MARINE STRUCTURES ENGINEERING: SPECIALIZED APPLICATIONS

MARINE SlHUCTURES ENGINEERING: SPECIALilEO APPLICATIONS

Gregory P. Tsinker, Ph.D.,P.E.

SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.

The intent ofthis book is to provide information that the author(s) have generated or obtained from other sources that are considered to be reliable. No presumption is made to guarantee the accuracy or the completeness of the information or its appropriateness to solve any given engineering or scientific problem. Nothing contained in this book shall be construed as granting a license, expressed or implied, under any patents. The supplying of this information does not constitute a rendering of engineering or other professional services and neither the author(s) nor any person named herein nor Chapman & Hali shall be held liable for any omissions, errors, or damages resulting from the application of the material and information contained in this book.

Cover photo courtesy of: Port Autonome de Nantes/St. Nazaire (Photo: A. Bouquel) Cover design: Edgar Blakeney

Copyright © 1995 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht Originally published by Chapman & Hali in 1995 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1 st edition 1995

IQ;lP The ITP lega is a trademark under license

Ali rights reserved. No part of this book covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means-graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or information storage and retrieval systems-without the written permission of the publisher.

1 2 345 67 8 9 10 XXX OI 00 99 98 97 96 95

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Tsinker, Gregory P. Marine structures engineering : specialized applications I Gregory P. Tsinker.

p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4613-5865-7 ISBN 978-1-4615-2081-8 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-2081-8 1. Harbors-Design and construction. 2. Ocean engineering.

1. Title. TC205.T75 1994 627'.2-dc20

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data available

94-30074 CIP

To dear mother with all my love

Preface

Introduction

Contributors

Contents

1 THE DOCK-IN-SERVICE: EVALUATION OF LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY, REPAIR, REHABILITATION

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Deterioration of Structural Materials in a Marine Environment

1.2.1 The Marine Environment 2 1.2.2 Concrete Deterioration in the Marine Environment 5 1.2.3 Corrosion of Steel in the Marine Environment 17 1.2.4 Timber Degradation in the Marine Environment 23

1.3 Damages Attributed to Dock Operation

1.3.1 Physical Damage to the Structure by Vessel and/or Cargo Handling Systems 27

1.3.2 Propeller-Induced Scour 28

1.4 Cost-Effective Approach to Evaluation of the Dock-in-Service

1.4.1 Inspection 39 1.4.2 Engineering Evaluation 47 1.4.3 Structure RepairlRehabilitation 50

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xvii

xx

1

1

2

27

38

vii

viii Contents

1.5 Rehabilitation of Distressed Soil-Retaining Structures 77

1.5.1 Soil Replacement 77 1.5.2 Use of Slabs and Piled Platforms for Reduction of the Soil Pressure 80

1.6 Scour Protection 84

1.6.1 Geotextiles 85 1.6.2 Rip-Rap 87 1.6.3 Concrete Blocks 88 1.6.4 Gabions 91 1.6.5 Precast Concrete Slabs 95 1.6.6 Fabric Containers Filled with Concrete 95 1.6.7 Deflectors 97

References

2 MARINE STRUCTURES IN COLD REGIONS

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Ice Covers

2.2.1 Ice Microstructure and Morphology 107 2.2.2 Ice Formation 108 2.2.3 Sea Ice Characteristics (Parameters of Importance) 110 2.2.4 Mechanical Properties 113

97

105

105

107

2.3 Ice--Structure Interaction: Typical Problems and Practical Examples 123

2.3.1 General 123 2.3.2 Port of Anchorage, Alaska 124 2.3.3 Wharf at Godthab, Greenland 128 2.3.4 Wharf at Nanisivik, Baffin Island 129 2.3.5 Offshore Oil Loading Terminal in Cook Inlet, Alaska 131 2.3.6 Caps Noirs Wharf, Quebec 135

2.4 Ice Forces on Structures 136

2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 2.4.4 2.4.5 2.4.6 2.4.7 2.4.8 2.4.9 2.4.10

