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ELSEVIER Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 150 (1999) 223–246

Marine saline ponds as sedimentary archives of late Holocene climateand sea-level variation along a carbonate platform margin:

Lee Stocking Island, Bahamas

George R. Dix a,Ł, R. Timothy Patterson a, Lisa E. Park b

a Ottawa-Carleton Geoscience Centre, Department of Earth Sciences, Carleton University,1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6, Canada

b Department of Geology, University of Akron, Akron, OH, USA

Received 8 August 1997; accepted 13 November 1998

Abstract

A 1500-year, late Holocene history of coastal and lacustrine carbonate sedimentation is preserved in shallowponds on Lee Stocking Island, Exuma Cays, Bahamas. Details of environmental change have been extracted byintegrating lithostratigraphy, biostratigraphy (macrobiota, foraminifers, ostracodes), and chemical stratigraphy (C, Oisotopes of foraminiferal and molluscan skeletal carbonate; MgO wt% of ostracode calcite) with a well defined 14C AMSradiocarbon chronology. Carbonate deposition began within physically restricted, euryhaline coastal embayments, withseveral pronounced changes in salinity defined by biotic and calculated salinity variation (from MgO wt% in shells ofCyprideis americana). By about 700–740 yr B.P., embayment closure occurred possibly related to changed longshoredeposition associated with sea level rise and=or regional change in climate (previously documented). With closure, theinitial euryhaline foraminifer assemblage was replaced by a predominant hypersaline biofacies (e.g., Triloculina sp.); withprogressive basin fill, ostracode assemblages, calculated salinities, and variation in abundance of the gastropod Cerithideasp. may resolve higher-order (and some extreme) salinity fluctuations throughout the remaining history of saline ponddevelopment. Foraminiferal isotope stratigraphy is compatible with that expected for hydrologically closed lake basins.Carbonate accumulation was effectively shut-down <200 years ago, replaced by stromatolitic growth. Present-day salinitiesvary according to water balance governed by rainfall and evaporation. A centuries-scale (300–400 year) flux of abraded(reworked), marine-derived bioclasts, admixed with skeletal remains of indigenous biota, is also preserved in these ponds.Allochthonous sediment was transported by hurricane storm surges or related to abrupt transgressive events superimposedon an overall gradual rise in global sea level. We discuss evidence for both as controls on sedimentation. Our studyillustrates that saline ponds on Bahamian islands are excellent sedimentary archives of local, regional, and possibly globalpaleoclimatic events of late Holocene age. 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Bahamas; Holocene; lacustrine sedimentation; stratigraphy; changes of level

Ł Corresponding author. Tel.: C1-613-520-2600, Ext. 4418; Fax: C1-613-520-4490; E-mail: [email protected]

0031-0182/99/$ – see front matter 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.PII: S 0 0 3 1 - 0 1 8 2 ( 9 8 ) 0 0 1 8 4 - 9

224 G.R. Dix et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 150 (1999) 223–246

1. Introduction

Little is known about sedimentary dynamics ofmarine saline lakes and ponds (Mackenzie et al.,1995) when compared to continental saline lakes(e.g., Renaut and Last, 1994). Yet, marine-lakebasins are likely excellent sedimentary archives ofhigh-frequency patterns of Holocene paleoclimate(Burnett et al., 1989, p. 778; Teeter and Quick,1990). Located at or very near sea level, their wa-ter balance and chemistry often responds quickly toeven subtle changes in sea level or local climate(Burnett et al., 1989; Mackenzie et al., 1995). Theselakes also form relatively protected sites of deposi-tion juxtaposed to often more energetic, open-marinesettings. Thus, evidence of elevated sea level relatedto storm surges (e.g., Liu and Fearn, 1993) or otherregional to global controls (Revelle, 1990) may bepreserved.

In the Bahamas, shallow lakes and ponds occuron many low-lying islands, with water often “chokedwith an odorous red mud” (Craton and Saunders,1992, p. 6). The proximity of many of these islandsto deep-water seaways (Fig. 1) increases the poten-tial that marine-lake stratigraphies might preserve ahigh-resolution record of changes in late Holoceneclimate, sea level, and oceanography not recognizedor preserved in adjacent shallow-water or island ge-ologic records. Our paper documents a ¾1500-yearrecord of late Holocene sedimentation from twoponds on Lee Stocking Island (LSI), Exuma Sound,Bahamas (Figs. 1 and 2). Patterns of environmen-tal change are defined by integrating lithostratigra-

Fig. 1. Location of Lee Stocking Island and other islands (black)relative to distribution of shallow-water platforms (200-m isobathindicated) and seaways in the Bahamas. From Kindler (1992).

phy, biostratigraphy, and chemostratigraphy with 14CAMS radiocarbon chronology. Ponds formed by clo-sure of euryhaline embayments. A centuries-scalechange in sea level related to either storm surge oreustatic variation is superimposed on this history; wediscuss evidence for both. Bahamian lakes offer animproved resolution of paleoclimatic variation, onethat compliments existing island and marine shelfgeology (Carew and Mylroie, 1995; Kindler, 1995).

2. Geologic setting: Lee Stocking Island

Lee Stocking Island (LSI) is underlain by Qua-ternary carbonate rock units (Fig. 3; Kindler, 1995).The island forms a windward, bank-margin barrierthat separates a narrow, high-energy, shallow shelffrom a relatively protected, shallow bank-interior(Dill et al., 1989). As such, the eastern side of theisland has sustained substantial erosion, with sedi-mentation restricted to pocket embayments (Fig. 2;Kindler and Hearty, 1996). High-energy subtidal fa-cies (ooid shoals, stromatolite mounds; Dill et al.,1986) extend into the platform interior only frominter-island, bank-margin channels (Fig. 2).

