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1. Maya history

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HistoryThe Maya are probably the best-known of the classical civilizations of Mesoamerica. Originating in the Yucatбn around 2600 B.C., they rose to prominence around A.D. 250 in present-day southern Mexico, Guatemala, northern Belize and western Honduras. Building on the inherited inventions and ideas of earlier civilizations such as the Olmec, the Maya developed astronomy, calendrical systems and hieroglyphic writing. The Maya were noted as well for elaborate and highly decorated ceremonial architecture, including temple-pyramids, palaces and observatories, all built without metal tools. They were also skilled farmers, clearing large sections of tropical rain forest and, where groundwater was scarce, building sizeable underground reservoirs for the storage of rainwater. The Maya were equally skilled as weavers and potters, and cleared routes through jungles and swamps to foster extensive trade networks with distant peoples.

Around 300 B.C., the Maya adopted a hierarchical system of government with rule by nobles and kings. This civilization developed into highly structured kingdoms during the Classic period, A.D. 200-900. Their society consisted of many independent states, each with a rural farming community and large urban sites built around ceremonial centres. It started to decline around A.D. 900 when - for reasons which are still largely a mystery - the southern Maya abandoned their cities. When the northern Maya were integrated into the Toltec society by A.D. 1200, the Maya dynasty finally came to a close, although some peripheral centres continued to thrive until the Spanish Conquest in the early sixteenth century.

Maya history can be characterized as cycles of rise and fall: city-states rose in prominence and fell into decline, only to be replaced by others. It could also be described as one of continuity and change, guided by a religion that remains the foundation of their culture. For those who follow the ancient Maya traditions, the belief in the influence of the cosmos on human lives and the necessity of paying homage to the gods through rituals continues to find expression in a modern hybrid Christian-Maya faith.

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Timeline

B.C.11,000

The first hunter-gatherers settle in the Maya highlands and lowlands. 3113

The creation of the world takes place, according to the Maya Long Count calendar.

2600 Maya civilization begins.

2000 The rise of the Olmec civilization, from which many aspects of Maya culture are derived. Village farming becomes established throughout Maya regions.

700 Writing is developed in Mesoamerica.

400 The earliest known solar calendars carved in stone are in use among the Maya, although the solar calendar may have been known and used by the Maya before this date.

300 The Maya adopt the idea of a hierarchical society ruled by nobles and kings.

100 The city of Teotihuacan is founded and for centuries is the cultural, religious and trading centre of Mesoamerica.

50 The Maya city of Cerros is built, with a complex of temples and ball courts. It is abandoned (for reasons unknown) a hundred years later and its people return to fishing and farming.

A.D.100

The decline of the Olmecs. 400

The Maya highlands fall under the domination of Teotihuacan, and the disintegration of Maya culture and language begins in some parts of the highlands.

500 The Maya city of Tikal becomes the first great Maya city, as citizens

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from Teotihuacan make their way to Tikal, introducing new ideas involving weaponry, captives, ritual practices and human sacrifice.

600 An unknown event destroys the civilization at Teotihuacan, along with the empire it supported. Tikal becomes the largest city-state in Mesoamerica , with as many as 500,000 inhabitants within the city and its hinterland.

683 The Emperor Pacal dies at the age of 80 and is buried in the Temple of the Inscriptions at Palenque.

751 Long-standing Maya alliances begin to break down. Trade between Maya city-states declines, and inter-state conflict increases.

869 Construction ceases in Tikal, marking the beginning of the city's decline.

899 Tikal is abandoned.

900 The Classic Period of Maya history ends, with the collapse of the southern lowland cities. Maya cities in the northern Yucatán continue to thrive.

2. Maya godsReligion

God K, the god of lightning

Like the Aztec and Inca who came to power later, the Maya believed in a cyclical nature of time. The rituals and ceremonies were very closely associated with celestial and terrestrial cycles which they observed and inscribed as separate calendars. The Maya priest had the job of interpreting these cycles and giving a prophetic outlook on the future or past based on the number relations of all their calendars. They also had to determine if the heavens were propitious for performing certain religious ceremonies.

The Maya practiced human sacrifice. In some Maya rituals people were killed by having their arms and legs held while a priest cut the person's chest open and tore out his heart as an offering. This is depicted on ancient objects such as pictorial texts, known as codices.

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Much of the Maya religious tradition is still not understood by scholars, but it is known that the Maya believed that the cosmos had three major planes, the Earth, the underworld beneath and the heavens above.

The Maya underworld is reached through caves and ball courts.[citation needed] It was thought to be dominated by the aged Maya gods of death and putrefaction. The Sun (Kinich Ahau) and Itzamna, an aged god, dominated the Maya idea of the sky. Another aged man, god L, was one of the major deities of the underworld.

The night sky was considered a window showing all supernatural doings. The Maya configured constellations of gods and places, saw the unfolding of narratives in their seasonal movements, and believed that the intersection of all possible worlds was in the night sky[citation needed].

Maya gods had affinities and aspects that caused them to merge with one another in ways that seem unbounded. There is a massive array of supernatural characters in the Maya religious tradition, only some of which recur with regularity. Good and evil traits are not permanent characteristics of Maya gods, nor is only "good" admirable. What is inappropriate during one season might come to pass in another since much of the Maya religious tradition is based on cycles and not permanence.

The life-cycle of maize lies at the heart of Maya belief. This philosophy is demonstrated on the belief in the Maya maize god as a central religious figure. The Maya bodily ideal is also based on the form of this young deity, which is demonstrated in their artwork. The Maize God was also a model of courtly life for the Classical Maya.

It is sometimes believed[attribution needed] that the multiple gods represented nothing more than a mathematical explanation of what they observed. Each god was literally just a number or an explanation of the effects observed by a combination of numbers from multiple calendars. Among the many types of Maya calendars which were maintained, the most important included a 260-day cycle, a 365-day cycle which approximated the solar year, a cycle which recorded lunation periods of the Moon, and a cycle which tracked the synodic period of Venus.

Philosophically, the Maya believed that knowing the past meant knowing the cyclical influences that create the present, and by knowing the influences of the present one can see the cyclical influences of the future.

Even in the 19th century, there Maya culture influenced the local forms of Christianity followed in Chan Santa Cruz.

Among the K'iche' in the western highlands of Guatemala these same nine months[clarification needed] are replicated, until this very day, in the training of the ajk'ij, the keeper of the 260-day-calendar called ch'olk'ij.

Ah muzencab - God of Bees and Honey - intimately associated with the four bacabsAh Puch - also known as Hun ahua is a God of Death and dwells in the underworld; normally epicted as a human skeleton with an awl head.  Bacab - The Four Guardian Deities (see above article) they related to the Cardinal points, carrying the sky in the center of them is the sacred tree of life "Ceiba".  Holly bees are associated with these four deities as well as the armadillo, spider web, snail, and the turtle.Chaac - God of Rain, it is one god and manifold gods including the God of Thunder (God K) and the four Chaacs in relation to the four Bacabs.  In Chichen Itza and Uxmal, Chaac was a highly venerated God.Chak Chel – Wife of Itzamnaaj, a red rainbow warrior young goddess with jaguar ears and claws; she is thought to be the young version of Ixchel, a weaver and patron of women in the underworld.Camazotz - Bat god, tries to kill the mythological Mayan Hero Twins (PV). The bat-like god is also a monster deity of the underwold.Gukumatz - Feathered Snake God and one of the God Creators of humanity (PV) this God is intimately associated in Yucatec Maya as Kukulkan – Messenger of Venus; the Sovereign Feathered Serpent Deity revered in Chichen Itza and Mayapan (believed to be Quetzalcoalt for the Aztecs).Hun-Hunahpu – also known as Jumnajpu (PV) Hun Nal Ye- Father of the Mayan Hero Twins and of the patrons of artisans and writers in Mayan mythology. He is the Sacred Maize Deity according to the most popular academic theory of today. He is the Mayan ideal of beauty and youth.

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Hunahpu -  (One of Popol Vuh’s mythological Mayan Hero Twins, . A ballplayer deity characterized as a hunter of birds; he is more important than his twin brother in Mayan calendar iconography. Huracan - God of Storm (extreme bad weather) Wind and Fire, one of the creator deities (PV); one of the God Creators of humanity always depicted with one snake foot and a long nose. Nowadays our Atlantic weather storms are Hurricanes word that comes from this Maya God’s own name. Itzamnaaj - The Supreme God Creator (God D) ruled the skies and invented writing; associated with the Sun, this god is depicted with sun goggles. He is also known as the God of  Kakaw or CacaoIxchel - Aged jaguar goddess of midwifery and medicine, also known as Ix Chel; she is associated with the Moon (L) water, fertility and childbirth. The patron of healers and J-Men and Ix’Men as well as those that work in the sacred healing arts.Ixtab - Goddess of Honorable Suicide (L). depicted as the “rope woman” for hanging was to the Maya an honorable way to die; she will take the brave soul to paradise, Ixtab is depicted in the Desdren Codex as a symbol of Lunar and Sun Eclipses.  K’awiil (God K) – a God of Lighting; he is characterized by a snake foot often seem on kings’ scepters. The is also the Jaguar God of the underworld.Moon Goddess – depicted as a woman sitting in the edged of a crescent moon holding a rabbit. In Maya mythology, the moon phases symbolize women’s life cycles. She is associated with water, rainfall, rainy season and deep fresh cenote water (underworld version of the goddess).Xbalanque - One of the mythological Mayan Hero Twins (PV) a ballplayer deity whose name means Jaguar Son or Hidden Sun. Xochiquetzal  goddess of Xocolatl – a sacred godly beverage prepare only for the upper Maya royalty; its sound comes form the Maya Chocol ha meaning “bitter water” a beverage dedicated to the Maya Goddess of Kakaw and fertility; the Nahualt language adopted the sound to Xocolatl and the Spaniards created the term chocolate when they brought this precious bean to their monarchs. Zipacna - Underworld Demon Deity with great sexual appetite symbolized by his favorite food: crabs (PV); son of Seven Macaw and brother of the Earthquake God. A very arrogant and powerful deity believed to have created the mountains; he is depicted often as an alligator; he is a mythological figure related to the legend of the Twin Heros in the Popol Vuh.

3. Maya cities

Mayan cities and the ruins are one of the most inspiring journeys you'll ever make. Visiting these ancient Mayan cities is a great way to spend your vacation. Places like Chichen Itza, Palenque, Merida, Tulum, Tikal and Uxmal are just some of the great ruins in the Southern Mexico, Belize, Guatemala areas. The Mayan ruins of central America are from cities that fell into decline long before Columbus. But many of the traditions reflected in the architecture and art from these sites live on in the modern Mayan world.

Many of the Mayan sites are located near the Yucatan Peninsula, spilling over to the lowland rainforests of Mexico to the east and Belize in the west, some of Guatemala and eastern part of Honduras.

    Chichen Itza translates to mean "mouth of the well of Itza." Chichen is the best known, best restored, and arguably most impressive Mayan ruin. It's also not entirely Mayan. Chichen got off the ground around 550 AD. Like most Mayan cities, Chichen was abandoned in the 10th century, then resettled around 1000 AD. Abandoned again in the 14th century, but it remained the site for pilgrimages for many years. Chichen had two principal wells, or cenote: one sacred and the other for everyday needs. The sacred well, a largish 195 feet across by 120 feet deep, was used in worship, and offerings were continually made to it.

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Palenque Beloved by many who declare it to be the most beautiful Mayan ruin, Palenque sits proudly in Palenque National Park in the state of Chiapas. The region around Palenque has the highest average rainfall in Mexico, watering a chokingly dense rainforest. The site covers 15 square miles. Set against a hill, the city was built in such a way that it could be seen for days as one ventured through the rain forest from the coast. Other spectacular sites are Tulum, Copan and Uxmal, just some of the hundreds of ruins.