General 136 Environmental Driving Forces 138 Ice Crushing Load 139 Loads Due to Ice Buckling Mode of Failure 143 Horizontal and Vertical Loads Due to Ice Bending Mode of Failure Forces Due to Adfreeze Mode of Failure 148 Load Due to Ice Splitting Mode of Failure 149 Ice Load on Multilegged. Structures 150 Ice Load of Thermal Origin 154 Icing 155

143

Contents Ix

2.4.11 Dynamic Ice Forces 15B 2.4.12 Ice-Induced Vibration of Structures 163

2.5 Harbor Operation: Basic Design Considerations

2.5.1 General 164 2.5.2 Site Selection 166 2.5.3 Subsurface Investigation 167 2.5.4 Layout 169 2.5.5 Effects of Vessel Operation on Ice Growth in the Ship Track 170 2.5.6 Effects of Ice Buildup Due to Tidal Action 173 2.5.7 Effect of Harbor Operation 174

2.6 Ice Control

2.6.1 General 174 2.6.2 Icebreaking 174 2.6.3 Ice Suppression 175 2.6.4 Ice Diversion 17B 2.6.5 Ice Removal and Disposal 1B1 2.6.6 Ice Management in a Berthing Zone 1B1 2.6.7 Environmental Aspects of Ice Control Management 1BB 2.6.8 Ice Control (Management) Selection Criteria 1BB

2.7 Dock Structure: Design Considerations

2.7.1 Loading 190 2.7.2 Foundation Design 191 2.7.3 Earthworks 192 2.7.4 Piles in Permafrost 195 2.7.5 Structural Materials 196

2.8 Design Aspects

2.8.1 General 200 2.8.2 Structures 201 2.8.3 Dock Fendering 203 2.8.4 Basic Design Principles 204

164

174

190

200

2.9 Marine Structures in Cold Regions: Some Characteristic Case Histories 205

2.9.1 Gravity-Type Structures 205 2.9.2 Piled Structures 210 2.9.3 Single-Point Moorings 214 2.9.4 Offshore Terminals in Moving Ice 21B

References 222

x Contents

3 SHIPLIFTS, MARINE RAILWAYS, SHIPWAYS, AND DRY (GRAVING) DOCKS (by B. K. Mazurkiewicz)

3.1 General Information on Shipbuilding and Ship Repair Yards

3.1.1 Shipyard Layout: Basic Design Considerations 240 3.1.2 Shipyard Main Structures: General Specifications 242

3.2 Shiplifts

3.2.1 General 245 3.2.2 Platforms 248 3.2.3 Hoists 250 3.2.4 Hydraulically Operated Shiplifts 250 3.2.5 Design 251 3.2.6 Horizontal Ship Transfer System 256

3.3 Marine Railways

3.3.1 Function and Main Parameters 260 3.3.2 Structural Design and Construction Aspects 265

3.4 Shipways

3.4.1 Functions and Main Parameters 268 3.4.2 Structural Design and Construction of Longitudinal and

Transverse Shipways 276

3.5 Dry

3.5.1 3.5.2 3.5.3 3.5.4 3.5.5 3.5.6 3.5.7 3.5.8

(Graving) Docks

Functions, Types, and Main Parameters Heavy (Gravity) Dry Docks 284 Anchored Dry Docks 287 Drainage Dry Docks 290 Mechanical Equipment 295 Gates 298 Cranes 302 Structural Design 305

References

4 OFFSHORE MOORINGS (by J. R. Headland)

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Offshore Mooring Systems

4.3 Mooring System Components

4.3.1 Anchors 314

281

240

240

245

260

268

281

309

311

311

311

314

4.3.2 Sinkers 317 4.3.3 Anchor Chains 317 4.3.4 Buoys 318 4.3.5 Mooring Lines or Hawsers 318

4.4 Mooring Design Procedure

4.4.1 Mooring Layout 318 4.4.2 Environmental Site Conditions 318

4.5 Static Wind and Current Loads

4.5.1 Wind Load 322 4.5.2 Current Load 324

4.6 Design of Mooring Components

4.6.1 Selection of Anchor Chain 328 4.6.2 Computation of Chain Length and Tension 329 4.6.3 Some Applications of the Catenary Equations 331 4.6.4 Anchor Design 338