Two natural ponds occur on LSI. Beach CottagePond (BCP) occupies a very small, rounded basinwithin a low-relief, vegetated landscape (Fig. 4A).Pond sediment onlaps a paleokarst developed onPleistocene bedrock, and overlies part of the Holo-cene (<0.45–3.8 kyr B.P.) Perry Peak limestone(Kindler, 1995). We estimate the pond’s surface tobe <1 m above mean sea level: a breach (entrance)through the basin rim is partially barred by a veg-etated (mangrove) sand ridge, and opens above thepresent beach storm terrace. Dune Pass Bay Pond(DPBP) is an elongate pond between two vegetatedridges (Fig. 2). The windward (eastern) ridge is un-derlain by the Holocene (ca. 5.2 kyr B.P.) Dune PassBay limestone (Fig. 3; Kindler, 1995). A lower (¾4m) leeward ridge (Fig. 4B) is underlain at least inpart by Pleistocene rocks (Fig. 2; P. Kindler, writ-ten commun., 1998). It remains unclear if the nar-rowed southern part of the valley (Fig. 2) was onceconnected to the windward coastline. The basin ap-pears to broaden toward the island’s leeward margin(Fig. 2). Elevation of the DPBP surface is ¾1C mabove mean sea level.

G.R. Dix et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 150 (1999) 223–246 225

Fig. 2. On the left, an oblique airphotograph (courtesy of the Caribbean Marine Research Centre) showing Lee Stocking Island(foreground), Dune Pass Bay Pond (lower large arrow) and Beach Cottage Pond (upper large arrow). White areas are sand shoals andbeaches, and the black arrow (top) indicates a prominent ooid shoal complex associated with the interior extension of an inter-island tidalchannel. Scale bar is 2 km for the lower part of the photograph. On the right, topography (in feet) in the vicinity of Dune Pass Bay Pondbased on Lands and Surveys Department (1968). Areas A and B define Pleistocene bedrock leeward of the pond basin.

Fig. 3. Local and regional Quaternary stratigraphy of Bahamian islands; from Kindler (1992, 1995) and Carew and Mylroie (1995).

3. Methodology

A core from each pond was obtained by vi-brating PVC pipe using compressed (SCUBA) air(Fig. 4A). Samples represent 2- to 3-cm-thick sedi-mentary intervals taken at irregular intervals accomo-dating downcore changes in lithology. One gram ofbulk sediment was used for carbonate content anal-

ysis using a carbonate bomb (Muller and Gastner,1971) whereas remaining sediment was wet sievedto separate gravel, sand and mud fractions (¦ D 5%).Composition of size fractions was based on binocu-lar, petrographic, and scanning electron microscopy(SEM). Macroskeletal carbonate was identified togenus level where possible. Carbonate mineralogyand mineral weight percentages were estimated by


Fig. 4. Ground views of ponds. (A) Beach Cottage Pond, showing coring technique. (B) Dune Pass Bay Pond, looking west toward thelow-lying, leeward ridge east of Area A in Fig. 2.

X-ray diffractometry (Milliman, 1974). Additionalqualitative assessment of chemical composition ofmud-size sediment used energy dispersive spectrom-etry (EDS) associated with SEM.

The DPBP core, with its longer stratigraphicrecord (Figs. 5 and 6), was used to define foraminiferand ostracode distributions using 2- to 3-cm sam-pling intervals. Counts of foraminifer tests per sam-


Fig. 5. Lithostratigraphy, lithologic attributes, and uncorrected radiocarbon age dates for the Beach Cottage Pond core.

ple varied according to total population (see Fig. 10);ostracode species abundances are based on 80 countsof right valves for each sample. Mg=Ca and MgOwt% were calculated from shells of the ostracodeCyprideis americana, with sample preparation andprobe analysis following the methodology of Teeterand Quick (1990). Sr=Ca is not reported because offailure to obtain statistically reliable Sr values. δ13Cand δ18O values of foraminiferal calcite (Ammoniabeccarri) were determined at University of Ottawafollowing McCrea (1950). 14C AMS radiocarbonanalysis was carried out by Geochron Laboratories(Cambridge, MA) and Isotrace Radiocarbon Labora-tory (University of Toronto). Samples were cleansedultrasonically and partially leached with dilute HClto remove altered material. Ages are corrected toa base δ13C of �25‰, with the modern standardbeing 95% of the activity of NBS oxalic acid, andthe age referenced to 1950. δ13C values of gas-tropod (Cerithidae sp.) aragonite were obtained asa byproduct of age-dating analysis at Isotrace; ad-ditional analyses were made at the EnvironmentalIsotope Laboratory (University of Waterloo).

4. LSI Pond stratigraphy

4.1. Lithostratrigraphy and sediment composition

The BCP and DPBP cores each contain the en-tire sediment cover to bedrock in each pond. Cur-sory sediment probing revealed no other sites withgreater thickness. Each core contains a thin laminarstromatolite (Unit 1; Fig. 7A) that caps carbonate-rich (>97% by weight) sediment. The stromatolite atDPBP is relatively compacted, with local enterolithicfolding, and contains coccoid and large filamentouscyanobacteria (J. Thompson, oral commun., 1996).The change from carbonate to organic deposition mayhave been grossly gradational, as represented by in-terbeds of these lithologies (Fig. 7A). Rhythmic vari-ation in thickness of organic lamination character-izes stromatolitic stratification (Fig. 7B). Laminae tolenses of inorganic detritus are locally distributed to-ward the upper and lower margins of thicker organiclaminae (Fig. 7B). Non-organic detritus consists oflithoclasts of surrounding bedrock (micritized to pris-tine ooids, skeletal grains, and ooid and skeletal grain-


Fig. 6. Lithostratigraphy, lithologic attributes, and uncorrected radiocarbon age dates for the Dune Pass Bay Pond core. M1–M4 refer tosamples containing prominent abraded marine-derived bioclasts. See Fig. 5 for explanation of other symbols.

stone), in situ to fragmented foraminifer tests as wellas ostracode and gastropod (Cerithidea sp.) shells,and detrital as well as in situ corroded crystals ofgypsum. At BCP, a compact stromatolite is only 2cm thick, yet overlies about 7 cm of purplish-brown,soupy, organic-rich (30–40%) carbonate mud. Thislatter material may be an equivalent facies to the stro-matolite at DPBP. At the time of our field work, theDPBP basin contained about 15 cm of brackish wa-ter. The partially submerged stromatolite was polygo-

nally cracked with crusts of corroded microcrystallinegypsum (Fig. 7C). The DPBP basin had been dry afew days earlier (P. Copper, oral commun., 1995),prior to a heavy rainfall. The same amount of wateroccupied the BCP basin but desiccation features andsurficial gypsum were absent.

