Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

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R ecom m ended C i t a t ion :

U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Marine Minerals: Exploring Our NewOcean Frontier, OTA-O-342 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, July1987),

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 87-619837

For sale by the Superintendent of DocumentsU.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402-9325

(order form on p. 349)



F o r e w o r d

Throughout history, man has been fascinated by the mysteries that lay hidden below

the ocean surface. Jules Verne, the 19th century novelist, author of 20,000 Leagues Under

the Sea, captured the imagination and curiosity of the public with his fictional-butnonetheless farsighted— accounts of undersea exploration and adventure. Since his classic

portrayal of life beneath the ocean, technology has enabled us to bridge the gap between

Jules Verne’s fiction and the realities that are found in ocean space. Although the techno-

logical triumph s in ocean explorat ion are phenomenal, th e extent of our curr ent knowl-

edge about the r esources tha t lie in the sea bed is very limited.

In 1983, the Un ited Stat es assert ed contr ol over t he ocean resources within a 200-

nautical mile band off its coast, as did a large number of other maritime countries. Within

th is so-called Exclusive Economic Zone (EE Z) is a vas t a rea of seabed t ha t m ight cont ain

significan t a mount s of minerals. It is tr uly th e Na tion’s ‘‘New Fr ontier.

This report on exploring the EEZ for its mineral potential is in response to a joint request

from the House Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries and the House Committee

on Science, Space, and Technology. It examines the current knowledge about the hardmineral resources within the EEZ, explores the economic and security potential of seabed

resources, assesses the technologies available to both explore for and mine those resources,

identifies issues that face the Congress and the executive branch, and finally presents optionsto th e Congress for dealing with these issues.

Substantial assistance was received from many organizations and individuals in the

cour se of th is stu dy. We would like to express special tha nk s to th e OTA advisory pan el;the numerous participants in our workshops; the project’s contractors and consultants for

contributing their special expertise; the staffs of the executive agencies that gave selflessly

of their knowledge and counsel; the many reviewers who kept us intellectually honest and

factually accurate; and our sister congressional agency, the Congressional Research Service,

for making available its expertise in seabed minerals. OTA, however, remains solely re-

sponsible for the contents of this Report.

W JOHN H. G I B B O N S

Director

. // /



OTA Ocean Frontier Advisory Panel

John V. Byrne, Chah-

President j Oregon State University

Robert Bailey John La Brecque

Department of Land Conservation and Senior Research Scientist

Development Lamont-Doherty Geophysical Observatory

State of Oregon Donna Moffitt

Ja mes Broadus Office of Marine AffairsDirector, Ocean Policy Center State of North Carolina

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute J. Robert Moore

Frank Busby Department of Marine St udies

Busby Associates, Inc. University of Texas

Clifton Curtis W. Jason Morgan

President Department of Geological and Geophysical

Oceanic Society Sciences

Richard GreenwaldPrinceton University

General Counsel Jack E. Thompson

Ocean Mining Associates President, Newmont

Robert R. HesslerScripps Institution of Oceanography

Alex Krem

Vice President

Bank of America

Mining Company

NOTE: OTA appreciates and is grateful for the valuable assistance and thoughtful critiques provided by the advisory panelmembers. The panel does not, however, necessarily approve, disapprove, or endorse this report. OTA assumes full

responsibility for the report and the accuracy of its contents.

iv



OTA Ocean Frontier Project Staff

John Andelin, Assistant Director, OTA

Science, Information, and Natural Resources Division

Robert W. Niblock, Oceans and Environment Program Manager

James W. Curlin, Project Director

Project Staff

Rosina M. Bierbaum, Analyst

James E. Mielke, Specialist in Marine and Earth

William E. Westermeyer, Analyst

Jonathan Chudnoff, Research Assistant

S ciences1

Elizabeth Cheng, S tanford S um m er Fellow

W. William

Edward E.

Consultant

Francois Lampietti

Contractors

Harvey, Arlington Technical Services

Horton, Deep Oil Technology, Inc.

Lynn M. Powers

Richard C. Vetter

Administrative Staff

Kathleen A. Beil,

Jim Brewer,

Brenda B.

Administrative Assistant

Jr . , P.C. Specialist

Miller, Secretary

‘Congressional Research Service, Science Policy Division, Library of Congress.



Acknowledgments

We are grateful to the many individuals who shared their special knowledge, expertise, and informa-

tion about ma rine min era ls, oceanogra phy, and m ining systems with th e OTA sta ff in th e course of th is

study. Others provided critical evaluation and review during the compilation of the report. These individ-

uals a re listed in Appendix F in th is report.

Special tha nks a lso go to the governm ent organ izations and academic inst itut ions with whom these

experts are affiliated. These include:

U.S. Geological Survey:Office of Energy and Marine Geology

Strategic and Critical Materials ProgramWestern Regional Office, Menlo Park, CA

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration:

Ocean Assessment Division

Charting and Geodetic Services

Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management

Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory

U.S. Bureau of Mines:Division of Minerals Policy and Analysis

Division of Minerals Availability

Bureau of Mines Research Centers—Twin Cities, Minneapolis, MN

Salt Lake City, UT

Spokane, WAReno, NV

Avondale, MD

Minerals Management Service:

Office of Strategic and International Minerals

We are particularly indebted to the Marine Policy Center, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution,Woods Hole, MA, and t he LaSells Stewar t Cent er a nd H at field Marine Science Cent er of Oregon St at eUniversity, Corvallis, OR, who graciously hosted OTA workshops at their facilities.

vi



Contents

C h a p t e r P a g e

l. Summary, Issues, and Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2. Resource Assessm ent s a nd Expecta tions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393. Minerals Supply, Demand, and Future Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

4. Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone . ..................115

5. Mining and At-Sea Processing Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .........167

6. Environmental Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..215

7. Federal Programs for Collecting and Managing Oceanographic Data . ........249

A p p e n d i x P a g e

A. State Management of Seabed Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....282

B. The Exclusive Economic Zone and U.S. Insular Territories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .292

C. Mineral Laws of the United States . . . . . . . . . . ............................300

D. Ocean Mining Laws of Other Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............307

E. Tables of Contents for OTA Contractor Reports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ...319F. OTA Workshop Participants and Other Contributors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .322

G. Acronyms and Abbreviations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .........330H. Conversion Table and Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .........332

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....339

vi i



Chapter 1

Summary, Issues, and Options



CONTENTS

Page

Exclusive Economic Zone: The Nation’ s New Frontier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Mineral Resources of the EEZ in Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Mineral Occurrences in the U.S. EEL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Minerals Supply, Demand, and Future Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Out look for Developmen t of Selected Offshore Min era ls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Titanium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Chromate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Phosphorite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Gold. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Sand and Gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Deep-Sea Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Technologies for Exploring the Seabed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Technologies for Mining and Processing Marine Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Environmental Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20Collecting a nd Man agin g Oceanogra ph ic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Summ ar y and Fin din gs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23Issues and Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Focusing t he N at ional E xplorat ion Effort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Providing for Future Seabed Mining... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Impr oving th e Use of the Na tion’s EE Z Dat a a nd I nform at ion.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Providing for the Use of Classified Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Assisting the States in Preparing for Future Seabed Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Box

l-A.

l-B.

l - c .

Boxes

Page

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

A Source of Confusion: Geologic Continental Shelf; Jurisdictional

Continental Shelf; Exclusive Economic Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Prelease Prospecting for Marine Mining Minerals in the EEZ: Minerals

Management Service Proposed Rules ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

FiguresFigure No . P a g e

l-1. The Ocean Zones, Including the Exclusive Economic Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1-2. U.S. Mineral Imports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

l-3. Potential Hard Mineral Resource in the EEZ of the Continental United

States, Alaska, and Hawaii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11



C h a p t e r 1

Summary, Issues , and Opt ions

EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE: THE NATION’S NEW FRONTIER

Ever since the research vessel H.M.S. Challenger hoisted man ganese n odules from t he deep ocean

during its epic voyage in 1873, there has been per-

sistent curiosity about seabed minerals. It was not

until after World War II, however, that the black,

potato-sized nodules like those recovered by the

Challenger became more th an a scientific oddity.

The post-war economic boom fueled an increase

in metals prices, and as a result commercial interest

focused on the cobalt-, manganese-, nickel-, andcopper-rich nodules that litter the seafloor of the

Pacific Ocean and elsewhere. World War II also

left a legacy of unprecedented technological capa-

bility for ocean explora tion. Ocean ogra pher s t ook

advant age of ocean sensors an d shipboard equip-

ment developed for the military to expand scien-

tific ocean research and commercial exploration.

Over th e last 30 years, much ha s been learn ed

about t he secrets of th e oceans. Several spectacu-

lar discoveries have been made. For instance, only

two decades ago, most scientists rejected the ideas

of continental drift and plate tectonics. Now, largely

due to research carried out on the oceanfloor, scien-

tists know that the surface of the Earth is constructed

of ‘plates’ which are in exceedingly slow but con-

stant motion relative to each other. Plates pull apartalong ‘‘spr ead ing cente rs ’ where new crustal ma-

terial is added to the plates; plates collide along

‘‘subduction zones’ where old crust is thrust down-

ward. While these plates move at rates of only a

few inches per year, crusta l mat erial moves as if

on a conveyor belt from spreading center to sub-

duction zone. More recently, scientists have dis-

covered that the seafloor spreading centers are zones

where mineral deposits of potential use to human-

ity are being created. These sites of active mineral

form at ion a re often ha bitat s for uniqu e biological

communities.

Scientists are excited by the new discoveries that

have enabled them t o better un derstand t he Eart h’s

structure and the processes of mineral formation,

among other things. Other experts are more in-

terested in the implications of this new knowledge

for potential financial gain. Nonetheless, despite

the several decades of scientific research since World

War II and some limited commercially oriented ex-

ploration, only the sketchiest picture has been

formed about the type, quality, and distribution

of seabed minerals that someday may be exploita-

ble. A large part of the ocean remains unexplored,

and this is almost as true of the coastal waters un-

der the jurisdiction of sovereign states as it is of the

deep ocean.

During the past three decades, many coastal na-

tions h ave est ablished Exclusive Economic Zones(so-called EEZs)–areas extending 200 nautical

mileslseaward from coastal state baselines where-

in nations enjoy sovereign rights over all resources,

living and non-living (see figure l-l). The EEZ con-

cept has given new impetus to acquiring knowledge

about the oceans and the inventory of mineral

deposits within coastal nation jurisdiction. More

tha n 70 coasta l count ries ha ve now established E x-

clusive Economic Zones. When t he Un ited St at es

established its own EEZ by Presidential proclama-

tion in March 1983, it became t he 59th na tion t o

do so. Covering more than 2.3 million square nau-

tical miles (nearly 2 billion acres, equivalent to morethan two-thirds of the land area of the entire Unit-

ed States), the U.S. EEZ is the largest un der an y

nation’s jurisdiction.2Its international legal stand-

ing is based on customary int ernat ional law, which

has been codified in the Law of the Sea Convention

(see box l-A). Although the United States has thus

1A nau tical mil e is 6,076 feet. All use s of the te rm ‘‘m ilc in this

assessment refer to a nautical mile.‘L. Alexander, “Regional Exclusive Economic Zone Managemen t,

in Excfusive Economic Zone Papers, Oceans 1984 (Washington, DC:Marin e Techno logy Society, 1984), p. 7. Others hai’e estimated theU.S. EEZ to b e m uch larger—3.9 billion acres—but the larger esti-mate includes p ortions of the former Pacific Trust Territories that areno longer considered U.S. possessions (See W.P. P e n d l e y , ‘ ‘America’sExclusi\ ’e Economic Zone: The Whys and Wherefores, Excfusi$’e

Economic Zone Papers, Oceans 1984 [Washington, DC: Marine Tech-nology Society, 1984], p. 43. )

3Law of the Sea Convention Article 55 et seq.

3



4 qMarine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Figure 1-1 .—The Ocean Zones, Including the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)

The Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) extends 200 nautical miles from the coast. Within the EEZ, the coastal States have jurisdictionover the resources in the 3-mile territorial sea*, and the Federal Government has jurisdiction over the resources in the remaining197 miles.

q Except for Florida and Texas where State jurisdiction extends seaward 3 marine leagues (approximately 9 miles).

SOURCE: B. McGregor an d M. Lockwood, Mapping and Research in the Exclusive Economic Zone (Washington, DC: U.S. Geological Survey and the National Oceanicand Atmospheric Administration, 1985), p. 3.

far declined to sign th e agreement, th e legal sta tus

of th e U.S. EEZ is not in qu estion. Like th e EEZsof most other countries, the U.S. EEZ remainslargely unexplored. It is the Nation’s ocean frontier.

This assessment addresses the exploration and

development of the U.S. territorial sea, continen-

tal shelf, and new EEZ, focusing on the mineral

resource potential of these areas except for petro-

leum and sulfur. The known mineral deposits

within U.S. water s ar e described; the capabilities

to explore for and develop ocean mineral resourcesare evaluated; the economics of resource exploita-

tion are estimated; the environmental implicationsrelated t o seabed mining ar e studied; the contr i-

bution that seabed minerals may make to the Na-

tion’s resource base are examined; and the impor-

tance of seabed minerals relative to worldwidedemand and to land-based sources of supply is

assessed.

Unlike the sovereign control that governmentshave traditionally exercised over their territorial

possessions, control over the ocean and the utili-

zation of its resources has been accommodated

thr ough intr icate rules of internat ional ma ritime law

th at ha ve evolved since th e 1600s. The E xclusive

Economic Zone is an outgrowth of th e Law of theSea Convention— the m ost r ecent int ernat ional ef-

fort to develop a more comprehensive law of the sea.

Within its E EZ, the United Stat es claims “sover-

eign rights for the purpose of exploring, exploit-

ing, conserving and man aging nat ura l resources,

both living and n on-living, of th e seabed a nd su b-soil and t he su perjacent waters. Ea ch of the U.S.

coastal States retains jurisdiction over similar re-

sources within th e U.S. territorial sea, a 3-nau tical-

mile band seaward of the coast, that was awarded

to the States by Congress in the Submerged Lands

Act of 1953.

5

The interests of the coastal Sta tes inthe 3-mile territorial sea and the responsibilities of

the Federa l Government in the adm inistrat ion of

‘Executive Proclamation No. 5030 (1983).Law 83-31; 67 Stat. 29 (1953); 43 U.S.C. 1301-1315.



Ch. 1—Summary, Issues, and Options q 5

the EEZ make the management of offshore resources provisions of Executive Proclamation No. 5030, is-

a joint Federal-Sta te pr oblem.G

sued in 1983, which established the U.S. Exclu-

As of Ju ly 1987, Congr ess ha d yet to ena ct im-sive Economic Zone except for reference in a few

plementing and conformin g legislation to codify thespecific laws. The legislative task of implementing

the EEZ Proclamation is not trivial. Reference to

national ocean boundaries is contained in numer-6R. Bailey, “Marine Minerals in the Exclusive Economic Zone:

Implications for Coastal States and Territories, ” White Paper, Westernous statutes, and the impact on each must be con-

Legislative Conference, Pacific States/Territories Ocean Resource sidered carefully when amending laws to implementGroup, Feb. 28, 1987, p. 32. the new EEZ.




. the most impor tant aspect of the

Reagan Proclamation is i ts ceremonial

declaration that the resources within the

EEZ, . . . are declared to be held in trust

by the U.S. Government for the Amer-

ican people .