GUATEMALA CITY - An entire city, including a massive Mayan palace, has been rediscovered beneath dense jungle in northern Guatemala. The forgotten site was originally found and dismissed as worthless almost a century ago, because explorers didn't come across any artifacts. Even looters left it alone, because they assumed there were no treasurers underneath. But on Friday, the National Geographic Society said the lost city of Cancuen boasts one of the most grandiose Mayan structures ever unearthed a 25,000 square-metre palace, with three 20-metre high levels. Archeologists predict it will take at least 10 years to dig out the entire 13-kilometre square community of stone buildings. Cancuen, a Mayan word for "Place of the Serpent" was a key trading post in Central America 1,200 years ago. Since it was built for commercial and not religious reasons, the city does not have spectacular temples like those found in Tikal and other Mayan sites. But that fact may have saved it from being plundered by looters when it was first discovered by modern explorers under thick mud and foliage in 1905

Chichen Itza, though crowded, is a Jewel!

This area is known for the vast history of the Maya, their advanced mathematical knowledge, their incredible understanding of the solar system, and Fernando Valenzuela, at least I am pretty sure that he is Mayan (ha ha).

The hard working people who still inhabit the Yucatan Peninsula have quite a few testaments left to their once awesome civilization. Of these, Chichen Itza is as good as it gets. Many people avoid the crowded ruins of Chichen Itza, and there is reason for that. But if you visit the ruins the right way, you will avoid being roasted at high noon like a cochinita pibil and have a memorable experience.

Get There Early!

Chichen Itza gets crowded THIS IS NO JOKE! Yes it is one of the more impressive pyramids in the world With the popularity of Cancun and vicinity for both tourists, and cruise ships, well, there are only so many places to go, and Chichen Itza is on the top of the list. So would you believe it if we said you could be on that pyramid, (the one you see on every third TV commercial in the US) all by yourself? In April even? You can. Get there at 8am. Park in the empty lot just after the gates go up and run straight to El Castillo run up the tiny steps, and there is a good chance you will be there alone. How do you get there so early? Try the Valladolid for the night, Chichen and Rio Lagartos do it yourself tour.

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Aerosaab will fly you to the ruins by airplane, you get there early and it only takes half a day. Caribbean Coast Travel can set you up with tours and transportation to all the popular Mayan Riviera destinations.

Snake Eyes

For those of you who run with the bulls in Pamplona and samba in the streets of Rio for Mardi Gras, the Yucatan offers the spring and autumn solstice at Chichen Itza. Twice each year, during the vernal (March 20 or 21) and autumnal (September 21 or 22) equinox as the sun rises the shadows that it casts actually make the form of a serpent on the steps leading to the top of the Castillo, seriously folks. You will know if you are going to see it, because you will be there with 10,000 of your closest friends. A worthwhile jaunt if your trip date happens to coincide.

The Superdome

Chichen Itza, not only has one of the best preserved and rebuilt pyramids of the Mayan world, El Castillo, but it is home to many other impressive groups. The Temple of the Warriors that houses the famous Chaac-Mool, where heads used to roll, is located amidst the group of 1,000 columns, Kodak must love this place. Bring film and some more film.

The awe inspiring ball court can only be truly appreciated by those who have visited other ruins. Coba, for example, one of our recommendations, has well reconstructed ball courts that are quite impressive. But these seemingly impressive fields look like the grapefruit leagues compared to the Superdome right there at Chichen This was obviously where the big boys came to play. Though the losers shared the sad fate of a horrible death, they had a chance to play in the Big Show!

Don't forget to walk down the path to the Sacred Cenote in the Jungle. A huge gaping hole contains water about 70 feet below the ground level. Peer in, but please leave the diving to the professionals in Acapulco! This was the resting place for not only lovely young virgins, but apparently bad children, some sick, and other seemingly healthy men and women of all ages. Artifacts of gold and jade found here can be traced from as far away as Colombia demonstrating the vast international

dealings of the ancient Maya

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Chichen Itza

The Pyramid of KukulkanRecently voted as one of the new 7 Wonders of the World, the ruins of Chichen Itza lie about midway between Cancun and Merida, so that the journey from each city takes around 2 or 3 hours via the toll highway. It is possible to see the main structures on a day trip from Cancun, and many tour buses do just this resulting in a large influx of visitors around 10-11am. Chichen Itza is the most visited site in the Yucatбn and it can get very crowded here, so if at all possible try to arrive soon after the 8am opening. This will give you time to explore the site before it gets too hot. Alternatively, leave your visit until later in the day and stay overnight nearer the site, returning in the early morning. Ideally, you will need two days for a good understanding of the site, which covers 4 square miles.

A large Mayan community thrived here between 700AD and 900AD

Admission charge to the ruins is around 10 US dollars. The evening sound and light show costs around 4 dollars (add another 3 dollars for headphones if you want to listen to the commentary in English). The show usually starts at around 7.00pm, but we'd suggest you re-confirm the time when you arrive. Your ticket permits re-entry on the same day only.

At the entrance to the site is a large visitors’ complex, with cafeterias, restrooms, bookshops and a small museum. There are also models of the layout of the site. It's useful to remember that there is a second refreshment shop with toilet facilities by the cenote.

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skulls reliefChichen Itza has been widely studied, and excavated and restored more than any of the other Mayan cities. Yet its history is still clouded in mystery and there are many contradicting theories and legends. It is clear that a large Mayan community thrived here between around 700AD and 900AD, and built most of the structures in the southern area. However, the main buildings in the central area, including the Pyramid of Kukulkan, the Temple of the Warriors and the Ball Court, are Toltec in design and influence.

The Toltecs originated from Central Mexico, and one respected theory suggests that the Toltecs invaded Chichen Itza and imposed their architectural style on new constructions. Alternatively, we know that the Maya traded extensively and it is possible that they were influenced by the Toltecs in their own architecture. Another more recent theory claims that Tula, capital of the Toltecs, was actually under the domination of the Maya, resulting in a transfer of style from one city to another. There are fragments of evidence to support each line of thought, but no conclusive evidence for any single theory.

At the spring and autumn equinoxes, the sun's shadow creates the illusion of a snake moving down the pyramid

Compounding the mystery are ancient legends passed down through the Mayan tribes and also the Toltecs. According to Toltec history, in 987AD the legendary ruler Quetzalcoatl was defeated and expelled from Tula. He was last seen leaving from the Gulf coast on a raft of serpents. However, in the same year, Mayan stories recorded the arrival of a king named Kukulkan, the Serpent God, whose return had been expected. Kukulkan defeated the Mayan city tribes, and made Chichйn Itzб his capital.

The Pyramid of Kukulkan Towering above the other buildings at 79 feet (24 m) high, the Pyramid of Kukulkan has a structured feel about it. Two of its sides have been completely restored, the other two were left to show the condition before work commenced. Each side had originally 91 steps, adding the platform at the top as a final step there are 365 in total one for every day of the year. Further evidence that this building was linked to the Mayan interests of astronomy and the calendar is demonstrated at the spring and autumn equinox. On these days the shadow of the sun playing on the stairs causes the illusion of a snake processing down the pyramid in the direction of the cenote. Naturally, it’s an impressive sight, and there are usually thousands of people on the site at these times. It’s quite a climb to the top, but once you’re there you’ll have a terrific view of the rest of the ruins. The temple at the top of the pyramid has carvings of Chac, the rain god, and Quetzalcoatl, the serpent god. As at Uxmal, this temple was built over the top of an original structure and at limited times of the day (check at the entrance) you

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can enter the old temple via a passage under the northern stairway. Inside you’ll see a sculpture of a jaguar, painted red and with jade eyes, exactly as it was discovered.

The BallcourtThe Ball Court (Juego de Pelota) From the Pyramid of Kukulkan, head north-east to the Great Ball Court, the largest of its kind in the Maya world. There are eight other much smaller ball courts at Chichen Itza and more in other Maya cities, but this one was deliberately built on a much grander scale than any others. The length of the playing field here is 40 feet (135 m) and two 25 feet (8 m) high walls run alongside the field.

The game itself involved two teams, each able to hit the ball only with elbows, wrists or hips, and the object was to knock the ball through one of the stone hoops on the walls of the court.

Look at the carvings on the lower walls of the court and you will see that this was not a casual sport there are clear depictions of one team member with blood spurting from his headless neck, whilst another holds the head aloft. Some people think the captain of the losing side was executed by the winner; others suggest that the winners earned an honorable sacrifice. No-one knows for sure. It is said that the game was used either as a method of settling disputes, or as an offering to the gods, perhaps in times of drought. Only the best were selected to play, and to be sacrificed in this way was a great honor.

Imagine, then, the significance of this giant court, where the goals are 20 feet (66 m) high and the court is longer than a football pitch. The acoustics here are superb - a low voice at one end of the court can be heard clearly at the other end and the atmosphere during a game must have been electrifying. It is said that only the noblest could attend the court itself, the general population having to listen from outside.

Games in the Ball Court were used to settle disputes or as an offering to the gods. Many believe the losers were put to death

Temple of the Jaguars and the Tzompantli. From the ball court, head east across the central area towards the Group of the Thousand columns. On the way, you will see the Temple of the Jaguars with its friezes of the Toltec jaguar emblem, and the Tzompantli or Platform of the skulls. It is believed that the Tzompantli (a Toltec word) was the platform used for the sacrifices resulting from the ball game.

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The Palace of the Jaguars and EaglesSacred Cenote. Before you reach the Group of the Thousand Columns, you will see a pathway heading north, just by the Platform of Venus. This is actually the route of an ancient sacbe, and leads to the Sacred Cenote. A cenote is a sinkhole in the limestone bed, accessing an underwater river. These cenotes were very important to the Mayans as their main source of water and had great religious significance. Here you will see a deep almost circular hole with steep sides and murky green water beneath.

There are stories of sacrificial victims being thrown into the cenote, along with offerings of treasure. In 1901 an American, Edward Thompson, bought the land around the site and proceeded to dredge the cenote. He found jewelry, pottery, figurines and the bones of many humans, mostly children. An international dispute arose when he shipped the findings to the Peabody Museum at Harvard, where some still remain (the remainder have since been returned to the Mexicans). The evidence, however, was inconclusive as it was feasible that children were most likely to fall into the cenote during play rather than as a deliberate act of sacrifice.

A stroll to the cenote is a pleasant diversion from the ruins and makes an ideal refreshment stop there is a small cafй/shop nearby and restrooms are available.

Group of the Thousand Columns. After visiting the cenote, head back towards the Group of the Thousand Columns. This complex incorporates the Temple of the Warriors and a series of columns, some of which feature carvings of Toltec warriors. It is believed that the columns originally supported a thatched roof which may have been used as a market place.

The massive Kukulcán pyramid called "El Castillo" (the castle) is roughly at the center of the site. Climbing it is quite a challenge and those who make it are rewarded with a spectacular view of the city and surrounding country side. A trip inside the pyramid is quite the opposite. The dark, unbearably humid corridors and chambers are too much for some people.

Early morning, before the onslaught of tourists, Chichén Itzá is a magical place. I had the opportunity to wander around the site for two hours before the gates were opened one day. Watching the massive pyramid take shape through the lifting fog is an experience I will not soon forget

 

Above: view towards the Great Pyramid, with the Platform of Venus in foreground

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Our next stop is south of the Carocal and is a unique collection of ruins that has been called:

The Nunnery

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The

construction of the Kukulcán Pyramid at Chichén Itzá was planned so that each Vernal Equinox the dying sun would cast a shadow of a serpent writhing down the steps of the pyramid. Every year over 40,000 people make the trek to the great pyramid to watch in awe as the snakes diamond backed body slowly appears. (Sorry don't have that picture but I'll try and locate one)

 

The Nunnery, in the southern group of ruins, contains some of the best preserved structures at Chichén Itzá. They appear to be the living quarters of the elite Mayans. Every square foot of wall has reliefs and paintings decorating it.