Units 1 through 5 are common to each core (Figs. 5and 6). The basal sand at BCP is lithologically andchronologically equivalent with Unit 7c at DPBP (seebelow). Units 9 through 6, excluding Unit 7, are re-


Fig. 7. Laminar stromatolite, Dune Pass Bay Pond. (A) Stromatolite (dark) overlies carbonate-rich sediment (light) with alternatingbedding (arrow) that defines the base of Unit 1; scale bar D 2 cm. (B) Rhythmic variation of thin and thick (arrow) stromatolitic laminae.White objects are carbonate sediment and gypsum crystals. Scale bar D 0.5 cm. (C) Partially submerged stromatolitic mat showingpolygonal desiccation cracks, crusts of microcrystalline gypsum (white), and leaves. The mat in the upper right of the photograph isunder water. Rectangular scale (bottom) is 15 cm in length.


stricted to the DPBP basin. Abraded, marine-derivedsediments (M1 to M4; Fig. 6) occur in the DPBP core,and likely comprise part of the basal sand in the BCPcore (Fig. 5; see below). None of the clasts containattached, remnant marine or meteoric carbonate ce-ments, and are similar in texture as loose sedimentfound in present-day shallow marine and beach envi-ronments on LSI. Disconformities occur in each core(Figs. 5 and 6), and are defined by erosion of sedi-mentary structures along planar or inclined surfaces,as well as by burrows that extend beneath horizontalsurfaces and are filled by overlying sediment. M1, M2and M4 in the DPBP core (Fig. 6), and the marine-derived sediment at BCP (Fig. 5), overlie disconfor-mities. Whereas M4 sits with apparent conformity onUnit 5 in the DPBP core (Fig. 6), it is disconformablewith respect to Unit 5 in the BCP core (Fig. 5). Thebase and top contacts of sediment containing M3 arenot obviously abrupt, nor erosive.

Overall, downcore lithologic changes are subtlevariations among carbonate lithologies of muddysand, sandy mud, and gravel-bearing muddy sand(Figs. 5 and 6). This is partly due to local vari-ation in intensity of biomottled fabric related toinfaunal bivalves (tellinids), with a few prominentintervals of biomixing (Figs. 5 and 6). Discrete bur-rows of unknown affinity occur in Unit 8 at DPBP(Fig. 6). Insoluble residue (<3%) in each core con-tains variation in the amounts of organic detritus,detrital and authigenic gypsum (Fig. 8A), framboidalpyrite, and local authigenic crystalline celestine (seeFigs. 5 and 6). A pebble-size celestine concretionoccurs within M2 above the base of Unit 7c atDPBP (Fig. 6). Sediment probing suggests a discon-tinuous layer of celestine nodules may exist acrossthe DPBP basin at this depth. Admixed with vari-ous bioclast types (see below) are bedrock-derivedclasts represented by micritized to pristine ooids,abraded skeletal fragments with attached meteoriccalcite cement, as well as ooid and skeletal grain-stone lithoclasts (Fig. 8B). Relatively homogenousclay-size sediment forms Unit 5 in each core as wellas interburrow sediment in Unit 8 at DPBP.

4.2. Biological remains and biostratigraphy

Of the many macrobiota represented in each core(Table 1), in situ accumulations of the gastropod

Cerithidea costata, tellinid bivalves, and oogoniaof macrophytic algae are prominent. (The term insitu is used here to define accumulation with littleor no transport.) Increased abundance of Cerithi-dae sp., beginning by Unit 7a, displays a peak inUnit 3 (Fig. 9). There is no obvious distinction instratigraphy of whole versus disarticulated tellinidshells, although both are very much reduced in abun-dance in Unit 1. Tellinid species remain unidentified;they possess a significantly reduced pallial sinuswhen compared to examples documented by Ab-bott (1974) that may represent local environmentalfactors. Oogonia occur in relative abundance onlyin Unit 9 (Fig. 9). Specimens are Chara fibrosaand possibly Nitella flexella (L.) Agardh (P. Hamil-ton, Canadian Museum of Nature, written commun.,1995).

Abraded, and less common pristine, marine-derived sediment (M1 to M4) is generally coarsergrained (Fig. 8C), less muddy, and often more arag-onitic than the other sediment in the cores. Accord-ing to Abbott (1974), Milliman (1974), Rose andLidz (1977), Wray (1977), and Taylor (1978), theseskeletal fragments identify a relatively normal ma-rine assemblage that includes (Table 1): calcareousalgae (Halimeda sp., indeterminate calcareous redalgae); gastropods (Caecum sp., Margarites sp., tinyolives, Epitonium sp., Odostomia sp.); indeterminatestick-like corals; a strongly plicated bivalve (possiblyAmericardia sp.); and foraminifers (Peneropolis sp.,Homotrema rubra, and Archais sp.).

SEM illustrates that spherical and ovoid carbonatebodies, <100 nm in diameter (Fig. 8D), make up to50% of the mud fraction in many samples, andare similar to some bacterially induced precipitates(e.g., Folk, 1993; Buczynski and Chafetz, 1993).Otherwise, the mud fraction in both cores consistsof angular to rounded, detrital calcite and aragoniteclasts admixed with euhedral to broken elongatecrystals of aragonite.

We have concentrated on the DPBP core to de-fine assemblages and distribution of foraminifers andostracodes. An in situ foraminiferal assemblage iswell developed in both cores. There is low diversitybut considerable stratigraphic variation in abundance(Plate I, Fig. 10; see Appendix A). With exceptionof the uppermost 2 cm, the two dominant species,Ammonia beccarii and Triloculina oblonga, display


Fig. 8. Sediment; Dune Pass Bay Pond. (A) Detrital gypsum; thin section, plane light; scale bar D 150 µm. (B) Angular lithoclast ofooid grainstone with arrow pointing to edge of an ooid surrounded by calcite spar; thin section, plane light; scale bar D 1 mm. (C) Sand-and gravel-size fraction of Unit 7c showing well rounded, abraded marine-derived particles; reflected light, scale barD 2 mm. (D) SEMphotomicrograph of spherical bodies that are probably calcitized nannobacteria (overview, left; scale bar D 1 µm; close-up image, right;scale bar D 200 nm).

an antithetic stratigraphic variation in relative abun-dance (Fig. 10). Q-mode cluster analysis (Fig. 11;Fishbein and Patterson, 1993) resolves three group-ings interpreted to reflect gross biofacies (Figs. 10and 11). Each is described below.