4.7 Loads on Mooring Elements

4.7.1 Static Versus Dynamic Analysis 343 4.7.2 Static Analysis 343 4.7.3 Dynamic Analysis 353

References

5 FLOATING BREAKWATERS (by J. R. Headland)

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Wave Mechanics

5.3 Mechanics of Vibration

5.4 Dynamics of Floating Bodies

5.5 Buoyancy and Stability of Floating Breakwaters

5.6 Prediction of Wave Transmission

5.6.1 Hydraulic Model Tests 379 5.6.2 Simplified Analytical Methods 379 5.6.3 Numerical Models 380 5.6.4 Comparison of Predictive Techniques 384 5.6.5 Computation of Wave Transmission for Irregular Waves 386

Contents xi

318

322

328

343

365

367

367

370

372

373

376

376

xii Contents

5.7 Prediction of Mooring Forces

5.7.1 Hydraulic Model Tests 388 5.7.2 Simple Analytical Methods 390 5.7.3 Numerical Models 394

5.8 Structural Design of Floating Breakwaters

5.8.1 Hydraulic Model Tests 407 5.8.2 Simplified Methods 407 5.8.3 Numerical Models 409

5.9 Additional Aspects of Design

References

6 MARINAS

6.1 General

6.2 The Environmental Design Process

6.3 Site Selection

6.4 Site Conditions

6.4.1 Weather Factors 421 6.4.2 Ice 423 6.4.3 Waves 424 6.4.4 Tides 425 6.4.5 Currents 426 6.4.6 Shoaling 426 6.4.7 Geotechnical Conditions 428 6.4.8 Sociological Factors 429

6.5 Layout Planning

6.5.1 Objectives and General Principles 429 6.5.2 Entrance Channel 432 6.5.3 Fairways 437 6.5.4 Turning Basin 437 6.5.5 Berth Areas 437 6.5.6 Berth System 439 6.5.7 Floating Pier Design 462 6.5.8 Perimeter Structures 475

388

407

409

409

412

412

415

417

421

429

6.6 Dredging of the Marina Basin: Some Environmental Aspects 483

6.6.1 General 483 6.6.2 Turbidity Created by Dredge and Underwater Disposal 484

6.6.3 Silt Curtain 486 6.6.4 Curtain Design 4B8

6.7 Dry Berths

6.8 Services at Berth

6.8.1 Water Supply 497 6.8.2 Electric Power 497 6.8.3 Lifesaving Apparatus 497 6.8.4 Communication System 497 6.8.5 Fire Fighting 497 6.8.6 Pollution Prevention 498 6.8.7 Navigation Aids, Tide Levels, Draft Marks 498

References

7 BRIDGE PIER PROTECTION FROM SHIP IMPACT

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Risk Analysis of Vessel Collision

7.3 Design Vessel Selection

7.4 Ship Collision Impact Forces

7.5 Pier Protection Alternatives

7.5.1 Large-diameter Sheet-pile Cells 517 7.5.2 Other Protective Systems 532

7.6 Cost-Effectiveness Criteria

References

Index

Contents xiii

492

497

498

504

504

507

510

511

515

536

540

544

Preface

During my long career as a practicing water­front consultant, considerable progress has occurred in the field of design and construc­tion of port and navigation related marine structures. Progress in port design, and, in particular design of waterfront structures, has been strongly influenced by dramatic changes in vessel sizes and in modes of mod­ern terminal operation. Multipurpose ports have been replaced by more specialized term­inals, which result in dramatic effects on both the design of berth structures and layout of the terminal. Furthermore, marine struc­tures for various purposes have been devel­oped using new design and construction principles, and operation of these structures have been significantly improved by the introduction of new and better fendering sys­tems, and efficient mooring accessories. New and better structural materials have also been introduced. For example, modern con­crete technology now enables an engineer to use durable high-strength concrete, highly resistant to deterioration in harsh marine environments. New and better repair proce­dures and rehabilitation techniques for port structures have also been introduced.

xiv

Progress in development of new marine structures and modernization of existing structures was based on advances in analyti­cal design methods as well as on results of numerous scale-model tests and field studies conducted allover the world. Today, marine structure design is a unique discipline in the field of civil engineering that is based on the use of highly advanced methods of soil foun­dation investigation and thorough under­standing of the principles of soil interaction in the marine environment.