If you stand facing the foot of the temple and shout the echo comes back as a piercing shriek. Also, a person standing on the top step can speak in a normal voice

and be heard by those at ground level for some distance. This quality is also shared by another Mayan pyramid at Tikal.

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The intense interest of the Maya in the annual travels of the sun across the sky is evident in many structures at Chichén Itzá and other Mayan Sites. South of the Castillo is a strange round building known as the Carocal. Several of its windows point towards the equinox sunset and the southernmost and northernmost points on the horizon where Venus rises.

One of the nice things about Chichén Itzá is that you can go in almost all of the ruins. Many have the musty smell of the past, still present after over 1000 years. Dark portals await those that dare walk through. After walking into one pitch black room a startled meter long iguana charged through my shaking legs and out into the jungle. It felt like a seen from "Indiana Jones" It's nice that despite all the reconstruction and tourists, the place can still grab hold of you like that.

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Like most of the other ruins, entry is allowed so I explore some of the hidden recesses. Around the back of a large staircase I discover and ominous black opening. Although it's been thoroughly explored I'm sure, it feels like I'm the first, so with visions of buried treasure I step into the darkness.

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As I probe deeper the walls get tighter and tighter. There are several intersections and turns before it leads to a dead end. A solid wall of limestone blocks the way. In the darkness I reach out to touch it and instead feel something furry and multi legged run across my hand. That does it, I bolt out, back to the 20th century .

Back out into the sunshine, I see the last major section of the site that I haven't explored.

The Great Ball Court

The Ball Court at Chichén Itzá

The Mayans were great sportsmen and build huge ballcourts to play their games. The Great Ballcourt of Chichén Itzá is 545 feet long and 225 feet wide overall. It has no vault, no discontinuity between the walls and is totally open to the sky.

Each end has a raised "temple" area. A whisper from end can be heard clearly at the other end 500 feet away and through the length and breath of the court. The sound waves are unaffected by wind direction or time of day/night. Archaeologists engaged in the reconstruction noted that the sound transmission became stronger and clearer as they proceeded. In 1931 Leopold Stokowski spent 4 days at the site to determine the acoustic principals that could be applied to an open-air concert theater he was designing. Stokowski failed to learn the secret. To this day it has not been explained.

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It is not hard to imagine a Mayan King sitting here presiding over the games. Legends say that the the winning captain would present his head to the losing capitan, who then decapitates him. While this may seem a strange reward, the Mayans believed this to be the ultimate honor.The winning captian getting a direct ticket to heaven instead of going through the 13 steps that the Mayan's believed they had to go through in order to reach heaven..

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This concludes the tour of the Chichén Itzá ruins. Just down the road from the Chichén Itzá ruins, however is a natural formation as spooky as the ruins themselves.

Come enter the Cenoté

(claustrophobics should turn back now)

Cenoté

East of the major Chichén Itzá ruins is a dark underground world the Mayans called Cenoté. They are deep water filled sinkholes formed by water percolating through the soft limestone above. Since the porous soil held little water, these underground bodies were extremely important to the city. A visit to one is a spine chilling experience. Entry is through a vertical hole with narrow stair steps carved by the Mayan's themselves. The air is thick and musty. One misstep on the slimy ledges threatens to send you falling over 20 feet.

Once your eyes get used to the light level a bizarre world takes shape. Stalagtites of blood red limestone seem to ooze from the dripping walls. Ahead is a strange green pool of glowing water.

As you approach the pool you notice roots of trees hanging before you. In their search for water they've penetrated the ceiling, dropping 50 feet to the pool below. It's like an eerie underground forest.

After you've crawled under some especially low hanging stalactites you're greeted by an incredible scene. A beautiful blue green pool of unknown depth stretches out before you. A massive stalagtite hangs down, just inches from touching the

surface, and above a piercing beam of light streams in from the ceiling, illuminating the pool and the entire chamber.

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By pure luck I was at the Cenoté for a rare event. Once a year, in April, the beam of light touches the tip of the stalagtite. There are many instances of ancient peoples building monuments to take advantage of events like these but this is something that is totally natural and unplanned.

There is a darker side to this and other Cenoté , however. In the wells around Chichén Itzá have been found scores of skeletons. Mayan petroglyphs depict human sacrifices at these sites. What lies under this Cenoté is not known, no one has ever been able to reach it's depths.

4. Maya misteriesMayan Mysteries

Galactic Alignments in Ancient Traditions & the Future of Humanity

BY JOHN MAJOR JENKINS

In March of 1987, I witnessed a dramatic all-day fire ceremony in the highland Maya village of Chamula, Mexico. It was a ritual of purification, burning the dross of the old year and making way for the new.

I had been traveling through Mexico and Central America for almost three months, and on that warm March day I vowed to live and work with the Maya and study their culture. During the next seven years I returned to Mesoamerica four times. I helped build a school in San Pedro, Guatemala. I delivered relief supplies to Quiché Maya villages in the Guatemalan highlands. I traveled the remote out-backs, made friends among the Maya, learned some of their language, and developed a great appreciation for their innate wisdom and strength of character. Throughout this period, I studied the cultural history of the Maya, which brought me to an understanding of their millennia-old calendars, cosmologies, mythologies, and religious life.

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I have always been interested in pushing back the fringes of knowledge. Mesoamerican studies is a relatively young field. The Mayan hieroglyphic writing has only recently been decoded enough that we can reconstruct detailed histories of specific Mayan kingdoms. In researching and writing seven books, I have focused on decoding the ancient Mayan calendar and its associated cosmology, and I have been drawn to address one unanswered question: Why does a large cycle of time in the Mayan Long Count calendar end in the year that we call AD 2012?

First, on what basis do we know that 2012 is the correct year? Mayan scholars have spent almost a century deciphering the Mayan calendar’s relationship to our own. It is well known that the basic 260-day calendar was augmented by the use of another calendar, called the Long Count.

Utilising nested cycles of 20, 360, 7200, and 144,000 days, the Long Count culminates in a World Age cycle of 13 baktuns, which equals 5,125 years. On hundreds of carved monuments spanning over 1,000 years, the dot-and-bar dating system of the Long Count was found to correlate consistently with moon phases and other astronomical phenomenon. After decades of interdisciplinary analysis, Mayan scholars Joseph T. Goodman, Juan Martínez, and J. Eric S. Thompson determined that the 13-baktun cycle of the Long Count calendar could be confidently located in real time, and its end-date would occur on 13.0.0.0.0 in the Long Count, which corresponds to December 21, 2012. This correlation of the Mayan and Western calendars has been in place since the 1930s, and is not the product of recent New Age speculation. It has been challenged, tested, and discussed exhaustively and remains the best candidate.1

Because the end-date of the 13-baktun cycle of the Mayan Long Count calendar occurs on a winter solstice, I felt that the ancient Maya may have intended to indicate something with that end-date. Fixing a time period by its end-date may seem counter-intuitive, but the Maya actually preferred this perspective. For example, periods of time within the Long Count are named by their end-date; we are currently in the 4 Ahau katun of the Long Count calendar because the last day of this katun falls on 4 Ahau.

Generally, Mayan metaphors draw from nature. The processes of birth and growth feature prominently in the Mayan conception of time, and childbirth is considered to occur at the end of a nine-month term of embryogenesis (which is believed to be the foundation of the 260-day calendar). In this way, we can understand that it would not be unusual for the end of the 13-baktun cycle to have some significance in Mayan thinking.

After nine years of research into the 2012 question, in 1998 I published my book Maya Cosmogenesis 2012 [available from New Dawn Book Service], presenting an astronomical explanation for the Mayan 2012 end-date. In 1998-1999 I was able to workshop my ideas at the Esalen Institute, Naropa University, and the Institute of Maya Studies, with affirming feedback.

My findings can be summarised quite simply: The Maya chose 2012 to end their calendar cycle because in the years around AD 2012 the solstice Sun will be aligning with the Milky Way (the white band of stars that can be observed arching overhead in late summer). This alignment is not something that happens in every era, for the precession of the equinoxes slowly shifts the position of the solstice Sun in relation to the “background” position of the Milky Way.

The precessional phenomenon that is responsible for bringing the solstice Sun into alignment with the Milky Way is caused by the slow wobbling of the Earth on its axis. One complete wobble takes approximately 26,000 years. The Greek astronomer Hipparchus is credited with discovering precession in 128 BCE. The conventional description refers to it as the precession of the vernal point (the March equinox), thus “the precession of the equinoxes.”

However, the phenomenon also equally applies to the solstices, and evidence at the site of Izapa indicates that early Mayan astronomers were concerned with tracking the precessional movement of the December solstice Sun toward the Milky Way.

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This awareness is affirmed by the fact that the Long Count calendar starts appearing in the archaeological record during the era of Izapa’s heyday, in the first century BCE. Izapa – a progressive ceremonial site containing astronomical alignments and monuments portraying the Mayan Creation Myth – is evidently where the Long Count calendar was instituted.

My research shows that the ball court at Izapa is ground zero of the knowledge that a future alignment of Sun and galaxy would occur. Most significantly, according to calculations by the US Naval Observatory, it is in our era that the alignment of the December solstice Sun with the Milky Way galaxy culminates. This “solstice-galaxy” or “galactic” alignment has great significance within Mayan mythology and cosmology. In my books, especially Maya Cosmogenesis 2012, I show how this alignment scenario was encoded into basic Mayan institutions such as the Creation Myth, the sacred ballgame, and king accession rites.

My reconstruction of the true intention of the Mayan calendar end-date, though seemingly quite novel, gains support in my subsequent research, for I have discovered that such “galactic” concepts were recognised in other ancient cosmologies (e.g., Egyptian, Islamic, and Vedic).

My new book, Galactic Alignment: The Transformation of Consciousness According to Mayan, Egyptian, and Vedic Traditions (Inner Traditions International, 2002 – available from New Dawn Book Service), examines evidence that the alignment of the solstice Sun with the Milky Way galaxy (the “galactic alignment”) played a significant role in Old World and Eastern religious iconography and metaphysical traditions. Tracing the galactic knowledge back to ancient Vedic India, it appears that its manifestation in Islamic, Greek, Mithraic, Celtic, and Medieval Hermetic traditions is merely a nascent resurgence of a knowledge that is very ancient indeed.

It must be emphasised that this ancient “galactic cosmology” is based in empirical astronomy. The periodic alignment of the solstices with the galactic plane is basic astronomy, although discussion of it is largely absent from astronomy text books (Jean Meuss’s 1997 book Mathematical Astronomy Morsels is an exception).

Much could be explored along the lines of how such an alignment is encoded into ancient mythologies and religious symbolism, which is the primary concern of my new book. However, its basis in empirical astronomy elicits a concern for whether the eschatological ideas of world transformation that inevitably attend an awareness of such alignments are empirically valid. This opens up an avenue of enquiry that modern thinkers who wish to integrate science and spirit should address. I don’t have a definitive answer, and in fact I suspect that a cause-and-effect model that would empirically “solve” this problem is ultimately unnecessary for the alignment to have meaning.

As a researcher of ancient traditions, I can point to certain interpretations and reconstructions that are implied or are even unavoidable given the facts – for example, I can say with confidence that solstitial alignments to the galactic plane were significant players in ancient traditions that addressed questions of eschatology, cosmology, human salvation, and the nature of time. But I wouldn’t argue why or how such alignments might be empirically shown to have demonstrable effects on life on Earth – although I have some suspicions about how such empirical concerns might be approached.

For example, a chapter in my new book explores Oliver Reiser’s work that suggests the Galactic Centre is a major factor in the evolution of life on Earth. Four years ago Paul Clark, a correspondent in Australia, pointed me to the book Cosmic Superimposition by Wilhelm Reich which presents evidence that two Orgone streams defined by the galactic equator and the celestial equator (the planes of the Earth’s rotation and the galaxy’s rotation) generate certain phenomena on Earth such as hurricane trajectories. These are certainly fascinating scientific areas to explore, but for myself it is fascinating enough to encounter a previously unrecognised galactic level within ancient philosophy, science, and metaphysics.