Extension of U.S. control over the resources

within the 200-mile EEZ in 1983 actually added—

for practical purposes —little additional area to that

already under the control of the United States. The

U.S. and other coasta l coun tries already h ad a s-serted control over fish within a 200-mile zone (un-

der the Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Man-

agement Act of 19767 and over other resources

located on the continental shelves. This extended

control over resources can be traced to the Tru-man Proclamation of 1945, in which President

Harry Truman declared that the United States as-

serted exclusive control and jurisdiction over the

na tur al resources of the seabed an d th e subsoil of

the continental shelf.8Many believe this proclama-

tion was responsible for a flurry of new maritime

claims. F ollowing th e pr oclama tion, for in sta nce,

Chile, Peru, and Ecuador claimed sovereignty and

jurisdiction out to 200 miles9and considered the

200-mile zone to be wholly under their national con-

trol for all ocean uses except innocent passage of

ships. Various other claims, but n one quite so ex-

tensive, were asserted by other countries in the wake

of the Truman Proclamation.

The United States implemented the Truman

Proclamat ion by pa ssage of the Outer Cont inen-

tal Shelf Lands Act in 1953. This act authorizesleasing of minerals in the continental shelf beyond

—..7Public Law 94-265 as amended. The Fishery Conservation and

Managem ent Zone extends seaward from the 3-mile State-controlledTerritorial Sea and is contiguous with the EEZ. The seaward bound-aries of Texas, Puerto Rico, and the gulf coast of Florida extend 9nautical miles; all other States have a 3-mile seaward boundary.

8Executive Proclamation No. 2667; 59 Stat. 884 (1945).

‘L. Alexander, “The Ocean Enclosure Movement: Inventory andProspect, ” San Diego Law Review, vol. 20, No. 3, 1983, p. 564.

the State-controlled territorial sea.10

The unilateral

action of the United St ates in extending jurisdic-

tion over the petroleum-rich continental shelf led

to an int erna tional a greement in 1958 (see box 1-

B). As a result, all coastal nations acquired therights to explore and exploit natural resources

within the continental shelves adjacent to their

coasts.11

The area of the U.S. continental shelf is esti-

mated to be approximately 1.6 million square nau-

tical miles. Thus, a substantial proportion of the

area of the recently proclaimed EEZ has been un-

der the jurisdiction of the United States since 1945;

mineral leasing on the Outer Continental Shelf has

been authorized since 1953; and fisheries have been

man aged within the 200-mile Fishery Conservation

and Management Zone since 1976. Hence, onlymineral deposits in ar eas within 200 miles of the

coast bu t beyond the continen tal shelf edge—the

least accessible part of the EEZ—have been addedto the resource base of the United States with the

establishment of the new EE Z.

President Ronald Reagan’s establishment of anExclusive Economic Zone in 1983 kindled interest

in the exploration of the ‘‘newly acquired" offshore

province. Some likened th e creation of th e EEZ to

the Louisiana Purchase. Others called for an EEZ

exploratory venture akin to Lewis and Clark’s ex-

ploration of the Northwest or John Wesley Powell’s

geological reconnaissance of the western territories

in the 1800s. Perha ps the most importa nt a spect

of the Reagan Proclamation is its ceremonial decla-ration that the resources within the EEZ, whether

on the seafloor or in the water column, whether liv-

ing or non-living, whether hydrocarbons or hard

minerals, are declared to be held in trust by the

U.S. Government for the American people.

Iopub]ic Law 83-212, 67 Stat . 462 (1953), 43 U. S.C. 133 1-1356;as amended Public Law 95-372, 92 Stat. 629 (1978), 43 U.S, C.1801-1806.

L1 1958 Convention on the Continental Shelf (UNCLOS 1), 15 UST471 ; TIAS 5578.



8 q Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

MINERAL RESOURCES OF

The economic potential for seabed min-

ing at this t ime is not favorable when

compared to alternative sources of sup-

ply for most mineral commodi t ies .

Knowledge about marine geology has steadily

accumulated in recent years. Such knowledge has

enabled scientists t o revise their t heories about th e

formation of some types of mineral deposits and

to better predict where new deposits might be

found. For instance, many continental features and

minera l deposits were formed on or beneat h t he

seabed. By studying the formation of mineral de-

posits on the oceanfloor, earth scientists are betterable to und erst an d geology on lan d. In th e case of

the formation of polymetallic sulfide deposits at

seafloor spreading centers, mineral deposition can

be observed as it occurs.

At t he sa me t ime, knowledge of miner al depos-

its on land—gained through years of geological ob-

servation an d resear ch—provides clues about t he

na tu re a nd possible location of offshore miner als.

For example, beach sand deposits containing heavy

miner als (e. g., chromite or titanium) or phos-

phorites th at were formed und er th e ocean before

ancient seas receded ma y help identify th e likely

location and composition of similar deposits located

in nearshore areas. Polymetallic sulfide deposits,

now on shore but formed under the sea, have

yielded large commercial quantities of copper, zinc,and lead ores. Knowledge about these onshore de-

posits may lead to better understanding of the evo-

lution of polymetallic sulfide ores formed under the

ocean.

Aside from the scientific knowledge that com-

parative studies of undersea and onshore mineral

occurr ences can p rovide, the poten tia l for d iscov-

ering sizable deposits of minerals on land or in the

ocean as a result of seabed exploration could be im-portant in the future. The economic potential of

seabed mining at this t ime is not favora ble when

THE EEZ IN PERSPECTIVE

compared to alternative sources of supply for most

mineral commodities. However, onshore mineral

deposits a re finite, an d, given sufficient economic

incentives, even the higher cost seabed mineral de-

posits may become commercially viable—and per-

haps attractive later.

Investment in seabed exploration and ocean min-

ing technology should be considered a long-term

venture. Its value cannot be gauged against either

current economic conditions or present mineral de-

mand. In the past, even short-term demand pro-

jections for mineral and energy resources have

widely missed t heir m ark s. There is little reason

to believe that supply and demand relationships willbe any more predictable in the future. Today’s

overcapacity in many sectors of the minerals indus-

try m ay give way to increased dema nd a s popula-

tions expand and global economic growth resumes.On the other hand, changes in technology can also

result in reduced demand for conventional mineral

commodities through substitution, recycling, intro-

duction of new materials, and miniaturization.

Growth in minerals demand has been linked to

world economic growth, and it is likely that the

course of minerals consumption will continue to be

affected by economic trends in the future.

Until more is understood about the location, ex-

tent, and characteristics of offshore minerals within

U.S. jurisdiction, including their associated marine

environment, the economic future of seabed min-erals is mere conjecture. Their market position will

be first determined by comparing their production

costs with t hose of th eir closest d omestic and for-

eign onshore competitors and next with compet-ing foreign offshore producers. Minerals markets,

as with most commodities, favor the least cost pro-

ducers first, thus recognizing an economic peck-

ing order among potential mineral sources. The de-

terminants of minerals costs are dynamic and can

change dramatically with the development of cost-saving technologies, discovery of exceptionally rich

ore bodies, or erratic jumps in market prices as a

result of increased demand or of supply disruptions.However, if environmental impacts could result

from the mining or processing of seabed minerals,




E ven though the occur rence o f som e

minerals wi thin the EEZ might have a

dim economic future . . . , an under -

standing of their location, extent , and

availability y could provide an important

cush ion under em ergency cond i t ions .

then the cost of mitigating or avoiding dama ge to

the m arine en vironment must also be consideredin determining economic feasibility of development.

The strategic importance of several minerals in

the seabed—e.g., cobalt, chromium, man ganese,

and the platinum group metals—could make fu-

ture economic considerations secondary to national

Figure 1-2.—U.S.

(Million dollars)

3,500 3,000 2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 500

I I I I I I I

80 ~

security. Between 82 and 100 percent of these crit-

ical metals are imported (figure 1-2) from countries

with unstable political conditions or where other

supply disruptions could occur for geopolitical rea-

sons, e.g., the Republic of South Africa, the So-

viet Union, Zimbabwe, Zaire, Zambia, China,Turkey, and Yugoslavia. Even though the occur-

rence of some minera ls within th e EE Z might havea dim economic future during normal periods, an

understanding of their location, extent, and avail-

ability could provide an importa nt cushion u nder

emergency conditions. For shorter, less significant

disru ptions, th e Nat iona l Defense St ockpile could

supplant the loss of some of the imported critical

minerals on which the United States is dependent.

While the immediate challenge to the United

States is to gain a better understanding of the phys-

iogra phy a nd geology of the sea floor a nd it s envi-

Mineral Imports

(Percent)

20 40 60 80 100

J

Value of apparent consumptionand import reliance

Manganese

Yttrium

Platinum

Cobalt

Chromium

Nickel

Tin

Zinc

Silver

Thorium

Barium

Zirconium

Copper

Lead

Titanium

Phosphorus

I I I I I I

1 I

1

I 1

I

Net import reliance as a

percent of apparent consumption

The United States is reliant on imports of a number of critical minerals that are known to occur on the seafloor within the200-mile U.S. EEZ.

SOURCE J.M Broadus and P. Hoagland, “Marine Minerals and World Resources,” paper presented at the Marine Policy Center, Alumni Symposium, Woods Hole Oceano-graphic Institution, Woods Hole, MA, Apr 5.7, 1987 (modified).




major commer cial seabed m ining ventures may n ot

At the current s tage of pre l iminary re-be in the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone, but rather

in other coun tr ies’ wat ers (small minin g opera tionssource assessment in the EEZ, little cre-

dence should be given to estimates of thehave a lready tak en place). In t his insta nce, U.S.

innovation and engineering know-how applied toeconomic value or tonnages of seabed developing s eabed minin g techn ology could placeminerals . . . . the United States in a pivotal competitive position

to exploit a world market (probably modest in size)for seabed mining equipment. Technological inno-

ronment and to inventory minerals occurrences vation in seabed-mining systems could ‘also assist

within U.S. jurisdiction, the potential value of de- the U. S. industry in maintaining a national capa-

veloping and marketing technology for seabed min- bility t o deploy such techn ology in U .S. water s or

ing an d sh ipboard processing systems should not elsewhere in the world when economic opportuni-

be ignored. It is possible—perhaps likely—that the ties arise or if emergencies occur.

MINERAL OCCURRENCES IN THE U.S . EEZ

Only a miniscule portion of the U.S. EEZ has

been explored for minerals. However, several typesof miner al deposits ar e kn own t o occur in var ious

regions of the U.S. EEZ (figure 1-3). These include:

q Placers—accumulations of sand and/or gravel

c o n t a i n i n g g o l d , p l a t i n u m , c h r o m i t e ,

titan ium, and/or other associated minera ls.qPo]ymetallic Sulfides —metal sulfides formed

on the seabed from m inerals dissolved in su-

perheat ed water near subsea volcanic areas.

They commonly contain copper, lead, zinc,

and other minerals.

q Ferromanganese Crusts-cobalt-rich manga-

nese crust s formed as pavements on the sea-floor on th e flan ks of seam ount s, ridges, and

plateaus in the Pacific region. They may also

contain lesser a mounts of other metals su ch

as copper, nickel, etc.

qFerromanganese Nodules—similar in compo-

sition to ferromanganese crusts, but in theform of small potato-like nodules scattered ran-

domly on the surface of the seafloor. Those

found within t he E EZ in th e Atlan tic Ocean

tend to be lower in cobalt cont ent tha n deep

ocean manganese nodules in the Pacific

Ocean.

q Phosphorite Beds— seaward extensions of on-shore phosphate rock deposits that were laid

down in ancient marine environments.

Since so little is known about the volume in place

and the mineral content (assay) of most seabed de-posits, most deposits ar e properly ter med “occur -

rences’ rather than resources. Not much more can

be said about a mineral occurrence other than that

a m ineral ha s been identified, perha ps in as little

as one surficial grab sample. A few EEZ mineral

deposits have been investigated enough to be

termed ‘ ‘resources, deposits that occur in a formand an amount that economic extraction is poten-

tially feasible.

At the current stage of preliminary resource

assessment in th e EEZ, little credence should be

given to estimates of the economic value or ton-na ges of seabed minera ls that have been inferredby some observers. Current information should be

interpreted cautiously to avoid implying a greater

degree of certainty than is justified by the sampling

density, sampling design, and analytical techniques

used. Misinter pret at ion of th e resu lts (i. e., by in-

ferring that the results of a small number of surfi-

cial samples are representative of an extensive,

three-dimensional deposit) of preliminary assess-

ments can lead to false expecta tions.

Close-grid, three-dimensional sampling is needed

to adequately delineate an d quan tify mineral de-posits in the seafloor. Sand and gravel, phosphoritebeds, and placers vary in depth below the sea bed




T O b e c o m p e t i t i v e , m a r i n e m i n e r a l s

probably must ei ther prove to exist in

l a rge , h igh-qua l i ty depos i t s , and /o r to

be cheaper to m ine and p rocess than

t h e i r o n s h o r e c o u n t e r p a r t s .

and must be sampled by taking cores through many

feet of sedimen t a nd somet imes down to bedrock.

Sampling polymetallic sulfides is considerably more

difficult t han the other EEZ minerals. The th ick-

ness of polymetallic sulfide deposits is expected to

be much greater, sometimes extending into the

basement rocks of the seabed. Polymetallic sulfides

ar e generally found in deeper wa ter, an d prohibi-

tively expensive hard-rock coring techniques are

required to adequately sample them. Resource assess-ments of cobalt-manganese crust deposits and man-ganese nodules are on somewhat firmer footing than

placers or polymetallic sulfides. Nodule and crust

distribution can be observed and visually mapped,

while grab samples and shallow coring devices can

assess th e th ickness of these deposits an d obtain

sam ples for chemical an alysis.

More is known about sand and gravel than other

hard mineral resources in the U.S. EEZ as a re-

sult of extensive sampling by the U.S. Army Corps

of Engineers. Although onshore sand a nd gra vel

resources in most a reas of the United Stat es are a m-

ple to meet mainland needs for the near future, off-shore deposits of high-quality sand may be locally

important in the future, especially in New York and

Massachusetts. Geologists have identified several

offshore areas that have potential for hosting heavy

mineral placer deposits, although data are still too

sparse for compiling resource assessments. Occur-rences of shallow-water mineral placer deposits have

been identified in both St ate wat ers an d the Fed-

eral EE Z.

One of the most promising areas for titanium

sands and associated minera ls in the U.S. EEZ is

located between New J ersey and F lorida. On th ewest coast, the best prospects for chromite placers,

Only a miniscule por t ion of the U.S .

E E Z has been exp lo red fo r m ine ra l s .

other associated minerals, and perhaps precious me-

tals are offshore southern Oregon. In Alaska, gold

is being investigated off the Seward P eninsula n ear

Nome where some t est mining h as occurr ed, and

platinum has been recovered onsh ore near Good-

news Bay on th e Bering Sea, providing some evi-

dence that precious metal placers may also lie off-

shore; in the Gulf of Alaska, lower Cook Inlet may

be a promising area to prospect for gold.

Phosphorite beds located onshore in North Caro-

lina and South Carolina extend seawar d in the con-tinental shelf. Extensive phosphorite deposits are

foun d near the su rface of the seabed in the BlakePlateau of the southeastern Atlantic coast, as well

as off southern California.

Cobalt-rich ferroman ganese crusts on the seabed

adjacent to the Pacific Islands have piqued the in-

terest of an international mining consortium. Data

on the manganese crusts are insufficient to deter-mine the resource potential, to identify a potential

mining site, or to design a mining system. Ferro-

man ganese nodules are located in th e Blake Pla-

teau and have been recovered in experimental

quantities while testing deep seabed mining systems

tha t were int ended for u se in t he Pa cific Ocean.The Blake Plateau nodules are in shallower water

than those in the Pacific and thus may be more eas-

ily mined, but they h ave lower minera l content.

Polymetallic sulfide deposits located in the vol-

canically active Gorda Ridge in t he U.S. EE Z and

also located in the Juan de Fuca Ridge, that strad-

dles the U.S.-Canadian EEZs off the Northwestern

United Sta tes, have at tra cted considerable scien-

tific curiosity. Although these deposits are known

to contain large quantities of copper, lead, zinc,

and other metals, uncertainties about the quality,

composition, and extent of the deposits makes theirresource potential difficult to determine.