Ammonia beccarii dominates the assemblage be-low 1010 mm. This is a species common throughoutthe Caribbean region in shallow embayments of re-stricted circulation and along shore regions where theseasonal influx of freshwater results in highly vari-

able salinities (Bandy, 1964; Rose and Lidz, 1977;Poag, 1978, 1981; Sen Gupta and Schafer, 1973).The presence of this species identifies a stressed eco-tone environment. Our assemblage is overwhelm-ingly dominated (95.3–100%) by the euryhalinestrain parkinsoniana (Schnitker, 1974), which Poag(1978) identified as characterizing lower salinityregimes in San Antonio Bay, Texas. From 960 to680 mm, the Mixed Species Biofacies (Fig. 11)records a stratigraphic ‘cross-over’ in abundance of


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Fig. 9. Stratigraphic abundance of oogonia from Chara sp. andthe gastropod Cerithidea sp. relative to lithostratigraphy for DunePass Bay Pond. See Fig. 6 for explanation of symbols.

the two dominant species while registering a slightlymore diverse assemblage (Fig. 10). The appearanceof Cribroelphidium gunteri (Cole) and Triloculinaoblonga (Montagu) indicate increased salinity. A de-crease in abundances of C. gunteri across the Unit 7–8 boundary is partly replaced by a more diverse, nor-mal-marine assemblage; Rosalina, Peneroplis, Ar-chais, and Asterigerina (Rose and Lidz, 1977). Peaksin abundance of more saline fauna in Unit 7c and7a (Fig. 10) seem to coincide with marine-derivedbioclasts that define M2 and M3 (Fig. 6). Clusteranalysis places our sample at 730 mm within theoverlying Triloculina Biofacies (Fig. 11). This mayindicate there were short-term shifts to more extremesaline conditions (see below).

The Triloculina Biofacies is represented by agenus often found in hypersaline lagoons (Brasier,1975); a minor increase in abundance of Triloculinacf. fiterrei begins in the upper part of Unit 6 (Fig. 10).The continued, albeit much reduced presence of A.beccarri may indicate some fluctuations in salinity.

Total foraminiferal abundance passes through a max-imum in the lower part of Unit 4, then decreasessharply to the base of Unit 1. Species variation iserratic within the upper 1–2 cm of the stromatolite(Fig. 10), with an apparent sympathetic increase inT. oblonga, A. beccarii, and A. angulatus, species ofcontrasting biofacies (see above) that may indicatewildly fluctuating salinities.

Ostracode diversity is low (Fig. 12), and resem-bles the assemblage recovered from Reckley HillPond, San Salvador Island (Fig. 1; Sanger and Teeter,1982; Luginbill, 1983). Both pitted- and smooth-shelled varieties of Cyprideis americana are foundwithin the same levels of the core. Biofacies bound-aries are defined here by relative change in abun-dance of prominent species, and are less distinctthan those for foraminifer distribution. Our interpre-tation of biofacies is based on environmental datain Sanger and Teeter (1982) and Teeter and Quick(1990), and references therein. The Auria Biofacies,extending from core base to the top of Unit 7, con-tains fluctuations in the abundance of its nominatespecies (Fig. 12); one most often associated withnormal saline settings. However, the presence of hy-persaline (Dolerocypria sp.) and brackish water (P.bicelliforma) indicators may define a euryhaline en-vironment. Perissocytheridea bicelliforma increasesin abundance upsection, offsetting a decrease in A.floridana between 600 and 320 mm (Fig. 12). Thischange may indicate a net shift to more brackish-water conditions. The Dolerocypria Biofacies, from320 to about 150 mm, may denote a return to abovenormal marine salinities especially with a decrease inabundance of P. bicelliforma. This change overlapsthe peak abundance in foraminifers and the gastro-pod Cerithidae sp. (Figs. 9 and 10). The uppermostostracode biofacies is defined by the most prominentre-occurrence of the euryhaline ostracode Cyprideisamericana relative to Unit 9 (Fig. 12).

5. Chemostratigraphy

C- and O-isotope values of the foraminifer Am-monia beccarii define a general sympathetic decreaseupsection from Unit 9 to about the base of Unit 5(Fig. 13). Above this depth, there is no further sig-nificant change in δ18O. In contrast, a spike (¾5‰)


PLATE I


Fig. 10. Foraminiferal biostratigraphy, Dune Pass Bay Pond. Relative fractional abundance of in situ foraminifers, total population,biofacies distribution, and percentage of sample examined are shown relative to lithostratigraphy. See Fig. 6 for explanation of symbols.

in δ13C occurs within Unit 5. Above a depth of 40mm, δ13C values display a possible slight increaseupsection, then an abrupt decrease across the base

PLATE I

Representative examples of the in situ foraminifer assemblage incore from Dune Pass Bay Pond.1, 2. Triloculina oblonga (Montagu).1. Side view. ð300.2. Apertual view. ð300.3, 4. Triloculina cf. fiterrei Acosta.3. Side view. ð200.4. Apertural view. ð200.5, 6. Quinqueloculina poeyana D’Orbigny.5. Side view. ð400.6. Apertural view. ð400.7, 8. Ammonia beccarii strain ‘parkinsoniana’ (D’Orbigny).7. Dorsal view. ð100.8. Umbilical view. ð100.9, 10. Cribroelphidium gunteri Cole.9. Side view. ð270.10. Edge view. ð300.11, 12. Peneroplis proteus D’Orbigny.11. Side view. ð200.12. Edge view. ð250.

of the stromatolite (Unit 1). δ13C values of gastro-pod aragonite increase abruptly across the Unit 7–8boundary, and define a maximum (¾ �3 to �4‰)within Unit 7. Above this unit, values first decrease,then illustrate a similar, yet more exaggerated upsec-tion trend when compared to change in foraminiferalδ13C (Fig. 13). δ18O values for gastropod aragonitedescribe a broadly similar upsection trend as definedby foraminiferal calcite, with values varying between0 and �2‰.