If empirical interests are granted precedence, it remains for a collaborative think tank of intellectuals who are comfortable exploring the fringes to sort out the possible models that might apply. My own path of discovery suggests the following: Beyond the insatiable quest for empirical physical evidence lies the transcendent challenge of metaphysics, and our materialist paradigm could benefit greatly from a serious look at the profound insights of traditional metaphysics.

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I believe that many researchers are currently focusing overmuch on ancient technologies. This stance is clearly a projection of our own culture’s fascination with technology and assumes that the presence of recognisable technology is the best barometer of how advanced an ancient culture was. However, my surprising discoveries of an advanced Mayan cosmological science suggest that what is more important to explore, and what speaks clearly to a void in modern values, is the spiritual insight we find in ancient traditions. Many of us have studied and practiced various spiritual disciplines derived from ancient Hindu, Mayan, or even Egyptian teachings. However, even with this as a foundation, new insights open up when we understand the galactic underpinnings of such traditions.

The ancient Mayan civilisation understood the universal principles that create and sustain the world. These “first principles” underlie the physical laws that modern science has used to create technological miracles, but the first principles of Mayan sacred science embraced a much larger universe in which human beings were seen to be multidimensional and capable of traveling beyond time and space, beyond the confines that limit modern science with its “laws” that are valid only in the physical three-dimensional plane. But human beings, with our capacity for supra-sensory spiritual vision, are more than three-dimensional.

We are amazed by the ancient Maya and their baffling, complicated calendar science, and how they built their huge stone cities without using beasts of burden. Writer Colin Wilson chastises them for creating toys with little wheels while failing to build wagons and harness animals into slavery for the benefit of hauling stones. But does this really indicate inferiority? Maybe it was a choice. We sift through their documents, carvings, and fragmented traditions looking for something that our modern mentality can grab hold of and appreciate. We look for a bolt, or a gear, or something that would prove to us that the Maya did indeed have a civilisation.

However, we are being ethnocentric if we look for evidence of what our own culture values. Perhaps the value of ancient civilisations lies not in a hope that they, at times, struggled up to the same technological level that we recognise as evidence of being civilised. Perhaps for the Maya, as with the Kogi Indians of Columbia and the Australian aborigines, material technology was briefly flirted with, but was then recognised as an ego-dominated deathtrap and was quickly abandoned to pursue the higher yearnings of the human spirit in realms that we might call metaphysical or imaginal.2

Among the ruins lies buried an inner technology of personal transformation that our civilisation lost long ago, leaving us cast adrift in a reduced world ruled by matter, machines, and marketing gimmicks peddling pre-fab paradigms. And perhaps this is what we really seek, and need to find, among the debris of ancient civilisations.

The ancient Vedic civilisation is not particularly celebrated for material achievements and yet, like the Maya, they enjoyed a sophisticated understanding of celestial cycles as well as a deep understanding of human spirituality. In fact, the Hindu-Vedic sages mastered magical techniques called siddhis with which their consciousness could be projected into animals, inanimate objects (which also contained a soul), and into distant times and places. We can only hope that someday we might be able to create a cultural context in which human beings might once again cultivate this kind of “inner” technology. In the light these achievements, the so-called “miracle” of television appears to be an unnecessary joke, useful only to those whose consciousness has been seriously downsized.

Modern historical investigation continues to push back the dating of the origins of civilisations and the advent of material technologies. The arguments of modern independent researchers for advanced technology in ancient times is important, as it increases respect for these ancient cultures among those who value these kinds of achievements, but I believe it misses the point – it is like celebrating Einstein because he worked in a patent office.

The problem is similar to the quest for lost Atlantis or the Himalayan Shambhala that disappeared into the shadows as humanity descended into an increasingly dense and materialistic age. It’s not that Atlantis or Shambhala lies hidden in some remote valley or underwater grave. The point is that humanity has forgotten how to be in that place where Atlantis/Shambhala once did and always will reside. In other words, the Primordial Tradition symbolised by these semi-mythical locations is a state of mind rather than a distant Golden Age or ancient location.

The deeper truth of our search for lost “artefacts” is our desire to make visible a knowledge or mindset which is more comprehensive and fulfilling. As with Shambhala, which faded into invisibility as humanity lost the ability to see it, the Primordial Tradition fades but reemerges in places conducive to discovering and appreciating its profound depth and wisdom. This explains the ancient Maya’s isolation and independent genius which nevertheless had tapped into the same

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doctrines also found in ancient Vedic and Egyptian cosmology. Trans-oceanic voyages are not required for this simultaneous non-local emergence; rather, tapping into the transcendent galactic source of wisdom is all that is required.

We may find engines in the sands of Egypt, stone computers in the jungles of Guatemala, and gears in Paleolithic encrustations of lava, and this may – indeed, should – create awe and wonder among scientists and the interested public in general. But it shouldn’t distract us from laying aside our own civilisation’s faulty assumptions so that we can truly learn from the high metaphysical teachings offered by ancient civilisations, including the Egyptian, Vedic, and Mayan.

In part 3 of my new book Galactic Alignment, I explore the metaphysical ideas of the Traditionalist school, in particular the writings of esteemed scholar Ananda Coomaraswamy and symbolist philosopher René Guénon. These writers pioneered the resurrection of the Primordial Tradition, or Perennial Philosophy, and a major idea in this school is that the current cycle of history is ending amid a proliferation of inverted spiritual values and rampant materialism – we are approaching the end of Kali Yuga.

In the Vedic doctrine of World Ages, Kali Yuga is the final age, the age of greatest spiritual darkness, and its end signals the shift to a new World Age. Clarifying some undeveloped areas within Traditionalist thought, and drawing from the insights of various Vedic commentators, I identify the galactic alignment of era-2012 as the key to the timing of this transition, anchoring the Vedic yuga doctrine to a real astronomical event. In addition, my analysis of the parameters of the alignment phenomenon indicates it is best to think of an “alignment zone” between 1980 and AD 2016.3

To say that the Mayans, Hindus, and Egyptians were aware of the Milky Way galaxy should surprise no one – after all, the Milky Way is dramatic and prominent in the night sky. But to demonstrate, as I do in my new book, that they also knew about the Milky Way’s centre and believed that our periodic alignments to it have something to do with the transformation of consciousness, should stand the history of science and religion on its head.

And what if the common sense conclusion to be drawn from all the evidence I’ve gathered together here is true? What if ancient civilisations were aware of the Galactic Centre and the precession of the equinoxes, and that they believed that eras of galactic alignment – like the one we are struggling through right now – somehow contribute to the unfolding of consciousness on Earth? Furthermore, could global weather changes as well as the intensification of synchronicities and anomalous experiences that many people are increasingly reporting be an effect of our alignment with the Galactic Centre? I explore these questions, as well as the unforgettable refrain: “Will the world end in 2012?” Is it about cosmogenesis or catastrophe? From the book:

It may be unpopular to say it, but it’s true: what 2012 was intended to target is not about 2012, it is about a process-oriented shift. It’s really about an open door, a once-in-a-precessional-cycle zone of opportunity to align ourselves with the galactic source of life. There are forces already set in motion propelling us through a crucible of transformation unlike anything experienced in millennia. The process is occurring on the scale of decades, even centuries – but it is occurring on a global level! The sober and humbling fact is that what we are being called to create, to nurture, to help unfold, something that will not flower until long after we, as individuals, have died. The larger life-wave of humanity is at stake. The Algonquin teaching to look ahead seven generations before decisions are made should be our guiding maxim.

Birth-growth-death-renewal – this process does follow a universal law that appears “predictable” but if it’s part of the natural cycles of change, then what do we have to worry about? We will worry to the extent that we are incapable of letting go. Cycle endings are attended by the destruction of everything belonging to the previous cycle, and like the Phoenix the new world will be born out of the ashes of the old. The metaphor is about birth and death. Not everyone believes in rebirth (reincarnation) but no one can deny the inevitability of death. Unfortunately, few spend much time reflecting on death – the Great Transformer. Meditations on mortality can lead to profound insights and realizations about our humanity, and the denial of death – which is what Western civilization is about – drives us more quickly and less elegantly to it.4

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New vistas have opened up while researching and writing Galactic Alignment, ones that elevate “metaphysics” to its traditional place as a superior framework for understanding the nature of time, reality, and consciousness. This brings me full circle back to my earliest philosophical preoccupations. Metaphysics is the answer to the limitations and dead-ends of the physical sciences, for as a “meta” physics it takes a “higher” view than conventional physics. And this is not semantic slight-of-hand; the sacred sciences of antiquity, closely allied with metaphysical ideas that are now largely misunderstood, were the multidimensional and holistic precursors to our modern profane sciences that today amount to nothing more than a kind of short-sighted thingism.

As we narrow down our search and venture into metaphysical territory, we dig into the unpublished work of art historian turned academic metaphysician Ananda K. Coomaraswamy and emerge with a Vedic teaching that addresses our end-of-cycle concerns, connecting us right into the Galactic Centre. That teaching is encoded into the Vedic theft of soma myth, and in pursuing its underlying wisdom regarding the transformation of consciousness, all of the book’s themes are integrated into the metaphysical importance of the solstice-galaxy alignment.

This brief introduction invites readers to explore more deeply the source material that contributes to my conclusions, including studies in sacred cartography, Mithraic symbolism, the Chaldean Oracles, Islamic astronomy, Vedic and Egyptian metaphysics, Hermetic studies, South American traditions, Christian architecture and iconography, and Mayan astronomy.5

For empirical scientists, astronomy is the central key that connects these questions to hard science, and the metaphysical concepts relating to these eschatological questions are, in fact, closely related to astronomy. Yet beyond empirical concerns, the role of galactic alignments in spiritual transformation is revealed as a core concept found in all of the major ancient traditions – in both the Old World and the New World. By recovering this core wisdom form the deep past, we open a little doorway that can lead us into a new era of growth and renewal.

5. Timestar Solar PredictionsPredictions are necessary proofs for theories, facts and laws based upon observation arranged as science. Einstein observed this saying, "The whole of science is nothing more than a refinement of everyday thinking." On the other hand, technologies are systematic methods pertaining to mechanical or industrial arts which are derived from the observations of science. Predictions made with observations derived from science contribute to developing technologies.

Coronal Mass Ejection (CME)A violent discharge of electrically charged gas from the sun's

outer atmosphere April 24, 1999In earlier centuries classical physics worked with elemental observations that led to the technology of electron microscopes that revealed none of the classical laws applied to subatomic physics. The complete failure of classical physics to predict the behavior of subatomic particles called for quantum physics that gave way to post-quantum physics. The ability to predict behaviors endows value to science, so when a science reaches its limits of prediction new observations and theories are mandated.

Prolific solar changes since 1992 have sent NASA scientists back to making basic observations for predicting solar behavior. On a world completely dependent on solar behavior this capability is essential, and, fortunately, these observations exist in the most ancient calendars on Earth. In February, 1999 NASA announced its scientists had learned to predict solar flares with an "S" configuration on the sun's surface

preceding flares.

Many models of the solar magnetic field used prior to Ulysses assumed that the solar magnetic field was similar to that of a dipole; field lines near the solar equator were thought to form closed loops whereas field lines from the poles were dragged far

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into interplanetary space by the solar wind. For a dipole, the field strength over the poles is twice that at the equator. Ulysses found that the amount of outward magnetic flux in the solar wind did not vary greatly with latitude, indicating the importance of pressure forces near the sun for evenly distributing magnetic flux. (MAG experiment, A. Balogh, Imperial College; E. Smith, Jet Propulsion Laboratory).

