MARSTEC08 -CAMERA READY PAPER- Air Emision Riding Wave of Technogical Change for Ships f

8/14/2019 MARSTEC08 -CAMERA READY PAPER- Air Emision Riding Wave of Technogical Change for Ships f

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MARTEC 08

Air Emission, Global Warming Potential and Climate Change, Riding Waves of Technological changefor Ships

Ab. Saman Abd. Kader 1, Mohd Zamani Ahmad 2 Omar Yaakob 3, Oladokun Sulaiman 4, Shamila Azman 5

Machineries main and auxiliaries that moved the ship are considered as heart of the ship, Climate changeand Global Warming which has been recognized as the greatest threat of our generation is linked to shipmachineries and this in reciprocal manner driving the wave of technological change for new built andexisting ship. This paper will discuss air emission and its inherent consequence of powered shipping,chemical behavior of Green House Gases and evolving mitigation option for retrofitting system for existingship and new energy technology for new built.

Key words: Vessel, Channel, Maintenance, Port Tanjung Pelepas (PTP), Sustainability, Dredging

1 Professor, Ir, Dr., Director of Training ad Education, Malaysian Maritime Academy2 Associate Professor, University Technology Malaysia3 Associate Professor, Head of Department - University Technology Malaysia 4 Lecturer , PhD Researcher Malaysian Maritime Academy5 Lecturer University Technology Malaysia


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1.0 Introduction

The search for a better managed human society and what brought human today threshold of civilization isas whole as man himself. The triple bottom factors of quest for knowledge, the need for productionexchange, organizing power of social community these factors have equally become interrelated and self reinforcing with each advanced technology and organization, scale, trio of energy, economy andenvironment and matter remaining keys to human civilization; followed by invention of language or abilityto communicate, and facilitation of his mobility. All of which went through their course slowly through

building stones out of stumbling blocks and some actually amazingly came out through extraordinaryrevolution. Likewise, all this dynamic changes through differential approach and methods which can becategorized as conventional methods of idea, hypothesis, experimentation and observation.

Over the years, time needs, growth, speed, and knowledge and of course scarcity and competition havecreated demand that necessitated man to build complex institution- all of which require energy to movethem. Likewise vast range human development has flown precise measurement of energy and manipulationof delineated discrete object all which has no doubt reduce the crushing boarding of physical work andfreed man for other pursuit.

Today pollution from energy carry a very large percentage and as the carbon release has exhaust the littleoxygen we are sharing and the ozone later that is protecting us from mother due to lack of cogent risk assessment on systems we have been building. More so, because conventional assessment focus more oneconomics while environment and its associated cycle is put in oblivion, probably because of difficultiesassociated with uncertainties. For years many think that everything that run air is infinite, the atmosphereand the ocean is providing us source of freshening, winds and current are far more vulnerable to pollutingactivities that have run off into them too many poisons that the air and the ocean may cease to serve more

purpose if care is not taking to prevent pollution. To this end the challenge of air emission is recognized to:

Be main inherent consequence of powered shipping

Have link to fuel oil burning as main source

Have links with continuous combustion machineries - boilers, gas turbines and incinerators

This paper will discuss how the challenge climate change, ozone depletion , global warming touchedengineering including engineering requirement of ship operation and the impacts of emission from ship,rising egalitarian techno economic and environmental sustainable abatement method to reduce and controlemission. As well as matching development and improvement necessary for energy efficiency and

performance of new propulsion system ( all electric ship for short sea shipping and hybrid gas electricsystem for high sea shipping) through comparison and simulation of extreme conditions.

