU processes itRead Only Memorya. Cannot be written on or erased without special

equipmentb. Are loaded at factory with fixed (permanent) start-

up instructions (BIOS), that tell the computer how to load the operating system

Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductora. Powered by a batteryb. Contains time, date, calendar, boot passwordNonvolatile memory that can be erased and reprogrammed more than oncea. Doesn’t require a batteryb. Used in newer PCs for BIOS instructions


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Types of RAMRAM Chip Types

DRAM

SDRAM

SRAM

DDR-SDRAM

SIMM

DIMM

Explanation

1. Dynamic RAM must be constantly refreshed by the CPU or it loses its contents

2. Synchronous Dynamic RAM is synchronized by the system clock and is much faster than DRAM

3. Static RAM is faster than DRAM and retains its contents without having to be refreshed by CPU

4. Double-data rate synchronous dynamic RAM; type used most commonly in microcomputers

5. Single Inline Memory Module has RAM chips on only one side; insert in expansion slot to increase RAM

6. Dual Inline Memory Module has chips on both sides; insert in expansion slot to increase RAM


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Speeding up Processing: Cache The CPU works much faster than RAM, so it often must

wait for information Cache temporarily stores instructions and data that the

processor uses frequently to speed up processing Level 1 cache is part of the microprocessor

Holds 8 to 256 kb Faster than Level 2 cache

Level 2 cache is external cache Holds 64 kb to 2 Mb

Level 3 cache is on the motherboard Comes on very high-end computers


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Virtual Memory—also used to speed up processing This type of memory is unused hard disk or optical (CD)

space that the processor uses to extend the capacity of RAM

The processor goes first to L1 cache, then L2 cache, then RAM, then virtual memory

Each type of memory is slower than its predecessor


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Speeding up Processing


Additional Methods of Speeding up Processing Interleaving Bursting Pipelining Superscalar Architecture and Hyperthreading

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A port is a connecting socket or jack on the outside of the computer unit into which are plugged different kinds of cables

Ports are used to connect peripheral devices


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4-234.3 More on the System UnitPorts

Port TypeSerial Port

Parallel Port

SCSI Port

USB Port

DescriptionUsed to transmit data slowly over long distancesa. Sends data sequentially, one bit at a timeb. Used to connect keyboard, mouse, monitors,

dial-up modemsFor transmitting data quickly over short distancesa. Transmits 8 bytes simultaneouslyb. Connects printers, external disks, tape

backupsSmall Computer System Interfacea. Connects up to 7 devices in a daisy chainb. Transmits data 32 bits at a timeUniversal Serial Bus can theoretically connect up to 127 peripheral devices in a daisy chain


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USB Goals

Be low-cost Be able to connect lots of devices Be hot swappable

People hate rebooting after connecting new devices, because it takes time

Hot swapping means a device can be connected/disconnected without rebooting

Permit plug and play Devices are automatically configured when they are installed –

no need to download new drivers


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USB (continued) Standards

USB 1.1--the original standard USB 2.0--the current standard for new PCs USB 3.0–for high-end computers USB OTG (On the GO) is used for small peripherals, such as

cellphones Connectors

A--in USB Type 1.1 and 2.0 B--in USB Type 1.1 and 2.0 Mini B–in USB Type 2.0 Mini A–in USB OTG


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Specialized Expansion PortsPort TypeFireWire

MIDI

IrDA

Bluetooth

Ethernet

Multimedia

DescriptionIntended for devices working with lots of data; used for camcorders, DVD players, TVs

Musical Instrument Digital Interfacea. Connects musical instrumentsb. Used in creating, recording, editing, performing musicInfrared Data Association: Infrared ports used to make a cableless connectionUses short-range radio waves that transmit up to 30 ft; connects computers to printers, keyboards, headsets, and other devices

The standard for linking all devices in a Local Area NetworkFor special multimedia devices, such as gaming consoles, TVs, VCRs, speakers,digital projectors, etc.


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Expansion Cards If a computer uses closed architecture, no expansion

cards can be added; if the computer uses open architecture, expansion cards can be inserted in expansion slots inside the computer, connected to the motherboard.


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Expansion Buses

Bus

PCI bus

AGP bus

PCIe Express bus

Expansion cards connect with different types of buses on the motherboard.