Modeling the sciences of ancient astronauts, the astronomy encoded in pyramid centers is as valuable as it is capable of predicting celestial events. The TimeStar's unparalleled ability to predict solar behavior constitutes proofs for an extraordinary astronomical model endowed by ancient astronauts who are modernly known as UFO crews and crop circle makers. Like ancient Sumerian star charts that showed Earth as the seventh planet traveling from the outer limits of the solar system towards the center, the ancient astronaut's astronomy showed Earth as part of a whole system only now being recognized. Radical solar changes that have resulted in the sun's magnetic fields changing were predicted with the long-unrecognized astronomy encoded in pyramid centers by ancient astronauts.

Egyptian symbols in cave drawing at Heavener, OKidentified Thoth & Hermes

double click for more on thisThe oldest pyramids on Earth were dedicated to solar observations which invited attack by Christian armies claiming they were heathen centers of sun worship. This faulty perception was based on the social consciousness developed with awareness of religions rather than the nature of the supreme being. As social consciousness changes the religious context of expression changes as well so that religions are learning a new respect for the sun as the Vatican builds its own observatory, the Pope Scope, in Arizona. The Vatican ultimately conceded that the sun is the center of our system which, in turn, orbits the larger star Sirius ad infinitum through galaxies orbiting galaxies.

Van Tassel explained solar flares with geometry of cube

double click for more on thisFortunately, the solar sciences embedded in ancient pyramids several thousand years ago were constructed with proportional measures of the cosmos. Even after fine-detail equations in facings and balustrades were stripped to build cathedrals, the inherent proportions of the pyramids still depicted the cosmic order with the sun governing conditions at our home address. The 18th dynasty literature clearly described the Sphinx representing three gods in one: The rising Sun (Harmakhis); the sacred scarab which recreates itself out of its own substance and symbolized the brain (Khepri); and the god-king who was the progenitor of the human race who symbolized the setting sun and the sun before its rising (Atum). This trinity symbolized the resurrection, or the sun-like cycle of human birth, death and rebirth. The Sphinx was the polar opposite of gods worshiped in Egypt's Old Kingdom who displayed human bodies with animal heads. Never considered capable of movement or action, the Sphinx was a symbol rather than a deity.

Animation of cubeembodied in Timestardouble click for more on thisLike Quetzalcoatl's Codex, the Sphinx explicated the relationship of human evolution with the sun to initiates of the wisdom

schools who gathered around it, now scattered through the ages. Basic science to the star masters who designed the monuments, the codes have been disseminated anew in extraterrestrial contacts to decipher ancient structures when needed for the Sixth Sun.

Egyptian Anubis symbolizedThoth circa l580-l090 B.C

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The TimeStar's 13-day windows reflect the rate that light circles the sun's equator in 26 days (2x13=26) based on lunar eclipses when Earth, moon and sun are conjunct as a solar-lunar timing factor. Predictions are made for 13-day windows projected from the date of each lunar eclipse for a total of 260 days. After identifying the 13-day windows projected from each lunar eclipse, the calendar glyph for the first day of each window is associated with a corresponding triangle in the TimeStar grid. Predictions are based on the combination of characteristics identified with the glyph and triangular grid.

Anubis with Egyptian flailin Heavener, OK drawingOn February 2, 1996, I announced that Native America's ancient calendar predicted that a solar phase shift was in process on Art Bell's Coast-to-Coast radio. This was ten months before the sun unexpectedly entered a minimum cycle in December, 1996. Art asked about a major series of earthquakes in the Landers, California area that a psychic diviner had predicted for the summer. I forecast that the earthquakes would not happen but high winds and storms would be dominant for at least 18 months. He asked for something more specific, and I predicted there would be tremendous storms with high winds on the weekend of May 25, 1996, three months after the interview. In fact, ferocious storms with microbursts occurred across the United States over the May 25 Memorial Day weekend, along with a surprise snow storm in Denver. The earthquakes did not happen but El Nino appeared 14 months later when scientists issued the first warnings in April, 1997.

Figure on cube explaining solar physics in

Heavener cave drawingThe TimeStar's first set of predictions for the April 3, 1996 lunar eclipse forecast that events leading to islands rising in the Pacific would begin with that eclipse. The forecast specifically named July 16, 1996 for the beginning of planetary change that will settle out around 2006 when island continents will be emerged in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. On July 16 the first of more than 2,000 earthquakes recorded in Hawaii, of which at least 40 were 4.0 or higher. An underwater volcano collapsed on the Loihi Seamount which scientists say will ultimately give birth to a new island. These predictions were mailed to five individuals and my own address to provide evidence of the March postmark, four months before the underwater volcano collapsed.

Cube star geometry Between April, 1998 and May, 1999 the TimeStar predicted every period of high solar activity while no significant activity occurred that was not predicted. The signal that solar activity was taking a new turn was an April 19, 1998 crop circle almost identical to the Moon glyph depicting an eclipse in the Dresden Codex. This glyph corresponds with earlier versions of Skull in Quetzalcoatl's Codex. Tradition related that the god for this day jumped into the fire to become the Moon. He blazed as brightly as the Sun but the other gods didn't want a second Sun, so they smashed his face, dimming it, and giving him a place as the Moon. Skull's eye was commonly formed with the symbol for "star" which was depicted as Moon for the same day in some later versions. The TimeStar triangle containing Stonehenge is identified with the Sun glyph which completes the sequence of 20 glyphs. The combination of the Moon glyph appearing with an eruption from a disk in the final triangle of the TimeStar indicated that the final phase of the solar shift was beginning.

In 1998, NASA forecast massive solar storms with coronal mass ejections that impact Earth's magnetic fields between 1998 and 2001. March 15, 1999 scientists announced discovery of an S-shaped structure that appears on the sun in advance of a violent eruption. The S is called a sigmoid, a twisting of the sun's magnetic field. "Early warnings of approaching solar storms could prove useful to power companies, the communications industry, and organizations that operate spacecraft, including NASA," said a statement from George Withbroew, a NASA scientist. "This is a major step forward in understanding these tremendous storms."

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TIMESTAR PREDICTIONS FOR SOLAR ACTIVITY & MAGNETIC STORMS FIRST CROP CIRCLE OF THE SEASON

REAL TIME DANCE OF SUN, MOON AND EARTH The Missing Link Newsletter - June, 1998

Moon glyph - Dresden CodexFrom the Great Pyramid in Egypt around the world to Native America's oldest pyramids in Mexico, solar and lunar cycles are measured with astounding skill. The pyramid builders were clear that the sun and moon are key players in life bearing systems on Earth. Now, as wild weather patterns and radical solar changes dominate headlines, the first crop circle of the year is nearly identical to the Moon seal in the ancient calendar of the Maya. Pyramid builders in Central America, the Maya were the most accurate timekeepers who ever existed on this planet.

The crop circle discovered at Andover, Hampshire, England was in the area outlying Stonehenge that has served as the primary staging ground for crop formations for three decades. The two crop formations made in a field of oil seed rape (canola) about 6' high astonished researchers who had never seen a crop circle appear so early in the year. A field report from Stuart Dike's investigation of the formation was published on the Crop

Circle Connector web site.

In the 13 days before the crop circle formed, one of the most severe storms to strike England this century caused snow, rain, and gale-force windows throughout the country. An unseasonable snowstorm had fallen on large parts of England following floods. Although the canola was wet when the crop circle formed, the crop was standing 6' high.

In April, The Missing Link predicted that the precocious growing season would be accompanied by early crop circle formations. Despite the early calendar date, the canola crop was clearly mature so the formation was properly timed within the crop's natural cycle of maturity. This points back to the underlying issue of how and why time is changing.

Of the two crop circles, the southern-most formation clearly depicted an alignment that by definition is an eclipse. With the moon orbiting the earth and the earth orbiting the sun, an eclipse occurs when the three bodies come into alignment. In a solar eclipse, the moon passes between the sun and earth to block the sun's light from the earth. The moon casts a shadow, called the umbra, on the earth in a solar eclipse. In a lunar eclipse, the earth comes between the sun and moon to block the sun's light from the moon. The earth casts a shadow on the moon in a lunar eclipse. Eclipses occur only because the moon orbits the earth, either blocking or being blocked from the sun's light. If the moon did not orbit the earth, no other body would be close enough to block the sun and cast a shadow on the planet.

Depicting the moon with an eclipse offered a look into the Native American perspective, the window they used to view the world. Rather than a single, isolated object, the compound symbol reflected a dynamic interaction. Perception of the universe as an organic system of sentient energies in dynamic relationships pervaded Native America.

The northern-most crop circle in the field consisted of a large circle attached with smaller circles researchers called "thought bubbles". The thought bubbles are especially interesting because they look a lot like the unprecedented solar flare that erupted from the sun at an estimated 30,000 mps on May 2, thirteen days after the crop circle was made.

Together, the two crop circles properly depicted the relationship of the sun and the earth orbited by the moon which produces eclipse cycles central to Stonehenge's design. The crop circle's timing pointed to the natural timing of the field in contrast to the calendar date. Similarities of the crop circle to the Moon seal in the Mayan calendar pointed to the coming year.

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Within the larger design of the perpetual Mayan calendar, each year is designated with one of four possible names. In the modern Dreamspell adaptation of the calendar, the four possible names for years are Storm, Seed, Moon, and Wizard. The coming year from July 26, 1998 through July 26, 1999 is Red Rhythmic Moon which is centered at the Antarctic in the TimeStar grid.

The TimeStar predicted major changes at the Antarctic during the coming year in November, 1997, several months earlier than scientists announced heavy melting of the Antarctic melting before 2000. This prediction was based on the occurrence of three lunar eclipses focused at the Antarctic during a year designating the Antarctic with the Moon seal. The message of changes in the earth and sun measured with sequences of eclipses, the basis of TimeStar predictions, was clearly portrayed in the ancient calendar and hinted in the first crop circle of 1998.

HYPOTHESIS

The concept of zero invented by the ancient calendar's creators is vital to interpreting the TimeStar because it subtly pervades the calendric system. The beginning of each 13-day window following a lunar eclipse corresponds with a Void-of-Course moon relative to the sun for a virtual zero point state. This zero point harmonic is encoded in a gestalt of lunar eclipses as a timing factor relative to the sun, since eclipses always involve conjunctions of the sun, moon and Earth; it is identified with the combination of a 13-day week and 12-house zodiac; and it requires knowledge of celestial courses in order to recognize a void course.

Among 300 TimeStar windows identified with 15 different lunar eclipses, the first day of ALL corresponds with a Void of Course moon +/- 12 hours of sunrise. This preponderance of alignments surpasses any possibility of coincidence but obviously reflects a calendric element Euro-American science has not yet identified. Since astronomers recognize the astrological condition as a void (zero) course and zero is fundamental to the ancient calendar, it probably corresponds with conditions that represent a virtual zero point for brief periods. Void courses can last from several hours to several days and compare to the Sun Stone's recesses contrasted against visible images.

Since solar activity is predictable within the matrix of 13-day windows relative to lunar eclipses the 260-day calendars reflects measures of an unidentified factor that affect the both the sun and Earth. That this factor corresponds with void courses identified with an abstract 12-house calendar for the sun, the zodiac, suggests the possibility that it relates to the sun's orbit with Sirius. Since our sun is vital to Earth's condition it is feasible that the Sirius star system that Sol orbits is equally important.

The ancient Egyptian calendar was based on Sirius' cycles which are reflected in the background of the Teotihuacano calendar. Briefly, the entire array of calendars included a vague solar year of 365 days contrasted with the true solar year of 365.2 days which was also used. One of the great mysteries of the calendar is why the ancients counted a 360-day tun with the 365-day vague solar year and the 365.2-day solar year. The annual period for Sirius is 365 days compared to Sol's 365.2 days, so the Sothic count for Sirius contains 1,460 days in four years compared to Sol's 1,461 days in the same period. The 365-day vague solar year provided for a simultaneous count of Sirius and Sol with an accrued difference of 13 days in 52 years, representing the ancient calendar's full cycle.