2.0 Emission Ride on Ship Technology

This issue of environment become so sensitive recently with respect to infrastructure development andmost especially in everything we use energy for because most of the past polluting activities has turned into poison through point form effect and are presently having advert effect on our in quality of air and water.In a nutshell, the three worlds we live are currently are out of balance and in potential conflict and man is inthe middle. Historical records of number of calamity that has resulted to heavy lost and pollution are callingfor news and philosophy of doing things through assessment of economics and environmental issue relatingto energy, without compromising to the later has a lot of case have been based. This is already equallycalling for a number of regulations, that will subsequently affect, policies change and procedures relating tothe above and their effect to design of new systems and modification of existing one.


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In regards to energy, It all started with environment natural source of energy,-animal, windmill, watermill,then steam, electricity and nuclear, with so much water and wind and even the sun all of which are the

primary source of energy that goes through natural circle to support human life and the planet, the remainthe leanest inherited resources, new technology has not turn this vast potential income into usable supplies-for years the

Figure 1. - Global warming potential

Cleanest and the safest are among the inexhaustible, the use of energy is likened to reckless try and error,experimentation, and age that discover the big gap between renewable and non renewable energy, and howhuman have adventurism has lead to replacing renewable natural given of nature by non renewable andassociated backlash has called for new ways to do things and importance of using advantage of nature andits given. Renewable source of energy range from energy from the sun, hydrogen and biomass- as for thelater, using waste to produce biomass is very. reasonable than growing crops that suppose to be used for food to produce energy or else we end up breaking the food chain and when scarcity of products involvecome we all have to pay for it anyway. I am not going to discuss much about renewable source of energy or green house gas today. Land based technology will required to be transfer sympathetically to the marineindustry via availability of engines, systems and technical assistance. Marine craft operation in inland water operation requires fuel supplied in bulk rendering the NG distribution viable. The use of an alternative fuelfor vessel propulsion will leads to a design review of Power plant, associated fuel system and propulsiontrain; effectively reshaping areas such as Machinery Arrangement, Hull Form, Compartmentation, CargoDeck, Payloads, Superstructure, Interior Layouts, Escape & Safety, Route Options, etc.

Recent environmental revolt from critical like issue of sea level rise, flooding, has brought awarenessregarding system failure and reality of uncertainty and point form environmental degradation, which further show that the two world are currently out of balance and in potential conflict and human is in the middle.This call for new philosophy to design system based on risk and goal based holistic sensitivity. Since, it has

become obvious that, everything we use on land end their way to the rivers through ground water whichthen end up to the sea, this make management of water quality, maintaining balance of its purity and

preventing substance running into it is a crucial point in protecting the total environment as a result of thisInternational environmental get serious and encourage and call for Galvanize the scientific community by

set up panel's /collaborating scientists and technical bodies and encourage use existing scientific bodies andresearch centers for global observation systems that include taping informal sources of information relatedto early warning and dealing with problem of sharing sensitive data among countries as well using humancapacity and rapid spread of Internet as a tool for information compilation, discussion, and dissemination.Some of the land base regulation that are passed are :

(Oil Spills Protocol) - Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAWProtocol)

Protocol Concerning Pollution from Land-based Sources and Activities (LBS Protocol)

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

GWP (100 Year ITH)

Cox

NOx

CHX

HFC-134a

HFC-227ea

HFC-c-23a

CF


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Agenda 21 To address greenhouse gas emissions from ships- Adoption of control and prevention measures in

2003, as well as problems associated with the transfer of harmful aquatic organisms in ships' ballast water adoption convention in 2004 to support the International Convention on theControl of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems in Ships 2001; and the diplomatic conference alsoaddress implementation of the International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response

and Co-operation 1990. IMO also get serious and passed MARPOL annex six under a diplomatic confernec and bypassing

the usual taxcit procedure . MARPOL cover: Annex I- Oil ,Annex II- Noxious liquid chemicals,Annex III- Harmful Goods (package), Annex IV- Sewage, Annex V Ballast water wherebyAnnex VI- emission and air pollution (SOx, NOx and green house gas, emission of ozonedepletion gas (ODG))

Figure 2 Emission from marine engine - ABS

New annex VI to MARPOL focus on :