During recent years sophisticated compu­tational procedures and mathematical mod­els have been developed and used for design of various marine structures. It must be stressed, however, that in many cases the diverse and complex geology at various port locations results in a wide variety of geotech­nical environments. Such conditions require a careful approach to the selection of struc­ture type and use of the appropriate design method, which should not necessarily be highly sophisticated. It is a misconception that the sophisticated computer analyses, with their greater accuracy, will automati­cally lead to better design. Despite the highly

sophisticated analytical methods available today, the marine structural designer must be aware that the design is not merely a stress analysis process. The use of computers has not diminished the value of some hand calculations. In fact, many questions about marine structure engineering are best answered with simple, often empirically based, but practical formulas.

Computers have revolutionized the pro­cess of structural engineering and greatly increased productivity of engineering con­sulting firms. Computer aided analyses are of great help when used in the proper con­text, for example when modeling of the struc­ture is correct, the real boundary conditions are taken into account, and most of all when the output is examined and interpreted by an experienced engineer.

This work has been conceived as a two part treatise in which I have attempted to provide marine structure designers with state-of-the­art information and common sense guidelines to the design of basic types of marine struc­tures associated with port activities.

The total material is presented in two separate volumes. This volume Marine Structures Engineering: Specialized Applic­ations contains seven chapters. It covers important subjects such as evaluation of capacity of the in-service marine structures and methods of their remediation and main­tenance (Chapter 1), construction and opera­tion of the marine structures in cold regions with in-depth discussion on ice mechanical properties and ice loads acting on marine structures (Chapter 2), design and construc­tion of marine structures used for construc­tion and repair of vessels (Chapter 3), design of anchored offshore moorings and floating breakwaters (Chapters 4 and 5), design and construction of marinas (small craft harbors) (Chapter 6) and design and construction of the marine structures used in navigable waterways for protecting the bridge piers from ship impact (Chapter 7).

The second volume, which is tentatively titled "Design of Marine Structures," will

Preface xv

be published in 1996. The material included in this volume will contain approximately ten chapters and provide the state-of-the-art information on design of miscellaneous port elements, i.e. breakwaters, port layout, access channel, port entrance and other; structural materials used in a port/harbor construction; and design construction and modernization of gravity type quay walls, sheet pile bulkheads, piled structures and dolphins of miscellaneous designs.

In both books each chapter includes a con­siderable list of relevant references intended to help the interested reader to study the sub­ject in depth.

I have drawn from about 40 years of my own experience as a marine engineer involved with research and all practical aspects of structural design, construction, and project management. Also, worldwide experience has been examined and the best was included in this work. Subsequently, acknowledgements of material used in this book are given the appropriate places in the text and figures. I wish to extend my deepest gratitude to all the publishers, authors, and organizations from whom material for this work has been drawn.

This volume is not a one-man job. I am deeply indebted to many experienced indivi­duals who have contributed materials and comments to this project. In attempting to make this most helpful and useful I have drawn from sources including the knowledge and experience of my former colleagues at Acres International Limited, who assisted in a variety of ways: Dr. A. Mee contributed information on redundant pier system design included in Chapter 6, Mr. T. Lavender made a number of useful com­ments on Chapter 2; special gratitude goes to Mr. R. Tanner for his review of a number of chapters and searching criticism and valu­able recommendations; Messrs I. Shaw, D. Daw and D. Protulipac dedicated a good deal of their personal time to editing the text. These individuals, of course, are in no way responsible for faults that may remain.

xvi Preface

I would also like to express my gratitude to Ms. M. Mitnick (Moffatt & Nicol, Baltimore office) who assisted with editing the final version of Chapters 4 and 5.

I wish to record my deep gratitude and to acknowledge enjoyable cooperation with Professor B. Mazurkiewicz (Gdansk Polytechnical Institute, Poland) who contrib­uted Chapter 3 and Mr. J. Headland (vice president, Moffatt & Nichol Engineers) who contributed Chapters 4 and 5.