The TimeStar count represents 1,461 13-day windows in the calendar's 52 years, showing that the same numbers array in various ways to reflect the same universe observed from various perspectives. Bear in mind that timekeepers were selected as children and trained throughout their lives in the calendar, which was used by the entire culture but thoroughly studied by only trained timekeepers. The knowledge conveyed to timekeepers with initiation was lost when the calendar was burned and the pyramid centers destroyed.

Knowledge of the central role Sirius occupies relative to the solar system was lost in post-conquest colonialism when the native calendar was interpreted with EuroAmerican astronomy. But the ancient Maya observed a July new year corresponding with Sirius' helical rising and July 26, 1992 date approximating Sirius' new year rising indicated with the July 11, 1991 solar eclipse. In the absence of reliable information, wild speculation has arisen that the secret government orchestrates ritual to satisfy Sirian overlords of this planet. There's no way to ignore Sirius' astronomical relationship with this solar system and there's no substantial evidence

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that astronauts perform rituals to Sirius albeit astronauts have read Biblical passages in orbit.

Since we know that solar activity affects the Earth's magnetic fields it is feasible that Sothic cycles reflect Sirius' influences on the sun and subsequently this planet. The correspondences of 13-day lunar eclipse windows opening with void of course moons found with the zodiac relative to an unidentified cycle indirectly implicates Sirius. Indications of the January 4, 1992 alignment of Sirius with an eclipse in the Hazley Farm crop circle underscores this implication.

6. Mayan Calendar

El Castillo. Chichen Itza, Yucatan, Mexico.

This Mesoamerican step pyramid’s platform, along with its four stairways of 91 steps, totals 365, or the number of days in a calendar year.

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Aztec Calendar.

The Aztec calendar was an adaptation of the Mayan calendar. It consisted of a 365-day agricultural calendar, as well as a 260-day sacred calendar. (This is a digital composite. Color added for visibility.)

Among their other accomplishments, the ancient Mayas invented a calendar of remarkable accuracy and complexity. At right is the ancient Mayan Pyramid Chichen Itza, Yucatan, Mexico. The Pyramid of Kukulkan at Chichén Itzá, constructed circa 1050 was built during the late Mayan period, when Toltecs from Tula became politically powerful. The pyramid was used as a calendar: four stairways, each with 91 steps and a platform at the top, making a total of 365, equivalent to the number of days in a calendar year.

The Maya calendar was adopted by the other Mesoamerican nations, such as the Aztecs and the Toltec, which adopted the mechanics of the calendar unaltered but changed the names of the days of the week and the months. An Aztec calendar stone is shown above right.

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The Maya calendar uses three different dating systems in parallel, the Long Count, the Tzolkin (divine calendar), and the Haab (civil calendar). Of these, only the Haab has a direct relationship to the length of the year.

A typical Mayan date looks like this: 12.18.16.2.6, 3 Cimi 4 Zotz.

12.18.16.2.6 is the Long Count date.3 Cimi is the Tzolkin date.4 Zotz is the Haab date. What is the Long Count?

When did the Long Count Start? What is the Tzolkin?

When did the Tzolkin Start? What is the Haab?

When did the Haab Start? Did the Mayas Think a Year Was 365 Days?

What is the Long Count?

The Long Count is really a mixed base-20/base-18 representation of a number, representing the number of days since the start of the Mayan era. It is thus akin to the Julian Day Number.

The basic unit is the kin (day), which is the last component of the Long Count. Going from right to left the remaining components are:

uinal (1 uinal = 20 kin = 20 days)tun (1 tun = 18 uinal = 360 days = approx. 1 year)katun (1 katun = 20 tun = 7,200 days = approx. 20 years)baktun (1 baktun = 20 katun = 144,000 days = approx. 394 years)The kin, tun, and katun are numbered from 0 to 19.

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The uinal are numbered from 0 to 17.The baktun are numbered from 1 to 13.

Although they are not part of the Long Count, the Mayas had names for larger time spans. The following names are sometimes quoted, although they

are not ancient Maya terms:

1 pictun = 20 baktun = 2,880,000 days = approx. 7885 years1 calabtun = 20 pictun = 57,600,000 days = approx. 158,000 years1 kinchiltun = 20 calabtun = 1,152,000,000 days = approx. 3 million years1 alautun = 20 kinchiltun = 23,040,000,000 days = approx. 63 million years

The alautun is probably the longest named period in any calendar.

When did the Long Count Start?

Logically, the first date in the Long Count should be 0.0.0.0.0, but as the baktun (the first component) are numbered from 1 to 13 rather than 0 to 12, this first date is actually written 13.0.0.0.0.

The authorities disagree on what 13.0.0.0.0 corresponds to in our calendar. I have come across three possible equivalences:

13.0.0.0.0 = 8 Sep 3114 BC (Julian) = 13 Aug 3114 BC (Gregorian)13.0.0.0.0 = 6 Sep 3114 BC (Julian) = 11 Aug 3114 BC (Gregorian)13.0.0.0.0 = 11 Nov 3374 BC (Julian) = 15 Oct 3374 BC (Gregorian)

Assuming one of the first two equivalences, the Long Count will again reach 13.0.0.0.0 on 21 or 23 December AD 2012 - a not too distant future.

The date 13.0.0.0.0 may have been the Mayas’ idea of the date of the creation of the world.

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What is the Tzolkin?

The Tzolkin date is a combination of two "week" lengths.

While our calendar uses a single week of seven days, the Mayan calendar used two different lengths of week:

a numbered week of 13 days, in which the days were numbered from 1 to 13 a named week of 20 days, in which the names of the days were:

0. Ahau 1. Imix 2. Ik 3. Akbal 4. Kan5. Chicchan 6. Cimi 7. Manik 8. Lamat 9. Muluc

10. Oc 11. Chuen 12. Eb 13. Ben 14. Ix

15. Men 16. Cib 17. Caban

18. Etznab

19. Caunac

The diagram at left shows the day symbols, in the same order as the table above.

As the named week is 20 days and the smallest Long Count digit is 20 days, there is synchrony between the two; if, for example, the last digit of today’s Long Count is 0, today must be Ahau; if it is 6, it must be Cimi. Since the numbered and the named week were both "weeks," each of their name/number change daily; therefore, the day after 3 Cimi is not 4 Cimi, but 4 Manik, and the day after that, 5 Lamat. The next time Cimi

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rolls around, 20 days later, it will be 10 Cimi instead of 3 Cimi. The next 3 Cimi will not occur until 260 (or 13 x 20) days have passed. This 260-day cycle also had good-luck or bad-luck associations connected with each day, and for this reason, it became known as the "divinatory year."

The "years" of the Tzolkin calendar are not counted.

When did the Tzolkin Start?

Long Count 13.0.0.0.0 corresponds to 4 Ahau. The authorities agree on this.

What is the Haab?

The Haab was the civil calendar of the Mayas. It consisted of 18 "months" of 20 days each, followed by 5 extra days, known as Uayeb. This gives a year length of 365 days.

The names of the month were:

1. Pop 7. Yaxkin 13. Mac

2. Uo 8. Mol 14. Kankin

3. Zip 9. Chen 15. Muan4. Zotz 10. Yax 16. Pax5. Tzec 11. Zac 17.

Kayab6. Xul 12. Ceh 18.

Cumku

In contrast to the Tzolkin dates, the Haab month names changed every 20 days instead of daily; so the day after 4 Zotz would be 5 Zotz, followed by 6 Zotz ... up to 19 Zotz, which is followed by 0 Tzec.

The days of the month were numbered from 0 to 19. This use of a 0th day of the month in a civil calendar is unique to the Maya system; it is believed that the Mayas discovered the number zero, and the uses to which it could be put, centuries before it was discovered in Europe or Asia.

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The Uayeb days acquired a very derogatory reputation for bad luck; known as "days without names" or "days without souls," and were observed as days of prayer and mourning. Fires were extinguished and the population refrained from eating hot food. Anyone born on those days was "doomed to a miserable life."

The years of the Haab calendar are not counted.

The length of the Tzolkin year was 260 days and the length of the Haab year was 365 days. The smallest number that can be divided evenly by 260 and 365 is 18,980, or 365×52; this was known as the Calendar Round. If a day is, for example, "4 Ahau 8 Cumku," the next day falling on "4 Ahau 8 Cumku" would be 18,980 days or about 52 years later. Among the Aztec, the end of a Calendar Round was a time of public panic as it was thought the world might be coming to an end. When the Pleaides crossed the horizon on 4 Ahau 8 Cumku, they knew the world had been granted another 52-year extension.

When did the Haab Start?

Long Count 13.0.0.0.0 corresponds to 8 Cumku. The authorities agree on this.

Did the Mayas Think a Year Was 365 Days?

Although there were only 365 days in the Haab year, the Mayas were aware that a year is slightly longer than 365 days, and in fact, many of the month-names are associated with the seasons; Yaxkin, for example, means "new or strong sun" and, at the beginning of the Long Count, 1 Yaxkin was the day after the winter solstice, when the sun starts to shine for a longer period of time and higher in the sky. When the Long Count was put into motion, it was started at 7.13.0.0.0, and 0 Yaxkin corresponded with Midwinter Day, as it did at 13.0.0.0.0 back in 3114 B.C.E. The available evidence indicates that the Mayas estimated that a 365-day year precessed through all the seasons twice in 7.13.0.0.0 or 1,101,600 days.

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We can therefore derive a value for the Mayan estimate of the year by dividing 1,101,600 by 365, subtracting 2, and taking that number and dividing 1,101,600 by the result, which gives us an answer of 365.242036 days, which is slightly more accurate than the 365.2425 days of the Gregorian calendar.

(This apparent accuracy could, however, be a simple coincidence. The Mayas estimated that a 365-day year precessed through all the seasons twice in 7.13.0.0.0 days. These numbers are only accurate to 2-3 digits. Suppose the 7.13.0.0.0 days had corresponded to 2.001 cycles rather than 2 cycles of the 365-day year, would the Mayas have noticed?)

In ancient times, the Mayans had a tradition of a 360-day year. But by the 4th century B.C.E. they took a different approach than either Europeans or Asians. They maintained three different calendars at the same time. In one of them, they divided a 365-day year into eighteen 20-day months followed by a five-day period that was part of no month. The five-day period was considered to be unlucky.

7. Mayan Astronomy Page The Maya were quite accomplished astronomers. Their primary interest, in contrast to "western" astronomers, were Zenial Passages when the Sun crossed over the Maya latitudes. On an annual basis the sun travels to its summer solstice point, or the latitude of 23-1/3 degrees north.

Most of the Maya cities were located south of this latitude, meaning that they could observe the sun directly overhead during the time that the sun was passing over their latitude. This happened twice a year, evenly spaced around the day of solstice.

The Maya could easily determine these dates, because at local noon, they cast no shadow. Zenial passage observations are possible only in the Tropics and were quite unknown to the Spanish conquistadors who descended upon the Yucatan peninsula in the 16th century. The Maya had a god to represented this position of the Sun called the Diving God.

Venus

Venus was the astronomical object of greatest interest. I think it possible that the Maya knew it better than any civilization outside Mesoamerica. They thought it was more important than the Sun. They watched it carefully as it moved through its stations--it takes 584 days for Venus and the Earth to line up in their previous position as compared to the Sun. It takes about 2922 days for the Earth, Venus, the Sun, and the stars to agree.

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The pattern of Venus is usually reckoned at Inferior Conjunction, that time when Venus passes between the Sun and the Earth. A diagram of this situation can be seen on the left.

During this period, Venus cannot be seen from Earth. It disappears for a short period that averages 8 days. When it first rises after inferior conjunction, that is when it was first spotted in the morning sky, called heliacal rising because it is rising with the sun, was the most important position of Venus.