Control and management of Ballast water to minimize transfer of harmful foreign species Global prohibition of TBT in antifouling Coating - phase out scheduled for 2008 International convention on oil pollution, Response and cooperation (OPRC) - 1990 Policy to combating major incidents or threats , control to prevent, mitigates or eliminates danger

of marine pollution through port to its coastline from a maritime casualty Annex protocol under this convention (HNS Protocol) covers marine pollution by hazardous and

noxious substances (HNS)

Chapter III of Annex VI on the requirements for the control of emission from ships include:Regulation 12- Ozone depletion substancesRegulation 13 NOxRegulation 14 -SOxRegulation 15- Volatile Organic CompoundsRegulation 16 Shipboard Incinerator Regulation 17 Reception facilitiesRegulation 18 Fuel Oil RequirementRegulation 19 Requirement for platform and drilling rigs


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Response to air emission from ships:

Technical code for prevention of air emissions from ships Diesel engine test Survey Certification of compliance (IAPPC)

NOx compliance limit -30% reduction Review of 5 years interval Restriction on use of fluorocarbons on board Carbon dioxide emission from ship Fuel quality SOx Emission Control Areas (SECA)

Requirement for control of emission from ship - Other requirement and standards :

Fuel grade - ISO 8217 Emission test - ISO 8178 One common limits for all engine - International harmonization of regulation and equipment

standards

Thus IMO and the shipping industry got the greatest credit today regarding the way we design and operate , but nonetheless, the value of water and the environment will operate will always require vivid demand for near zero intolerance to discharge or emission Regulation of maritime business and operations has for manyyear centralized focused philosophy of safer sea and cleaner ocean, however since the protection of marineenvironment became important international issues pollution of the world ocean augmented to linchpin of international legislation and this is calling all areas of human endeavor to move towards sustainabledevelopment. Thus, pollution from shipping only contribute10% of all discharge. Years of marine operation

paid little attention to air pollution, IMO declaration for duction under new annex IV MARPOL changethis. NOx is given limit of 30% reduction , and sulfur capping of 0.5-5.0% limit, Emissions from ocean-going are forecast to increase 9% to 13% by 2010 and 20% to 29% by 2020, above levels in 2002. Bulk carrier, container and tanker vessels are the three largest contributors.(Fleisher, 1996).

Overall energy efficiency should ideally be defined as useful work done in relation to the energyconsumption. Thus the efficiency is highly dependent upon the type, size and speed of the ship. Thoseconsiderations are generally outside of the scope for this study, although mention will be made whendiscussing machinery systems that are especially suited for certain types of ship. The interaction of

propeller, underwater hull and rudder is important when propulsion efficiency is defined as efficiency inconversion from shaft power to thrust power, this is outside of our scope, consequently under power transmission the study will refer to free running (open water) efficiency of propellers when necessary.

.Study conducted by ABS concluded on the following configuration propulsion configurations as best practice hybrid option for large LNG carrier is given below:

Table1 current propulsion configuration- source ABS

Slow Speed Engine Direct drive

Medium Speed Engine Reduction Gear Electric Propulsion

High Speed Engine and Reduction Gear Gas Turbines Electric Propulsion


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Understanding the basis on which these fuel efficiencies are obtained makes it apparent that the efficiencygained over a conventionally powered vessel will vary according to environmental conditions and vesseluse. Prof. Frankel paper on propulsion of LNG also supported this further comparation under emisionconcluded on the following data:

Table 2- Environmental comparis on Source Prof Frankel

GTE DFD SSD NOx 2 15 2SOx 0 6 0.3CO 0.1 0.3 0.3

CO 2/100 5 4.6 4.7

Presently there is need to strengthen efficiency and effectiveness of short sea service towards sustainabledistribution and intermodal link from Inland Waterways where is there is potential for future developmentat places where Inland Traffic originates and terminates from the waterfront.( Frankel, 2006). At a timewhen the pollution caused by the vehicular traffic is playing havoc with the environment, the ecofriendlymode of transport can be of some help.

