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Transcript of MB0050 SET-2
SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITY
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY – 4 CREDITS
SUBJECT CODE - MB0050
BOOK ID – B1206
ASSIGNMENT SET-1
1.
a) Explain the General characteristics of observation.
Answer:
General Characteristics of Observation Method
Observation as a method of data collection has certain characteristics.
i. It is both a physical and a mental activity: The observing eye catches many
things that are present. But attention is focused on data that are pertinent to the
given study.
ii. Observation is selective: A researcher does not observe anything and
everything, but selects the range of things to be observed on the basis of the
nature, scope and objectives of his study. For example, suppose a researcher
desires to study the causes of city road accidents and also formulated a
tentative hypothesis that accidents are caused by violation of traffic rules and
over speeding. When he observed the movements of vehicles on the road,
many things are before his eyes; the type, make, size and colour of the
vehicles, the persons sitting in them, their hair style, etc. All such things which
are not relevant to his study are ignored and only over speeding and traffic
violations are keenly observed by him.
iii.Observation is purposive and not casual: It is made for the specific purpose
of noting things relevant to the study. It captures the natural social context in
which persons behaviour occur. It grasps the significant events and
occurrences that affect social relations of the participants.
iv.Observation should be exact and be based on standardized tools of
research and such as observation schedule, social metric scale etc., and
precision instruments, if any.
b) What is the Utility of Observation in Business Research?
Answer:
SANTOSH GOWDA.H Reg No.: 5210757283rd semester, Disha institute of management and technology Mobile No.: 9986840143
SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITYUtility of Observation in Business Research
Observation is suitable for a variety of research purposes. It may be used for
studying
(a) The behaviour of human beings in purchasing goods and services.: life
style, customs, and manner, interpersonal relations, group dynamics,
crowd behaviour, leadership styles, managerial style, other behaviours and
actions;
(b) The behaviour of other living creatures like birds, animals etc.
(c) Physical characteristics of inanimate things like stores, factories,
residences etc.
(d) Flow of traffic and parking problems.
(e) Movement of materials and products through a plant.
2.
a) Briefly explain Interviewing techniques in Business Research?
Answer:
Interviewing techniques in Business Research
The interview process consists of the following stages:
- Preparation
- Introduction
- Developing rapport
- Carrying the interview forward
- Recording the interview
- Closing the interview
i. Preparation
The interviewing requires some preplanning and preparation. The
interviewer should keep the copies of interview schedule/guide (as the case may
be) ready to use. He should have the list of names and addresses of respondents,
he should regroup them into contiguous groups in terms of location in order to
save time and cost in traveling. The interviewer should find out the general daily
routine of the respondents in order to determine the suitable timings for interview.
Above all, he should mentally prepare himself for the interview. He should think
about how he should approach a respondent, what mode of introduction he could
adopt, what situations he may have to face and how he could deal with them. The
interviewer may come across such situations as respondents; avoidance,
reluctance, suspicion, diffidence, inadequate responses, distortion, etc. The
SANTOSH GOWDA.H Reg No.: 5210757283rd semester, Disha institute of management and technology Mobile No.: 9986840143
SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITYinvestigator should plan the strategies for dealing with them. If such preplanning
is not done, he will be caught unaware and fail to deal appropriately when he
actually faces any such situation. It is possible to plan in advance and keep the
plan and mind flexible and expectant of new development.
ii. Introduction
The investigator is a stranger to the respondents. Therefore, he should be
properly introduced to each of the respondents. What is the proper mode of
introduction? There is no one appropriate universal mode of introduction. Mode
varies according to the type of respondents. When making a study of an
organization or institution, the head of the organization should be approached first
and his cooperation secured before contacting the sample inmates/employees.
When studying a community or a cultural group, it is essential to approach the
leader first and to enlist cooperation. For a survey or urban households, the
research organization’s letter of introduction and the interviewer’s identity card
can be shown. In these days of fear of opening the door for a stranger, residents
cooperation can be easily secured, if the interviewer attempts to get him
introduced through a person known to them, say a popular person in the area e.g.,
a social worker. For interviewing rural respondents, the interviewer should never
attempt to approach them along with someone from the revenue department, for
they would immediately hide themselves, presuming that they are being contacted
for collection of land revenue or subscription to some government bond. He
should not also approach them through a local political leader, because persons
who do not belong to his party will not cooperate with the interviewer. It is rather
desirable to approach the rural respondents through the local teacher or social
worker.
After getting himself introduced to the respondent in the most appropriate
manner, the interviewer can follow a sequence of procedures as under, in order to
motivate the respondent to permit the interview:
a. With a smile, greet the respondent in accordance with his cultural
pattern.
b. Identify the respondent by name.
c. Describe the method by which the respondent was selected.
d. Mention the name of the organization conducting the research.SANTOSH GOWDA.H Reg No.: 5210757283rd semester, Disha institute of management and technology Mobile No.: 9986840143
SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITYe. Assure the anonymity or confidential nature of the interview.
f. Explain their usefulness of the study.
g. Emphasize the value of respondent’s cooperation, making such
statements as “You are among the few in a position to supply the
information”. “Your response is invaluable.” “I have come to learn
from your experience and knowledge”.
iii. Developing Rapport
Before starting the research interview, the interviewer should establish a
friendly relationship with the respondent. This is described as “rapport”. It means
establishing a relationship of confidence and understanding between the
interviewer and the respondent. It is a skill which depends primarily on the
interviewer’s commonsense, experience, sensitivity, and keen observation.