MINERALS SUPPLY, DEMAND, AND FUTURE TRENDS

Commodities, materials, and mineral concen-t rates— the stuff made from minerals-are traded

in international markets. There is nothing special

or u nique about m arine minerals that makes them

different from those obtained domestically onshore

or from foreign sour ces. They mus t, nevert heless,compete for price, quality, and supply reliabilitywith other foreign and domestic mineral suppliers.

To be competitive, marine minerals probably must

either prove to exist in large, high-quality depos-

its, and/or to be cheaper to mine and process than

their onshore counterparts. Major questions remain

as to where marine minerals may fit in the future

economic pecking order of producers.

The commercial potential of marine minerals

from the U.S. EEZ is uncertain because develop-

men t, when it occurs (or if it occurs in th e case of

some minerals), is likely to be in th e distant future.It is difficult to foresee th e futur e of mar ine miner als

for severa l reasons:

q

q

q

q

q

Little is known about the extent and grade of

the mineral occurrences that have been iden-

tified in the EEZ.

Little actual experience and few pilot opera-

tions are available to evaluate seabed miningcosts a nd operational uncerta inties.

Erratic performance of the domestic and global

economies adds uncertainty to forecasts of minerals demand.

Cha nging techn ologies can cause un foreseenshifts between demand and supply of minerals

and materials.

Past experience indicates that methods for pro-

jecting or forecasting minerals demand are not

dependable.

Materials are constantly competing with one

another for applications in goods and industrialprocesses. Total consumption of a mineral com-

modity is determined by the amount (volume or

number) of goods consumed and by the amount

of a commodity used in man ufactur ing each un it.

The former is linked to the vitality of the economy

and customer preference, while the latt er is r elated

to technological tr ends wh ich a lso ma y be related

to economic factors. Su bstit ut ion of new or differ-

ent materials, conservation through more efficient

man ufactur ing, and r ecycling of used ma terials can

reduce the dema nd for virgin mat erials.

Major changes in domestic and world economies,coupled with technological advancements and

changes in consum er a ttitu des, have significant l y

altered consu mption trends beginning in the late

1970s and continuing through the present. For most

of the commodities derived from marine minerals,the amount used relative to the goods produced hasdecreased for chromium, cobalt, manganese, tin,

zinc, lead, and nickel from 1972 to 1982. Only

platinum and titanium increased in use intensity.

Consumption of goods and consequently the de-

mand for mineral commodities used to produce the

goods —with t he exception of platinu m a nd t itani-um—also decreased (but less abruptly than use in-

tensity) during the sa me period,

Mining capacity increased—particularly in the

mineral-rich Third World—in the early 1970s when

mineral prices were high, consumption strong, and

the economic outlook bright. In the 1980s, demand

softened, prices dropped, and the world economy

slowed, causing significant excess world mining ca-

pacity for most of the minerals t hat occur in th e

U.S. EEZ. It is unknown whether technological

trends toward miniaturization, substitution, and

lower int ensit y of use of the commodities derivedfrom mar ine minerals will continu e in t he futur e,

or whether domestic and world economic growth

will rebound to new heights or merely continue

sluggishly on the current course. These uncertain-

ties will affect th e ut ilizat ion of existin g capacity

an d determine t he need for n ew mineral develop-

ment in the future, including minerals from the

seabed.

As a result of excess world capacity, the U.S.

minerals and mining industry has met with sub-

stantial foreign competition. Metals prices remain

low, and, until recently, production costs in the

United States and Canada have been well above

the world average for copper, zinc, lead, and other

metals used in large industrial quantities. Compe-

tition from low-cost foreign producers, with advan-

tages of lower capital and operating costs and higher

grade ores, have resulted in a depressed domestic




mining industry, a trend that accelerated in the

early 1980s.

Foreign producers, including state-owned or

state-controlled companies, are likely to continue

to be the measure of competition that must be met

by both domestic onsh ore an d offshore producers.

Only when seabed mine production is the least costsource with respect to both domestic and foreign

onshore pr oducers an d even foreign offshore pr o-

ducers will it become commercially viable.

Manganese, chromium, and nickel are alloying

element s th at are u sed to impart specific proper-ties to steel and other metals. Their demand is

closely tied to the production of steel; they are usu-

ally added to molten metal as a ferroalloy or as anintermediate product of iron enriched with the al-

loying element. There are no domestic reserves

(proven economic resources) of manganese or chro-

mium; therefore, the United States must importsubst an tially all of th ese alloying metals.

A decade ago, concent ra ted ores were import ed

for conversion to ferromanganese and ferrochro-

mium by U.S. ferroalloy firms to supply a then-

robust domestic steel industry. Since 1981, the

United Sta tes h as imported m ore finished ferro-

chromium t han it has chromite ore, and a similar

pattern has developed with ferromanganese. For-

eign pr oducers now supply U.S. markets with a bout

90 percent of the ferrochromium consumed for the

domestic manufacture of chromium steel. Chro-

mite-producing countries are now converting oreto finished ferroalloy and gaining the value added

through the manufacturing process before export-

ing to consumers. There is currently no existing

domestic capacity to produce ferromanganese.

U.S. steel production ha s also declined in favor

of cheaper imports. With decreases in both U.S.

ferroalloy production and iron and steel produc-

tion, deman d for chromium a nd m an ganese ores

(manganese is also used to desulfurize steel) for do-

mestic ferroalloys is likely to continue to diminish.

The United States is fast approaching total depen-

dence on foreign processing capacity of ferroalloys.

Even if EEZ chromite heavy sands off southern

Oregon were to prove economically recoverable,

there are no ferroalloy furnaces in the Pacific North-

west to process the chromite produced. Any offshore

chromite recovered probably would be used for theproduction of sodium bichromate, the major chem-

ical derivative of chromium.

Titanium metal is used extensively in aerospace

applications, and its use in industrial applicationsis expected to expand in the future. Heavy mineral

sands in the EEZ off the Southeastern Atlantic States

contain substantial concentrations of ilmenite, a

titan ium-bearing m ineral. Although ilmenite can

be converted to titanium m etal thr ough an inter-

mediate process (alteration to synthetic rutile), the

added expense might mak e it u neconomical. The

most probable use for ilmenite recovered from theAtlantic EEZ would be as tita nium pigment s, since

two major plants currently operate in northern

Florida using locally mined onshore minerals; over

30 percent of world’s t itan ium pigment production

is in th e United States.

About 90 percent of the phosphate rock minedin the United States goes for the production of agri-

cultural fertilizers. Most of the remainder is used

to manufacture detergents and cleaners. Phosphateis abundant throughout the world, but only a small

proportion is of commercial imp orta nce, Offshore

phosphorites are similar to those that are mined in

th e coasta l plain onshore. The United Stat es his-

torically has been the leading producer of phosphate

rock, but its preeminence is now challenged by

cheaper foreign producers.

Precious metals-gold, platinum-group—are ina class of their own. By definition, they are less

abundant and more difficult to find and recover

tha n other minera ls, hence their enhan ced value.

Both a re used to some extent in ma nufacturing, the

platinum -group meta ls are used most widely. De-

mand for the platinum-group is expected to increase

in the future as Europe, Australia, and Japan adopt

automobile emission controls that use platinum as

a catalyst. Gold remains a standard of wealth, and

is used for jewelry. Both platinum and gold are sub-

ject to the whims of speculators who respond to an-

ticipated economic chan ges, ma rket tr ends, world

political conditions, and other factors; therefore,

prices can change abruptly and unpredictably.




OUTLOOK FOR DEVELOPMENT OF

SELECTED OFFSHORE MINERALS

OTA has assessed the potential for near-term de-

velopmen t of selected m inera ls found with in U.S.

coastal waters. Costs of offshore mining will deter-

mine its competitive position with regard to onshore

sources of the same minerals in the United Statesand abroad. For most offshore minerals, the near-

term prospects for development do not appearpromising. Although only minor new developments

in technology will be required to mine offshore

placer deposits or phosphorite, costs for offshore

mining equipment are likely to be higher than cap-

ita l costs for onsh ore operat ions. Some of the fac-

tors that will increase costs include the need for sea-

worth y mining vessels a nd possible requirements

for motion compensating devices and navigationalan d positioning equipment.

In addition to greater capital costs, operating

costs for offshore mining typically will be higher

than for onshore operations. Occasional adverse

weather conditions will undoubtedly reduce the

num ber of days per year du ring which m ining is

feasible. For most offshore settin gs, mining ra tes

of 300 days per year are considered optimistic. The

necessity of transporting to shore (possibly great

distances) either raw or beneficiated ore for finalprocessing is another factor that may increase oper-

ating costs relative to costs for onshore operations.

On t he other han d, siting offshore mining equip-

ment is easier and less expensive than for onshorefacilities.

Sufficient da ta are not available with which t omake detailed cost estimates of typical future off-

shore mining operations. However, first approxi-

mations of profitability can provide insights into

the competitiveness of offshore relative to onshore

minin g. OTA ha s developed mining s cenar ios for

four types of hypothetical marine mineral deposits

in areas where concentrations of potentially valu-

able minerals are known to occur. The deposits

evaluated include titanium-rich sands off the Geor-

gia coast, chromite-rich sands off the Oregon coast,phosphorite off the North Carolina and Georgia

coasts, and gold off the Alaska coast near Nome.

T i t a n i u m

OTA’s a na lysis of offshore t itan ium san d min -

ing indicates tha t it is not very promising in the

near term. Nevertheless, there has been some com-mercial inter est sh own in these deposits. The r e-

covery of ilmenite alone from an offshore placer

does not appear economically feasible and will not

be feasible unless primar y concentra te can be de-

livered to an onshore processing plant at costs com-

parable to those incurred in producing the equiva-

lent titanium minerals from an onshore placerdeposit. To be competitive, the offshore deposit

would have to contain considerable amounts of

higher valued heavy minerals like rutile (valued at

$350 to $500 per ton) or other more valuable

minerals, e, g., zircon, monazite, or precious me-

tals. Such deposits have not yet been identified.

C h r o m i t e

Mining and processing chromite-rich sands showresults similar to those obtained for titanium. For

chromite, revenues of about $125 per ton would

be required t o realize a 3-year pa yback on invest-ment. The average price of low-grade, nonrefrac-

tory chromite concentrate imported into the United

States during the first half of 1986 was $40 per ton,

exclusive of import du ties, freight , insur an ce, an d

other charges. Production of chromite alone, there-

fore, would not meet r evenue requiremen ts. Thepresence of higher valued minerals, such as gold,

could impr ove t he profita bility of minin g offshore

chromite sands if revenues from the sale of coprod-

ucts exceeded the costs of their separation.

With excess capacity in the world’s ferroalloy in-

dustry, it is unlikely that a viable U.S. ferrochro-

mium installation could survive foreign competi-

tion. It is possible that the Oregon chromite sands

might be u sed for t he m anu facture of sodium di-

chromat e, the ma jor indu strial chromium chemi-

cal. A west coast “green field” plant probably

would have to be built for this purpose to offset thetransportation costs of shipping to existing east coast

chemical plants.




P h o s p h o r i t e

The economic outlook for offshore phosphorite

mining is not especially promising either. In the

past, th e United Sta tes led world phosphat e rock

production with onshore mining in northern Florida

and North Car olina; now the Un ited Stat es is be-

ing challenged by Morocco, which has immensehigh-gra de reser ves judged t o be capa ble of sat is-

fying world deman d far int o the futur e. The pros-

pect that mining of U.S. offshore phosphorites

could successfully compete with low-cost Moroc-

can ph osphat e rock or other possible low-cost for-

eign producers is considered remote. However, do-

mestic onshore producers have met considerable

opposition because of potential environmental dis-

tu rba nce and la nd u se conflicts. The offshore ma-

rine deposits of North Carolina and other South-

eastern States might become more competitive with

domestic onshore production in the future if envi-

ronmental and land use problems become insur-mountable .

Gold

Offshore gold placer mining near Nome, Alaska,

appears more promising. In fact, Inspira tion Mines

ha s already undert aken pilot mining and is plan -

ning to begin full-scale gold mining with a con-

verted tin dredge from southeast Asia. Some of the

dat a OTA used in estimat ing capital an d opera t-

ing costs for this project were provided by Inspira-

tion Mines; thus, some of the assumptions used in

the gold offshore mining scenario are consideredmore reliable.

Assuming the price of gold to be $400 per ounce

(a conservat ive assu mption in J uly 1987, but t he

price of gold is subject to wide swings), the pro-

jected pre-ta x cash flow on the est imat ed produc-

tion of 48,000 ounces of gold per year would beapproximately $19 million. This figure indicates

that the offshore gold mining project at Nome shows

good promise of profitability if the operators are

able to maintain production. Note, however, that

offshore mining will be possible only about 5 months

per year, because ice on Norton Sound prohibitsoperations during the winter months. The dura-

tion of year ly ice cover (as well as th e fluctu at ing

price of gold) will have a significant effect on the

profita bility of this opera tion.

With the exceptions of sand and gravel

and p rec ious m e ta l s , t he com m erc ia l

p rospec t s fo r deve lop ing m ar ine m in-

era ls wi thin the EEZ appear to be re-

mote for the foreseeable future.

S a n d a n d G r a v e l

The least valuable mar ine minerals by volume

are sa nd an d gravel. However, these resources may

have the most immediate competitive position in

relation to onshore supplies. Although onshore sand

and gravel resources ar e immense, coarse san d issometimes hard t o find an d land u se restr ictions

increasingly prohibit access to suitable resources.

Some limited offshore mining of sand and gravel

is taking place. Sand and gravel is a high-volume,low-value commodity where short-haul transpor-

tation is important. Around high-growth, high-

density areas in th e Northeast an d on the west coast,

marine sand and gravel might soon prove profita-

ble to mine.

De e p - S e a Mi n e r a l s

OTA did not estimat e the potential for n ear-termexploitation of ferromanganese nodules, cobalt-richferromanganese crusts, or polymetallic sulfides. Re-

covery of ferroman ganes e nodules (which include

copper, nickel, and manganese) from the deepseafloor beyond the U.S. EEZ has been studied bythe industry, the National Oceanic and Atmos-

pheric Administration (NOAA), and the Minerals

Management Service (MMS). Prototype technology

has been designed and tested, but plans to mine

nodule resources in the central Pacific Ocean have

been on hold pending favorable economic con-

ditions.

Even less is known about the economic poten-tial for recovery of cobalt-rich crusts (within the Ha-

waiian EEZ) or polymetallic sulfide deposits (within

the U.S. EEZ off Oregon and northern California)th an about t he poten tia l for recovery of nodule or

placer deposits. Technology has not yet been de-

veloped for mining these deposits nor does suffi-

cient information about the nature of the deposits



Ch. 1—Summary, Issues, and Options 17

The job of explor ing the U.S . EEZ is

immense, difficult, and expensive . . .

[it] is not an activity that is likely to be

undertaken by the private sector in re-

sponse to market forces.

exist to permit meaningful estimates of future eco-

nomic potential to be made, More dat a a bout th e

physical cha ra cteristics of cobalt crust s an d poly-

metallic sulfides are needed before mining concepts

can be refined and mining costs estimated. An in-tern ational consortium is stu dying th e potential for

mining cobalt-rich crusts in the Johnston Island

EEZ, but nea r-term incentives for mining crusts

and sulfides do not exist.