Hybrid of gas turbine or Diesel with electric couple with dual fuelling that include natural gas, is explorableoption for existing trans ocean vessels, while all electric ship using natural gas and microturbine generator are explorable for costal ships. While interesting development for new ship need exploration ontechnologies to improve integrated full electric propulsion with advanced power management systems:

- Improved converter and power electronics technology- Improved generators and motors

3.0 Best Practice Generic Technology

Recent time have seen rapid general augmentation of awareness of environmental issues which is creating pressure of need for deeper understanding of engine propulsions system and treatment options, enginemodification and new propulsion plant options. Emission restriction have long been imposed on land based

power plant by authority, but the advent of green house gas has resulted to extension to marine dieselengine, especially in port and coastal traffic because ship has proved to be a significant contributors of

NOx. Sequel to this IMO has passed the long standing resolution Annex IV under MEPC, for new limit to prevent air pollution at sea and coastal water. The research require urgent attention in order to be part of solution to states of the degrading ozone layers, acid rain and smog formation, water quality, detrimentaleffects on vegetation green house gas global warming and consequential catastrophe issues. Researchconducted by Norwegian University of Technology and British Maritime Technology ltd deduced thefollowingTable 3 Emission and reduction measurescategory components sources Current of method of

reductionEmissionfrom air

COx Machineries/incinerator/boiler


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SOx Machineries/incinerator/boiler Low sulfur fuel exhaustwashing

NOx Machineries/incinerator/boiler Exhaust cleaning, enginemodification, or input media

HC Machineries/incinerator/boilerNoise Machineries/cargo operations insulation

Particles Machineries/incinerator/boilerHFC/Halon Fire extinguisher / refrigeration

systemSequential loading , vaporreturn, recovery plant

VOC Cargo operation

Table 4 reduction potentialscategory components Current reduction potentialsEmissionfrom air

COx 1-40% operational planning and speed selection3-7 % efficiency improvement of machineries70-80 % ( figure uncertain) by limiting the sulfur content in the fueland / or means of sea water washing

NOx 80-90 % by selective catalytic reduction (SCR)10-30 % by engine turning / injection retarded20-30 % by engine modificationFuel or injected in cylinder, several alternative methods available

with varying reduction potential30-60 %by sequential loading gas transfer

VOC 70-90% by recovery plant

The research concluded with recommendation for need to conduct research on technical abatement relatedto technological energy efficiency and fuel use in fleet.(Morrall 2000)

3.1 Mitigation and Reduction Measures

There are 3 ways by which pollution can be controlled Cleaning fuel prior to combustion (fuel preparation such as fractionation , catalytic cracking ,

desulphurization ) Reducing the production of pollutants during combustion ( state combustion, exhaust gas

recirculation and reduced temperature level ) Cleaning exhaust gas

All these methods attracts major design modification that heat economic of energy balance


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Figure 3- Mitigation and Measures Source ABS

Primarymeasures:

Secondarymeasures:

Operationally Retrofitting forexisting engines:

For new engines

Use of low sulfur fuel ( less than6g/kwh)

HFO sulfur content - Need for oil company tochange their equipment for lowsulfur oil

production-> ship-owner will facehigh cost, additivesolution has beenexpensive so far -Reduction of

NOx, Sox, + costsaving through

boiled off gasreuse.

-Exhaust gas

cleaning system or technology-Sox for SECA(Emission ControlArea) & Fuelchange over -Nitrogenreduction - throughchoice of propulsion system

-Sulfur reduction-in bunker fuel

-Reliquification plants for LNG/LPGcarriers->- Use of Turbogenerator plant >

--PM - SACvolume is the voidspace in the fuel

-On board

Catalytic systemlike : Converter,water injectionEmulsion-speed reduction(10-20% )-Use of shore

power connection

Dual fuel optionfor low sulfur restricted areas( 1.5-4.5) needfor additionaltanks. The contentof hydrocarbons inthe exhaust gasfrom large dieselengines dependson the type of fuel,the engineadjustment anddesign.

