Chapters

1. Mattera) Atomb) States of matterc) Elementsd) Compounds e) Mixturesf) Separation of mixturesg) Types of changes

2. Lab equipmentsa) Equipments used in chemistry labb) Equipments used in separation methods

3. Measurement of mass and weighta) Definition of massb) Definition of weightc) How can mass and weight be measured?

4. S.I unitsa) Full form of S.I unitsb) S.I units of different quantitiesc) Conversions

5. Energya) Types of energyb) S.I unit of energy

6. Magnetisma) Properties of magnetsb) Types of magnets

7. Microscopea) Parts of a microscope and their functionsb) Types of microscopes

8. Classification of living organisms

a) Units of classificationb) Binomial nomenclaturec) Kingdomsd) Classification of moneranse) Classification of protistsf) Classification of fungig) Classification of plantsh) Classification of cryptogramsi) Classification of spermatophytesj) Classification of angiosperms-Monocots and dicotsk) Classification of invertebratesl) Classification of vertebratesm) Dichotomous key

Matter:-Chapter 1

Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.

Mass is the amount of matter Contained in a body.Mass of a body is constant.

Matter is made up of tiny building blocks that are indivisible called atoms.This means that an atom is the simplest substance which cannot be broken into anything simpler . All scientists agreed to this. The scientists include Sir Isaac Newton, John Dalton and so on. But other scientists like J.J. Thomson suggested that atoms were made up of sub atomic parcticles.The particles are-

Protons which are positively charged.

Nuetrons which are neutral .

Electrons which are negatively charged.

From the above figure it may be noted that the no. Of protons equals the no. Of electrons.Hence an atom is electrically neutral.

Understanding the definition of an atom

Take a mango .Now take a knife and cut the mango into pieces, at one point you won’t be able to cut the mango into smaller pieces .This piece of mango is called the atom of mango.

Therefore the definition of an atom is-

The smallest indivisible parcticle of an element.

Building blocks of matter.

States of matter

Matter exists in 3 states

1. Solids:- Contain molecules(groups of atoms ) packed together.This is because the inter-molecular force of attraction is very strong.

2. Gases:- gas are well separated with no regular arrangement

3. Liquids:- gas vibrate and move freely at high speeds.Comparative study of the states of matter

Some Characteristics of Gases, Liquids and Solids and the Microscopic Explanation for the Behavior

gas liquid solid

assumes the shape and volume of its container particles can move past one another

assumes the shape of the part of the container which it occupies particles can move/slide past one another

retains a fixed volume and shape rigid - particles locked into place

compressible lots of free space between particles

not easily compressible little free space between particles

not easily compressible little free space between particles

flows easily particles can move past one another

flows easily particles can move/slide past one another

does not flow easily rigid - particles cannot move/slide past one another

No definite volume and shape definite volume but indefinite shape Definite volume and shape

Change in state of matter-

1. Condensation:- Change in state of matter from gas to liquid

2. Can you define-3. Melting4. Boiling

5. Sublimation

Elements, Compounds

1. Elements :- Pure substances that contain only one kind of atom.Understanding the definition of an element.Atoms combine with other atoms of the same kind because they cannot exist independently. These group of atoms are called molecules.Example:- Oxygen molecule is an element.Why??Because it contains of only two atoms of oxygen.

Symbols of elements1.One atom of an element is represented by a symbol .The symbol of an element consists of any letter of the English alphabet.Some elements have two-letter symbols.Two-letter symbols occur in cases when two or more elements’s name begin with the same letter.For example the symbol of chlorine is Cl and that of Chromium is Cr.2.Symbols of some elements are derived from their latin and English names.

Name of element Latin name symbolHydrogen - Hhelium - Heiron ferrum Feuranium - Uchlorine - Cloxygen - Ocarbon - C

Tin stannum Sn

3.From the above table it may be observed that elements having two letter symbols have their first letter written in capital and the other written in lower case.

First four elements of the periodic table are

Hydrogen

Helium

Lithium

Beryllium.

Symbols of elements

Name of element

Symbol Name of element

symbol

Hydrogen H Fluorine FHelium He Calcium CaLithium Li Carbon CChlorine Cl Iron FeSodium Na Sulphur SOxygen O Aluminium AlBoron B Magnesium Mg

2. Compounds:- Pure substances that contain atoms of different elements combined together chemically in a fixed proportion.Example: - Let us consider the properties of carbon and oxygen Carbon is a solid

Carbon dioxide has the following propertiesa) It is acidic

b) It does not support combustionc) It turns lime water milky

Oxygen is a gas.A gas that supports combustion.We take in oxygen to perform the function of respiration .Although it supports combustion it is an essential gas.We take in oxygen and give out a compound called carbon –dioxide Carbon-dioxide extinguishes fire while O2 does not.

