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Chapter 4: Addressing Chapter 4: Addressing AudiencesAudiences

Dr. Alan HaffaDr. Alan Haffa

Please Silence Cell PhonesPlease Silence Cell Phones

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Assess Your AudienceAssess Your Audience

Cultural backgroundCultural backgroundEducational backgroundEducational backgroundReligious experienceReligious experiencePractical experiencePractical experiencePolitical IdeologyPolitical IdeologyAgeAgeGenderGenderProfessionProfession

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How Knowing your Audience can How Knowing your Audience can help you Present your Casehelp you Present your Case

Language you useLanguage you useWriting StyleWriting StyleSlant Slant ToneToneTypes of argumentsTypes of argumentsEvidenceEvidenceKinds of authorities citedKinds of authorities cited

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Example: Tuition HikeExample: Tuition Hike

Student NewspaperStudent Newspaper Blunt languageBlunt language Emotional slantEmotional slant Sarcastic comments Sarcastic comments

about administrationabout administration Call for student Call for student

protest or letters to protest or letters to the administrationthe administration

School BoardSchool Board Formal LanguageFormal Language Express sympathy for Express sympathy for

schools financial schools financial challengechallenge

Offer a compromise Offer a compromise solution solution

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General AudienceGeneral Audience

In general, avoidIn general, avoid General Audience reads Time, Newsweek, local General Audience reads Time, Newsweek, local

newspapernewspaper Average age of 35Average age of 35 High school graduate with a couple of years of High school graduate with a couple of years of

collegecollege Middle Class incomeMiddle Class income Diverse race, religion, and politicsDiverse race, religion, and politics Reasonably intelligent but not an expert in your Reasonably intelligent but not an expert in your

topictopic

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Getting to know your AudienceGetting to know your Audience

Where do readers stand on the issue?Where do readers stand on the issue?Do they know anything about it?Do they know anything about it?How might they have learned about it?How might they have learned about it?How do they interpret the issue?How do they interpret the issue?How does the issue affect them personally?How does the issue affect them personally?Are they hostile to my stand on the issue?Are they hostile to my stand on the issue?

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How do I want my readers to view How do I want my readers to view the issue?the issue?

If they are hostile to my view, how can I If they are hostile to my view, how can I persuade them to listen to me?persuade them to listen to me?

If they are neutral, how can I persuade If they are neutral, how can I persuade them to consider my viewpoint?them to consider my viewpoint?

If they are sympathetic to my views, what If they are sympathetic to my views, what new information can I shed on the issue new information can I shed on the issue and how can I inspire them to take action?and how can I inspire them to take action?

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Emphasize Shared Beliefs and Emphasize Shared Beliefs and ExperiencesExperiences

What beliefs and values do we share?What beliefs and values do we share?What concerns about the issue do we What concerns about the issue do we

have in common?have in common?What common life experiences have we What common life experiences have we

had?had?How can I make my readers aware of our How can I make my readers aware of our

connection?connection?

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Use Dialogue to Gain InsightUse Dialogue to Gain Insight

Dialogue with people who fit your target Dialogue with people who fit your target demographicdemographic

Yes, but conversations useful in identifying Yes, but conversations useful in identifying their concerns so you can try to address their concerns so you can try to address them in essaythem in essay

Dialogue also useful to identify shared Dialogue also useful to identify shared values and beliefs that can be values and beliefs that can be emphasizedemphasized

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Adapting to your Readers’ Attitudes Adapting to your Readers’ Attitudes if Neutralif Neutral

Fill in the backgroundFill in the backgroundPresent a Balanced PicturePresent a Balanced PicturePersonalize the Issues; how the problem Personalize the Issues; how the problem

will affect them personallywill affect them personallyShow respectShow respectAvoid appeal to pity and oversimplication Avoid appeal to pity and oversimplication

or false dilemmaor false dilemma

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Addressing a Friendly AudienceAddressing a Friendly Audience

Avoid appealing to prejudicesAvoid appealing to prejudicesAvoid ad hominem or ad populumAvoid ad hominem or ad populumOffer new information about the issue; Offer new information about the issue;

they may share your view but may not they may share your view but may not know the most up-to-date informationknow the most up-to-date information

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Addressing an Unfriendly AudienceAddressing an Unfriendly Audience

Seek Common Ground and remind audience of it Seek Common Ground and remind audience of it repeatedlyrepeatedly

Example: Sr. citizens and higher taxes for schoolsExample: Sr. citizens and higher taxes for schools Acknowledge the legitimacy of audience’s Acknowledge the legitimacy of audience’s

concerns; don’t belittle or minimize them.concerns; don’t belittle or minimize them. Convey a positive attitudeConvey a positive attitude Treat them with respectTreat them with respect Use good sources of information and authorities Use good sources of information and authorities

that will be respected by everyone, not just that will be respected by everyone, not just partisanspartisans

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Importance of Clear Importance of Clear Communication: Word ChoiceCommunication: Word Choice

Denotative and Connotative MeaningDenotative and Connotative MeaningA “jihad against smoking”A “jihad against smoking”

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Word Choice: Be SpecificWord Choice: Be Specific

Denotative scale of specificity: page 111Denotative scale of specificity: page 111General words are useful in common General words are useful in common

conversationconversationWriting, however, requires greater Writing, however, requires greater

specificity because audience cannot ask specificity because audience cannot ask you to clarifyyou to clarify

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Figurative LanguageFigurative Language

““Yesterday, it was 96 degrees and very Yesterday, it was 96 degrees and very humid.”humid.”