-Use of NOx

injectors-Retardinginjection timing-Temperaturecontrol of thecharge air -Exhaust GasRecirculation(EGR)-Fuel / water emulsion-Water injection-Humid Air Motor (HAM)Technique-addition of wetsteam to the engine50% reduction-SelectiveCatalyticReduction (SCR)

Engine

certification-Pre-certification,-Technical fileclarification onengine family andgroup,-Final certification

Alfa Lubricator system - Reductionin cylinder oilconsumption->reduction in

particulateemission-Electronic controlengineProgrammed fuelinjection for exhaust valve-Emission reduction- Use of highefficiency air flow


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valve downstreamof the closing face

for power take off reduce fuel +reduction of emission.

3.2 NOx Technology - Minimizing the NOx emissions from diesel engines is a pressing international problem In response to this, engine manufacturers are exploring all means of reducing NOx emissions The graph shows the international regulation standards adopted by the IMO in September 1997

Figure 4 NOx Compliance limit Source Yanmar

Low-NOx type marine diesel engine for new series engines use the following methods to reduce NOxemissions: NOx depends on : Fuel efficiency, Large bore, Low speed, therefore most mitigation technologywhen after the above characters to :

NOx is generated when combustion gas is held at high temperature. To reduce NOx generation, the following steps are required:1. Lower the combustion temperature.2. Shorten the combustion time. Improvements aimed at NOx reduction are:1. Delay of fuel injection time2. Use of SCR

The IMO NOx emission limit will reduce the average NOx emission factors for ocean-going vessels by4.1% for main engines and 8.3% for auxiliary engines. The model could help reduced emission from MISCship further and make MISC ship meet future local and international emission regulation. NOx reduction

by means of SCR can only take place in the mentioned temperature window, because if the temperature istoo high, NH3 will burn rather than react with the NO/NO2. At too low a temperature, the reaction ratewould be too low, and condensation of ammonium sulfates would destroy the catalyst, To reduce the NOxlevel by up to 98%, it is necessary to make use of the SCR (Selective Catalytic Reduction) technique.


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With this method, the exhaust gas is mixed with ammonia NH3 or UREA (as NH3 carrier) before passingthrough a layer of a special catalyst at a temperature between 300 and 400C, whereby NOx is reduced to

N2 and H2O, the reactions are, in principle, the following:

4NO + 4NH3 + O2 4N2 + 6H2O 6NO2 + 8NH3 7N2 + 12H2O

The amount of NH3 injected into the exhaust gas is controlled by a process computer dosing the NH3 in proportion to the NOx produced by the engine as a function of the engine load. The flexibility of theelectronically controlled engine can improve the emission control and operation of NOX reduction bymeans of water emulsion. When operating with an SCR catalyst, it is difficult to maintain the enginedynamics and the turbocharger stability at transient engine loads. With the electronically controlled engine,a faster load-up by early exhaust valve opening and late injection timing is possible; also, modulatedexhaust valve timing stabilizes the turbocharger.

EGR system has two water injection stages, with a simple water separator unit after both. The first water injection stage involves humidification with salt water in order to ensure that there is no freshwater consumption in the second freshwater injection stage. The outlet temperature of the first stage isapproximately 100 oC, this stage has a single multi-nozzle injector. This system is connected to the exhaustsystem in the same way as the simple EGR system, but the EGR line is routed to a .bubble-bath. scrubber from the which cleans and cools the exhaust gas. the water loop in the scrubber system is cooled andmonitored in a Water Treatment Skid with a filter and settling system, cleaning the used sea water.