Therefore we conclude that the properties of a compound are different from those of it’s constituents.

Name of compound FormulaCarbon dioxide CO2

Aluminium OXIDE AL2O3

Water H2OSodium chloride NaClPotassium iodide KISulphur dioxide SO2

HYDROGENCHLORIDE

HCL

Phosphorous pent oxide

P2O5

Compounds are homogeneousA homogeneous substance is a substance that has the uniform properties throughout it’s bulk. Compounds are

homogeneous.

Mixtures may be homogeneous.Example:-Salt,Salt water etc.

Exercise1. What is an element? How does it differ from a

compound?2. Classify the following as elements and compounds

a) Waterb) Aluminiumc) Oxygend) Golde) Silverf) Saltg) Sugar

Fact:- Compound can be separated by chemical means

3. What is matter4. Define

a) Atomb) Condensation

State the first 40 elements of the periodic table

5. Solids havea) Definite volume and shape b) None of the above

Mixtures

Mixtures contain two or more elements or compounds combined together physically in any proportion. It has the properties of it’s constituents.Mixtures may be homogeneous or heterogeneous:- We all know what homogeneous substances are. They are substances which have uniform properties throughout it’s bulk.Salt water is a homogeneous mixture.Perform a simple experiment:-Mix a teaspoon of sugar to water to make a sugar solution.

- The sweet taste persists throughout it’s bulk.- It can be separated from water, when you heat it the

water evaporates which leaves the sugar behind.- Therefore sugar solution is a mixture.- Solute is sugar.- Solvent is the water. - Solute is the minor part of the solution.- Solvent is the major part of the solution.

- Water is the universal solvent.Classification of a heterogeneous mixture. An Heterogeneous mixture is completely opposite from an homogeneous mixture. It has properties that are not uniform throughout it’s bulk. Perform a simple experiment. Mix salt with a number of magnetic SUBSTANCES. It doesn’t have uniform properties throughout it’s bulk. A magnet can be used to separate it.Mixtures can be separated by physical means.

ALL THESE

ARE MIXTURES. Table to show what is under matter.

Seperation of mixtures

Serial no. Name of method Principle1. Magnetic Separates a solid

seperation from a liquid or a solid from a solid if the solid has the property of attraction.

2. Sublimation Separates solid from liquid or a solid from a solid if the solid has the property of sublimation.

3. Handpicking Used to separate a solid from solid in occasion where it is suitable to separate by hand.EX. When you separate chips from pieces of fruit.They can be easily distinguished from each other and will be easy to be removed by hand.

4. Evaporation This separating method has two principles.

a) It seperates a liquid from a solid by evaporating it from an evaporating dish.But the liquid won’t be obtained.

b) It seperates

one liquid from the other if both of them have different boiling points.

5. Distillation It also has two principles just like evaporation but the liquid or distillate is obtained.

a) It seperates a liquid from a solid by evaporating it from an evaporating dish.The distillate is obtained.

b) It seperates one liquid from the other if both of them have different boiling points.The distillate is obtained.

c) Fact:-Distillation is the combined process of evaporatin and condensation.

6. Filtiration

Exercise 21. How would you separate a mixture of sulphur and iron

filings?2. What is a mixture?3. Classify the the following as elements,compounds or

mixtures.a) Gold alloyb) Goldc) Bronzed) Silvere) Platinumf) Diamondg) Graphite h) Carboni) Rice with lentilsj) Pizza

Fact:- Gold in it’s pure form is to soft.But then how do people wear their goldnecklace ?.This is because they add copper and other elements to make it hard.Therefore gold necklaces are mixtures.

Types of changes1. Physical 2. Chemical

Serial No. Physical change Chemical change1. The change does

not involve any chemical method.

The change does involve a chemical method.

2. It does not result into the formation of a new substance.

It results into the formation of a new chemical substance.

3. The properties of the substance represents it’s constituent’s properties.

The properties of the substance does not represents it’s constituent’s properties.

4. The change is reversible.

The change is irreversible.

5. Example:- Ice melting into water is a physical change because the change is reversible. It does not result into the formation of a new substance as the properties are the same. They are not ductile. The change involves physical means. The temperature is simply changed.

Example:-Burning sodium in chlorine is an example of a chemical change.(Can you explain why)

Exercise 3

1. Differentiate between the followinga) Elements and compoundsb) Compounds and mixturesc) Solids and gasesd) Atoms and moleculese) Protons and neutronsf) Chemical and physical changes

2. Fill in the blanks a) ____________ is a compound.b) ____________ is the universal solvent.c) ____________ are building blocks of matter.d) _______________ is the apparatus used during

evaporatione) _____________ is the formula for salt.