Start the conversation with a general topic of interest such as weather,
current news, sports event, or the like perceiving the probable of the respondent
from his context. Such initial conversation may create a friendly atmosphere and a
warm interpersonal relationship and mutual understanding. However, the
interviewer should “guard against the over rapport” as cautioned by Herbert
Hyman. Too much identification and too much courtesy result in tailoring replied
to the image of a “nice interviewer.” The interviewer should use his discretion in
striking a happy medium.
iv. Carrying the Interview Forward
After establishing rapport, the technical task of asking questions from the
interview schedule starts. This task requires care, self-restraint, alertness and
ability to listen with understanding, respect and curiosity. In carrying on this task
of gathering information from the respondent by putting questions to him, the
following guidelines may be followed:
1) Start the interview. Carry it on in an informal and natural conversational style.
2) Ask all the applicable questions in the same order as they appear on the schedule
without any elucidation and change in the wording. Ask all the applicable questions
listed in the schedule. Do not take answers for granted.
SANTOSH GOWDA.H Reg No.: 5210757283rd semester, Disha institute of management and technology Mobile No.: 9986840143
SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITY3) If interview guide is used, the interviewer may tailor his questions to each respondent,
covering of course, the areas to be investigated.
4) Know the objectives of each question so as to make sure that the answers adequately
satisfy the question objectives.
5) If a question is not understood, repeat it slowly with proper emphasis and appropriate
explanation, when necessary.
6) Talk all answers naturally, never showing disapproval or surprise. When the
respondent does not meet the interruptions, denial, contradiction and other
harassment, he may feel free and may not try to withhold information. He will be
motivated to communicate when the atmosphere is permissive and the listener’s
attitude is non judgmental and is genuinely absorbed in the revelations.
7) Listen quietly with patience and humility. Give not only undivided attention, but also
personal warmth. At the same time, be alert and analytic to incomplete, non specific
and inconsistent answers, but avoid interrupting the flow of information. If necessary,
jot down unobtrusively the points which need elaboration or verification for later and
timelier probing. The appropriate technique for this probing is to ask for further
clarification in such a polite manner as “I am not sure, I understood fully, is
this….what you meant?”
8) Neither argue nor dispute.
9) Show genuine concern and interest in the ideas expressed by the respondent; at the
same time, maintain an impartial and objective attitude.
10) Should not reveal your own opinion or reaction. Even when you are asked of your
views, laugh off the request, saying “Well, your opinions are more important than
mine.”
11) At times the interview “runs dry” and needs re-stimulation. Then use such expressions
as “Uh-huh” or “That interesting” or “I see” “can you tell me more about that?” and
the like.
12) When the interviewee fails to supply his reactions to related past experiences,
represent the stimulus situation, introducing appropriate questions which will aid in
SANTOSH GOWDA.H Reg No.: 5210757283rd semester, Disha institute of management and technology Mobile No.: 9986840143
SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITYrevealing the past. “Under what circumstances did such and such a phenomenon
occur?” or “How did you feel about it and the like.
13) At times, the conversation may go off the track. Be alert to discover drifting, steer the
conversation back to the track by some such remark as, “you know, I was very much
interested in what you said a moment ago. Could you tell me more about it?”
14) When the conversation turns to some intimate subjects, and particularly when it deals
with crises in the life of the individual, emotional blockage may occur. Then drop the
subject for the time being and pursue another line of conversation for a while so that a
less direct approach to the subject can be made later.
15) When there is a pause in the flow of information, do not hurry the interview. Take it
as a matter of course with an interested look or a sympathetic half-smile. If the silence
is too prolonged, introduce a stimulus saying “You mentioned that… What happened
then?”
v. Additional Sittings
In the case of qualitative interviews involving longer duration, one single
sitting will not do, as it would cause interview weariness. Hence, it is desirable to
have two or more sittings with the consent of the respondent.
vi. Recording the Interview
It is essential to record responses as they take place. If the note taking is
done after the interview, a good deal of relevant information may be lost. Nothing
should be made in the schedule under respective question. It should be complete
and verbatim. The responses should not be summarized or paraphrased. How can
complete recording be made without interrupting the free flow of conversation?
Electronic transcription through devices like tape recorder can achieve this. It has
obvious advantages over note-taking during the interview. But it also has certain
disadvantages. Some respondents may object to or fear “going on record”.
Consequently the risk of lower response rate will rise especially for sensitive
topics.
SANTOSH GOWDA.H Reg No.: 5210757283rd semester, Disha institute of management and technology Mobile No.: 9986840143
SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITYIf the interviewer knows short-hand, he can use it with advantage.
Otherwise, he can write rapidly by abbreviating word and using only key words
and the like. However, even the fast writer may fail to record all that is said at
conversational speed. At such times, it is useful to interrupt by some such
comment as “that seems to be a very important point, would you mind repeating
it, so that I can get your words exactly.” The respondent is usually flattered by this
attention and the rapport is not disturbed.