Figure 5 SCR Technology

The NOx production only takes place at very high temperatures (2,200K and above), and it increasesexponentially with the temperature. The EGR method is based on a reduction of the oxygen content in thecylinder charge, and the HAM method is partly based on reducing the oxygen content of the cylinder charge and partly on increasing the heat capacity of the cylinder charge by the addition of water vapor. Theaddition of water to the HFO by homogenization increases the viscosity, to keep the viscosity at the engineinlet at 10-15 cSt, max. 20 cSt, It is necessary to raise the temperature to more than the 150oC which isstandard today (max. 170oC at 50% water) raise the fuel oil loop. 10% NOx reduction for each 10% water added, the water amounts refer to the injected amount of fuel oil


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Figure 6 NOx reduction performanceAt increased recirculation amounts; the HC and PM emissions are reduced corresponding to the reductionof the exhaust gas flow from the engine.


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Figure 7 - Typical Pressurized Fuel Oil System with Homogenizer

3.3 Sox technologyAnnex VI to MARPOL 73/78 limits the sulfur content of MFO to 1.5% per mass and will apply indesignated SECAs. The first SECA is the Baltic Sea ->enters into force on 19 May 2006. The North SeaArea and the English Channel SECA will enter into force 22 November 2007. The geographical boundaries

for these two SECAs are defined in MARPOL 73/78. EU directive 2005/33/EC, requires ships to burn fueloil with less than 1.5% sulfur in the North Sea SECA from 11 August 2007.) . New SECAs are expected to be adopted in the future based on certain criteria and procedures for designation of SECAs. MARPOL.Annex VI, Regulation 14 (4b) also gives the option of using an exhaust gas cleaning system (EGCS) whichreduces the total SOX emissions to 6.0 g/kWh.

3.4 Particulate Matter TechnologyReduced sac volume in the fuel valves has greatly reduced PM emissions. Advantage brought by SAC isshown below

Figure 8 SAC valve for injection performance

Alpha lubricator -This involve technology application of high-pressure electronically controlled lubricator that injects the cylinder lube oil into the cylinder at the exact position and time that optimize conventionallubrication lubricators. A parallel line is followed by the SIP (Swirl Injection Principle) lubricator, wherethe oil is injected prior to piston passage, thereby having the oil distributed by the air swirl. Use for marineengines and engines for power generation purposes, very low feed rates have been demonstrated, with oilconsumption down to 0.5 g/bhph. By applying low oil dosage -> emission is lowered + less cylinder oil iswasted in the engine- where it could end up in the system oil, resulting in increased TBN and viscosity.


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Figure 9- Alpha Lubricator Source ABS


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Figure 10 Particulate Matter Measure Performance - ABS

The picture above show the use of alpha lubricator reduces lub. Oil consumption and PM. also the filtersused for dilution tunnel PM. measurements taken before and after the scrubber at 75% load and 15%recirculation

3.5 Impact of using new fuel

That technology will transfer sympathetically to the marine industry via availability of engines,systems and technical assistance.

Marine craft operation in inland water operation as well as deep sea will require fuel supplied in bulk rendering the NG distribution viable

The use of an alternative fuel for vessel propulsion will leads to a design review of:- Power plant- associated fuel system- propulsion train; Effectively reshaping areas such as Machinery Arrangement, Hull Form, Compartment, Cargo

Deck, Payloads, Superstructure, Interior Layouts, Escape & Safety, Route Options, etc.