How are the names of compounds named?If the compound has the element oxygen it has the word oxide.The formulae for phosphorous pentoxide is P2O5

because the word pent means 5 and oxygen and phosphorous are present in the compound.Mono means 1Di means 2Tri means 3Tetra means 4Pent means 5

Chapter 2:- Lab equipmentsSome pictures of lab equipments and their uses:-

Lab Equipment List

Name of equipment

Sketch of equipment

or location in room

Description of use:

1. Conical flask

Conical flasks are used to mix chemicals .You swirl the flask gently to mix the contents.

2. graduated cylinder

Graduated cylinders are used to measure precise volumes of liquids.

3. pipette A pipette measures precise volumes of liquid, usually less than 25 mL.

4. test tube A test tube is an elongated piece of glass in which someone performs a reaction. They are also used to hold liquids until later use.

5. test tube rack

A test tube rack holds test tubes.

6. beaker A beaker holds liquids . We can stir with a glass rod to mix the contents .

7.funnel A funnel makes it easier to put solids or liquids into another container, especially if the container has a narrow neck.

8. evaporating dish

We evaporate liquids from solids in an evaporating dish.

11. wire gauze

A wire gauze can be put on top of a ring stand so that a beaker can be supported. A Bunsen burner would be located below the wire gauze. The wire gauze helps spread out the heat.

12. Bunsen burner

A Bunsen burner is used to heat objects.

13. spatula A spatula is used to take out the chemicals from the bottles.

14. eye dropper/ medicine dropper

An eye dropper/ medicine dropper lets us administer liquids drop by drop.

15. utility clamp

A utility clamp can hold many cylindrical objects like thermometers, burettes, or test tubes.

16. crucible A crucible is used to heat up hydrates or solids. Crucibles can crack if they get wet and are heated.

17. crucible tongs

Crucible tongs hold crucibles so we do not burn ourselves.

18. test tube holder

A test tube holder holds a test tube that we may have in a flame or warming in a hot water bath.

19. mortar and pestle

Mortar and pestles are used to grind up materials. One should never bang a pestle in the mortar because it can crack the mortar.

20. scale/ balance

A scale/balance is used to weigh things.

21. volumetric

Flask

A volumetric flask is used to measure precise liquids .

22. burette A burette is used to add precise amounts of liquid in a controllable manner.

23. eye wash

An eye wash is used to wash out your eyes if something gets in them. We should never need to use the eye wash because you will always be wearing your goggles.

24.forceps or tweezers

Forceps and tweezers are used to hold small objects that our fingers should not touch.

25. Thermometer

A thermometer is used to measure the temperature of solids, liquids, or gases. You read a thermometer and guess the next digit based on the scale. Our thermometers will be using Celsius degrees

26. watch glass

A watch glass is used to cover an evaporating dish so that the liquid does not spatter all over the counter. Small volumes of liquid can be evaporated in a watch glass.

27. Florence Flask

Used for heating substances more evenly than a beaker.

28. Clay Triangles

Clay triangles are used to hold crucibles or evaporating dishes when heating.

Lab equipments used during separation methods:-

Name of method. Apparatus requiredMagnetic separation Magnetsublimation Lighted matches or Bunsen

burner with wire gauze and tripod stand with the sublimeable substance in a beaker

Handpicking Hand required, no lab equipment

Evaporation Evaporating dish, Tripod stand, Bunsen burner, Wire gauze.

Distillation Flat-bottom Flask,condenser,test tube, conical flask or a Florence flask, Wire gauze, Bunsen burner, stand (tripod or ring)

Filtration Filter and beaker(2)

Exercise 11) Identify the following and state their uses

a) b) c)

d) ring stand

2) State the method shown in the pictures and identify it.

a) b) cexplain th e method of filtaration reffering to the diagrams

Answer:-

Tripod stand:- The liquid obtained after filtration is known as filtirate.

Chapter-3-Measurement

Introduction

Measurement is very important in a person’s life .It is useful in many ways.During the old days like in the 1690’s or 1700’s people would go to a shop and ask for 1 hand of rice.But there was a problem.A child’s hand would be smaller than an adult’s hand .So if a child and an adult come to buy rice ,the child would get less rice while the adult will get more rice even though they pay the same amount of money.Therefore the people decided to set up a system of standard international units or S.I units so that people will pay for their rice as each will get equal quantities.

Along with this people also went to shops to buy vegetables.But they did not know how heavy it was.Therefore the physical quantities mass and weight were introduced.