It is risky to attempt to rank the future potential

for development of marine minerals in the EEZ be-cause of shortfalls in resource data. Nevertheless,

an a ssessment based on what is known of the na -

tur e an d extent of th e minera l occurr ences, cou-

pled with insights into mineral commodity mark ets

an d tr ends, su ggests th e following ra nk ‘‘guesti-mate” for the probable order of development:

1.

2.3.

4.5.6.

sand an d gravel

precious metal placers,

titanium and chromite placers and phos-

phorite,

ferromanganese nodules,

cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts, andpolymetallic sulfides.

T E C HNOL OGI E S F OR E XP L OR I NG T HE SE AB E D

The job of exploring th e U.S. EEZ is immen se,

difficult, a nd expensive. The job is not a n a ctivity

tha t is likely to be underta ken by the pr ivate sector

in response to market forces. In its initial reconnais-

sance sta ges, it is largely a government responsi-

bility. As knowledge narrows the targets of oppor-

tu nity to th ose of economic potent ial, comm ercialinterest ma y then motivate entr epreneurs to explore

in more detail. But without the first efforts by the

Federal Government, both the scientific commu-nity and industry will be unable or unwilling to

launch an ef fect ive, broad-scale explora t ion

program.

Technological capabilities for exploring the sea-

bed in detail are currently available and in use.

These range from reconnaissance technologies that

provide relatively coarse, general information about

very large areas to site-specific technologies that

provide information about increasingly smaller

ar eas of the sea floor. A common str at egy is to use

these technologies in the manner of a zoom lens,

that is, by focusing on progressively smaller areaswith increasing deta il.

Among the reconnaissance technologies available

are echo-sounding instruments capable of accu-rat ely determ ining the dept h of the seafloor a nd

producing computer-drawn bathymetric charts

showing the form and topography of the bottom.

Side-looking sonar devices produce photo-like im-

ages that can reveal interesting features and pat-

terns on the seafloor. These technologies can be

combined in one piece of equipment or used simul-

taneously to survey broad swaths of the seafloorwhile a vessel is under way, thus providing nea r-perfect registry between the sonar and bathymet-

ric data. Broad-scale coverage of side-looking so-nar imagery for most of the U.S. EEZ soon will

be available from the U.S. Geological Survey

(USGS). However, high-resolution, multi-beam

bathymetric data collected by NOAA will take

much longer to acquire. Moreover, the future of

NOAA’s bat hymet ric cha rt ing program is u ncer-

tain, since the Navy considers the data to be of suffi-

cient quality t o classify for na tional security r easons.

Seismic technologies, which are used extensively

by the offshore petroleum industry, can detect struc-

tu ral an d stra tigraphic featu res below the seabed

which can aid geological interpretation. New three-dimensional seismic techniques, although very ex-

pensive, can enhance the usefulness of seismic in-

formation. Gravimeters can detect differences inthe density of rocks, leading to estimates of crustal

rock types and thicknesses. Magnetometers provide



18 . Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

T he m i l i t a ry va lue o f som e E E Z da ta

might require restr ict ions on access and

use of certain information for national

secur i ty r easons .

information about t he m agnetic field an d ma y be

used offshore to map sediments and rocks contain-

ing magnetite and other iron-rich minerals. Both

of th ese techn ologies ar e also used for oil an d gas

exploration. Data can be collected rapidly by mov-

ing vessels and stored in retrievable form.

Oth er t echnologies may also be used t o explorethe EEZ. Some, like many electrical techniques,are proven technologies for land-based explorationwhich h ave been ada pted for ocean u se, but ha ve

not been widely tested in the marine environment.Induced polarization, for example, has potential for

locating titanium placer deposits and for perform-

ing rapid, real-time, shipboard an alyses of core

samples. Nuclear techniques may also prove use-ful for identifying such minerals as phosphorite,

monazite, and zircon that emit radiation.

When the focus of attention narrows to prospec-

tive targets of interest on the seafloor, direct visual

observation is often useful. Mann ed submer sibles

and/or remotely operated undersea vehicles (ROVs),

similar to those used for locating the Titanic in

1986, may come into play. Remotely operatedcameras capable of observing, transmitting, and

recording ph otograp hic ima ges have proved valu-

able explorat ion tools.

Direct sampling of seabed minerals for assess-

ment presen ts special problems. In some cases, it

is possible (as has been done with the research sub-

mers ible Alvin to r ecover limited sa mples of seabed

minerals using manned submersibles or ROVs).A number of devices have been developed to re-

trieve a sample of unconsolidated sediment, but few

are capable of extracting undisturbed samples that

reflect the mineral concentrations contained in the

seabed deposit. Many of the sediment coring de-vices were designed for scientific use, and few are

capa ble of economically a nd e fficien tly r ecoverin g

the large number of samples that are needed to ac-curately determine the commercial feasibility of arefine mineral deposit and to delineate a mine site.,

Quantitative sampling of hard-rock deposits,e.g., ferromanganese crusts and polymetallic sul-

fides, is economically infeasible with existing tech-

nology. While large drill ships (e. g., the Joides

Resolution) used in the Ocean Drilling Project or

those used by the offshore petroleum industry, are

capable of drilling and ext ra cting cores from ha rd

basaltic rock, their cost is prohibitive for extensive,

high-density sampling of the kind needed to assessa mineral deposit. It may prove easier to developa practical sampling device for thin ferromanganese

crusts than for the thicker, less regular, polymetallic

sulfides.




TECHNOLOGIES FOR MINING AND PROCESSING

MARINE MINERALS

Existing or modified dredge mining sys-

tems could place many potential placerdeposits in the range of technical ex-

p l o i t a b i l i t y .

From table-flat, heavy mineral sand placers de-

posited in shallow water to mounds and chimneys

of rock-like polymetallic sulfides at depths of over

a m ile, marine minera ls present a variety of chal-

lenges to the design, development, and operation

of marine mining systems. Development and cap-

ital costs for vessels and m arin e systems can be high.

Profitability of offshore mining ventures will hingeon wheth er safe an d efficient m ining systems can

be built and operated at reasonable costs. With the

exception of conversions of onshore dredge min-ing equipment for shallow, protected water offshore

and work done on deep seabed manganese nodule

mining systems, there has been little development

effort thu s far.

Dredge m ining t echnology is us ed exten sively for

harbor and channel dredging in coastal waters and

for onshore mining of phosphate rock and heavymineral sands. It has also been used for mining tin

in coastal waters in Asia and is currently being usedin pilot mining of gold in State waters near Nome,

Alaska.

In deeper waters subject to winds, waves, swells,

and current s, specially designed mining dredgesmust be developed. High endurance dredges for

deep waters must be self-powered, seaworthy plat-

DREDGES WHICH OPERATE HYDRAULICALLY

forms with motion compensating systems and may

be equipped with onboard mineral processing plants

and storage capacity. Conceptual designs of such

equipment are being readied. The design of eventhe most sophisticated dredge probably can be

achieved without major new technological break-

thr oughs. Cost will be the most importan t limit-

ing factor.

The ma ximum pr actical operating depth for most

dredging systems is about 300 feet from th e sur -face of the water to the bottom of the excavation

on the seafloor. Airlift systems can be used on suc-

tion dredges to lift unconsolidated material from

much greater depths. Existing or modified dredge

mining systems could place many potential placer

deposits in the range of technical exploitability.

Solution or borehole mining ha s been tested in

north Florida land-based phosphate rock deposits

as a means to reduce surface disturbance and envi-

ronmental impacts. The technique involves sink-

ing a shaft into the phosphorite deposit, jetting

water int o th e borehole, and pum ping the result-

ing slurry t o the su rface. Although th e technique

has n ot yet been tested un der ma rine conditions,

some m ining engineers speculate th at it could ha ve

potential for offshore phosphorite mining.

Several pr eliminar y mining systems h ave been

sketched out for recovering ferromanganese crustsas well as for mining polymetallic sulfide deposits,

but little if any development work has proceeded

in eith er a rea . Collection an d airlift recovery sys-

tems developed for deep seabed ma ngan ese nod-

ules may be adapt able to mining both crust s an d

polymetallic sulfides. Too little is known about the

DREDGES WHICH OPERATE MECHANICALLY

Dredge Technologies

Dredge technologies are well developed and proven through years of experience. Adaptation of inshore dredgemining systems for offshore use could make the technical exploitability of some heavy mineral placer depositspossible if seabed mining is found to be economically competitive.

Source: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987




nat ur e and extent of the deposits to allow the de-

velopment of prototype mining systems at this time.

Mineral processing technology has evolved

through centuries of experience with onshore

minerals, although such techniques have not been

widely applied at sea. No major technological

breakthroughs are considered to be needed to adaptonshore processing technologies to shipboard use,

but considerable uncertainty remains about the

costs an d efficiency of opera ting a miner als p roc-

essing plant at sea.

Shore-based v. at-sea minerals processing will bea t rade-off that a seabed mining enterprise must

consider. If shipboard processing is installed, it may

be cheaper to tran sport smaller amount s of high-

grade processed ore (beneficiated) than to haul large

volumes of unprocessed ore containing as much as

85 to over 90 percent waste m aterial t o an onshoreprocessing plant . Economic conditions th at wouldinfluence such a decision could vary for each case.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

Little direct experience exists with com-

mercial offshore mining with which toestimate the potential for environmental

h a r m .

Little direct experience exists with commer cial

offshore mining with which to estimate the poten-

tial for environmental harm. Even channel and har-

bor dredging operations or recovery of sand for

beach nourishment, which have been studied insome detail, are sporadic operations and do not re-

flect the impa cts tha t could resu lt from long-term

placer dredge mining operations that would move

considerably more mat erial from a larger a rea of

the seafloor. Less is known about impacts to deep

water environments than shallow water envi-

ronments.

Physical disturbance from dredge mining oper-

ations will consist of removing a layer of the

seafloor, conveying it to th e su rface, and r einject-

ing the unwanted material onto the seabed. The

mining operation will generate a transient ‘‘plume’

of sedimen t th at will affect the su rface, th e water

column, and adjacent areas of the oceanfloor for

an uncerta in period of time.

Experience with sand and gravel mining in Eur-

ope and with the dredging operat ions of the U.S.

Army Corps of Engineers suggests that as long as

sensitive ar eas (e. g., fish spawning a nd n urser y

grounds) are avoided, surface and mid-water ef-fects from either shallow or deep water mining

should be minimal and transient. Benthic commu-

nities assuredly will be destroyed if mined, andsome nearby a reas may be a dversely affected by

sediment returning to the seafloor, However, min-

ing equipment can be designed to minimize such

damage, and, except where rare animals occur, en-tire benth ic populations are eliminat ed, or t he sub-

strate is permanently altered, the seafloor shouldrecolonize. Recolonization is expected to take place

quickly in high-energy, shallow water communi-

ties, but very slowly in deep-sea areas. If any at-

sea processing of the mined material occurs —with

subsequent discharge of chemicals-negative im-

pacts would possibly be more severe.

It is not scientifically or economically feasible to

resea rch ecological ba seline informa tion on a ll of

the m arine environments t hat may be affected by

seabed mining. Fu rth ermore, the consequences of

the range of possible mining scenarios are unknown.

Anticipating and avoiding high-risk, sensitive areas

and m itigating dam age thr ough improved equip-

ment design and operating procedures can reduce

the impacts from offshore mining. Environmental

monitoring during the mining process will provide

an additional margin of safety and add to the knowl-

edge of what effects seabed mining might have onthe m arine environment as well. Concurren t ob-

servations in undisturbed control areas similar to

those being mined could also provide an under-stan ding of the processes at work.



Ch . 1—Summary, Issues, and Options 21

A n t i c i p a t i n g a n d a v o i d i n g h i g h - r i s k ,

sensi t ive areas and mi t igat ing damage

t h r o u g h i m p r o v e d e q u i p m e n t d e s i g n

and operating procedures can reduce the

impacts f rom offshore mining.

What effects might extensive mining in shallow

waters have on the coastline? The removal of large

quan tities of sand an d gravel or placers in near -

shore areas might alt er the coastline and a ggravat e

coastal erosion by altering waves and tides. Experi-ence with sand removal off Grand Isle, Louisiana,for beach replenishment suggests that the mining

of even small areas to substantial depths may cause

serious damage to the shoreline. This potentialproblem requires considerably more investigation.

More, too, should be learned about the struc-ture and energetic of deep-sea communities. How-ever, to do so requires expensive submersibles and

elaborate sampling equipment because of the dif-ficulty of operating at great depths.

A considerable amount of environmental data

already has been collected by a number of Federal

agencies as part of their missions. Much of the in-formation remains in the files of each agency, and

only a small part finds its way into the public liter-ature. Some of this environmental information

could be u seful in plan ning offshore mining oper-ations. The public investment in such environ-mental information represents hundreds of millions

COLLECTING AND MANAGING OCEANOGRAPHIC DATA

Several Federal agencies share responsibility for

exploring various aspects of the U.S. EEZ. In addi-

tion, coastal States, oceanographic institutions, aca-

demic institutions, and private industry also con-

tribute informa tion a nd da ta about th e Nation’s

offshore areas. All of these institutions, except theprivate firms, are funded primarily with public

funds. The overall investment in collecting oceano-

graphic data related t o exploring th e EEZ is not

trivial, nor are the problems of coordinating explo-rat ion efforts an d ar chiving th e results.

At a time when the Federal Government is strug-

gling to reduce the Federal budget deficit, it is im-

portant to ensure that Federal agencies coordinatetheir complementary and overlapping functions and

promote a spirit of cooperation among investiga-

tors that will encourage efficiency and responsibil-

ity, With regard to EEZ exploratory programs,

there have been notable and unprecedented achieve-

ments in cooperation and communication between

the Departm ent of the Inter ior (DOI) and NOAAduring the last few years. USGS and NOAA have




agreed to a division of effort in EEZ exploration

and have taken steps to create a joint office to take

the lead in integrating information from govern-

ment and private sources. However, th e Minerals

Management Service, with responsibility for man-aging the Outer Continental Shelf mineral resources,

and the Bureau of Mines, with responsibility for

mining and minerals research and investigations,

are not formally linked to the USGS-NOAA co-

operative agreement.

About a dozen Federal agencies administer pro-

grams related to the exploration and investigationof th e EEZ. The ocean ogra phic and r esource data

produced by the num erous Federal program s an d

augmented by similar data collected by States, in-

dustry, and academic institutions make up an im-press ive body of inform at ion. The da ta sets a re of

highly variable quality and were collected in differ-ent places over different time periods. Some of these

data are available to other researchers and the pub-lic through formal and informal exchanges among

the institutions; other data, however, are less

accessible.

As exploration of the EEZ increases in intensity,data man agement problems will worsen. Modern

instrum ents, such as multi-beam echo-sounders,

satellites, and multi-channel seismic reflection re-

corders, produce streams of digital data at high rates

of speed. To succeed, a national exploration effort

in the EEZ must effectively deal with the problems

of compiling, archiving, manipulating, and dissem-

inating a ran ge of digital data and graphic infor-ma tion. Historically, Federa l agencies ha ve spentproportionately more on collecting the data than

on archiving and managing databases compared

to their count erpart s in th e private sector. Indus-

try managers consider data collected in the courseof investigations to be capital assets with future

value; in general, the Federal agencies seem to con-

sider data more as an inventory of limited long-

term value and hence have spent less on data man-

agement.

There is no governmentwide policy for archiv-

ing and disseminating oceanographic data to sec-

ondar y users. The Na tional Science Founda tion’s

Ocean Sciences Division has taken steps to ensurethat data collected in the course of research it funds

are submitted to NOAA’s National Environmental

Modern multi-beam echo-sounding systems and computermapping technologies can produce accurate topographic

maps of the deep seabed, Mapping is the first step towarda systematic program for exploring the EEZ.