Figure 11 Fuel efficiency Source - RINA

3.6 Technology for new buil t

Alternative energy Alternative fuel and dual fuel engines Infusion of water mist with fuel and subsequent gas scrubbing units for slow speed engines Additional firing chamber Potential for gas turbine complex cycle

Potential for turbocharger diesel engine Compound cycle with : gasified fuel, external

compressor, combustion with pure oxygen Exhaust after treatment for medium speed engines Azipod


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Exhaust Gas Recirculation Measure performance

Best Practice to meet compliance

Lloyd performed a research on exhaust gas emission assessment Roll-Royce built Allen 5000 Series engine with electronics fuel injectors that control NOx Mak engine has developed a new MDS engine with reduction in NOX without fuel penalty

Electric Propulsion Technology

The overall power train efficiency with DEP is around 87-90%. Use of permanent magnets in electricgenerators and motors as well as general advances in semiconductor technology may improve this figure toaround 92-95% in the near future. Electrical transmission will consist of three basic energy conversions:

- From (rotating) mechanical energy into electrical energy: E-generator

- From electrical energy into (rotating) mechanical energy: E-motor - Some form of fixed or controlled electrical conversion in between: power converter

- Simulation, risk assessment and emission quantification are other remain supportingmethod for decision and selection of new systems.

Electric propulsion system require development of the following technological areas:E-generator -The following tree gives a systematic overview of existing types whose improvement will be sought:Mechanical ==> Electrical: E-Generators

DC GeneratorsAC Generators

E-Motors - The following tree gives a systematic overview of existing types whose improvement willbe sough: Electrical ==> Mechanical: E-motors

Driving motorsSynchronous Motor Positioning motors


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Power converters - The following tree gives a systematic overview of existing types: Electrical==> Electrical: power conversion or transformation

Fixed transformersControlled convertersStatic converters-Inverter

References

1. IMO (2000) marine environmental protection committee 44th session available at: http:www.imo.org/meeting/44.html

2. R. A Karam and K. Z. morgan, energy and environment cost benefit analysis: supplement o aninternational journal , Georgia Institute of Technology , London, 1975 pp. 491-507.

3. N Slocombe, D. S. 1993. Environmental planning, ecosystem science, and ecosystem approachesfor integrating environment and development. Environmental Management .

4. Ghai, Dharam and Jessica M. Vivian ,.Introduction., in Dharam Ghai and Jessica M. Vivian (eds.),Grassroots Environmental Action: People.s Participation in Sustainable Development, Routledge,London, 1992, pp. 1-22.

5. D. Stapersma. Diesel Engines: A fundamental approach to performance analysis, turbocharging,combustion, emissions and heat transfer. Part A: Performance analysis"; DUT wb 4408 A /R.Nl.N.C. CC 09; 1996

6. "The new concept 3-way catalyst for automotive lean-burn engine: NOx storage and reductioncatalyst ", Catal. Today 27, 63-69 (1996).

7. Henley,E.J. Kumamoto,H.,1981, Reliability Engineering and Risk Assessment. Prentice- HallEnglewood Cliff, NJ.

8. Kristiansen, S. and Krlsen, J.E., Analysis of Causal Factors and Situation Dependent Factors.Report No. 80-1144,Dets NORSKE Veritas, Hovik, Norway.

9. MSA, 1995, Project 366: Formal Safety Assessment: Draft Stage 1 Report. Marine SafetyAgencies, Southampton, February.

10. Safety of Life at Sea Convention, 1974, consolidated edition, IMO London, 1996.11. International Convention on the Prevention of Pollution at sea, 1973, consolidated edition, IMO

London, 1997.12. Ingemar Palsson, Gert Swenson. Formal Safety Assessment, Introduction of Modern Risk 13. Assessment into Shipping, Report 7594, Swedish National Maritime Administration, SSPA,

Maritime Consulting, February 1996.14. Barn thijsen, 2004 Dual Fuel Electric LNG carrier Propulsion, design and operation of gas carrier

,RINA, UK 15. Murphy, 1996]M. Murphy, Variable speed drives for marine electric propulsion, Trans IMarE,

1996, Vol 108, part 2, pp 97 107, [Niini, 1995], M. Niini, J. Laapio16. Nigel Gee,2002 Power solution for new breed of high speed ro-Ro and Ro Pax Ferries,ship

propulsion system

MARSTEC08 -CAMERA READY PAPER- Air Emision Riding Wave of Technogical Change for Ships f

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