The interviewer should also record all his probes and other comments on
the schedule, in brackets to set them off from responses. With the pre-coded
structured questions, the interviewer’s task is easy. He has to simply ring the
appropriate code or tick the appropriate box, as the case may be. He should not
make mistakes by carelessly ringing or ticketing a wrong item.
vii. Closing the Interview
After the interview is over, take leave off the respondent thanking him
with a friendly smile. In the case of a qualitative interview of longer duration,
select the occasion for departure more carefully. Assembling the papers for
putting them in the folder at the time of asking the final question sets the stage for
a final handshake, a thank-you and a good-bye. If the respondent desires to know
the result of the survey, note down his name and address so that a summary of the
result could be posted to him when ready.
viii. Editing
At the close of the interview, the interviewer must edit the schedule to
check that he has asked all the questions and recorded all the answers and that
there is no inconsistency between answers. Abbreviations in recording must be
replaced by full words. He must ensure that everything is legible. It is desirable to
record a brief sketch of his impressions of the interview and observational notes
on the respondent’s living environment, his attitude to the survey, difficulties, if
any, faced in securing his cooperation and the interviewer’s assessment of the
validity of the respondent’s answers.
b) What are the problems encountered in Interview?
Answer:
Interview Problems
SANTOSH GOWDA.H Reg No.: 5210757283rd semester, Disha institute of management and technology Mobile No.: 9986840143
SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITYIn personal interviewing, the researcher must deal with two major problems,
inadequate response, non-response and interviewer’s bias.
i) Inadequate response
Kahn and Cannel distinguish five principal symptoms of inadequate
response. They are:
- partial response, in which the respondent gives a relevant but incomplete
answer
- non-response, when the respondent remains silent or refuses to answer the
question
- irrelevant response, in which the respondent’s answer is not relevant to the
question asked
- inaccurate response, when the reply is biased or distorted and
- verbalized response problem, which arises on account of respondent’s
failure to understand a question or lack of information necessary for
answering it.
ii) Interviewer’s Bias
The interviewer is an important cause of response bias. He may resort to
cheating by ‘cooking up’ data without actually interviewing. The interviewers can
influence the responses by inappropriate suggestions, word emphasis, tone of
voice and question rephrasing. His own attitudes and expectations about what a
particular category of respondents may say or think may bias the data. Another
source of response of the interviewer’s characteristics (education, apparent social
status, etc) may also bias his answers. Another source of response bias arises from
interviewer’s perception of the situation, if he regards the assignment as
impossible or sees the results of the survey as possible threats to personal interests
or beliefs he is likely to introduce bias.
As interviewers are human beings, such biasing factors can never be
overcome completely, but their effects can be reduced by careful selection and
training of interviewers, proper motivation and supervision, standardization or
interview procedures (use of standard wording in survey questions, standard
instructions on probing procedure and so on) and standardization of interviewer
behaviour. There is need for more research on ways to minimize bias in the
interview.
iii) Non-response
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SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITYNon-response refers to failure to obtain responses from some sample
respondents. There are many sources of non-response; non-availability, refusal,
incapacity and inaccessibility.
iv) Non-availability
Some respondents may not be available at home at the time of call. This
depends upon the nature of the respondent and the time of calls. For example,
employed persons may not be available during working hours. Farmers may not
be available at home during cultivation season. Selection of appropriate timing for
calls could solve this problem. Evenings and weekends may be favourable
interviewing hours for such respondents. If someone is available, then, line
respondent’s hours of availability can be ascertained and the next visit can be
planned accordingly.
v) Refusal
Some persons may refuse to furnish information because they are ill-
disposed, or approached at the wrong hour and so on. Although, a hardcore of
refusals remains, another try or perhaps another approach may find some of them
cooperative. Incapacity or inability may refer to illness which prevents a response
during the entire survey period. This may also arise on account of language
barrier.
vi) Inaccessibility
Some respondents may be inaccessible. Some may not be found due to
migration and other reasons. Non-responses reduce the effective sample size and
its representativeness.
vii)Methods and Aims of control of non-response
Kish suggests the following methods to reduce either the percentage of
non-response or its effects:
1) Improved procedures for collecting data are the most obvious remedy for
non-response. Improvements advocated are (a) guarantees of anonymity, (b)
motivation of the respondent to co-operate (c) arousing the respondents’
interest with clever opening remarks and questions, (d) advance notice to the
respondents.
2) Call-backs are most effective way of reducing not-at-homes in personal
interviews, as are repeated mailings to no-returns in mail surveys.
SANTOSH GOWDA.H Reg No.: 5210757283rd semester, Disha institute of management and technology Mobile No.: 9986840143
SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITY3) Substitution for the non-response is often suggested as a remedy. Usually this
is a mistake because the substitutes resemble the responses rather than the
non-responses. Nevertheless, beneficial substitution methods can sometimes
be designed with reference to important characteristics of the population. For
example, in a farm management study, the farm size is an important variable
and if the sampling is based on farm size, substitution for a respondent with a
particular size holding by another with the holding of the same size is
possible.
Attempts to reduce the percentage or effects on non-responses aim at
reducing the bias caused by differences on non-respondents from respondents. The
non-response bias should not be confused with the reduction of sampled size due to
non-response. The latter effect can be easily overcome, either by anticipating the
size of non-response in designing the sample size or by compensating for it with a
supplement. These adjustments increase the size of the response and the sampling
precision, but they do not reduce the non-response percentage or bias.
3.
a) What are the various steps in processing of data?
Answer:
The various steps in processing of data may be stated as:
Identifying the data structures
Editing the data
Coding and classifying the data
Transcription of data
Tabulation of data.