SOURCE: Naval Research Laboratory

Satellite, Data, and Information System. There are

two national data centers t hat act as libraries foroceanographic and geophysical data: 1) National

Oceanographic Data Center, and 2) National Geo-physical Data Center. Both are managed by NOAA.

Data at the centers are acquired from Federal agen-

cies under interagency agreements; some agencies

are more responsive and reliable in forwarding data

to the centers th an a re others.

Funds for the centers have never been adequate

to provide effective oceanographic data services to

secondary users in industry, academia, or Stategovernments. As a result of chronically inadequatefunding, the centers are neither able to acquire ex-

isting data sets that have intrinsic historical base-

line value nor to preserve and store but a relatively

small proportion of the new data that are currently

being produced. Oceanographic data discarded forlack of storage facilities is a government asset lost

forever.

Detailed charts of the seafloor, such as thoseproduced by multi-beam echo-sounding instruments

(e.g., Sea Bea m), are considered t o be invalua bletools for geologists and geophysicists exploring the




EEZ. Unfortunately, they are also considered to

be invalua ble tools for navigat ing an d positionin g

potential hostile submarines within the EEZ. As a

consequence, the U.S. Navy ha s ta ken st eps to clas-

sify an d rest rict th e public dissemina tion of high-

resolution bathymetric charts produced by NOAA’s

National Ocean Services in the EEZ.

NOAA’s plans for exploring the EEZ include

broad-scale, atlas-like coverage of the EEZ with

high-resolution bathymetry. The plan is applauded

by the academic community, but the Navy, con-

cerned about t he n ational security implications of public releas e of such da ta , opposes N OAA’s pla n

unless security can be assu red. Negotiations be-

tween NOAA and the Navy continue in an attempt

to resolve the classificat ion issu e. Suggestions by

the Navy that bathymetric data may be skewed or

altered in a random fashion to reduce its strategic

usefulness have been met by protests from the re-

search community that claim its usefulness for re-

search also would be reduced.

There is little doubt that the Navy’s strategic con-

cern over the value of high-resolution bathymetry

to potent ially hostile forces is well foun ded. How-ever, critics of the N avy’s position cite m itigatin g

factors that they consider to undermine the Navy’s

security argument, such as the availability of multi-

beam techn ology in foreign vessels; the U.S. pol-

icy of open a ccess for r esear ch in t he EEZ, whichwould allow foreign vessels to gather similar data;and the stringent criteria for classification esta b-

lished by the Navy that could include existing

bathymet ric char ts t hat have been in the pu blic do-

main for some time.

The importance of high-resolution bathymetry

to efficient exploration of the EEZ is apparent. Both

the Navy and the scientific community have failed

to effectively communicate their concerns to each

other. To ensure that the scientific community has

access to precise bathymetry to facilitate the explo-

ra tion of the E EZ and at the sa me time t o protect

the national security, a flexible policy must be

agreed to and supported by all parties. Undoubt-

edly, there will be appreciable financial costs con-

nected to such a policy, but it should be consid-ered a cost of doing t he governm ent ’s bu siness in

the modern, high-technology research envi-

ronment .

Before the marine mining industry will invest

substantially in commercial prospecting in the EEZ,

it must have assurances that the Federal Govern-

ment will encourage development and grant access

to the private sector to explore and develop seabed

minerals. While the Outer Continental Shelf LandsAct authorizes the Secretary of the Interior to lease

non-energy minerals as well as oil an d gas in t he

Outer Continental Shelf, little guidance is provided

by the legislation for structuring a hard mineral

leasing program. There also is disagreement as to

whether the Secretar y’s minera l leasing authority

can be extended to area s beyond t he limits of the

continental shelf in the EEZ. Furthermore, the bid-

ding requirements for har d minera l leases, which

require a dvance payment of money before a m inesite is delineated, may not be workable for EEZ

har d minera ls. New marine mining legislation isneeded to ensure the seabed mining industry that

it will have a suitable Federal leasing program in

place when it is needed.

SUMMARY AND FINDINGS

With a few possible exceptions (e. g., sand an d

gravel and precious metals), the commercial pros-

pects for developing marine minerals within the Ex-

clusive Economic Zone appear to be remote for theforeseeable future. There is currently no operational

domestic seabed mining industry per se, althoughsome int erna tiona l mining consortia h ave a con-

tinuing interest in deep seabed manganese nodules

and perhaps cobalt-manganese crusts in the EEZ.

One land-based mining company is currently oper-ating a gold mining dredge in Alaskan State waters,

and sand is being mined at the entrance to New

York Harbor. Commercial interest in some near-

shore placer deposits and Blake Plateau manganese

nodules h as occur red sp oradically. Becau se of th eeconomic uncertainties and financial risks of EEZ

mining, it is doubtful that the private sector will

undertake substantial exploration in the EEZ until



2 4 qMarine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Advances in mapping technology have provided oceanographers with valuable detailed information about the depthsand topography of the seafloor. However, the accuracy and precision of multi-beam and echo-sounding also makes the

maps valuable for military navigation and positioning. (Old technology on this page; new technology opposite).

Source: National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA

more is known about marine minerals. Preliminary

reconnaissance and exploration by the Federalagencies to determine mining opportunities, as well

as assurances from Congress that the Federal Gov-ernmen t will provide an a ppropriate administra -

tive framework and economic climate to conduct

business offshore, probably will be needed to in-

terest the private sector in further prospecting and

possible development .

The possible stra tegic import an ce of some EE Z

miner als is additional just ificat ion for th e United

States to maintain momentum in exploring its off-

shore public domain. We know too little about the

mineral resource potential of the EEZ to judge itslong-term commercial viability or its strategic value

in supplying critical minerals in times of emer-

gency. A time may come, however, when it is

judged tha t it is vital to the Nat ion th at t he Fed-

eral Government indirectly or directly support the

offshore mining industry to maintain a competi-

tive, strategic position in seabed mining relative toEuropean countries, Japan, and other industrialnations.

The vastness of the U.S. EEZ requires tha t ex-ploration proceed according to well-thought-out

plans and priorities. Federal agencies will have to

coordinate efforts, share equipment, and collaborate

in a collegial atmosphere. Academicians, State per-

sonnel, and scientists an d engineers from pr ivate

industry a lso will be major pa rt icipants in the Fed-

eral EEZ exploration program. To achieve this

extraordinary level of collaboration inside and out-

side the Federal Government, a broad-based co-

ordinating mechanism is likely to be needed to tie

the various public, academic, and private sector

EEZ activities together.



ISSUES AND OP TIONS

Although EEZ exploration costs could be largein the aggregate, there are several possible low-cost

actions that Congress might take along the way to

bolster th e na tional effort by focusing th e govern-

ment exploration effort and improving Federalagency performance through better communica-

tion, coordination, and planning. The major needsof th e fledgling U.S. ocean mining in dust ry might

be best met through appropriate legislation aimed

at providing a suitable Federal administrative man-

agement fram ework.

Focusing t h e N a t io n a l E xp lo ra t io n E f fo r t

Responsibility for va rious a spects of EEZ min-

erals exploration is shared by several Federal agen-

cies: U.S. Geological Survey, National Oceanic and

Atmospheric Administration, Minerals Manage-

ment Service, U.S. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Navy,

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, National Aeronau-tics and Space Administration, Department of Energy, Environmental Protection Agency, Na-

tional Science Founda tion, and severa l oth er con-

tr ibutin g agencies. Moreover, the ma jor a cademic

oceanographic institutions—Scripps Institution of

Ocean ogra phy, Woods H ole Oceanograph ic Insti-tution, Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory—

play a key role in th e pur suit of scient ific kn owl-

edge about the seafloor and the ocean environment,

as do a large number of marine scientists at manyuniversities and colleges throughout the country.

State agency efforts, though modest in compar-ison t o the Federa l program s, are focused on t he

3-mile territorial sea under the coastal State’s con-

72-672 0 - 87 -- 2



26 qMarine Minerals: Exploring Our N ew Ocean Frontier

. . . i t i s impor tant to ensure that Fed-

e ra l agenc ies coord ina te the i r com ple -

mentary and overlapping functions. . . .

trol and provide an importa nt a djunct to the Fed-

eral exploration efforts. The offshore mining in-

dustr y’s sta ke in t he outcome of the Federal EE Z

exploration program also necessitates that the in-

dustry be a major contributor to national EEZ

planning.

With the large number of actors involved in col-

lecting EEZ information, it is important that their

efforts be focused and coordinat ed th rough a na -

tional exploration plan-yet no such planning proc-ess currently exists. In an effort to coordinate EEZ

activities in NOAA and USGS, these two agenciesrecently established a joint EEZ office (Joint Of-

fice for Mappin g an d Resear ch) to foster commu-

nication between them and to establish an EEZ

point of cont act for th e pu blic. The joint EE Z of-

fice is a positive step towards coordination, but its

activities apply principally to the sponsoring agen-

cies and there is no separate funding for this office.

MMS also has m ade efforts t o impr ove commu-

nications and information transfer with the coastal

States regarding anticipated offshore mineral leas-ing in the EEZ. State-Federal working groups have

been organized for cobalt crusts off Hawaii; poly-metallic sulfides and placers off Washington, Ore-

gon, an d Californ ia; phosphorites off North Car o-

lina; heavy mineral sands off Georgia; and placers

in the Gulf of Mexico. Such efforts to coordinate

Feder al EEZ activities are good as far a s th ey go,

but they fall short of providing the comprehensive

focus needed to integrate the full range of govern-

ment activities with those of the States, academic

institutions, and the seabed mining industry.

Faced with a similar planning and coordination

problem in Arctic research, Congress enacted the

Arctic Research and Policy Act (Public Law 98-

373) in 1984. The Act established an InteragencyArctic Research Policy Committee composed of the

10 key agencies involved in Arctic research, A

parallel organization, the Arctic Research Commis-

sion, was concurrently established to represent the

academic community, State and private interests,

and residents of the Arctic and t o advise th e Fed-

eral Governm ent. The F ederal Int eragency Arctic

Research Policy Committee and the Arctic Re-

search Commission are charged with developing

5-year Arctic research plan which includes goals and

priorities. Budget requests for funding of Arctic re-

search for each Federal agency under the plan areto be considered by the Office of Management and

Budget (OMB) as a single “integrated, coherent,

and multi-agency request’ (Sec. 110). The Arctic

Research and Policy Act does not authorize addi-

tional funding for Arctic research. Each Federalagency designates a portion of its proposed bud-

get for “Arctic research” for the purpose of OMB

review.

Congr ess opted for a similar solution to coordi-

nat e mu lti-agency research activities in a cid pre-

cipita tion. Title VII of the E ner gy Secur ity Act of

1980 (Public Law 96-294) established an Acid Pre-cipitat ion Task Force, consisting of 12 Federalagencies, 4 National Laboratories, and 4 presiden-

tial appointees from the public. The Task Force was

assigned responsibility for developing and manag-

ing a 10-year research plan. Funds ($5 million) were

authorized by the Act to underwrite the cost of de-

veloping th e plan a nd t o support th e Task Force.

Research funds requested by the Federal agencies

(comprising ea ch a gency’s a cid pr ecipita tion r e-

search budgets) are combined annually into a Na-

tional Acid Precipitation Assessment Program bud-

get that is submitted to OMB as a unit.

Both the Arctic Research and Policy Act and Ti-

tle VII of th e En ergy Security Act m ay be consid-

ered prototypes for focusing, planning, budgeting,and coordinating Federal exploration and research

activities in the EEZ. Neither Act has proved to

be expensive, nor has either unduly encroached on

the autonomy, jurisdiction, or missions of the in-

dividual agencies. Neither Act authorizes or ear-marks special funds for its intended purposes (ex-

cept to offset the cost of plans and administration),

but collective budgets are presented to OMB along

with plans and programs to justify the expenditure

of the r equested funds. Both a pproaches bu ild inpart icipation from the genera l public and th e pri-

vate sector in developing research plans.

Another a pproach t o int eragency planning a nd

coordination is used for marine pollution. The Na-




tional Ocean Pollution Planning Act of 1978 (PublicLaw 95-273) designa tes N OAA as th e lead agency

for compiling a 5-year p lan for F edera l ocean pol-

lution research and development (R&D), a plan

that is revised every 3 years. The National Marine

Pollution Program links the R&D activities of 11

Federal agencies, establishes priorities, and reviews

the budgets of the agencies with regard to the goalsof the pr ogram and screens t hem for u nnecessary

duplication. Pu blic part icipation in F ederal plan -ning is fostered t hrough workshops at wh ich m a-rine pollution R&D progress is reviewed and fu-

tur e tren ds an d priorities discussed. Each agency

submits its own budget request to OMB, but ap-

propria tions a re a ut horized to cover NOAA’s ex-

penses for preparing the plan and monitoringprogress. In 1986, the Act was amended to pro-

vide for an interagency board that will review in-

dividual a gency budget request s in t he context of

the current 5-year plan.

Congressional Options

Option 1: Establish an interagency planning

and coordinating committee within the

executive branch and a public advisory

commission similar to those created in

the Arctic Research and Policy Act, withFederal agency budgets submitted sepa-

rately to OMB.

Congressional Action: Enact authorizing leg-islation.

Option 2: Establish an interagency planning

and coordinating task force composed of Federal agency representatives and pub-

lic members similar to the task force es-tablished for acid precipitation R&D by

the National Energy Security Act, with

a budget request combining all agency

budgets in a single EEZ document.


Option 3: Mandate interagency planning and

coordination and assign lead-agency re-sponsibility to a single agency as Con-

gress did in the National Ocean Pollution

Research and Development and Monitor-

ing Act of 1978.


Option 4: Allow ad hoc cooperation and co-ordination to continue at the discretion

of Federal agency administrators.

Congressional Action: No action required.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Congress ha s at tempted in var ious ways to im-

prove the planning and coordination of government

functions among Federal agencies with relat ed mis-

sions. Informal agency coordination has largely

failed in the pa st, although t he tr ack record of in-

tera gency coordina tion groups h as h ad m ixed re-

sults. To be effective, interagency coordinating

mechanisms mu st h ave means to coordinat e both

the programs and budgets of the agencies. The suc-

cess of ad hoc agency coordination depends primar-

ily on comity an d cooperat ion a mong governm entmanagers. Therefore, personnel changes, whichhappen frequently at high levels of th e Feder al Gov-

ernment, can alter an otherwise amiable relation-

ship among the agencies and destroy what may

have been an effective coordination effort.

Efforts by Congress to improve agency account-

ability, planning, coordination, and budgetingthr ough legislation ha ve also met with mixed re-

sults. Some laws require elaborate plans that must

be updated periodically and transmitted concur-rent ly to Congress an d the Pr esident. Other st at-

utes require that annual reports be similarly com-piled and transmitted. Such information can be

useful to Congress in carrying out its oversight

responsibility for agency performance and may be

useful to the President in his capacity as ‘‘chief ex-

ecut ive officer’ of the Federal Government .

The extent to which congressional committees

and the President effectively use these agency plans,

programs, and reports required by law varies con-

siderably. In some cases, agency plans and pro-

grams receive little or no attention from Congress;

in other cases, such a s t he MMS 5-year leasing pro-

gram required under t he Outer Continen tal Shelf Lands Act, the planning document often becomes

the focus of public debate.

Although Federal agencies often have closely

related fun ctions, t heir bu dgets ar e generally for-




mulated with little or no mutual consultation. Fur-

th ermore, budget examiners a t OMB who are r e-

sponsible for the review of individual agenciesseldom collaborate with other OMB examiners who

are responsible for other agencies with similar pro-grams (e. g., NOAA’s budget is reviewed by a dif-

ferent OMB budget examiner than is DOI). A sim-

ilar situation exists within Congress among theappropriations subcommittees that are responsiblefor individual agency appropriations. To remedy

this pr oblem, Congress h as in several cases ma n-

dated that “cross-cutting” budget analyses be pre-

pared for related multiple-agency activities so that

the entire range of funds directed toward a specific

effort can be easily seen. Cross-cutting budget anal-

yses are r equired in t he Arctic Research a nd P ol-icy Act, Title VII of the En ergy Securit y Act, a nd

the National Ocean Pollution Research and Devel-

opment and Monitoring Act of 1978.