Mg=Ca ratios in ostracode calcite (Fig. 13) aregenerally low (compare with Chivas et al., 1986)with exception of indigenous shells taken frommarine-derived sediment (M2 and M4) as well asclay-size sediment in Unit 5 and locally in Unit 8(Fig. 13). Calculated salinities based on MgO wt%in C. americana illustrate several prominent shiftsmoving upsection. Up to the middle of Unit 7, twoshifts to very hypersaline values are present (Fig. 13).Gypsum and pyrite occur in sediment containing thelower hypersalinity peak, beneath 1100 mm (Figs. 6and 13), whereas the second shift coincides with amore saline, diverse foraminiferal assemblage andincreased abundance of T. oblonga (Fig. 10). Above


Fig. 11. Q-mode dendrogram based on Wards Method and Euclidean Distance measure for Dune Pass Bay Pond core. The 28 mostpopulous samples (listed vertically as depth in cm) are divided into distinct assemblages (dashed lines). Clusters of samples withcorrelation coefficients greater than a selected level were considered biofacies.

Unit 7, low salinity values are centred about Unit 5.The brackish-water ostracode P. bicelliforma is alsomore abundant within these sediments (Fig. 12). Be-tween 750 and 250 mm, calculated salinities suggestthere may have been abrupt and substantial fluctua-tions (Fig. 13). Values increase within the lower partof Unit 4, and may continue to increase and peakin Unit 3 (Fig. 13). This increase coincides withappearance of marine-derived bioclasts (M1; Fig. 6),increased abundance of foraminifers and Cerithidaesp. through to Unit 3 (Figs. 9 and 10), and dis-tribution of the hypersaline Dolerocypria Biofacies(Fig. 12). Salinities appear to decrease above Unit 3.

6. Radiocarbon chronology

6.1. Age–depth distribution

14C AMS radiocarbon dates for the DPBP core(Table 2) define a linear age–depth trend beneathUnit 1 (Fig. 14). This confirms little to no com-paction of carbonate sediment by coring or duringburial. The gastropod in Unit 1 is modern (Table 2);elevated (¾108.5%) 14C activity may indicate shellgrowth within influence of seawater or sea spray, andoceanic waters at a similar latitude contain excessactivity (<160%; Stuvier and Ostlund, 1980). Thebasal sand at BCP is chronologically equivalent toUnit 7c at DPBP (Table 2; Fig. 14) whereas the


Fig. 12. Stratigraphic distribution of ostracode species, abundances, and biofacies distribution relative to lithostratigraphy for the DunePass Bay Pond. See Fig. 6 for explanation of symbols.

Fig. 13. Chemostratigraphy, Dune Pass Bay Pond. Central columns show downhole changes in specific sample means (circles) and meantrend (dashed line) for Mg=Ca and MgO wt% in shell calcite of Cyprideis americana. Calculated salinity ranges (black bars) accomodate95% confidence limits set by Teeter and Quick (1990). The right hand column shows downhole distribution of δ13C and δ18O values forforaminiferal (A. beccarii) calcite (circles) and gastropod (Cerithidea sp.) aragonite (squares).


Table 2Radiocarbon and carbon isotope data for samples from Dune Pass Bay Pond and Beach Cottage Pond on Lee Stocking Island, withinterpreted age correction relative to reservoir effect

Location and Lab identifier Core depth 14C age, yr B.P. δ13C Sample type 14C age, yr B.P. corrected(mm) (š error) (‰ PDB) for reservoir effect b

Dune Pass Bay PondGX-20612-AMS 30–35 100 �10.1 gastropod a 100TO-4590 190–200 1880 (70) gastropod 212GX-20613-AMS 560–570 2176 (55) �4.8 gastropod 615GX-20614-AMS 830–840 2642 (55) �4.0 gastropod 908TO-4591 1330–1340 3080 (70) gastropod 1452

Beach Cottage PondGX-20615-AMS 190–200 751 (55) �4.7 gastropod c

GX-20616-AMS 440–450 2676 (55) 1.3 gastropod c

a Hand-picked, whole shell, Cerithidea sp.b Based on linear age–depth plot and offset with modern date (Fig. 14).c See text for discussion.

upper sample is younger than predicted assuming aninterpreted lithostratigraphic correlation with Unit 2at DPBP (Table 2; Fig. 14).

6.2. Reservoir effect

Reservoir effect is the age offset related to changein the 14C activity of lake and marine water relative tothat of the atmosphere (Stuvier and Polach, 1977). Itcan be substantial in lacustrine and peritidal environ-ments because of reduced 14C activity associated withbicarbonate contributed by waters involved in me-teoric diagenesis of underlying or adjacent bedrock.The linear age–depth plot for DPBP implies there wasa relatively stable pre-Unit 1 basin hydrology; hence,a likely constant reservoir effect (Fontes et al., 1996).Extending the age–depth line to the top of Unit 1 pro-duces an age of ¾1653 yr B.P. for the present lakefloor (Fig. 13). This contradicts the modern age of thegastropod interred within the mat (Table 2) and activecyanobacterial growth. There is no obvious erosionalunconformity separating the stromatolite from car-bonate, and gastropods in Unit 3 and above displayno obvious diagenetic alteration. The anomalous agelikely represents the magnitude of the reservoir effect(see also Fontes et al., 1996). This is geologically rea-sonable: the DPBP basin is surrounded by Quaternarybedrock (Fig. 3; Kindler, 1995); lithoclastic particlesoccur within all sedimentary units; and, pond water isfed by surface and groundwater that has likely reacted

Fig. 14. 14C age-depth trend for the Dune Pass Bay Pond (�)and Beach Cottage Pond (Ž) samples. See text for explanation.


with the surrounding bedrock. If BCP has been influ-enced by the same reservoir effect, the two samplesfrom this basin should lie to one side of the DPBPline (Fig. 14). Instead, the younger than predicted agefor the shallower sample (Fig. 14) may represent a‘resetting’ of the magnitude of the reservoir effect.Stratigraphically, this change may have occurred as aresult of modification of the basin’s hydrology duringor following the formation of the disconformity thatcaps Unit 5 (Fig. 14).