Objectives:
After studying this lesson you should be able to understand:
Checking for analysis
Editing
Coding
Classification
Transcription of data
Tabulation
Construction of Frequency Table
SANTOSH GOWDA.H Reg No.: 5210757283rd semester, Disha institute of management and technology Mobile No.: 9986840143
SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITY Components of a table
Principles of table construction
Frequency distribution and class intervals
Graphs, charts and diagrams
Types of graphs and general rules
Quantitative and qualitative analysis
Measures of central tendency
Dispersion
Correlation analysis
Coefficient of determination
- Checking for Analysis
In the data preparation step, the data are prepared in a data format, which
allows the analyst to use modern analysis software such as SAS or SPSS. The major
criterion in this is to define the data structure. A data structure is a dynamic collection
of related variables and can be conveniently represented as a graph where nodes are
labelled by variables. The data structure also defines and stages of the preliminary
relationship between variables/groups that have been pre-planned by the researcher.
Most data structures can be graphically presented to give clarity as to the frames
researched hypothesis. A sample structure could be a linear structure, in which one
variable leads to the other and finally, to the resultant end variable.
The identification of the nodal points and the relationships among the nodes
could sometimes be a complex task than estimated. When the task is complex, which
involves several types of instruments being collected for the same research question,
the procedures for drawing the data structure would involve a series of steps. In
several intermediate steps, the heterogeneous data structure of the individual data sets
can be harmonized to a common standard and the separate data sets are then
integrated into a single data set. However, the clear definition of such data structures
would help in the further processing of data.
- Editing
The next step in the processing of data is editing of the data instruments.
Editing is a process of checking to detect and correct errors and omissions. Data
editing happens at two stages, one at the time of recording of the data and second at
the time of analysis of data.
SANTOSH GOWDA.H Reg No.: 5210757283rd semester, Disha institute of management and technology Mobile No.: 9986840143
SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITY- Data Editing at the Time of Recording of Data
Document editing and testing of the data at the time of data recording is done
considering the following questions in mind.
Do the filters agree or are the data inconsistent?
Have missing values been set to values, which are the same for all research questions?
Have variable descriptions been specified?
Have labels for variable names and value labels been defined and written?
All editing and cleaning steps are documented, so that, the redefinition of
variables or later analytical modification requirements could be easily incorporated into
the data sets.
- Data Editing at the Time of Analysis of Data
Data editing is also a requisite before the analysis of data is carried out. This
ensures that the data is complete in all respect for subjecting them to further analysis.
Some of the usual check list questions that can be had by a researcher for editing data sets
before analysis would be:
Is the coding frame complete?
Is the documentary material sufficient for the methodological description of the
study?
Is the storage medium readable and reliable.
Has the correct data set been framed?
Is the number of cases correct?
Are there differences between questionnaire, coding frame and data?
Are there undefined and so-called wild codes?
Comparison of the first counting of the data with the original documents of the
researcher.
The editing step checks for the completeness, accuracy and uniformity of the data
as created by the researcher.
Completeness: The first step of editing is to check whether there is an answer to all the
questions/variables set out in the data set. If there were any omission, the researcher
sometimes would be able to deduce the correct answer from other related data on the
same instrument. If this is possible, the data set has to rewritten on the basis of the new
information. For example, the approximate family income can be inferred from other
answers to probes such as occupation of family members, sources of income, approximate
spending and saving and borrowing habits of family members etc. If the information is
SANTOSH GOWDA.H Reg No.: 5210757283rd semester, Disha institute of management and technology Mobile No.: 9986840143
SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITYvital and has been found to be incomplete, then the researcher can take the step of
contacting the respondent personally again and solicit the requisite data again. If none of
these steps could be resorted to the marking of the data as missing must be resorted to.
Accuracy: Apart from checking for omissions, the accuracy of each recorded answer
should be checked. A random check process can be applied to trace the errors at this step.
Consistency in response can also be checked at this step. The cross verification to a few
related responses would help in checking for consistency in responses. The reliability of
the data set would heavily depend on this step of error correction. While clear
inconsistencies should be rectified in the data sets, fact responses should be dropped from
the data sets.
Uniformity: In editing data sets, another keen lookout should be for any lack of
uniformity, in interpretation of questions and instructions by the data recorders. For
instance, the responses towards a specific feeling could have been queried from a positive
as well as a negative angle. While interpreting the answers, care should be taken as a
record the answer as a positive question response or as negative question response in all
uniformity checks for consistency in coding throughout the questionnaire/interview
schedule response/data set.
The final point in the editing of data set is to maintain a log of all corrections that have
been carried out at this stage. The documentation of these corrections helps the researcher
to retain the original data set.
- Coding
The edited data are then subject to codification and classification. Coding
process assigns numerals or other symbols to the several responses of the data set. It
is therefore a pre-requisite to prepare a coding scheme for the data set. The
recording of the data is done on the basis of this coding scheme.
The responses collected in a data sheet varies, sometimes the responses could
be the choice among a multiple response, sometimes the response could be in terms
of values and sometimes the response could be alphanumeric. At the recording stage
itself, if some codification were done to the responses collected, it would be useful
in the data analysis. When codification is done, it is imperative to keep a log of the
codes allotted to the observations. This code sheet will help in the identification of
variables/observations and the basis for such codification.