OMB exercises nearly omnipotent control overthe funding levels recommended in the President’s

budget that is submitted to Congress each year.

Program budgets that are presented to Congress

are arrived at through a byzantine negotiation proc-

ess tha t involves OMB, Cabinet departm ents, agen-

cies within the departments, programs within agen-

cies, and finally, if appealed, the President. The

budget process is interna l, and neither the pu blic

nor Congress is privy to the negotiations.

Congress ha s at tempt ed to open th e executive

branch budget process to more public scrutiny by

directing the agencies by statute to submit recom-

mended pr ogram budgets directly to Congress a spart of the interagency planning and coordination

process without prior review by OMB; the National

Ocean Pollution Research an d Development and

Monitoring Act uses t his m echan ism. Although t he

approach appears reasonable in t heory, it seldom—

if ever—works in reality. OMB continues to main-

tain its authority over all budget recommendations

transmitted to Congress from within the executive

branch.

Unified budget submissions to OMB accompa-nied by cross-cutting budget analyses and program

plans t ha t justify the funding levels, such as pro-vided in both the Arctic Research and Policy Act

an d Title VII of th e Ener gy Secur ity Act, seem to

work reasonably well for developing rational inter-

agency budgets within the normal budget process.

As currently implemented under the Energy Secu-

rity Act, un ified budget su bmissions from severa l

agencies in a single document covering acid pre-

cipitation have the advantage of earmarking funds

specifically for research in each agency as if it were

a line item in the budget; on the other hand, the

Arctic Research and Policy Act merely requires that

Arctic R&D be “designat ed” in t he norma l agencybudget submissions to OMB. The budget proce-

dures under the Energy Security Act focus m ore

directly on the multi-agency budget related to acid

precipitation rather than on the single budget of

each agency. The National Ocean Pollution Re-

search and Development and Monitoring Act pro-vides little advantage over the normal agency bud-

geting process.

Pr o v i d i n g f o r Fu t u r e S e a b e d Mi n i n g

The Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA)

authorizes the Secretary of the Interior to leaseminerals in the Outer Continental Shelf. Although

the main thrust of OCSLA is directed toward oil

and gas, provisions are also included for leasing sul-

fur (Sec. 8[i] and [j]), and other minerals (Sec.

8[k]). Sulfur has been mined in the Gulf of Mex-

ico since 1960 using borehole solution mining tech-

niques. Because of the similarities between sulfur

mining an d oil and gas extra ction, DOI applies to

sulfur t he sam e general r egulations t hat govern pe-

troleum operations.13

When OCSLA was enacted

in 1953, little was known about hard minerals in

the continental shelf. Scientists were aware of their

existence, but technology was then not generallyavailable for either exploring or mining the seabed

for har d minera l deposits.

DOI claims jurisdiction under OCSLA to all off-

shore areas seaward of the territorial sea over which

the United States asserts jurisdiction and control.

Since the United Sta tes is not a pa rty to the Law

of the Sea Convention, the only applicable treaty

recognized by DOI as affecting offshore jurisdic-

tion is the 1958 Convention on the Continental

Shelf. 14 The 1958 Convention authorizes coastal

Izpub]jc La w 83-212; 67 s t a t . 462, Aug. 7, 1953; 43 U. S.C. 1331-1356; as amended by Public Law 93-627; 88 Stat. 2126, Jan. 3, 1975;and 95-372; 92 Stat. 629, Sept. 18, 1978.

1330 ~:ode of Feder~ Regulations, ch . II, part 250.I+ Convention on the con t i n en t a l Shelf, in force June 10, 1964, 15

UST 471, TIAS No. 5578, 499 U. N,T. S. 311.



Ch. 1—Summary, Issues, and Options . 29

Before the marine mining industry will

invest substantial ly in commercial pros-

pecting in the EEZ, i t must have assur-

ances that the Federal Government wi l l

encourage development and grant access

to the private sector to explore and de-

ve lop seabed m inera l s .

State control over the seabed to a depth of 200meters or beyond ‘‘where th e depth of th e super-

jacent water admits of the exploitation of th e na t-

ural resources. DOI concludes that the concept

of ‘exploitability y ‘‘ in the 1958 Convention further

supports th e departm ent’s opinion th at t he legal

continenta l shelf includes t he brea dth of th e 200-

mile Exclusive Economic Zone, regardless of the

physical att ributes of th e submar ine area.

DOI’s Minera ls Mana gement Service most re-

cently attempted to lease hard minerals in March

1983, when plan s were ann ounced to prepar e an

environmental impact statement for a proposed

lease sa le of polymet allic sulfide miner als a ssoci-

at ed with th e Gorda Ridge geological complex.15

Authority for the proposed lease sale was based on

Section 8(k) of OCSLA.l6

The site of the mineral

deposits of the Gorda Ridge is a tectonic spread-ing center and, therefore, is not part of the geo-

logical continental shelf. DOI based its authority

to lease t he a rea on th e definition of th e ‘‘legal’continental shelf implied in Section 2(a) of OCSLA.

17

The Gorda Ridge lease sa le is yet t o be held, but ,

in March 1987, MMS published proposed rules for

prelease prospecting for non-energy ma rine m in-

erals.18

The prelease prospecting rules are the first

of a three-tier regulatory program proposed by

MMS; future rules would cover leasing and post-

leasing operations.

‘5’ ‘Scoping Notice to Prepare an Environmental Imp act Statement,Federal Register, vol. 48, Mar. 28, 1983, p. 12840,

ICSCC. 8(k): “Thesecretary, is authorized to grant to the qualif ied

persons offering the highest bonuses on a basis of competitive bid-

ding leases of any mineral other than oil, gas, and sulfur in any areaof the Outer Continental Shelf not then unde r lease for such mineralupon such royalty, rental, and other terms and conditions as the Sec-retary may prcsc r ibc at the time of offering the area for lease.

‘ ‘Frank K. Richardson, ‘ ‘Opinion of the Solicitor, ’ L:. S. Depart-ment of the Interior, May 30, 1985.

1 nF&er a l Rcqjs[er, vol. 52, Mar, 26, 1987, p. 9753.

Environmenta l groups and indust ry represent-

atives ha ve questioned DOI’s leasing au thority un -

der OCSLA, claiming th at DOI is misinterp ret ing

the 1958 Convention by delineating the breadth of

the continental shelf to include the 200-mile EEZ

by using the “exploitability” definition in OCSLA.

These groups have asserted that no U.S. agency

has statutory authority to grant leases or licensesto recover hard minerals from the seafloor beyond

the Outer Continental Shelf, except for NOAA

which has authority to license commercial man-

ganese nodule mining only. There is no disagree-

ment that DOI has authority to lease hard minerals

in t he Out er Continenta l Shelf. The contr oversy

extends only to how far that authority extends sea-

ward beyond the geological continental shelf,

Notwith stan ding the legal question of whether

DOI has legislat ive au thority to lease in th e 200-

mile EEZ beyond the geographical limits of the con-

tinental shelf, questions remain about the adequacyof the Outer Continen ta l Shelf Lands Act for a d-

ministering an EEZ hard minerals leasing program.

Several shortcomings limit OCSLA’s suitability

for managing hard minerals in either the Outer

Continen tal Sh elf or the EEZ:

q

q

q

q

DOI is given little congressional guidance for

planning, environmental guidelines, inter-

governmental coordination, and other admin-istrative details needed for structuring a hard

mineral leasing regime under Section 8(k) of

OCSLA.

Section 8(k) of the Act is discretionar y withthe Secretary of the In terior; thu s, there ar e

no assurances to the industry that a sta ble, pre-

dictable leasing program will be continued by

subsequent administrations,

Bonus bid competitive leasing requirements

(money pa id to th e govern men t before explo-

ration or development begins) set forth in Sec-

tion 7(k) of OCSLA are not well suited for

stimulat ing explora tion and development of

seabed har d minera ls by the pr ivate sector.

The Outer Continen ta l Shelf Lands Act does

not apply to the territories; therefore, the

Minerals Management Service may not have

aut hority to lease in a lar ge area of the EE Z

adjacent to the U.S. Territories.19

1 gThe narroW defin ltion of the term ‘‘State as used in th e SUb-

(con f inud on nrxt page)




An ad hoc working group consisting of represent-

atives of the ma rine minera ls industry, environ-menta l groups, coasta l States, an d academicians

was formed in 1986 to develop a conceptual frame-

work for m ana ging mar ine minerals in th e EEZ.

After several meetings, the members reached a con-

sensus that the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act

was unsuitable for administering a seabed hardminerals explorat ion and development program ,

an d t ha t n ew ‘‘sta nd-alone’ legislat ion is n eeded

to repla ce the oil- an d gas-oriented OCSLA.20

Th e

working group recommended that the authorizing

legislation should:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

use the Deep Seabed Hard Minerals Re-

sources Act (Public Law 96-283) mining pro-visions and its regime for public participation

and multiple-use conflict resolution as a model

for new EEZ seabed mining legislation;

provide for a comprehen sive an d systema tic

research plan including bathymetric charting,mineral r econna issance, and environmenta l

baseline studies;

require wide public dissemination of data but

protect confidential information;

provide incentives for private industry to col-

lect a nd contr ibute to th e resource informa -

tion base;

apply legislation to all areas within the U.S.

EEZ and the territories consistent with U.S.

aut hority and obligations; and

provide for effective Federal/State/local con-

sultation.

Legislation was introduced in both the 99th and

100th Congresses to establish a regime for explor-

ing and developing hard minerals in the EEZ.21

H.R. 1260, The National Seabed Hard Minerals

merged Lands Act and incorporated into the Outer Continental Shelf Land Act (Sec. 6[e]) limits the applicability of OCSLA to the watersoff ‘‘any State of the Un ion. This definition contrasts with otherlaws that sp ecify Congress’ intent to extend their effect to the territo-ries as well.

ZoC[ i f ton Cufl is, President, O ceanic Society, Memorand um, Ap r.1, 1986, to Ann Dore McLaughlin, Under Secretary of the Interior.

21 H. R. 1260, National Seabed Hard Mineta l s Act, 10oth Cong.,

1st sess., Feb. 25, 1987; H.R. 5464, 99th Cong., Sponsor: Lowryet al. Another bill would impose a temporary moratorium on seabedmin ing in the Gord a Ridge, H. R. 787, Ocean M ineral ResourcesDevelopment Act, IOO th Cong., 1st sess., Jan. 28, 1987, Sponsor:Bosco.

Act of 1987, includes ma ny of the su ggestions by

the ad hoc working group.

According to DOI, MMS’s proposed rules for

prelease prospecting of marine minerals is a first

step t oward providing access for private indu stry

to obtain geologic and geophysical information

about th e EEZ (box 1-C). With t he likelihood th atdevelopment of EEZ minerals will not take place

any time soon, the promulgation of acceptable pre-

lease prospecting rules under OCSLA maybe suffi-

cient to allow preliminary prospecting by the in-

dustry while Congress formulates and enacts EEZ

seabed mining legislation that overcomes the defi-ciencies of OCSLA.


Option 1: Enact “stand-alone’ legislation for

exploring a nd developing minera ls in t he

U .S . E E Z pa t t e rned a f t e r t he D eep

Seabed Hard Minerals Resources Act.

Congressional Action: Enact new legislation.

Option 2: Amend the Outer Continental Shelf

Lands Act by adding a new title to ap-

ply exclusively to marine hard mineralsin the EEZ.

Congressional Action: Am end t he Out er Con-

tinental Shelf Lands Act.

Option 3: Amend the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act to extend its application to

U.S. territories and possessions. Section

8(k) could either be amended to provide

guidelines for marine hard mineral leas-

ing or be a llowed to rema in in its present

form. The Outer Continental Shelf also

might be redefined so as to be identical

to the Exclusive Economic Zone.

Congressional Action: Amend the Ou ter Con-

tinental Shelf Lands Act.

Option 4: Permit the Minerals Management

Service to continue to develop a regula-

tory system based on its authority under

the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act,but amend Section 8(k) to provide more

specific guidance for administrat ion,

planning, and coordination.




q

q

q

q

q

q

Congressional Action: Amend the Outer Con-tinental Shelf Lands Act.

Option 5: Allow the Minerals Management

Service to continue to develop a regula-

tory system for preleasing, leasing, and

postlease management of Outer Conti-

nental Shelf hard minerals under the ex-

isting provisions of Section 8(k).



Whether new EEZ mining legislation is incor-

porated as a separate title to the Outer Continen-tal Shelf Lands Act or is enacted as a ‘‘stand-alone”

law would make little difference so far as the effect

of the statute is concerned. However, stand-alone

legislation might relieve the concerns of oil and gas

interests that fear opening the Outer Continental

Shelf Lands Act u p to am endm ent of Section 8(k)

or adding a new EEZ seabed mining title might

make the Act vulnerable to amendments affecting

the offshore oil and gas resource leasing program.

Should Congress decide not to enact separate

EEZ seabed mining legislation through a stand-

alone law, or a separate title in the Outer Continen-

tal Shelf Lands Act, or amendments to Section 8(k)

of OCSLA, the Minerals Management Service

could continue to promulgate seabed mining leg-

islation under the current authority of Section 8(k)

of OCSLA. However, leasing authority under Sec-

tion 8(k) pertains only to the continental shelf ad-

jacent to “States of the Union, ” and, therefore,the Minerals Management Service probably lacks

aut hority to lease seabed m inerals in t he EE Z off

J ohn ston Island an d adjacent t o the other Pacific

trust territories and possessions.



32 Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

U.S. innovation and engineering know-

how applied to developing seabed min-

ing technology could place the United

States in a pivotal competitive position

to exploit a world market. . . for seabed

m i n i n g e q u i p m e n t .

Congress also has the option of merely broaden-

ing the geographical coverage of the Outer Con-

tinental Shelf Lands Act to include the U.S. terri-

tories and possessions. Such action, if it applied to

the Act in general, would also open these areas to

potent ial oil and gas leasing in th e future, alth oughthe EEZs of most of the territories and possessions

are not known to have oil and gas potential. If Con-

gress chose to redefine the Outer Continental Shelf

and make it identical to the EEZ, the status of theoil and gas leasing program might be clarified in

some areas of legal uncertainty beyond the con-

tinental shelf but within the 200-nautical mile zone.

Im prov ing th e Use o f the Na t ion’s

EEZ Da t a a n d I n f o r ma t i o n

Oceanographic data collected in the course of ex-ploring th e EEZ are a nat iona l asset. Because of

the immense size of the U.S. EEZ, exploration

activities are likely to continue for decades. Infor-

mation and data may take many forms, may dif-

fer in qua lity, may come from ma ny geogra phicalareas, and may be collected by many agencies and

entities. It is important that such data be evaluated,

archived, processed, and made available to a wide

ran ge of potential users in th e futu re.

As the pace of EEZ exploration increases, the ex-

isting Federal oceanographic data systems—which

are currently taxed near their capacity based on

available funding and resources—probably will be

una ble to adequat ely manage th e load. Even today,in some cases, data must be discarded for lack of

storage an d h andling facilities, and u ser services

are limited. In other cases, Federal agencies some-times do not submit data acquired at public expense

to the National Oceanographic Data Center or the

National Geophysical Data Center in a timely and

systematic manner.