Or, “Yesterday the air was like warm glue.”Or, “Yesterday the air was like warm glue.”Figurative language equates one thing Figurative language equates one thing

with another.with another.Simile: use of “like” “as” “than”: A school of Simile: use of “like” “as” “than”: A school of

minnows shot by me like pelting rain.”minnows shot by me like pelting rain.” ““His arms are as big as hams.”His arms are as big as hams.” ““They’re meaner than junkyard dogs.”They’re meaner than junkyard dogs.”

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MetaphorMetaphor

Omitting the word “like, as, than” makes it Omitting the word “like, as, than” makes it a metaphor.a metaphor.

““This calculus problem is a real pain in the This calculus problem is a real pain in the neck.”neck.”

““The crime in this city is a cancer out of The crime in this city is a cancer out of control.”control.”

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Cautions using Figurative Cautions using Figurative LanguageLanguage

Avoid cliches: these are figures that are so Avoid cliches: these are figures that are so common they have lost their freshness and they common they have lost their freshness and they sound unimaginativesound unimaginative

Mixed Metaphors: combining different Mixed Metaphors: combining different metaphors that don’t go together well.metaphors that don’t go together well.

““The heat of his expression froze them in their The heat of his expression froze them in their tracks.”tracks.”

““The experience left a bad taste in her eyes.”The experience left a bad taste in her eyes.” ““The arm of the law has two strikes against it.”The arm of the law has two strikes against it.”

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EuphemismsEuphemisms

Using a nice sounding word to say something harsh Using a nice sounding word to say something harsh and biting and criticaland biting and critical

Downsizing or Restructuring for massive layoffs Downsizing or Restructuring for massive layoffs and firingsand firings

Revenue enhancement for raising taxesRevenue enhancement for raising taxes Gaming Industry for gamblingGaming Industry for gambling Passed away—diedPassed away—died Socially disadvantaged—poorSocially disadvantaged—poor Be sure that the reader can understand what you Be sure that the reader can understand what you

are saying are saying Be sure that they don’t sanitize your writing so Be sure that they don’t sanitize your writing so

much that it loses its impact much that it loses its impact school.edhole.com

Definitions and Technical TermsDefinitions and Technical Terms

Be sure to offer a clear definition of any Be sure to offer a clear definition of any technical terms to key wordstechnical terms to key words

What is “legal marriage” and how is it What is “legal marriage” and how is it defined differently than “civil union”?defined differently than “civil union”?

Don’t spend too much time defining words Don’t spend too much time defining words your audience would know.your audience would know.

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Use of Humor or SarcasmUse of Humor or Sarcasm

Be wary of creating a negative, hostile tone Be wary of creating a negative, hostile tone by using sarcasmby using sarcasm

It can be done with a sympathetic audience, It can be done with a sympathetic audience, but again, be sure that it isn’t over the top but again, be sure that it isn’t over the top and that it doesn’t take the place of facts and and that it doesn’t take the place of facts and arguments. As a way to get attention it may arguments. As a way to get attention it may be appropriate.be appropriate.

If writing to a neutral audience or contrary If writing to a neutral audience or contrary one, humor that makes fun of yourself is the one, humor that makes fun of yourself is the best and sarcasm must be avoided at all best and sarcasm must be avoided at all costs.costs.school.edhole.com

Sonnet 116: Sonnet 116: http://www.shakespeare-online.com/sonnets/http://www.shakespeare-online.com/sonnets/

Let me not to the marriage of true minds Let me not to the marriage of true minds Admit impediments. Love is not love Admit impediments. Love is not love Which alters when it alteration finds, Which alters when it alteration finds, Or bends with the remover to remove: Or bends with the remover to remove: O no! it is an ever-fixed mark O no! it is an ever-fixed mark That looks on tempests and is never shaken; That looks on tempests and is never shaken; It is the star to every wandering bark, It is the star to every wandering bark, Whose worth's unknown, although his height be taken. Whose worth's unknown, although his height be taken. Love's not Time's fool, though rosy lips and cheeks Love's not Time's fool, though rosy lips and cheeks Within his bending sickle's compass come: Within his bending sickle's compass come: Love alters not with his brief hours and weeks, Love alters not with his brief hours and weeks, But bears it out even to the edge of doom. But bears it out even to the edge of doom. If this be error and upon me proved, If this be error and upon me proved, I never writ, nor no man ever loved. I never writ, nor no man ever loved.

William Shakespeare William Shakespeare

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