AP, usual my good friend Mr. R. Glusman has helped a lot with preparation of illustra­tions. My deep gratitude is extended to Ms. L. Dunn, who typed the manuscript and dealt ably with many difficulties in the process. Special thanks go to Sumitomo Rubber Industries, Ltd. for sponsorship of this pro­ject. I wish to extend my deepest gratitude to Messrs. M. Shiono and Ed Patrick of Sumitomo Canada for support given this pro-

ject. I also wish to thank my publisher, Chapman & Hall, for cooperation and patience. I hope that a useful contribution to the profession has been made.

Any project of this magnitude requires many months and hundreds of hours of hard work in the evenings, during week­ends, and on vacations. It cannot be succes­fully completed without tremendous understanding and support from many people, especially one's family. This is why I am especially grateful to my wife Nora for her commitment to leave me alone, undisturbed for many hundreds of hours and for her valu­able assistance during preparation of this text. I also extend my gratitude to my grand­son Daniel who helped with preparation of a subject index to this work.

GREGORY P. TSINKER

Introduction

In the past 30 to 50 years the worldwide seaborne tonnage has increased dramati­cally. This has created a strong demand for construction of new and modernization of existing ports and terminals. This process has been strongly influenced by dramatic increases in vessel sizes and in modes of mod­ern terminal operation. During this period of time tankers for crude oil and ore carriers have reached 500000 and 350000 DWT respectively, and the largest container ves­sels now in use are 50000 to 60000 DWT. In most cases traditional multipurpose ports have been replaced by specialized terminals equipped with specialized technology to handle a certain specific kind of cargo, e.g., crude oil, bulk material, containers and other.

Introduction of new large vessels with side thrusters and bulbous flared bows created an almost unique condition for damaging and undermining of the traditional dock struc­tures. Furthermore, propeller and side thrus­ter induced scour can seriously compromise the integrity of structures constructed upon erodible foundations. In most cases the new cargo handling and hauling equipment that is

required for servICIng of larger vessels is much heavier than that previously used. Essentially, all aforementioned complicates the process of modernization of the existing ports or terminals.

To meet todays requirements the existing marine facilities must be carefully evaluated. Many port-related marine structures such as piers, wharves, and others presently in use were built in the early post-World War II years. Naturally, these older structures were designed for smaller vessels and less sophisicated and lighter cargo handling and hauling technology. Thus, evaluation of the real in-service structural capacity of older docks, as well as methods for their remedia­tion and upgrading, as required to service the new seaborne traffic, is of a paramount importance. Not accidentally the latter has become almost a permanent topic of discus­sion of different specialty conferences. This subject is broadly discussed in Chapter 1 of this book.

In the past 20 to 30 years significant activ­ities related to the offshore oil and gas exploration fields, in regions with cold cli­mates, have led to a surge in research and

xviii Introduction

engineering practices in the field of naviga­tion in ice and construction of port facilities in the ice laden waters. Some of the common problems featured in the ice affected water­ways and harbors are as follows: accelerated formation of ice in ship traffic lines, blockage of the open traffic lines by wind-driven ice features, damage of navigation aids by ice, ice growth and its adherence to marine struc­tures, ice formation in berthing area, ice buildup on marine structures due to water spray, and others. The principal solution to the above problems is usually referred to as 'ice control' and/or 'ice management'. Naturally, the behavior and cost of marine structures operating in the ice-affected waters are greatly influenced by ice global or local loads. Hence, ice-structure interac­tion must be properly understood by the structure designer.

Additionally, in cold regions the marine structure designers usually have to deal with frozen soils, which are referred to as permafrost. Frozen grounds are highly com­plex in their interaction with structures con­tructed upon them. Frost/thaw related soil heave and settlement are the principal causes of unacceptable deformation of struc­tures constructed in cold regions. Essentially, this phenomenon must be given proper atten­tion during design process.

Last but not least the cold temperature can greatly affect performance of dock fen­der systems that are manufactured with rub­ber components. This must be carefully evaluated and treated with caution. Experience indicates that cold temperature effects upon rubber fenders, as well as effects of the ice buildup on and around fen­der units, in a great many cases is overlooked by the designers.

The aforementioned problems associated with navigation in ice affected waters and port design and operation in cold regions are discussed in Chapter 2 of this book.