Limitations on the national data centers are pri-

marily institutional, budgetary, and service-con-

nected. Funding for data archiving and dissemina-

tion generally has been considered a lower priority

by the Federal a gencies tha n data collection. The

historical usefulness of oceanographic, environ-

mental, and resource information is often over-

looked by Federal managers with mission-orientedresponsibilities.

Consistent policies for transmittal of EEZ-related

informa tion t o the nat ional dat a centers ar e lack-

ing in many Federal agencies. However, invento-

ries of dat a collected by th e academ ic comm un ity

un der t he a uspices of the National Science Foun-

dat ion’s Division of Ocean Sciences a re requ iredto be transmitted to the national data centers in a

timely mann er as a condition of its r esearch grant s.The Ocean Science Division’s ocean data policy is

an excellent exam ple that other Federa l agencies

might emulate.

But even with more effective policies to ensu re

tr ansm itta l of EEZ informa tion to the n ational data

centers, little improvement in efficiency can be ex-

pected unless resources—both equipment and per-

sonnel-- are upgraded and expanded commensur-

ate with the expected increase in the workload. The

mere ‘‘storage’ of data does not fulfill the nationalneed; such information must be retrievable and

made available to a wide range of potential users,

including Federal agencies, State agencies, acade-

mia, industry, and the general public.

Improved data services will require additionalfunds t o raise th e level of capability an d perform-

ance of the existing national data centers. Eventu-

ally, regional data centers may be required to ade-

quately service the public needs; but for the time

being the major Federal effort aimed at improving

data services probably should be directed at upgrad-

ing the performance of the existing centers.


Option 1: Direct each Federal agency to estab-

lish an EEZ data policy that will ensure

the timely and systematic transmittal of oceanographic data t o either t he Nat ional

Oceanographic Data Center or the Na-

tional Geophysical Data Center, which-

ever is appropriate.




Congressional Action:

a. Amend authorizing legislation for each ap-

propriate program and / or Federal agency.

b. Direct action through the annual appropri-ations process.

c. Enact general legislation that would apply

to all Federal agencies collecting EEZ dataand information.

Option 2: Provide additional funds and direc-t ives to the National Oceanographic Data

Center and the National Geophysical Data

Center to upgrade EEZ data services accord-

ing to a plan, to be developed by the National

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, for

meeting the futu re needs of archiving an d dis-seminating EEZ data and information.

Congressional Action: Issue directive through

the annual appropriations process.

Option 3: Continue at the current level of

funding and continue to permit the Federal

agencies t o tra nsmit EEZ-related information

to the National Oceanographic Data Center and

th e National Geophysical Data Center a t ea ch

agen cy’s discret ion.



Incentives for the agencies and the academic

commu nity to place more emph asis on dat a serv-

ices could take several forms. Since improvementsin data services are tied to adequat e funding, the

most expedient approach for Congress would beto direct a ppropriate agency actions t hrough t he

annual appropriations process. This option, how-

ever, would only be effective for one budget cycle

an d would ha ve to be repeated a nnu ally if an ef-

fective long-term data services program were to

continue.

Amendmen ts to individual agency auth orizing

legislation, or alternative “umbrella” legislation

applicable to all agencies collecting EEZ data and

information, would establish continuing programs

to improve data services. Long-term plans for meet-

ing the expanding EEZ data needs of the future

should provide guidelines for improving overall

government data services.

Provid ing for the Use o f Class i f i ed Data

Nat ional security may r equire tha t pu blic dis-

semination and use of certain EEZ-related data con-

tinue to be restr icted. This restr iction may r esult

in some hardship and perhaps additional expense

to the scientific community as well as the marine

minerals indu stry, but it need n ot totally lock u pthat information. There are responsible ways in

which classified data can be made available to those

needing to use su ch da ta for fur ther EEZ explo-

ration.

Federal personnel, contractors, and academicians

in many technical and engineering fields have ac-

cess to and routinely use classified information on

a daily basis. While maintaining security installa-tions is sometimes unwieldy and expensive, it may

be possible to achieve a compromise between the

nat ional n eed for security an d th e nat ional n eed for

timely and efficient exploration of the EEZ by estab-lishing secure data centers to manage classified EEZ

data.

Other aspects of EEZ data classification mayprove to be more t roublesome. The ocean science

community may be restricted from publishing some

EEZ data or information th at would, if un classi-

fied, be freely available in the scientific literature.

There are also inconsistencies in U.S. policy regard-

ing scientific access of foreign investigators to the

U.S. EEZ an d t he N avy’s a ccess t o foreign EEZs

to gather hydrographic information that seem at

odds with current EEZ data classification policies.

Diplomatic questions may arise from these in-

consistencies that could result in access restrictionfor U.S. scientists working in the EEZs of other

countries.


Option 1: Establish regional classified data

centers at major oceanographic institu-tions or at colleges and universities, with

access assured for certified scientists and

with guidelines established for the use

and publication of data sets and bathy-

metric information.

Congressional Action: Direct the Department

of Defense in collaboration with the Na-

tional Oceanic and Atm ospheric Adm inis-




tration to establish regional classified centers

under contract with academic institutions

for the operation and administration of the

centers, or consider Federal operation of

such centers.

Option 2: Review the current EEZ data clas-

sification policies and assess their possi-ble effects on academ ic resea rch an d th eir

possible international impacts on access

to other countries’ EEZs by U.S. sci-

entists.

Congressional Action: Hold oversight hear-

ing on Navy’s classification policies and pro-

cedures.

Option 3: Continue to al low the NationalOceanic and Atmospheric Administra-

tion and the Navy to seek a solution to

the EEZ data classification problem.

Congressional Action: No legislative action re-

quired.


The cost of establishing and operating regional

classified data center s either at academic institu-

tions or at Federal centers is likely to be significant.

There also may be policies at some of the academic

institutions that prohibit the location of classifieddata centers at their facilities.

Congress ma y choose to learn more about t he

details of the need for classification of EEZ data

and the impact that classification restrictions might

have on scientific activities and commercial explo-

ration before it takes further action. Classified hear-

ings may be n eeded to fully evaluat e th e secur ity

implications of EEZ data.

Without either legislative or oversight activities

by Congress, the uncertainties regarding the future

availability of classified data may continue for some

time unt il mut ual agreement is reached between

the Navy and the National Oceanic and Atmos-

pheric Administrat ion.

Ass i s t ing the S ta tes in Prepar ing for

Fu t u r e S e a b e d Mi n i n g

The first ma jor U.S. effort s t o commercially ex-

ploit ma rine m inerals a re likely to occur in Sta te

waters. Most coasta l Stat es do not curr ently have

statutes suitable for administering a marine min-

erals exploration and development program. ManyStat es do not separ at e onshore from offshore de-velopment, providing only a single administrative

process for all mineral resources. Four of the States

—California, Oregon, Texas, and Washington—

separate the leasing of oil and gas from other min-

erals, but most do not.

Oregon has completed surveys of its coastalwaters, and Florida, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland,

New Hampshire, North Carolina, and Virginia are

among the States where offshore surveys are con-

tinuing. These survey programs are often cooper-

ative efforts between the States, the U.S. Geologi-cal Survey, and the Minera ls Management Service.Stat e-Federal ta sk forces formed t hrough t he ini-

tiatives of the Departm ent of the Inter ior a re as-

sisting the coastal States in coordinating their ef-

forts with ma rine minera ls explorat ion curr ently

taking place in the EEZ. State-Federal task forces

have been formed in Hawaii (cobalt-manganese

crusts), Oregon and California (polymetallic sul-

fides in the Gorda Ridge), North Carolina (phos-

phorites), Georgia (heavy mineral sands), and the

Gulf States (sand, gravel, and heavy minerals off

Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas),

The Federal Government could provide valuable

technical assistance to the States in preparing for

possible exploration and development of marine

minerals in nearshore State waters. The Federal-

State task forces are currently coordinating the

Sta tes’ an d DOI’s activities in th e EEZ, but fur -

ther assistance may be needed in formulating Statelegislation for leasing, permitting, or licensing ma-

rine minerals activities in the States’ territorial seas.

Such legislat ive initiat ives mu st originate with

the individual States, but the Federal Government

could provide assistance through existing programs



Ch . 1—Summary, Issues, and Options q 35

such as t hose auth orized by the Coasta l Zone Man-

agement Act. Private organizations, such as the

Coasta l Sta tes Organization or the Nat ional Gover-

nors Association, could also serve as a catalyst and

guide to States for developing legislative concepts

or model seabed mining legislation.


Option 1: Direct the National Oceanic and

Atmospheric Administration’s Office of

Ocean and Coastal Resource Manage-

ment to provide technical assistance and

financial support to coastal States’ coastalzone management programs to formulate

State marine minerals management legis-

lation t hrough t he Coasta l Zone Man age-

ment Act, Section 309 grants program.


the annual appropriations process,Option 2: Direct the Minerals Management

Service to provide technical assistance to

the States to aid in formulating marineminerals legislation that could provide an

interface between ma rine miner als activ-

ities in the EEZ adjacent to the States’

territorial seas.


the annual appropriations process.

Option 3: Provide technical assistance and

funds to the coastal States to aid in for-

m ula t ing m ar ine m inera ls l eg is la t ion

through seabed miring legislation enactedas a ‘‘sta nd-alone’ sta tu te, am endm ent s

to Section 8(k) of the Outer Continental

Shelf Lands Act, or through a new title

in the Outer Continental Shelf Lands

Act.

Congressional Action: Enact stand-alone leg-

islation or amend the Outer Continental

Shelf Lands Act.

Option 4: Rely on the individual initiative of

the coastal States to undertake a legisla-

tive effort to formulate marine mineralslegislation.



Directives to agencies through the annual ap-

propriations process are often followed to the

minimal extent possible and only apply to the

expenditure of funds during the specific fiscal

year. Authorizing legislation is probably

needed to ensure a continuing, long-term

effort.



Chapter 2

Resource Assessmen ts and Expectations



CONTENTS

P a g e

World Outlook for Seabed Minerals ., . . . . . 39

General Geologic Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Atlantic Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Sand and Gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Placer Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Ph osphorit e Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

Manganese Nodules and P avements . . . . . 53Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands . . . 54

San d a nd Gra vel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Placer Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Gulf of Mexico Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Sand and Gravel . .’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Pla cer Deposit s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Ph osphorit e Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56Pacific Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Sand and Gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57Precious Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

B l a c k S a n d — C h r o m i t e D e p o s it s . . 5 8

Other Heavy Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60Ph osphorit e Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61Polymetallic Sulfide Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Alaska Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

San d a nd Gra vel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Precious Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Other Heavy Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Hawaii Region and U.S. TrustTer rit ories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Cobalt-Ferromanganese Crusts . . . . . . . . . 70

Man gan ese Nodu les . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Box

B ox Pa ge

2-A. Mineral Resources and Reserves . . . . . 40

Figure

2-1.

2-2.

2-3.

2-4.

2-5.

2-6.

2-7.

Figures

No. P a g e

Idealized Physiography of a

Continental Margin and Some

Common Margin Types . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Sedimentary Basins in the EEZ . . . . . . 44

Sand and Gravel Deposits Along the

Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific Coasts ..., 46

Plan and Section Views of Shoals Off

Ocean City, Maryland . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47Atlantic EEZ Heavy Minerals . . . . . . . 51

Potential Hard Mineral Resources

of the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific

EEZs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Formation of Marine Polymetallic

Sulfide Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Figure

2-8.

2-9.

2-1o.

2-11.

2-12.

2-13.

2-14.

N o. P a ge

Locations of Mineral Deposits

Relative to Physiographic Features . . . 66

Potential Hard Mineral Resources of

th e Alaska n EE Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68


th e Ha waiian EE Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Cobalt-Rich Ferromanganese Crustson the Flanks of Seamounts and

Volcanic Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

EEZs of U.S. Insular and Trust

Territories in the Pacific . . . . . . . . . . . . 73


U.S. Insular Territories South of

Hawaii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75


U.S. Insular Territories West of

Hawaii ..,..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Ta b l e s

T a b l e N o . P a g e

2-1.

2-2.

2-3.

2-4.

2-5.

2-6.

2-7.

2-8,

Association of Potential Mineral

Resources With Types of Plate

Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Areas Surveyed and Estimated

Offshore Sand Resources of the United

Stat es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Criteria Used in the Assessment of

Placer Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Estimates of Sand and Gravel

Resources Within the U.S. ExclusiveEconomic Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Estimates of Typical Grades of

Contained Metals for Seafloor MassiveSulfide Deposits, Compared With

Typical Ore From Ophiolite Massive

Sulfide Deposits and Deep-Sea

Man gan ese Nodu les . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Average Chemical Composition for

Various Elements of Crusts From

<8,200 Feet Water Depth From the

EEZ of the United States and Other

Pacific Nations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Resource Potential of Cobalt, Nickel,

Manganese, and Platinum in Crusts of

U.S. Trust and Affiliated Territories . .

Estima ted Resource Potential of Cru sts

Within the EEZ of Hawaii and U.S.

Tru st a nd Affiliat ed Terr itories . . . . . . .

43

48

50

56

63

72

74

75



C h a p t e r 2

Resource Assessments and Expectations

WORLD OUTLOOK FOR SEABED MINERALS

Ever since the recovery of rock-like nodules from

the deep ocean by the research vessel H.M.S.

Challenger during its epic voyage in 1873, there

has been persistent curiosity about seabed minerals.

It was not until after World War II that the black,

potato-sized nodules like those found by the

Challenger became more th an a scientific oddity.

As metals pr ices climbed in resp onse to increa sed

demand during the post-war economic boom, com-

mercial attention turned to the cobalt-, manganese-,

nickel-, and copper-rich nodules that litter the

seafloor of the Pacific Ocean and elsewhere. Also,

as t he Na tion’s inter est in science peaked in the

1960s, oceanographers, profiting from technological

achievements in ocean sensors and shipboard equip-

ment developed for the military, expanded ocean

research and exploration. The secrets of the seabed

began to be unlocked.

Even before t he Challenger discovery of man-

ganese nodules, beach sands at the surf’s edge were

mined for gold an d pr ecious met als a t some loca-

tions in the world (box 2-A). There are reports thatlead an d zinc were mined from near shore subsea

areas in an cient Greece at Laur ium and that t in

and copper were mined in Cornwall.1Coal and am-

ber were mined in or under the sea in Eu rope asearly as 1860. Since then, sand, gravel, shells, lime,

precious coral, and marine placer minerals (e.g.

titanium sands, tin sands, zirconium, monazite,

staurolite, gold, platinum, gemstones, and magne-

tite) have been recovered commercially. Barite has

been recovered by subsea quarrying. Ironically,

deep-sea manganese nodules, the seabed resource

tha t ha s drawn th e most present-day commercialinterest and considerable private research and de-

velopment investment, have not yet been recovered

commercially. Rich metalliferous muds in the Red

Sea have been mined experimentally and are con-

sidered to be ripe for commercial development

should favorable economic conditions develop.

IM.J . Cruickshank and W. Siapno, “Marine Minerals—An Up-date and Introduction, ,$ fa r inc Technology SocictjJournal, vol. 19,1985, pp . 3-5.

Recent discoveries of mas sive polymet allic sul-fides formed at seafloor spreading zones where su-

perheated, mineral-rich saltwater escapes from theEar th’s crust h ave att racted scientific interest and

some speculation about their future commercial po-

ten tial. These deposits cont ain copper, zinc, iron,

lead, and trace amounts of numerous minerals.

Similar deposits of ancient origin occur in Cyprus,

Turkey, and Canada, suggesting that more knowl-

edge about seabed mineralization processes could

contribute to a better understanding of massive sul-

fide deposits onshore. Cobalt-rich ferromanganese

crusts, found on the slopes of seamounts, have alsobegun t o receive at tent ion.