The first coding done to primary data sets are the individual observation
themselves. This responses sheet coding gives a benefit to the research, in that, the
verification and editing of recordings and further contact with respondents can be SANTOSH GOWDA.H Reg No.: 5210757283rd semester, Disha institute of management and technology Mobile No.: 9986840143
SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITYachieved without any difficulty. The codification can be made at the time of
distribution of the primary data sheets itself. The codes can be alphanumeric to keep
track of where and to whom it had been sent. For instance, if the data consists of
several public at different localities, the sheets that are distributed in a specific
locality may carry a unique part code which is alphabetic. To this alphabetic code, a
numeric code can be attached to distinguish the person to whom the primary
instrument was distributed. This also helps the researcher to keep track of who the
respondents are and who are the probable respondents from whom primary data
sheets are yet to be collected. Even at a latter stage, any specific queries on a
specific responses sheet can be clarified.
The variables or observations in the primary instrument would also need
codification, especially when they are categorized. The categorization could be on a
scale i.e., most preferable to not preferable, or it could be very specific such as
Gender classified as Male and Female. Certain classifications can lead to open
ended classification such as education classification, Illiterate, Graduate,
Professional, Others. Please specify. In such instances, the codification needs to be
carefully done to include all possible responses under Others, please specify. If the
preparation of the exhaustive list is not feasible, then it will be better to create a
separate variable for the Others please specify category and records all responses as
such.
Numeric Coding: Coding need not necessarily be numeric. It can also be
alphabetic. Coding has to be compulsorily numeric, when the variable is subject to
further parametric analysis.
Alphabetic Coding: A mere tabulation or frequency count or graphical
representation of the variable may be given in an alphabetic coding.
Zero Coding: A coding of zero has to be assigned carefully to a variable. In many
instances, when manual analysis is done, a code of 0 would imply a no response
from the respondents. Hence, if a value of 0 is to be given to specific responses in
the data sheet, it should not lead to the same interpretation of non response. For
instance, there will be a tendency to give a code of 0 to a no, then a different coding
than 0 should be given in the data sheet. An illustration of the coding process of
some of the demographic variables is given in the following table.
Question Variable Response categories Code SANTOSH GOWDA.H Reg No.: 5210757283rd semester, Disha institute of management and technology Mobile No.: 9986840143
SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITY
Number observation
1.1 Organisation Private Pt
Public Pb
Government Go
3.4 Owner of Vehicle Yes 2
No 1
4.2 Vehicle performs Excellent 5
Good 4
Adequate 3
Bad 2
Worst 1
5.1 Age Up to 20 years 1
21-40 years 2
40-60 years 3
5.2 Occupation Salaried S
Professional P
Technical T
Business B
Retired R
Housewife H
Others =
= Could be treated as a separate variable/observation and the actual response could be
recorded. The new variable could be termed as other occupation
The coding sheet needs to be prepared carefully, if the data recording is not done by
the researcher, but is outsourced to a data entry firm or individual. In order to enter the data in
the same perspective, as the researcher would like to view it, the data coding sheet is to be
prepared first and a copy of the data coding sheet should be given to the outsourcer to help in
the data entry procedure. Sometimes, the researcher might not be able to code the data from
the primary instrument itself. He may need to classify the responses and then code them. For
this purpose, classification of data is also necessary at the data entry stage.
- Classification
When open ended responses have been received, classification is
necessary to code the responses. For instance, the income of the respondent
SANTOSH GOWDA.H Reg No.: 5210757283rd semester, Disha institute of management and technology Mobile No.: 9986840143
SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITYcould be an open-ended question. From all responses, a suitable classification
can be arrived at. A classification method should meet certain requirements or
should be guided by certain rules.
First, classification should be linked to the theory and the aim of the
particular study. The objectives of the study will determine the dimensions
chosen for coding. The categorization should meet the information required to
test the hypothesis or investigate the questions.
Second, the scheme of classification should be exhaustive. That is,
there must be a category for every response. For example, the classification of
martial status into three category viz., married Single and divorced is not
exhaustive, because responses like widower or separated cannot be fitted into
the scheme. Here, an open ended question will be the best mode of getting the
responses. From the responses collected, the researcher can fit a meaningful and
theoretically supportive classification. The inclusion of the classification Others
tends to fill the cluttered, but few responses from the data sheets. But others
categorization has to carefully used by the researcher. However, the other
categorization tends to defeat the very purpose of classification, which is
designed to distinguish between observations in terms of the properties under
study. The classification others will be very useful when a minority of
respondents in the data set give varying answers. For instance, the reading habits
of newspaper may be surveyed. The 95 respondents out of 100 could be easily
classified into 5 large reading groups while 5 respondents could have given a
unique answer. These given answer rather than being separately considered
could be clubbed under the others heading for meaningful interpretation of
respondents and reading habits.
Third, the categories must also be mutually exhaustive, so that each
case is classified only once. This requirement is violated when some of the
categories overlap or different dimensions are mixed up.
The number of categorization for a specific question/observation at the
coding stage should be maximum permissible since, reducing the categorization
at the analysis level would be easier than splitting an already classified group of
responses. However the number of categories is limited by the number of cases
and the anticipated statistical analysis that are to be used on the observation.