Description

Peripheral Component Interconnect

a. For high-speed connections

b. 32 or 64 bits wide

c. Typically used for sound cards, modems, high-speed network cards

Accelerated Graphics Port

a. Twice the speed of PCI bus

b. Supports video and 3-D graphics cards

Can outperform AGP and is more reliable


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Examples of Some Expansion Cards


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Types of Expansion Cards Graphics cards (for monitors)

Also called a video card, video RAM (VRAM), or video adapter

Converts signals from computer into video signals that can be displayed as images on a monitor

Sound cards (for speakers and audio output) Used to convert and transmit digital sounds through analog

speakers, microphones, and headsets Modem cards (for remote communication via phone

lines)


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Types of Expansion Cards (continued) Network interface cards (for remote communication via

cable) Allows the transmission of data over a cable network

PC cards (for laptop computers) Thin, credit card-size flash memory devices used principally

on laptop computers to expand capabilities


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4.4 Secondary Storage

Storage Types Descriptions

Floppy disks Removable disks; Floppies store 1.44 MB; mostly obsolete, except on legacy systems

Hard disks Made from thin rigid metal covered with magnetizable substrate. Most disks have 2 or more platters

Optical disks Removable CDs and DVDs

Magnetic tape Thin plastic tape coated with magnetizable substance

Smart Cards Like a credit card, but contains a microprocessor and memory chips

Flash memory Nonvolatile memory – no moving parts

Online secondary storage Lets you store data on an online vendor’s server


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Floppy Disks Flat piece of mylar plastic inside a 3.5” plastic case Store about 1.44 MB Data is recorded in tracks: concentric recording bands Formatting breaks the tracks into small wedge-shaped

sectors Read/Write head transfers data between the computer

and disk Not used much any more, except on some legacy

systems


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Hard Disks Thin, rigid metal, glass, or ceramic platters covered with

a substance that allows data to be held in the form of magnetized spots The more platters there are, the higher the drive capacity Store data in tracks, sectors, and clusters Formatting creates a file allocation table that maps files to

clusters or inodes Drive heads ride on .000001” cushion of air, and can crash! Important data should always be backed up!


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Hard Disks (continued) Hard Disk Types:

External Hard Disk – a freestanding disk drive Removable Hard Disk – inserted into a bay or a cartridge

drive built into the computer’s system unit Hard Disk Controllers – special circuit boards that control

the read/write heads and manage the flow of data to and from the hard disk EIDE – Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics (e.g., SATA) SCSI – Faster than EIDE controllers Fibre Channel – Used in large servers – faster and costlier

than SCSI© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Optical Disks CDs (compact disks) and DVDs (digital versatile/video

disks) are optical disks Data is written and read using lasers, not a disk

read/write head CD-ROM is Compact Disk Read-Only Memory CD-R (compact disk-recordable) is used for recording only

once CD-RW (compact disk-rewritable)is an erasable optical disk

that can both record and erase data over and over again


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Optical Disks (continued) DVD is a CD-style disk with extremely high capacity DVD-R (DVD-recordable) is used for recording only once DVD-RW, DVD-RAM, DVD+RW are reusable DVDs Blu-ray is an optical-disk format used to record, rewrite,

and play back high-definition (HD) video, as well as to store large amounts of data.


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Magnetic Tape Thin plastic tape coated with a substance that can be

magnetized Store terabytes of data Used in the form of tape cartridges Still popular for large backups because of their large data

capacity


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Smart Cards Resembles a credit card, but contains a microprocessor

and memory chips May function on three levels: credit, debit, and/or personal

information Storage capacity: around 10 MBs Contact smart cards

Must be swiped through card readers Can wear out from use

Contactless smart cards Read when held in front of a low-powered laser


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Flash Memory Nonvolatile memory with no moving parts

Available as: Flash memory cards

Insert these into a flash port of a camera, handheld PC, smartphone

Flash memory sticks A form of flash memory that plugs into a memory stick port in, for

example, a digital camera, camcorder, photo printer Flash memory drives (keychain drives)

A finger-sized module of flash memory Plugs into the USB port of most PCs and Macintoshes

Solid-state memory drives Have greater capacity than flash memory drives but are expensive


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Online Secondary Storage (Cloud Storage) Allows you to use the internet to back up your data

Sign up with a vendor and receive access to software that allows you to upload your data to that company’s server


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4.5 Future Developments in Processing & Storage

New Technology Description of Processing Technology

Application Virtualization

Doing processing online instead of buying one’s own software and some hardware.

Nanotechnology Tiny machines work at a molecular level to make nanocircuits

Optical Computing Uses lasers and light, not electricity

DNA Computing Uses strands of synthetic DNA to store data

Quantum Computing Based on quantum mechanics and stores information using particle states

Better Batteries Wireless charging of batteries, longer-lasting batteries


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4.5 Future Developments in Processing & Storage

Future Developments in Secondary Storage Higher-density disks

Perpendicular recording technology: stacking magnetic bits vertically on the surface of a platter (instead of horizontally, as usual)

Molecular electronics– storage at the subatomic level Holograms, molecular magnets, bacteria


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