Physical quantities are quantities which describe the physical appearance of a body.

For example:- Weight of a body describes how much fat or heavy a body is.

Height of a body describes how tall it is.

Length of describes how long a body is.

Mass

Mass is the amount or quantity of matter contained in a body. The S.I unit of mass is kilogram,kg.It is a scalar quantity and a fundamental physical quantity.

Mass is the amount or quantity of matter contained in a body. The S.I unit of mass is kilogram,kg.It is a scalar quantity and a fundamental physical quantity.Mass of a body is constant and can never be zero.

Mass is a scalar1. Scalar quantities are physical quantities which have

magnitude but no direction .Mass does not have a direction but only magnitude.Magnitude is the numeric value of a physical quantity.

Understanding mass

Mass is the amount of matter in a body.In the illustration we can se that molecules are packed close together.Therefore the body has more mass.

Mass is a fundamental physical quantity:-

These physical quantities cannot be expressed in terms of any other physical quantity ,and can be determined directly with any calculation.

Measurement of mass

Mass of a body can be measured by an instrument called the beam balance.It has two pans in which standard weights are kept in one pan and the object in the other.

However there are steps which you should take care of:-

a) Make sure the mass of the pans are the same.b) Make sure the length of the strings used to suspend the

pans are equal and their masses are equal.

Mass can also be measured by a physical balance.Physical balances are mainly used in labs to measure small substances.

Exercise 1

1. What is mass?2. Why is measurement useful?3. How is the mass of an object measured?4. Define scalar quantities5. Define magnitude.6. Define Physical quantities7. Observe and answer

a) Identify the instrument.b) What is it used to measure?c) What is the temperature shown?

8. Observe and answer

a) Identify.b) Name the parts labelledc) What is it used for?d) What do you need to acquire a state of _________

balance?e) How does it differ from a physical balance

Weight of a body is the force with which the earth attracts it towards it’s centre.It differs from place to place.The S.I. unit of weight and force is newton.It is represented by N.It is a vector quantity as well as a derived physical quantity.

Weight of a body is the force with which the earth attracts it towards it’s centre.It differs from place to place.The S.I. unit of weight and force is newton.It is represented by N.It is a vector quantity as well as a derived physical quantity.

Weight = mass x gravityGravity in earth is about 9.8 ms-2 in the southern hemisphere and 9.7 in the northern hemisphere.Therefore a body’s weight will be more in the southern hemisphere and less in the northern hemisphere.The gravitational forces in many planets are different from those on earth.

Weight is a vector 1. Physical quantities that posses both direction and

magnitude are called vector quantities.Weight has both magnitude and directionWeight is a derived physical quantity.1. Derived physical quantities are quantities which are

derived from other fundamental physical quantities are other derived physical quantities.

2. Weight is a derived physical quantity since it is derived from the fundamental physical quantity mass and the derived physical quantity gravity.

Rank NameSurface Gravity (meter pr. square second)

1 Sun 274

2 Jupiter 24.92

3 Neptune 11.15

4 Saturn 10.44

5 Earth 9.798

6 Uranus 8.87

7 Venus 8.87

8 Mars 3.71

9 Mercury 3.7

10 Moon 1.62

11 Pluto 0.58

If the mass of a body is 10 kg what will be it’s weight in all the planets including the sun.Sun=10kg x274=2740NJupiter=10 x 24.92=249.2NNeptune=10 x 11.15=111.5NSaturn=10x10.44=104.4NEarth=10x9.8=98NUranus and venus =10x8.887=88.87NMars=?Pluto=?Measurement of weight

Weight of a body can be measured by a spring balance.

You just need to put the object on the hook.Then you will observe where the pointer goes.Weight can be measured in kilogram force or gram force.Though the S.I unit of weight is newton we say the weight of a body in kg’s .Why?Perhaps since weight is measured in kgf it is written in kg’s.Difference between mass and weight.

Mass Weight1. Amount of matter

contained in a body.1. Force by which a body is

attracted to the surface of the earth.

2. S.I unit is kg 2.S.I. unit is newton.3. Measured by physical

and beam balance. 3.Measured by spring balance.

4. Is constant 4.Changes from place to place.

5. Can never be zero 5.Can be zero.

6. Is a scalar 6.Is a vector7. Is a fundamental

physical quantity8. Is a derived physical

quantity.

Exercise 21. Diffrentiate between mass and weight and physical

balance and spring balance.2. What is a vector?3. Fill in the blanks

a) Weight is a __________.b) Mass is a ___________.c) Gravity of earth is ____________.d) S.I. unit of weight is ____.e) ______________ can be zero.