- Transcription of Data
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SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITYWhen the observations collected by the researcher are not very large,
the simple inferences, which can be drawn from the observations, can be
transferred to a data sheet, which is a summary of all responses on all
observations from a research instrument. The main aim of transition is to
minimize the shuffling proceeds between several responses and several
observations. Suppose a research instrument contains 120 responses and the
observations has been collected from 200 respondents, a simple summary of
one response from all 200 observations would require shuffling of 200 pages.
The process is quite tedious if several summary tables are to be prepared from
the instrument. The transcription process helps in the presentation of all
responses and observations on data sheets which can help the researcher to
arrive at preliminary conclusions as to the nature of the sample collected etc.
Transcription is hence, an intermediary process between data coding and data
tabulation.
- Methods of Transcription
The researcher may adopt a manual or computerized transcription.
Long work sheets, sorting cards or sorting strips could be used by the
researcher to manually transcript the responses. The computerized
transcription could be done using a data base package such as spreadsheets,
text files or other databases.
The main requisite for a transcription process is the preparation of the
data sheets where observations are the row of the database and the
responses/variables are the columns of the data sheet. Each variable should be
given a label so that long questions can be covered under the label names. The
label names are thus the links to specific questions in the research instrument.
For instance, opinion on consumer satisfaction could be identified through a
number of statements (say 10); the data sheet does not contain the details of
the statement, but gives a link to the question in the research instrument
though variable labels. In this instance the variable names could be given as
CS1, CS2, CS3, CS4, CS5, CS6, CS7, CS8, CS9 and CS10. The label CS
indicating Consumer satisfaction and the number 1 to 10 indicate the
statement measuring consumer satisfaction. Once the labelling process has
been done for all the responses in the research instrument, the transcription of
the response is done.
- Manual Transcription
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SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITYWhen the sample size is manageable, the researcher need not use any
computerization process to analyze the data. The researcher could prefer a
manual transcription and analysis of responses. The choice of manual
transcription would be when the number of responses in a research instrument
is very less, say 10 responses, and the numbers of observations collected are
within 100. A transcription sheet with 100x50 (assuming each response has 5
options) row/column can be easily managed by a researcher manually. If, on
the other hand the variables in the research instrument are more than 40 and
each variable has 5 options, it leads to a worksheet of 100x200 sizes which
might not be easily managed by the researcher manually. In the second
instance, if the number of responses is less than 30, then the manual worksheet
could be attempted manually. In all other instances, it is advisable to use a
computerized transcription process.
- Long Worksheets
Long worksheets require quality paper; preferably chart sheets, thick
enough to last several usages. These worksheets normally are ruled both
horizontally and vertically, allowing responses to be written in the boxes. If
one sheet is not sufficient, the researcher may use multiple rules sheets to
accommodate all the observations. Heading of responses which are variable
names and their coding (options) are filled in the first two rows. The first
column contains the code of observations. For each variable, now the
responses from the research instrument are then transferred to the worksheet
by ticking the specific option that the observer has chosen. If the variable
cannot be coded into categories, requisite length for recording the actual
response of the observer should be provided for in the work sheet.
The worksheet can then be used for preparing the summary tables or
can be subjected to further analysis of data. The original research instrument
can be now kept aside as safe documents. Copies of the data sheets can also be
kept for future references. As has been discussed under the editing section, the
transcript data has to be subjected to a testing to ensure error free transcription
of data.
A sample worksheet is given below for reference.
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Transcription can be made as and when the edited instrument is ready for processing.
Once all schedules/questionnaires have been transcribed, the frequency tables can be
constructed straight from worksheet. Other methods of manual transcription include adoption
of sorting strips or cards.
In olden days, data entry and processing were made through mechanical and semi
auto-metric devices such as key punch using punch cards. The arrival of computers has
changed the data processing methodology altogether.
- Tabulation
The transcription of data can be used to summarize and arrange the
data in compact form for further analysis. The process is called tabulation.
Thus, tabulation is a process of summarizing raw data displaying them on
compact statistical tables for further analysis. It involves counting the number
of cases falling into each of the categories identified by the researcher.
Tabulation can be done manually or through the computer. The choice
depends upon the size and type of study, cost considerations, time pressures
and the availability of software packages. Manual tabulation is suitable for
small and simple studies.
b) How is data editing is done at the Time of Recording of Data?
Answer:
Data Editing at the Time of Recording of Data
Document editing and testing of the data at the time of data recording is done
considering the following questions in mind.
Do the filters agree or are the data inconsistent?
Have missing values been set to values, which are the same for all research questions?
Have variable descriptions been specified?
Have labels for variable names and value labels been defined and written?
All editing and cleaning steps are documented, so that, the redefinition of variables or later
analytical modification requirements could be easily incorporated into the data sets.
SANTOSH GOWDA.H Reg No.: 5210757283rd semester, Disha institute of management and technology Mobile No.: 9986840143
SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITY4.
a) What are the fundamental of frequency Distribution?
Answer:
Frequency Distribution
Variables that are classified according to magnitude or size are often arranged
in the form of a frequency table. In constructing this table, it is necessary to determine
the number of class intervals to be used and the size of the class intervals.
A distinction is usually made between continuous and discrete variables. A
continuous variable has an unlimited number of possible values between the lowest
and highest with no gaps or breaks. Examples of continuous variable are age, weight,
temperature etc. A discrete variable can have a series of specified values with no
possibility of values between these points. Each value of a discrete variable is distinct
and separate. Examples of discrete variables are gender of persons (male/female)
occupation (salaried, business, profession) car size (800cc, 1000cc, 1200cc)
In practice, all variables are treated as discrete units, the continuous variables
being stated in some discrete unit size according to the needs of a particular situation.