7. Discussion

7.1. Chronology and character of pond development,Lee Stocking Island

Formation of both ponds on LSI is considered tobe a result of closure of coastal embayments by long-shore transport, with increased basin isolation frommarine influence due to progressive basin-fill. We

Fig. 15. An island north of LSI showing two phases of pond development. A physically restricted embayment (arrow) will be closed bylongshore deposition creating a saline pond basin (to the right of the embayment). Horizontal view is ¾1 km.

describe this history using two phases of develop-ment as illustrated by a ‘model’ island north of LSI(Fig. 15). Deposition in both DPBP and BCP basinsoverlapped the later period of peritidal accumulationof skeletal shoals that now comprise the Perry Peaklimestone (Kindler, 1995).

7.1.1. Coastal embaymentThe DPBP basin lay between two ridges, and

likely opened to the lee of the island (Fig. 2). Theembayment was physically restricted, narrow, andrelatively protected, somewhat similar to our ‘model’example (Fig. 15). Initial deposition records a periodof elevated sea level that allowed transport and mix-ture of marine-derived sediment (M1) with indige-nous euryhaline biota. The presence of charaphytessuggest that embayment salinity was no greater thanabout 2=3 of normal seawater (Wood and Imahori,1964). To the top of Unit 8, a changing balanceamong evaporation, rainfall, and marine influenceslikely lead to large changes in salinity (Fig. 13), in-


ducing ecological stress. This is supported by low insitu faunal diversity that is dominated by an essen-tially monospecific foraminiferal assemblage. Calcu-lated salinities (Fig. 13) and changing abundancesof ostracode species (Fig. 12 record higher orderchange. The very rare occurrence of Chara oogoniaabove Unit 9 suggests that salinity variation becameinimical for this alga. Detrital gypsum in Unit 8 maydenote reworking of possible crusts along the embay-ment margin, similar to gypsum found today on thestromatolite (Fig. 7C). Burrows connected to appar-ent paraconformities in Unit 8 may reflect short-termchanges in salinity that allowed for specific infaunalactivity.

The embayment became more saline or stabilizedto normal and slightly hypersaline conditions therebyallowing establishment of the Mixed Species Biofa-cies (Fig. 10). This change is cryptic lithologically,marked only by a possible root structure, whichmay represent establishment of a minor mangrovecommunity, and increased abundance of framboidalpyrite (Fig. 6). Thus, although M2 clearly defines anepisodic incursion of normal marine conditions, thishigh-energy event post-dates the initial change tomore saline conditions. Deposition of M2 defines thefirst phase of deposition in the BCP basin (Fig. 5).This suggests that either the BCP basin is more el-evated than that at DPBP or a paleotopographic sillwas finally breached.

7.1.2. Evolution of a marine saline pondSedimentation in the DPBP basin changed ir-

reversibly after deposition of M2. Closure of theembayment may have occurred at this time due toformation of a sand bar, a seaward extension of M2.Transposition of foraminifer biofacies, from mostlyeuryhaline to mostly hypersaline species, is com-plete near the top of Unit 7 (Fig. 10). Large, abruptfluctuations in abundances of hypersaline and eury-haline foraminifer species within Unit 7 (Fig. 10)may indicate either a poorly developed barrier thatallowed episodic mixing with normal marine watersor episodic freshening of the salinity behind a verygood barrier due to changing rainfall and evapora-tion patterns. M3 sediment is muddier than M1 orM2 sediment (Fig. 6), and may indicate depositionwithin a more protected, lower energy setting. Fromour age–depth plot (Fig. 14), closure of the embay-

ment occurred by ca. 740–700 yr B.P. Change incoastal sedimentation patterns may have been linkedwith an interpreted change in regional Bahamianpaleoclimate, as recorded on Andros Island (Kjell-mark, 1996) where, by ca. 740 yr B.P., tropicalhardwood vegetation was replaced by pinewood veg-etation. This occurred with increased precipitation inthe northern Bahamas (Kjellmark, 1996). Changedweather patterns, including wind and wave regimes,may have influenced coastal sedimentation patternshelping to close off DPBP and BCP embayments.

A saline pond should record tremendous changein water chemistry according to meteoric input, evap-oration, seepage across a coastal barrier, and flux ofmarine waters during elevated sea level (e.g., marine-derived sediment of M4). Increased meteoric inputin the LSI vicinity may explain the appearance of thebrackish-water Perissocytheridea biofacies in Units6 and 5 (Fig. 12). Greater rainfall would certainlyincrease rates of surface erosion and basin-filling,further isolating the saline pond from marine in-fluence. A shift toward more negative δ13C valuesfor gastropod aragonite above 700 mm (Fig. 13)supports the presence of increasing brackish-waterconditions (e.g., Keith and Parker, 1965). Given thepaleotopographic setting (Fig. 2), and basin closure,sympathetic negative trends in foraminiferal δ13Cand δ18O up to the base of Unit 5 (Fig. 13) areexpected given that the basin was becoming hydro-logically closed (Talbot, 1990). Depletion in 13C inskeletal carbonate may identify increased fractionof soil-derived bicarbonate from surface runoff; asharp decrease in δ13C values across the base ofUnit 1 (Fig. 13) may illustrate uptake of bicarbonatedepleted in 13C due to organic diagenesis or pro-ductivity within a water mass variably diluted bymeteoric water (as found today).

The increasing dominance of foraminifer T. ob-longa implies a shift toward hypersaline conditions(see above). Yet, δ18O values for skeletal carbonate(Fig. 13) are not characteristic of highly saline wa-ter. Absolute values and an overall negative shift inforaminiferal δ18O may identify greater thermal in-fluence on O-isotope fractionation because of likelyincreased influence of solar-heating of pond water.As our foraminiferal isotope data are based on A.beccarri alone, however, the O-isotopic record mayreflect this species’ productivity related to periods


of lesser hypersalinity created during or immediatelyfollowing rainfall.

Elevated calculated salinities in the lower partof Unit 6 correspond with relatively abundant gas-tropods (Figs. 9 and 13). Much reduced numbersin overlying sediment, coincident with a possibleabrupt shift to hyposaline conditions (Fig. 13), mayidentify rapid killing of the gastropods related to sus-tained flux of meteoric water (Scott and Cass, 1977).A maximum in the abundance of these gastropodsoccurs in Unit 3 (Fig. 9), which displays a possi-ble maximum in calculated salinity as inferred bybounding data (Fig. 13). Units 3 and 4 also containthe hypersaline Dolerocypria biofacies and maxi-mum population of the hypersaline foraminifer T.oblonga. A second massive killing of gastropods atDPBP may have been contemporaneous with a simi-lar die-off at BCP (Fig. 5). This parallel stratigraphysuggests that there has been a common environ-mental control despite the distance between the twobasins.