After rising, Venus will reach its greatest brilliancy then it greatest elongation west, moving quickly (in retrograde motion) away from the Sun. After that it will remain visible for about 260 days in the morning sky until it reaches superior conjunction. At this point Venus is on the opposite side of the Sun as we view it from Earth. It becomes dim, until it dips back under the horizon, only to appear on the opposite side of the sun an average of 50 days later. It then rises as a evening star and remain in the night sky about 260 days until it goes through its eastern elongation point and greatest brilliancy before arriving at Inferior Conjunction again.

The Maya made daytime observations of Venus. Venus had a psychological effect upon the Maya and other Mesoamerican cultures, it has been shown that the Maya were timing some of their wars based on the stationary points of Venus and Jupiter. Humans were

sacrificed on first appearance after Superior Conjunction when Venus was at its dimmest magnitude but they most feared the first Heliacal Rising after Inferior Conjunction.

In the Dresden Codex, the Maya had an almanac that displayed the full cycle of Venus. They counted five sets of 584 days, that is 2,920 days is approximately 8 years or 5 repetitions of the Venus cycle.

The Sun

The Maya evidently thought quite a bit about the Sun and they watched it trace out a path along the ecliptic. They followed it year round, presumably following its path along the horizon as well. At Chichen Itza, during sunset a sun serpent rises up the side of the stairway of the pyramid called El Castillo on the day of Spring and Autumn Equinox. It tells us that the Maya noted, not only the extremes of the Sun at the Solstices, but also the Equinoxes when the Sun appeared to rise due East or due West. In addition to the Zenial Passages mentioned earlier, ecliptic observations must have been a major portion of Maya solar observing.

 

The Moon

The Maya had a lunar component to their calendric inscriptions. After giving the pertinent information on the date according to the Maya calendar the typical Maya inscriptions contain a lunar reckoning. The lunar count was counted as 29 or 30 days, alternating. The lunar synodic period is close to 29.5 days, so by alternating their count between these two numbers the moon was carefully meshed into the calendric sequence as well. Their lunar knowledge was impressive for they also made eclipse predictions, an almanac for predicting them is contained in the Dresden Codex.

The EclipticThe Maya portrayed the Ecliptic in their artwork as a Double-Headed Serpent. The ecliptic is the path of the sun in the sky which is marked by the constellations of fixed stars. Here the moon and the planets can be found because they are bound, like the Earth, to the sun. The constellations on the ecliptic are also called the zodiac. We don't know exactly how fixed constellations on the ecliptic were seen by the Maya, but we have some idea of the order in some parts of the sky. We know there is a scorpion, which we equate with our own constellation of Scorpius, in this figure I believe they used the claws of Libra. It has also been found that

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Gemini appeared to the Maya as a pig or peccary, (a nocturnal animal in the pig family.) Some other constellations on the ecliptic are identified as a jaguar, at least one serpent, a bat, a turtle, a xoc monster--that is, shark, or a sea monster. The Pleiades were seen as the tail of the rattlesnake and is called, "Tz'ab."

  The Milky WayThe Milky Way itself was much venerated by the Maya. They called it the World Tree, which was represented by a tall and majestic flowering tree, the Ceiba. The Milky Way was also called the Wakah Chan. Wak means "Six" or "Erect". Chan or K'an means "Four", "Serpent" or "Sky". The World Tree was erect when Sagittarius was well over the horizon. At this time the Milky Way rose up from the horizon and climbed overhead into the North. The star clouds that form the Milky Way were seen as the tree of life where all life came from. Near Sagittarius, the center of our galaxy, where the World Tree meets the Ecliptic was given special attention by the Maya. A major element of the World Tree include the Kawak Monster, a giant head with a kin in its forehead. This monster was also a mountain or witz monster. A sacrificial bowl on its head contains a flint blade representing sacrifice, and the Kimi glyph that represents death. The Ecliptic is sometimes represented as a bar crossing the major axis of the world tree, making a form that is similar to the Christian Cross. On top of the World Tree we find a bird that has been called, the Principal Bird deity, or Itzam Ye. There is also evidence that shows the Sun on the World Tree as it appeared to the Maya at Winter Solstice.

During the months of winter, when the so-called "Winter" Milky Way dominates the sky, it was called the "White Boned Serpent." This part of the Milky Way passed overhead at night during the dry season. It is not brilliant like the star clouds that dominate the sky North of the equator during the months of Summer, but observers at dark locations will easily see the glow. Here the Ecliptic crosses the Milky Way again, near the constellation of Gemini which was the approximate location of the Sun during Summer Solstice. It is possible that the jaws of the White-Boned Serpent were represented by the Kawak monster head.

8. Writing systemThe Maya writing system (often called hieroglyphs from a superficial resemblance to the Ancient Egyptian writing) was a combination of phonetic symbols and logograms. It is most often classified as a logographic or (more properly) a logosyllabic writing system, in which syllabic signs play a significant role. It is the only writing system of the Pre-Columbian New World which is known to completely represent the spoken language of its community. In total, the script has more than a thousand different glyphs, although a few are variations of the same sign or meaning, and many appear only rarely or are confined to particular localities. At any one time, no more than around 500 glyphs were in use, some 200 of which (including variations) had a phonetic or syllabic interpretation.

The earliest inscriptions in an identifiably Maya script date back to 200–300 BC.[19] However, this is preceded by several other writing systems which had developed in Mesoamerica, most notably that of the Zapotecs, and (following the 2006 publication of research on the recently discovered Cascajal Block), the Olmecs.[20] There is a pre-Maya writing known as "Epi-Olmec script" (post Olmec) which some researchers believe may represent a transitional script between Olmec and Maya writing, but the relationships between these remain unclear and the matter is unsettled. On January 5, 2006, National Geographic published the findings of Maya writings that could be as old as 400 BC, suggesting that the Maya writing system is nearly as old as the oldest Mesoamerican writing known at that time, Zapotec.[21] In the succeeding centuries the Maya developed their script into a form which was far more complete and complex than any other that has yet been found in the Americas.

Since its inception, the Maya script was in use up to the arrival of the Europeans, peaking during the Maya Classical Period (c. 200 to 900). Although many Maya centers went into decline (or were completely abandoned) during or after this period, the skill and knowledge of Maya writing persisted amongst segments of the population, and the early Spanish conquistadors knew of individuals who could still read and write the script. Unfortunately, the Spanish displayed little interest in it, and as a result of the dire impacts the conquest had on Maya societies, the knowledge was subsequently lost, probably within only a few generations.

At a rough estimate, in excess of 10,000 individual texts have so far been recovered, mostly inscribed on stone monuments, lintels, stelae and ceramic pottery. The Maya also produced texts painted on a form of paper manufactured from processed tree-bark, in particular from several species of strangler fig trees such as Ficus cotinifolia and Ficus padifolia.[22] This paper, common throughout Mesoamerica and generally now known by its Nahuatl-language name amatl, was typically bound as a single continuous sheet that was folded into pages of equal width, concertina-style, to produce a codex that could be written on both sides. Shortly after the conquest, all of the codices which could be found were ordered to be burnt and destroyed by zealous Spanish priests, notably Bishop Diego de Landa. Only three reasonably intact examples of Maya codices are known to have survived

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through to the present day. These are now known as the Madrid, Dresden, and Paris codices. A few pages survive from a fourth, the Grolier codex, whose authenticity is sometimes disputed, but mostly is held to be genuine. Further archaeology conducted at Maya sites often reveals other fragments, rectangular lumps of plaster and paint chips which formerly were codices; these tantalizing remains are, however, too severely damaged for any inscriptions to have survived, most of the organic material having decayed.

The decipherment and recovery of the now-lost knowledge of Maya writing has been a long and laborious process. Some elements were first deciphered in the late 19th and early 20th century, mostly the parts having to do with numbers, the Maya calendar, and astronomy. Major breakthroughs came starting in the 1950s to 1970s, and accelerated rapidly thereafter. By the end of the 20th century, scholars were able to read the majority of Maya texts to a large extent, and recent field work continues to further illuminate the content.

In reference to the few extant Maya writings, Michael D. Coe, a prominent linguist and epigrapher at Yale University, stated:

"[O]ur knowledge of ancient Maya thought must represent only a tiny fraction of the whole picture, for of the thousands of books in which the full extent of their learning and ritual was recorded, only four have survived to modern times (as though all that posterity knew of ourselves were to be based upon three prayer books and 'Pilgrim's Progress')." (Michael D. Coe, The Maya, London: Thames and Hudson, 4th ed., 1987, p. 161.)

Most surviving pre-Columbian Maya writing is from stelae and other stone inscriptions from Maya sites, many of which were already abandoned before the Spanish arrived. The inscriptions on the stelae mainly record the dynasties and wars of the sites' rulers. Also of note are the inscriptions that reveal information about the lives of ancient Maya women. Much of the remainder of Maya hieroglyphics has been found on funeral pottery, most of which describes the afterlife.

Writing tools

Although the archaeological record does not provide examples, Maya art shows that writing was done with brushes made with animal hair and quills. Codex-style writing was usually done in black ink with red highlights, giving rise to the Aztec name for the Maya territory as the "land of red and black".

Scribes and literacy

Scribes held a prominent position in Maya courts. Maya art often depicts rulers with trappings indicating they were scribes or at least able to write, such as having pen bundles in their headdresses. Additionally, many rulers have been found in conjunction with writing tools such as shell or clay inkpots. Although the number of logograms and syllabic symbols required to fully write the language numbered in the hundreds, literacy was not necessarily widespread beyond the elite classes. Graffiti uncovered in various contexts, including on fired bricks, shows nonsensical attempts to imitate the writing system.

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Mathematics

Maya numerals

In common with the other Mesoamerican civilizations, the Maya used a base 20 (vigesimal) and base 5 numbering system (see Maya numerals). Also, the preclassic Maya and their neighbors independently developed the concept of zero by 36 BC. Inscriptions show them on occasion working with sums up to the hundreds of millions and dates so large it would take several lines just to represent it. They produced extremely accurate astronomical observations; their charts of the movements of the moon and planets are equal or superior to those of any other civilization working from naked eye observation.[citation needed]

In common with the other Mesoamerican civilizations, the Maya had measured the length of the solar year to a high degree of accuracy, far more accurately than that used in Europe as the basis of the Gregorian Calendar. They did not use this figure for the length of year in their calendars, however; the calendars they used were crude, being based on a year length of exactly 365 days, which means that the calendar falls out of step with the seasons by one day every four years. By comparison, the Julian calendar, used in Europe from Roman times until about the 16th Century, accumulated an error of only one day every 128 years. The modern Gregorian calendar is even more accurate, accumulating only a day's error in approximately 3257 years.

9. Mayan Ruins

Belize - Mayan Ruins

An important part of Belize's history is the Mayan legacy of outstanding palaces and temples. The Mayan occupation began as early as 1500 B.C. and started to decline in 900 A.D., although some Maya cultural centres continued to be occupied until the arrival of the Spanish in the 15 century. Belize's population was thought to be over 1 million people during the classic period (250 A.D. to 900 A.D.) when Belize became the heart of the Mayan civilization. To this day, there is still a significant Mayan population living in small villages throughout the country.

The government of Belize, through our Department of Archaelogy, is committed to giving tourists access to these sites.41

Althun Ha : Baking Pot : Blue Creek Cave : Cahal Pech :Caracol : Cerros : Chan Chich : Chechem Ha Cave : Cuello : El Pilar :Lamanai : La Milpa : Lubaantum : Marco Gonzalez : Nim Li Punit : Nohmul : Pacbitum : Pusilha : Santa Rita : Uxbenka :

Xunantunich

Althun Ha (Water of the Rock)

The ruins of Altun Ha are famous for many reasons. Here they found a Jade Head - largest carved jade object in the whole Maya area - representing the Sun God, Kinich Ahau. It is a national symbol of Belize, which you can see cornered on every Belizean banknote in circulation. Altun Ha was a major ceremonial center in the Classic Period (250-900 A.D.) and functioned as vital trading center linking the Caribbean shores with other Maya centers in the interior. Altun Ha is located 31 miles north of Belize City.