Shipyards engaged with construction of a new and/or repair of vessels in-service include miscellaneous marine structures that allow

complete dry access to a vessel for main­tenance, overhaul, and repairs or for new construction and launching. These struc­tures are shiplifts, marine railways, ship­ways and dry docks; they usually provide a means for transferring vessels to and from dry land as required. There are various types of these structures including those that lift the vessel from the water or launch them either by buoyancy force, vertical lift by means of miscellaneous vertical lift systems, or by use of marine railways.

Traditional and new approaches to design, construction and operation of shipyard related marine structures are discussed in Chapter 3 contributed to this book by Professor B. Mazurkiewicz (Gdansk Polytechnical Institute, Poland).

Offshore moorings play a very important role in port operation. They provide tempor­ary or permanent berthing for vessels and for a wide range of port related floating marine structures such as piers, dry docks and other. Vessels are often moored temporarily at off­shore moorings while waiting for their turn to be serviced at the berth. Tankers can be moored at offshore moorings during oil trans­fer operation.

Depending on their proposed use the off­shore moorings can be of either single-point or multi-points designs. The offshore moor­ings design procedure is presented in Chapter 4. This chapter was written by Mr. J. R. Headland who is vice president for Moffat & Nichol and is current manager of this company office in Baltimore, Maryland. The material presented in Chapter 4 is based in part on the U.S. Navy's Design Manual "Offshore Moorings, Basic Criteria and Planning Guidelines" DM 26.5 which has been prepared by Mr. Headland, formerly the Technical Consultant for the U.S. Navy. It should be pointed out that the guidelines as are given in DM 26.5 are based on the static analyses approach to design of offshore moorings. In Chapter 4 Mr. Headland extended the stan­dard design procedure further by developing

methods for dynamic analysis of offshore moorings.

Mr. J. Headland is also responsible for con­tributing Chapter 5, "Floating Breakwaters". These breakwaters are gaining popularity for protecting water areas exposed to moderate waves, e.g., Hw:::; 2 m, where Hw = wave height. They are particularly attractive where deep water makes construction of the conventional breakwaters cost prohibitive. In this chapter the guidelines for both static and dynamic analyses of floating breakwaters are presented.

Detailed discussions on design and con­struction of marinas that are sometimes referred to as small-craft marinas, or small­craft harbors is presented in Chapter 6. Construction of millions of small craft or pleasure boats worldwide during 1980s resulted in a strong demand for marinas. Many small-craft harbors have been built during the last two decades, and it is obvious that many more will be built in the future. In recent years, however, some marina develop­ments have been curtailed by environmental groups and local residents concerned with the effects of large-scale marinas on the quality of environment, such as water pollution, visual pollution, noise, destruction of wildlife habitat and others. More stringent regula­tions concerning environmental impact of construction and operation of small craft

Introduction xix

marinas have been implemented. Chapter 6 emphasizes importance of the environmental design process for successful completion of marina design and construction. The mate­rial presented in this chapter enables the marina developer to design efficient, cost­effective facility. Part of the material included in this chpater, namely subsection 6.5.7.2 "Redundant Pier Systems" is contrib­uted by Dr. A. Mee (Acres International Ltd.).

In the past three decades inland water­ways navigation has been marked by cata­strophic ship bridge pier collisions, resulting in a heavy structural damage and loss of human lives. In the period 1965 to 1994, an average of one catastrophic acci­dent per year involving bridge collision by vessels have been recorded worldwide. More than half of these bridge collisions occurred in the United States. The bridge collision phenomenon has been subject of numerous publications and discussions which took place elsewhere in the world. The basic conclusions and recommenda­tions drawn from the existing literature on a subject matter are presented in Chapter 7. This chapter covers state-of-the-art approach and provides basic guidelines to the design of marine structures installed in navigable channels for protection of bridges from collision with vessels.

Mr. John R. Headland Vice President Moffatt & Nichol Engineers 2809 Boston Street Suite 6 Baltimore, Maryland 21224 USA

Contributors

Professor B. K. Mazurkiewicz Technical University of Gdansk ul Majakowskiego 11/12 PL 80-952 Gdansk Poland

Dr. All. Mee Project Engineer for Acres International Ltd. 5259 Dorchester Road Niagara Falls, Ontario Canada L2E 6W1