For example, length is described in discrete units of millimetres or a tenth of an inch.
b) What are the types and general rules for graphical representation of data?
Answer:
The most commonly used graphic forms may be grouped into the following
categories:
i. Line Graphs or Charts
ii. Bar Charts
iii. Segmental presentations.
iv. Scatter plots
v. Bubble charts
vi. Stock plots
vii. Pictographs
viii. Chesnokov Faces
The general rules to be followed in graphic representations are:
a. The chart should have a title placed directly above the chart.
b. The title should be clear, concise and simple and should describe the nature
of the data presented.
c. Numerical data upon which the chart is based should be presented in an
accompanying table.
SANTOSH GOWDA.H Reg No.: 5210757283rd semester, Disha institute of management and technology Mobile No.: 9986840143
SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITYd. The horizontal line measures time or independent variable and the vertical
line the measured variable.
e. Measurements proceed from left to right on the horizontal line and from
bottom to top on the vertical.
f. Each curve or bar on the chart should be labelled.
g. If there are more than one curves or bar, they should be clearly
differentiated from one another by distinct patterns or colours.
h. The zero point should always be represented and the scale intervals should
be equal.
i. Graphic forms should be used sparingly. Too many forms detract rather than
illuminating the presentation.
j. Graphic forms should follow and not precede the related textual discussion.
5. Strictly speaking, would case studies be considered as scientific research? Why
or why not?
Answer:
Case studies are a tool for discussing scientific integrity. Although one of the most
frequently used tools for encouraging discussion, cases are only one of many possible tools.
Many of the principles discussed below for discussing case studies can be generalized to other
approaches to encouraging discussion about research ethics.
Cases are designed to confront readers with specific real-life problems that do not
lend themselves to easy answers. Case discussion demands critical and analytical skills and,
when implemented in small groups, also fosters collaboration (Pimple, 2002). By providing a
focus for discussion, cases help trainees to define or refine their own standards, to appreciate
alternative approaches to identifying and resolving ethical problems, and to develop skills for
analyzing and dealing with hard problems on their own. The effective use of case studies is
comprised of many factors, including:
appropriate selection of case(s) (topic, relevance, length, complexity)
method of case presentation (verbal, printed, before or during discussion)
format for case discussion (Email or Internet-based, small group, large group)
leadership of case discussion (choice of discussion leader, roles and responsibilities for
discussion leader)
outcomes for case discussion (answers to specific questions, answers to general questions,
written or verbal summaries)
Research methods don't seem so intimidating when you're familiar with the
terminology. This is important whether you're conducting evaluation or merely reading
SANTOSH GOWDA.H Reg No.: 5210757283rd semester, Disha institute of management and technology Mobile No.: 9986840143
SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITYarticles about other studies to incorporate in your program. To help with understanding, here
are some basic definitions used.
Variable: Characteristics by which people or things can be described. Must have more than
one level; in other words, to be able to change over time for the same person/object, or from
person to person, or object to object. Some variables, called attributes, cannot be manipulated
by the researcher (e.g., socioeconomic status, IQ score, race, gender, etc.). Some variables can
be manipulated but are not in a particular study. This occurs when subjects self-select the
level of the independent variable, or the level is naturally occurring (as with ex post facto
research).
Manipulation: Random assignment of subjects to levels of the independent variable
(treatment groups).
Independent variable: The treatment, factor, or presumed cause that will produce a change
in the dependent variable. This is what the experimenter tries to manipulate. It is denoted as
"X" on the horizontal axis of a graph.
Dependent variable: The presumed effect or consequence resulting from changes in the
independent variable. This is the observation made and is denoted by "Y" on the vertical axis
of a graph. The score of "Y" depends on the score of "X."
Population: The complete set of subjects that can be studied: people, objects, animals, plants,
etc.
Sample: A subset of subjects that can be studied to make the research project more
manageable. There are a variety of ways samples can be taken. If a large enough random
samples are taken, the results can be statistically similar to taking a census of an entire
population--with reduced effort and cost.
Case Study:
A case study is conducted for similar purpose as the above but is usually done with a smaller sample size for
more in-depth study. A case study often involves direct observation or interviews with single subjects or single
small social units such as a family, club, school classroom, etc. This is typically considered qualitative research.
Purpose: Explain or Predict
Type of Research to Use: Relational Study
In a relational study you start with a research hypothesis, that is, is what you're trying to "prove."
Examples of research hypotheses for a relational study:
The older the person, the more health problems he or she encounters.
4-H members attending 4-H summer camp stay enrolled in 4-H longer.SANTOSH GOWDA.H Reg No.: 5210757283rd semester, Disha institute of management and technology Mobile No.: 9986840143
SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITY The greater the number of money management classes attended, the greater the amount of
annual savings achieved.
Types of relational studies include correlational studies and ex post facto studies.
Correlational Study:
A correlational study compares two or more different characteristics from the same group of people
and explains how two characteristics vary together and how well one can be predicted from knowledge of the
other.
A concurrent correlational study draws a relationship between characteristics at the same point in time.
For example, a student's grade point average is related to his or her class rank.