Very quiet water accumulation of clay (1–2 µm)size sediment characterizes Unit 5. Elevated Mg=Caratios in ostracode shell carbonate (Fig. 13), alongwith the marked positive shift in foraminiferal δ13C,may record bacterially induced precipitation of car-bonate related to ‘blooms’ of nannobacteria, theirfossil remains (Fig. 8D) relatively abundant in thisunit. Ca2C would be removed preferentially, relativeto Mg2C; biological utilization of 12C would increaseδ13C of remaining bicarbonate within this hydrolog-ically closed system. Elevated Mg=Ca ratios withinostracodes from M2 and M4, and also distributedwithin Unit 8 (Fig. 13), may have similar origins.However, elevated ratios associated with these sedi-ments may also indicate growth within the presenceof more saline water.

7.1.3. Pond eutrophicationThe most dramatic, recent change in pond de-

velopment is shut-down of carbonate accumulationand start-up of organic (stromatolitic) production.When compared to the calibration of Stuvier andPearson (1986), this occurred in the last 200 years.Today, high-frequency variation in pond salinity, asrecorded by foraminifer populations, presence ofcorroded gypsum, and desiccation cracks, seems toreflect a balance among rainfall, evaporation, and

basin drainage. Modern lacustrine stromatolites aredocumented on San Salvador Island (Dakoski andBain, 1984; Neumann et al., 1988), and a similar red-dish colour in other lakes noted by Craton and Saun-ders (1992) may be indicative of more widespreaddistribution of lacustrine stromatolite. This evokesinfluence of an extrinsic factor. While the role of an-thropogenesis, beginning in the 19th century (Cratonand Saunders, 1992), has been interpreted to haveinfluenced other attributes of insular sedimentation(Mitchel et al., 1988; Kjellmark, 1996), other factorshelping to trigger elevated organic productivity maybe related to changes in groundwater chemistry, hy-drology, and nutrient supply affected by rise in sealevel.

7.2. Sea level change: storm surge versus eustasy

Admixture of marine-derived sediment (M1through M4) with indigenous biota (see above) de-fines an apparent centuries-scale (300–400 year) fluxof sediment and marine waters into, first, embay-ments, then pond basins. Texture and compositionof the marine-derived sediments, when compared tothe lithoclasts (with evidence of meteoric cement)forming background pond sediment, suggests thesemarine-derived allochems were not eroded from ad-jacent semi- to lithified dunes. Given the tectonicstability of the Bahamian platform in recent times(Mylroie and Carew, 1995), change in sea level isrelated to either storm surges or high-order eustaticvariation. A future regional stratigraphic networkamong lacustrine basins might help to resolve thesealternatives. Here we discuss possible evidence forboth.

Some Holocene sea level curves for the Baha-mas–Caribbean region (e.g., Droxler, 1985; Fair-banks, 1989; Boardman et al., 1989; Pirazzoli, 1991)do not interpret high-order eustatic variation. Instead,given that many are ‘best-fit’ curves, they define ageneral rise in sea level since platform-flooding,which occurred by ca. 5–6 kyr B.P. in the Bahamasregion (e.g., Droxler, 1985). If higher order, eustaticvariation can be excluded, the study region can cer-tainly accommodate storm-surges as explanation forthe M1 through M4 deposits. At least 30 hurricanesover the last 100 years have passed over and near thevicinity of LSI (Cry, 1965). Most have followed a


northwesterly track along Exuma Sound while a fewhave passed to the northeast over the bank-interior(Cry, 1965). This estimate translates into at least 450hurricanes over the last 1500 years or <2000 of thesestorm events since platform flooding. Hine (1983),using a decadal average, estimated<5000 hurricanesin the northern Bahamas in the last 6000 years. Thus,storm effects on sea-level and sedimentation havebeen likely significant. Windward storm ramps areexposed in Dune Pass Bay limestone (ca. 5.2 kyrB.P.; Kindler, 1995) near Dune Pass Bay on LSI(White and Curran, 1993). The open, narrow shelfoffers little protection (Kindler and Hearty, 1996)against westerly or northwesterly storm waves. Al-though storm surges can be substantial (Dunn andMiller, 1964), they would need to be extraordinary topass over the Holocene ridge east of the DPBPbasin (Fig. 2). Instead, however, hurricane trackslocated inboard of the Exuma Sound margin (Cry,1965) may have reworked platform-interior sedimentin order to generate the marine-derived deposits.From stratigraphy of coastal lake basins along theGulf of Mexico, Liu and Fearn (1993) suggestedthat category 4 and 5 (>211 km=h) hurricanes haveoccurred once every ¾600 years over the last 3000years. This frequency is of similar magnitude asour centuries-scale stratigraphy of marine-derivedsediment.

Evidence for high-order eustatic events such asstillstands and rapid, episodic changes in rates ofsea-level rise is accumulating for the late Holoceneinterval in the Gulf of Mexico and Florida–Bahamasregion (e.g., Anderson and Thomas, 1991; Kindler,1992; Kindler and Bain, 1993; Goodbred et al.,1998). We compare several depositional events inthe Bahamas region with Ters (1987) proposed high-order eustasy curve to illustrate potential higher-order events (Fig. 16). First, the phase of euryhalinedeposition at DPBP may coincide with one of Ters’(1987) lowstands (Fig. 16). Available geochronologysuggests that increased flux of meteoric water andprogradation of inner-shelf facies occurred on SanSalvador Island at about the same time (Fig. 16;Lind, 1969; Anderson and Boardman, 1988; Teeterand Quick, 1990; Kindler and Bain, 1993; Teeter,1995). Second, the ages of M1, M2 and M4 mayfit with parts of various highstands (Fig. 16). M3stands separate from these, yet corresponds to in-