Baking Pot

Baking Pot is a small, potentially significant site on the south bank of the Belize River near Georgeville. The ruin is currently being excavated and evaluated. The vegetation-covered mounds of these sites can be seen from the Western Highway.

Chan Chich

Just south of the Rio Bravo lies the Gallon Jug parcel, some 130,000 acres of tropical forest retained by Barry Bowen as a private reserve. Intense farming is carried out in a small area and also, an unusual cattle project has got underway, using new embryo transfer technology from English Hereford bloodlines to improve local stock. But the most curious innovation for travelers here is Chan Chich Lodge, a hotel situated in the lower plaza of an ancient Maya site. As a private reserve protected from hunting, Chan Chich enjoys some of the most abundant concentrations of tropical forest wildlife in Central America.

Lamanai (Submerged Crocodile)

Located on the New River Lagoon, this is one of Belize's largest ceremonial centers. It displays the more exotic features of ancient Maya art and architecture. Lamanai had one of the longest occupation spans, dating from 1500 B.C. to the 19th century, which includes the contact period with Spaniards. Historical occupation is represented in the remains of two Christian churches and a sugar mill.

La Milpa

La Milpa is the third largest Maya site in Belize. The ceremonial center is built on a high limestone ridge and, with more than 24 courtyards and over 85 structures, is in the topmost rank of Maya sites. The Great Plaza is one of the largest public spaces in the Maya world. Beyond the Great Plaza lie other plazas, pyramids and buildings, which gradually merge into the surrounding jungle. Located in the Rio Bravo Conservation Area in northwestern Belize.

Cuello

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Cuello is located on private land, and permission is needed to visit this ancient site, a minor ceremonial center and settlement area about 4 miles southwest of Orange Walk Town. Although not well developed for visitors, Cuello is one of the most exciting recent discoveries in the Mayan world. Before the exploration of this site in 1973 by Cambridge University, most experts believed the Mayan civilization had its start around 1500 B.C., which was the earliest date of any previously known settlement . Applying state-of-the-art carbon dating techniques to ancient maize fragments and wooden posts, it was determined that occupation by the Maya began here around 2600 B.C., possibly even earlier. Thus, the "start date" of the civilization was pushed back by a full millennium.

Nohmul (Great Mound)

Nohmul is a major ceremonial center spread among private owned sugar cane fields near the village of San Pablo, about 7 miles north of Orange Walk Town. The site - located on a limestone ridge and dominated by a massive acropolis atop which a pyramid has been built- consists of two groups of buildings incorporating ten plazas and connected by a sacbe, or raised causeway. Nohmul was occupied first during the Pre-Classic era (350 B.C. to A.D. 250) and again during the Late Classical period (A.D. 600 to 900). At the height, the community was the seat of government for an area encompassing 8 square miles and including the nearby settlements now known as San Esteban and San Luis.

Cerros

Located on a peninsula across from Corozal Town and in the Bay of Chetumal, this site was important as a coastal trading center during the late Pre-Classic Period. Cerros expressed in that period , new forms of art and architecture that proved to be crucial for the formation of classic Maya art and architecture. Its tallest temple rises 21 meters above the plaza floor. Short boat ride from Corozal.

Santa Rita

The modern town of Corozal is built over the ancient Maya center of Santa Rita. This site was important during the late Post-Classic Period and was occupied up to the time of Spanish contact in the 1500's. The largest building in the central core of Santa Rita has been excavated and consolidated, and open to the public. Archaeological excavations there have shown Santa Rita to be the ancient province of Chetumal, where a large part of the Post-Classic civilization once thrived.

Marco Gonzalez

The Marco Gonzalez site may be the largest ruin on Ambergris Caye. Located about two miles south of the town of San Pedro, it covers an area of about 355 meters by 155 meters and has at least 53 buildings with a central plaza and several small courtyard groupings. The site's excavators believe that during the Early Classic Period, the economy was based upon exploitation of the vast marine resources which the Caribbean provides. The community saw continued success through the Late Classic Period as well. However, during the Post Classic Period, when other sites on Ambergris were being abandoned, Marco Gonzalez underwent large scale expansion. Nearly every one of the structures were added to or used at this time.

Pusilha

Pusilha is on the Moho River in the Toledo District, about one mile east of the Guatemalan border. the ruins, built on top of a hill above the river, can only be reached by boat. The plaza contains about two dozen carved stelae.

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Blue Creek Cave

One of the most impressive natural sites in Toledo is the Hokeb Ha Cave at Blue Creek. The huge cavern entrance is carved from the summit of a hill where the Blue Creek gurgles up form underground. After leaving the cave, the creek cascades over limestone boulders, under the towering shadows of the surrounding rainforest. Archaeologists have found inside many Late Classic ceramics and an altar, leading them to theorize that the cave was used specifically for ceremonial purposes.

Uxbenka (Old Place)

Local Maya have known about Uxbenka for many years. But the outside world first learned of the site's existence in 1984, when reports of looting filtered back to Belmopan. On further investigation, officials learned that indeed this was a very ancient settlement. One of the seven carved stelae found here dates from the Early Classic Period, the earliest archaeological date yet recorded in southern Belize, but most of the sculpted stones are too badly eroded to read. An additional thirteen noncarved stelae have been unearthed at Uxbenka, which also features a couple of unexcavated pyramids and a small plaza, plus some overgrown structural mounds. The site, which is not extensive, perches on a ridge overlooking the foothills and valleys of the Maya Mountains. The nearby hillsides have been faced with cut terrace stones. This art form has not been found outside the Toledo District.

Nim Li Punit (Big Hat)

Preliminary excavations at this ceremonial center, indicate it was important during the late Classic Period. It may have held a special relationship with nearby Lubaantum. Of the more than 25 stalae found at the site, at least eight are carved. One remains the tallest carved stela in Belize. Nim Li Punit is located off the Southern Highway about 25 miles north of Punta Gorda Town. The site is about fifteen minutes walk from the road.

Lubaantum (Place of Fallen Stones)

This late Classic ceremonial center is noted for its unusual style of construction, distinctive of southern Belize. The large pyramids and terraces are made of dressed stone blocks with no mortar binding them together. The buildings on top of the pyramids were made of perishable materials rather than masonry and hence do not remain. Lubaantum is located northwest of Punta Gorda and is not accessible by public transportation. There is a twenty-minute walk from the road to the ruins.

Caracol ( The Snail)

Discovered in 1938 and later explored in the 1950's,Caracol was thought to be little more than a Maya ceremonial center. It was not until more extensive excavation efforts began in 1985 that the importance and expanse of Caracol became known. In 1986, a round elaborately carved altar stone was uncovered which described a victory by Caracol over Tikal, once considered to be the most powerful Maya metropolis. This discovery filled an important missing piece of Maya History and positioned Caracol as the "supreme" Maya city. The largest pyramid, the Canaa, rises 140 feet and is the tallest man-made structure in all of Belize. Caracol is located south of San Ignacio and is accessible by road.

Chechem Ha Cave

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Several years ago, owner Antonio Morales stumbled on this cave while chasing some stray cattle through the rainforest. Going inside, he found an extensive catacomb with niches full of ancient Mayan pots. Archaeologists from Belmopan removed a few of the most important pieces for study, but decided to leave the rest intact.

Pacbitum (Stones Set in the Earth)

Two miles to the east of San Antonio, on private land, are the ruins of Pacbitun, one of the oldest Preclassical Maya sites. Local farmers knew about Pacbitun's existence for generations, but it wasn't until 1971 that archaeologists made studies here. They found 24 pyramids, 8 stalae, several raised irrigation causeways and a collection of Mayan musical instruments.

Xunantunich (Maiden of the Rock)

This major ceremonial center is located on a natural limestone ridge, providing a panoramic view of the Cayo District. The largest pyramid, "El Castillo", has been partially excavated and explored and bears remarkable stucco frieze on its east side. Three carved stelae found at the site are on display in the plaza. Xunantunich is located across the river from the village of San Jose Succotz, near the western border.

Cahal Pech ( Place of the Ticks)

Cahal Pech is a medium-sized Maya center located in the Cayo District. Situated along the west bank of the Macal River, Cahal Pech offers the visitor a panoramic view of San Ignacio and the Belize River Valley below. The remarkable contrast between the town and the jungle, which are in such close proximity, makes Cahal Pech a unique place to visit.

El Pilar

El Pilar, northwest of San Ignacio, is different in feeling. Its enormous area, still linked by narrow paths between the ruin, suggests a huge agricultural center and market bigger than any that exist in the area today.

10. Mythology of the Mayas 

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BacabsThe Maya believed the Earth was flat with four corners. Each corner represented a cardinal direction. Each direction had a color: east-red; north-white; west-black; south-yellow. Green was the center.

At each corner, there was a jaguar of a different color that supported the sky. The jaguars were called bacabs.

Mayans believed the universe was divided into thirteen layers, each with its own god.

Mayans seem to have thought of the Milky Way as the mystic road along which souls walk into the Underworld. Crossing the Milky Way at the constellation Scorpio is the ecliptic, the apparent path of the sun, moon, and planets as they move against the background of stars.

Mayans tracked their creation stories in relation to the movement of the stars across the heavens. They believed that the point at which the Milky way appeared as a vertical band in the night sky represented the moment of creation.

Mayans believed that four jaguars, called bacabs, held up the sky. Each had a different color. Click on image for full sizeCourtesy of Nova Development Corp.

View of the Milky Way from above. When viewed from above the Milky Way looks like a spiral galaxy. Click on image for full size

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Xib ChacXib Chac was the Mayan rain god. He was a benevolent god, and was represented by many colors. During ceremonies, the priest was assisted by four old men, called Chacs, in honor of his name.

An important part of the ceremony was performed by another person, named Chilam. This individual would reveal, while in a state of trance, the messages sent by the gods to be interpreted by the priests.

Ix Chel, the "Lady Rainbow," was the old Moon goddess in Mayan mythology. The Maya people lived around 250 AD in what is now Guatemala and the Yucatan in Mexico. Mayans associated human events with phases of the moon.

Ix Chel was depicted as an old woman wearing a skirt with crossed bones, and she had a serpent in her hand. She had an assistant sky serpent, whom they believed carried all of the waters of the heavens in its belly. She is often shown carrying a great jug filled with water, which she overturns to send floods and powerful rainstorms to Earth.

Her husband was the benevolent moon god Itzamna. Ix Chel had a kinder side and was worshipped as the protector of weavers and women in childbirth.

Pottery incense burner from a shrine at Mayapan depicting the rain god Chac. The Maya god carries a small bowl in one hand and a ball of flaming incense in the other. Ht 54.6 cm (21.5 in). Click on image for full sizethe Peabody Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.

This is an artist's depiction of Ix Chel. Click on image for full sizeWindows to the Universe original image

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Ix Chel

KukulcanThe ancient Mayans used the doorways and windows of their buildings as astronomical sightings, especially for the planet Venus.

At Uxmal, all buildings are aligned in the same direction. Surprisingly, Mayans knew the motions of Venus with much accuracy.

Venus, the morning star, was the patron planet of warfare. Many offerings were made to Venus and the Sun.We know from a historian that people would stop up their chimneys so that no light from Venus could enter their houses and cause harm.

Mayans were sophisticated observers of the sky. Mayans used their astronomical knowledge to predict future human events. They were aware of the movements of Mars. In one of the ancient Mayan books, Mars is represented by a series of pictures of a long-nosed beast shown descending to varying depths from a sky band

This picture shows a Mayan incense burner that has a face carved on it. It was made by the Maya people over 1200 years ago and was found in Palenque, Chiapas, Mexico. Click on image for full sizeMuseo de Sitio de Palenque “Dr. Alberto Ruz L’Huillier” – INAH, Mexico and the National Gallery of Art

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