A predictive correlational study could predict a later set of data from an earlier set. For example, a
student's grade point average might predict the same student's grade point average during senior year. A
predictive correlational study could also use one characteristic to predict what another characteristic will be at
another time. For example, a student's SAT score is designed to predict college freshman grade point average.
Ex Post Facto (After the Fact) Study:
An ex post facto study is used when experimental research is not possible, such as when people have
self-selected levels of an independent variable or when a treatment is naturally occurring and the researcher
could not "control" the degree of its use. The researcher starts by specifying a dependent variable and then tries
to identify possible reasons for its occurrence as well as alternative (rival) explanations such confounding
(intervening, contaminating, or extraneous) variables are "controlled" using statistics.
This type of study is very common and useful when using human subjects in real-world situations and
the investigator comes in "after the fact." For example, it might be observed that students from one town have
higher grades than students from a different town attending the same high school. Would just "being from a
certain town" explain the differences? In an ex post facto study, specific reasons for the differences would be
explored, such as differences in income, ethnicity, parent support, etc. It is important to recognize that, in a
relational study, "cause and effect" cannot be claimed. All that can be claimed is that that there is a relationship
between the variables.
For that matter, variables that are completely unrelated could, in fact, vary together due to nothing
more than coincidence. That is why the researcher needs to establish a plausible reason (research hypothesis) for
why there might be a relationship between two variables before conducting a study. For instance, it might be
found that all football teams with blue uniforms won last week. There is no likely reason why the uniform color
had any relationship to the games' outcomes, and it certainly was not the cause for victory. Similarly, you must
be careful about claiming that your Extension program was the "cause" of possible results.
6.
a) Analyse the case study and descriptive approach to research?
Answer:
i) Case Study and descriptive approach to research:
Descriptive research, also known as statistical research, describes data and
characteristics about the population or phenomenon being studied. Descriptive
research answers the questions who, what, where, when and how...SANTOSH GOWDA.H Reg No.: 5210757283rd semester, Disha institute of management and technology Mobile No.: 9986840143
SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITYAlthough the data description is factual, accurate and systematic, the
research cannot describe what caused a situation. Thus, Descriptive research
cannot be used to create a causal relationship, where one variable affects another.
In other words, descriptive research can be said to have a low requirement for
internal validity.
The description is used for frequencies, averages and other statistical
calculations. Often the best approach, prior to writing descriptive research, is to
conduct a survey investigation. Qualitative research often has the aim of
description and researchers may follow-up with examinations of why the
observations exist and what the implications of the findings are.
In short descriptive research deals with everything that can be counted and
studied. But there are always restrictions to that. Your research must have an
impact to the lives of the people around you e.g. finding the most frequent disease
that affects the children of a town. The reader of the research will know what to
do to prevent that disease thus; more people will live a healthy life.
Descriptive research does not fit neatly into the definition of either
quantitative or qualitative research methodologies, but instead it can utilize
elements of both, often within the same study. The term descriptive research refers
to the type of research question, design, and data analysis that will be applied to a
given topic. Descriptive statistics tell what is, while inferential statistics try to
determine cause and effect.
A case study is a research method common in social science. It is based on
an in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, or event. Case studies may
be descriptive or explanatory. The latter type is used to explore causation in order
to find underlying principles. They may be prospective, in which criteria are
established and cases fitting the criteria are included as they become available, or
retrospective, in which criteria are established for selecting cases from historical
records for inclusion in the study.
Rather than using samples and following a rigid protocol (strict set of
rules) to examine limited number of variables, case study methods involve an in-
depth, longitudinal (over a long period of time) examination of a single instance or
event: a case. They provide a systematic way of looking at events, collecting data,
analyzing information, and reporting the results. As a result the researcher may
gain a sharpened understanding of why the instance happened as it did, and what
might become important to look at more extensively in future research. Case
studies lend themselves to both generating and testing hypotheses.
SANTOSH GOWDA.H Reg No.: 5210757283rd semester, Disha institute of management and technology Mobile No.: 9986840143
SIKKIM MANIPAL UNIVERSITYAnother suggestion is that case study should be defined as a research
strategy, an empirical inquiry that investigates a phenomenon within its real-life
context. Case study research means single and multiple case studies, can include
quantitative evidence, relies on multiple sources of evidence and benefits from the
prior development of theoretical propositions. Case studies should not be confused
with qualitative research and they can be based on any mix of quantitative and
qualitative evidence. Single-subject research provides the statistical framework for
making inferences from quantitative case-study data
b) Distinguish between research methods & research Methodology.
Answer:
Research Methods Research Methodology
Research methods are the various procedures,
schemes, algorithms, etc. used in research. All
the methods used by a researcher during a
research study are termed as research methods.
They are essentially planned, scientific and
value-neutral. They include theoretical
procedures, experimental studies, numerical
schemes, statistical approaches, etc. Research
methods help us collect samples, data and find a
solution to a problem. Particularly, scientific
research methods call for explanations based on
collected facts, measurements and observations
and not on reasoning alone. They ac- cept only
those explanations which can be verified by
experiments.
Research methodology is a systematic way to
solve a problem. It is a science of studying how
research is to be carried out. Essentially, the
procedures by which researchers go about their
work of describing, explaining and predicting
phenomena are called research methodology. It
is also defined as the study of methods by which
knowledge is gained. Its aim is to give the work
plan of research.
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