terpreted phase of climate change in the Bahamas(Kjellmark, 1996) that may have affected coastalsedimentation patterns (see above). Of greatest inter-est is the appearance of the Mixed Species Biofacies,indicating increased salinity, prior to more obviouslithologic evidence of marine incursion in the formof M2 sediment (Figs. 6 and 10). This successionmay represent a low, then high-energy phase of rapidmarine transgression, ca. 1000 yr B.P. Alternatively,storm deposition (D M2) is superimposed on a morecryptic sea level rise. Rapid, steplike rises in sealevel may characterize the later Holocene history ofpost-glacial sea level change (Anderson and Thomas,1991), as has been described across marsh depositsalong the low-energy west Florida coastal region,ca. 1800 yr B.P. (Goodbred et al., 1998). Marine-derived deposits in the DPBP may be records ofsuch rapid, step-like transgressions. However, a re-gional stratigraphic framework is needed to exclude‘local’ (storm) effects. Finally, several seemingly in-dependent depositional features developed along theExuma Sound margin ca. 400–500 yr B.P. Thesefeatures may be interlinked with regional changesin coastal and oceanographic dynamics, and include:(1) termination of Perry Peak limestone accumu-lation (Kindler, 1995); (2) increased isolation andfacies restriction in the DPBP and BCP ponds (thisstudy); (3) deposition of M4; and (4) appearanceof subtidal stromatolites as fringing shelf reefs andwithin inter-island channels (Dill et al., 1989; Mac-intyre et al., 1996). Whether these biological andsedimentological features are responses to a com-mon, extrinsic control, such as sea-level change,awaits future analysis.

8. Conclusions

A high resolution record of lithostratigraphy, mi-cro- and macrobiostratigraphy, and detailed radio-carbon chronology in short (<1.4 m) cores fromsaline ponds on Lee Stocking Island, Bahamas, re-veal two patterns of late Holocene (<1500 yr B.P.)paleoenvironmental change:

(1) Sediments initially accumulated in euryhaline,semi-protected coastal embayments that were closedby ca. 740–700 yr B.P. possibly due to changingcoastal oceanographic and depositional patterns re-


Fig. 16. Chronology of pond development at Lee Stocking Island relative to apparent chronologies of other depositional events in theBahamas region, and proposed eustatic sea level curve for the late Holocene (Ters, 1987). See text for explanation.

lated to a regional change in paleoclimate. Newlyformed saline ponds preserve a history of basinfilling, increased facies restriction, highly variablesalinities, and progressive isolation from marine in-fluence. In the last 200 years, carbonate sedimentaccumulation has been replaced by organic (stroma-tolite) sedimentation. Today, the ponds exhibit ex-treme changes in salinity governed by water balance.

(2) A centuries-scale (300–400 year) flux ofmarine-derived sediment is preserved, and identi-fies change in sea level related to either storm surgesor high-order eustatic variation. Ponds on Bahamianislands provide a high-resolution sedimentologicalrecord of late Holocene paleoclimatic change.

Acknowledgements

We thank C. Schroder-Adams (Carleton Univer-sity) and E. Reinhardt (Dalhousie University) fortheir help in the field, Thomas Quick (Universityof Akron) for microprobe analyses, Paul Hamilton(Canadian Museum of Nature) and Joel Thomp-son (Eckherd College) who helped identify charo-phyte oogonia and cyanobacteria, respectively, andPaul Copper (Laurentian University) for informationabout water balance at DPBP. The Caribbean MarineResearch Center and staff are thanked for logisticalsupport. GRD and RTP acknowledge support from aGR-5 grant (Carleton University) and ongoing inde-pendent operating grants from the Natural Sciencesand Engineering Council of Canada. LEP acknowl-edges research support from the Geological Society


of America. We thank P. Kindler and D.B. Scottfor their comments and suggestions that improvedinterpretation and presentation of our data.

Appendix A

Foraminifer synonymies for the in situ assemblage recoveredfrom the Dune Pass Bay Pond core. Sources are provided in theReferences list.

Ammonia beccarii strain ‘parkinsoniana’Rosalina parkinsoniana d’Orbigny, 1839, p. 99, pl. 4, figs.25–27.Rotalia beccarii (Linne) var. parkinsoniana (d’Orbigny)Phleger and Parker, 1951, p. 23, pl. 12, figs. 6a, b.Ammonia parkinsoniana (d’Orbigny) forma ‘typica’d’Orbigny Poag, 1978, p. 397, pl. 1, figs. 5–9, 13–16.

Archaias angulatus (Fichtel and Moll)Nautilus angulatus Fichtel and Moll, 1798, p. 113, pl. 22,figs. a–e.Archaias angulatus (Fichtel and Moll) Cushman, 1930, p. 46,pl. 16, figs. 1–3; pl. 17, figs. 3–5.Archaias angulatus (Fichtel and Moll) Rogl and Hansen,1984, p. 69, pl. 27, figs. 3,4; pl. 28, figs. 2–6.

Asterigerina carinata d’OrbignyAsterigerina carinata d’Orbigny in De la Sagra, 1839 p. 118,pl. 5, fig. 23; pl. 6, figs. 1, 2.Asterigerina carinata d’Orbigny Poag, 1981, p. 42, pl. 47,fig. 1; pl. 48, fig. 1a, b.

Cribroelphidium gunteri (Cole)Elphidium gunteri Cole, 1931, p. 34, pl. 4, figs. 9, 10.

Peneroplis proteus d’OrbignyPeneroplis proteus d’Orbigny in De la Sagra, 1839, p. 60, pl.7, figs. 7–11.Peneroplis proteus d’Orbigny Poag, 1981, p. 74, pl. 47, fig.3; pl. 48, fig. 3a–c.

Quinqueloculina poeyana d’OrbignyQuinqueloculina poeyana d’Orbigny in De la Sagra, 1839, p.191, pl. 11, figs. 25–27.Quinqueloculina poeyana d’Orbigny Cushman, 1929, p. 31,pl. 5 figs. 2a–c.

Rosalina floridana (Cushman)Discorbis floridana Cushman, 1922, pl.39, pl. 5, figs. 11, 12Rosalina floridana (Cushman) Todd, 1965, p. 10, pl. 3, figs.1, 3, pl. 4, fig. 5.

Triloculina cf. fiterrei Acosta, 1940Triloculina fiterrei Acosta, 1940, p. 25 pl. 4, figs. 6–8.

Triloculina oblonga (Montagu)Vermiculum oblongum Montagu, 1803, p. 533, pl. 14, fig. 9.

Triloculina oblonga (Montagu) Todd and Bronnimann, 1957,p. 27, pl. 3, figs. 15, 16.

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