Beach placers an d similar onshore deposits ar e

important sources of several mineral commodities

elsewhere in the world, Marine placer deposits of

similar composition often lay immediately offshore.Among the most valuable marine placers, based on

the value of material recovered thus far, are the cas-

siterite (source of tin) deposits off Burma, Thai-

land, Malaysia, and Indonesia. The so-called “light

heavy minerals”—titanium minerals, monazite,

and zircon—are found extensively along the coasts

of Brazil, Mauritania, Senegal, Sierra Leone,

Kenya, Mozambique, Madagascar, India, SriLanka, Bangladesh, China, and the southwestern

and eastern coasts of Austr alia.

Al though Aust ra l ia has extensively mined

“black” titaneous beach sands along its coasts, off-shore mining of th ese sands has not proven eco-

nomical.2Titaniferous magnetite, an iron-rich

titanium mineral, has been mined off the south-

ern coast of Japan’s Kyushu Island.3Similar mag-

netite deposits exist off New Zealand and the Gulf

of St. Lawrence. Chromite placers are extensive

on beaches and in the near offshore of Indonesia,

the Philippines, and New Caledonia. Chromite-

21. Morley, Black S ands: A History of the Mineral S and Afining

Industry in Eastern Australia (St. Lucia: University of QueenslandPress, 1981 ), p. 278.

3J. Me re, The Mineral Resources of the Sea (New York, N Y: El-

sevier Pu bli shin g Co., 1965), p. 16.

3 9




bearing beach sands were mined along the south- minable gold are located in several nearshore

ern coast of Oregon during World War 11 with gov- Alaskan ar eas in the Bering Sea, Gulf of Alaska,

ernment suppor t . and adjacen t t o sou theastern Alaska. A commer -cial gold dredge mining operation was begun by

Gold has been mined from man y beach placers Inspiration Resources near Nome in 1986, but a

along the west coast of the United States and else- number of nearshore gold operations in the Nome

where in the wor ld. Mar ine placers of potent ia l ly area have been a t tempted and abandoned in the



Ch. 2—Resource Assessments and Expectations . 41

past. Diamonds have been recovered from near- gravel recovery is primarily limited to State waters,

shore areas in Namibia, Republic of South Africa, mostly in New Jersey, New York, Florida, Mis-

and Brazil. sissippi, an d Californ ia. Japa n an d the Eu ropean

The recovery of sand and gravel from offshorecountries have depended more on marine sand and

far exceeds the extent of mining of other marinegravel than has the United States because of limited

land resources. Special uses can be made of ma-minerals.

4In the United States, offshore sand and

rine san d and gra vel deposits in the Alaska n an d———-4J. M. Broadu s, “Seabed M aterials, ” Science, vol. 235, Feb. 20, Cana dian Beaufort Sea—th e offshore oil and gas

1987, pp. 853-860. Also see M. Baram, D. Rice, and W. Lee, Ma- industry uses such material for gravel islands andrine Mininc of the Continental Shelf (Cambridge. M A : Ballinger.1978), p. 301

The potential

mineral deposits

<, “.gravel pads for drilling.

GENERAL GEOLOGIC FRAMEWORK

for the formation of economic

within the Exclusive Economic

Zone (EEZ) of th e United St at es is determ ined by

the geologic history, geomorphology, and environ-

ment of its continental margins and insular areas.

Continental margins are a relatively small portionof the Earth’s total surface area, yet they are of great

geological importance and of tremendous linear ex-ten t. In broad r elief, the Ea rt h’s sur face consists

of two great topogra phic sur faces: one essent ially

at sea level—the continental masses of the world,

including the submerged shelf areas—and the other

at nearly 16,000 feet below sea level—representing

the deep ocean basins. The boundaries between

these two surfaces are the continental margins.

Continen tal ma rgins can be divided into separa teprovinces: the continental shelf, continental slope,

an d cont inent al rise (see figure 2-1 ).

Continental margins represent active zones

wher e geologic conditions chan ge. These cha nges

ar e driven by tectonic activity within t he Ea rt h’s

crust and by chemical and physical activity on the

surface of the Earth. Tectonic processes such as vol-

canism an d faulting dynam ically alter t he seafloor,

geochemical processes occur as seawater interactswith the rocks and sediments on the seafloor, and

sedimentary processes control the material depos-

ited on or eroded from the seafloor. All of these

processes contribute to the formation of offshore

mineral deposits.

Advanced marine research technologies devel-

oped since World War II a nd t he refinement an d

acceptan ce of th e plate-tectonics theory ha ve cre-

ated a greater understanding of the dynamics of

continental margins and mineral formation. Ac-

cordin g to the pla te-tectonics model, the Ea rt h’s

outer shell is made up of gigantic plates of continen-

tal lithosphere (crust and upper mantle) and/or

oceanic lithosphere. These plates are in slow but

const an t motion relat ive to each oth er. Plat es col-

lide, override, slide past each other along transformfaults, or pu ll apart along rift zones where n ew ma-

terial from t he Ea rth ’s ma ntle upwells and is added

to the crust a bove.

Seafloor spreading centers are divergent plat e

boundaries where new oceanic crust is forming. As

plates move apart, the leading edge moves against

another plate forming either a convergent plate

boun dary or slipping along it in a t ra nsform plateboundary. Depending on whether the leading edgeis oceanic or cont inent al lithosph ere, th is process

may result in the building of a mountain range

(e.g., the Cascade Mountains) or an oceanic islandarc (e. g., the Aleutian Islands) or, if the plates are

slipping past one an other, a tr ansform fau lt zone

(e.g., the San Andreas fault zone).

Four types of continental margins border the

United States: active collision, trailing edge, ex-

tensional transform, and continental sea. Where

collisions occur between oceanic plates and plates

containing continental land masses, the thinner

oceanic plate will be overridden by the thicker, less

dense continental plate. The zone along which oneplate overrides another is called a subduction zone

and frequently is manifested by an oceanic trench.

Coastal volcanic mountain ranges, volcanic is-

land arcs, and frequent earthquake activity are re-

lated to subduction zones. This type of active con-

tinental margin borders most of the Pacific Oceanan d th e U.S. EEZ adjacent t o the Aleutian chain




Figure 2-1 .—Idealized Physiography of aContinental Margin and Some Common Margin Types

I Continental margin rise plain I

r I

Atlantic: (trailing edge)

I 1

North Pacific Margin: (collision)

I 1

South Pacific: (volcanic arcs, trenches, and carbonate reefs)SOURCES: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987; R.W. Rowland, M.R. Goud,

and B.A. McGregor, “The U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone—A Summaryof its Geology, Exploration, and Resource Potential,” U.S. Geologi-

cal Survey Circular 912, 1983.

and the west coast (figure 2-1 ). These regions have

relatively narrow continental shelves and their on-

shore geology is dominated by igneous intrusive

and volcanic rocks. These rocks supply the thin ve-neer of sediment overlying the continental crust of

the shelf. Further offshore, the Pacific coast EEZ

extends beyond the shelf, slope, and rise to the

depths underlain by oceanic crust. In the Pacific

northwest, these depths encompass a region of

seafloor spreading where new oceanic crust is form-ing. This region includes the Gorda Ridge and pos-

sibly part of the Juan de Fuca Ridge, which are

located within the U.S. EEZ off California, Ore-

gon, and Washington.

The tr ailing edge of a continen t h as a passive

margin because it lacks significant volcanic and seis-mic activity. Passive margins are located within

crustal plates at the transition between oceanic and

continental crust. These margins formed at diver-

gent plate boundaries in the past. Over millions of

years, subsidence in these margin areas has allowed

th ick deposits of sediment to accum ulat e. The At-lantic coast of th e United St ates is a n exam ple of

a t ra iling edge passive ma rgin. This type of coastis typified by broad continental shelves that extend

into deep water without a bordering trench. Coastal

plains are wide and low-lying with major drainage

systems. The great est potential for the forma tion

of recoverable ore deposits on passive margins re-

sults from sedimentary processes rather than recent

magmat ic or hydrothermal activity.

The Gulf of Mexico represents another type of coast that develops along the shores of a continen-

tal sea. These passive margins also typically havea wide continental shelf and thick sedimentary de-

posits. Deltas commonly develop off major rivers

because the sea is relatively shallow, is smaller than

the major oceans, and has lower wave energy than

the open oceans.

Plat e edges ar e not th e only regions of volcanicactivity. Mid-plate volcanoes form in regions over-

lying “hot spots” or a reas of high t herma l activ-

ity. As plat es move relat ive to man tle ‘‘hot sp ots,

chains of volcanic islands and seamounts are formed



Ch. 2—Resource Assessments and Expectations 43

Table 2-1 .—Association of Potential MineralResources With Types of Plate Boundaries

Type of plate boundary/Potential mineral resources

Divergent: q Oceanic ridges

—Metalliferous sediments (copper, iron, manganese,lead, zinc, barium, cobalt, silver, gold; e.g., Atlantis II

Deep of Red Sea) —Stratiform manganese and iron ixodes andhydroxides and iron silicates (e.g., sites on Mid-Atlantic Ridge and Galapagos Spreading Center)

—Polymetallic massive sulfides (copper, iron, zinc,silver, gold, e.g., sites on East-Pacific Rise andGalapagos Spreading Center)

—Polymetallic stockwork sulfides (copper, iron, zinc,silver, gold; e.g., sites on Mid-Atlantic Ridge,Carlsberg Ridge, Costa Rica Rift)

—Other polymetallic sulfides in disseminated orsegregated form (copper, nickel, platinum groupmetals)

—Asbestos —Chromite

Convergent: q Offshore

—Upthrust sections of oceanic crust containing typesof mineral resources formed at divergent plateboundaries (see above)

—Tin, uranium, porphyry copper and possible goldmineralization in granitic rocks

Convergent: q Onshore

—Porphyry deposits (copper, iron, molybdenum, tin,zinc, silver, gold; e.g., deposits at sites in Andesmountains)

—Polymetallic massive sulfides (copper, iron, lead,zinc, silver, gold, barium; e.g., Kuroko deposits ofJapan)

Transform: . Offshore

—Mineral resources similar to those formed at

divergent plate boundaries (oceanic ridges) mayoccur at offshore transform plate boundaries; e.g.,sites on Mid-Atlantic Ridge and Carlsberg Ridge)

such as the Hawaiian Islands. These sites may also

have significant potential for future recovery of mineral deposits.

The th eory of plate tectonics has led t o the rec-

ognition that many economically important types

of mineral deposits are associated with either pres-

ent or former plate boundaries. Each type of plateboundary—divergent, convergent, or transform—

is not only characterized by a distinct kind of in-

teraction, but each is also associated with distinct

types of miner al r esources (table 2-1). Knowledge

of the origin and evolution of a margin can serve

as a general guide to evaluat ing the potential for

locating certain types of mineral deposits.

SOURCE: Peter A. Rona, “Potential Mineral and Energy Resources at SubmergedPlate Boundaries,” MTS ~oumal, vol. 19, No, 4, 19S5, pp. 18-25.

ATLANTIC

When the Atlantic Ocean began to form between

Africa and North America around 200 million years

ago, it was a narrow, shallow sea with much evap-

oration. The continental basement rock which

formed the edge of the rift zone was block-faulted

and the down-dropped blocks were covered withlayers of salt and, as the ocean basin widened, with

th ick deposits of sedimen t. A number of sedimen -tary basins were formed in the Atlantic region along

the U.S. east coast (figure 2-2). Very deep sedi-

REGION

ments a re reported to have accumulated in th e Bal-

timore Canyon Trough. In addition, a great wedge

of sediment is found on the continental slope and

rise. In p laces, due to th e weight of th e overlying

sediment and density differential, salt has flowed

upward to form diapirs or salt domes and is avail-able as a mineral r esource. In addition, sulfur is

commonly associated with salt domes in the cap

rock on the top and flanks of the domes. Both salt

and sulfur are mined from salt domes (often by so-




Figure 2-2.–Sedimentary Basins in the EEZ

SoutheastAtlantic

Sedimentary‘1 \ Basins

Several basins formed in the EEZ in which great amounts of sediment have accumulated. Whileof primary interest for their potential to contain hydrocarbons, salt and sulfur are also potentiallyrecoverable from sedimentary basins in the Atlantic and Gulf regions.

SOURCES: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987; U.S. Department of the Interior, “Symposium Proceedings—A National Pro-gram for the Assessment and Development of the Mineral Resources of the United States Exclusive Economic Zone,”

U.S. Geological Survey Circular 929, 1983.




lution mining) and, thus, represent potentially re-

coverable miner al commodities from offshore de-posits, although at present they would not be likely

prospects in the Atlantic region.

While they have potential for oil and gas forma-

tion and entrapment, the bulk of these sedimen-

tary rocks are not likely to be good prospects forha rd m inerals r ecovery because of their depth of

burial. Exceptions could occur in very favorable cir-

cumstances where a sufficiently high-grade deposit

might be found near the su rface in less than 300

feet of water or where it could be dissolved and ex-

tracted through a borehole. Better prospects, par-

ticularly for locating potentially economic andminea ble placer deposits, would be in th e overly-

ing Pleistocene and surficial sand and gravel.

The igneous a nd m etamorphic basement r ocks

of th e continen ta l shelf, alth ough possible sites of

mineral deposits, would be extremely unlikely pros-pects for economic recovery because of their depthof burial. The oceanic crust tha t formed under what

is now the slope and rise also probably contains ac-

cumulations of potential ore minerals, but these too

would not be accessible. The best possibility for lo-

cating metallic minerals deposits in bedrock in the

Atlantic EEZ probably would be in the continen-

tal shelf off the coast of Maine where the sediments

are t hinn er or absent and th e regional geology is

favorable. There are metallic mineral deposits in

the region and base-metal sulfide deposits are mined

in Can ada ’s New Brun swick.

One other area that may be of interest is theBlake Plateau located about 60 miles off the coasts

of Florida and Georgia. It extends about 500 miles

from n orth to south and is approximat ely 200 miles

wide at its widest pa rt, covering an area of about

100,000 square miles. The Blake Plateau is thought

to be a mass of continenta l crust tha t was a n ex-tension of North America left behind during rift-

ing. There is some expectation that microcontinents

such as the Blake Plateau might be more mineral-

ized tha n par ent continen ts or the general ocean-

floor, and, because they have received little sedi-

ment, their bedrock mineral deposits should bemore accessible. s

‘K .0. Emery and B. J. Skinner, “Mineral Deposits of the Deep-Ocean Floor, Marine Mining, vol. 1 (1977), No. 1/2, pp. 1-71.


Sand and gravel are high-volume but relatively

low-cost commodities, which are largely used as ag-

gregate in the construction industry. Beach nourish-

ment and erosion contr ol is another common use

of sand. Along the Atlantic coast most sand and

gravel is min ed from sources onshore except for a

minor amount in th e New York City ar ea. For a n

offshore deposit to be economic, extraction and

tra nsportat ion costs must be kept to a minimum .

Hence, although the EEZ extends 200 nautical

miles seaward, the maximum practical limit for

sand and gravel resource assessments would be the

outer edge of the continental shelf. However, the

economics of current dredging technology neces-

sitate relatively shallow water, generally not greater

than 130 feet, and general proximity to areas of high

consumption. While these factors would further

limit prospective areas to the inner continental shelf regions, they could potent ially include almost t he

entire nearshore region from Miami to Boston.

Sand a nd gravel are t erms u sed for different size

classifications of unconsolidated sedimentary ma-

terial composed of numerous rock types. The ma-

jor constituent of sand is quartz, although other

minerals an d rock fragments a re present. Gravel,

because of its larger size, usually consists of multi-

ple-grained rock fragments. Sand is generally de-fined as material that passes through a No. 4 mesh

(O. 187-inch) U.S. Standard sieve and is retainedon a No. 200 mesh (0.0029-inch) U.S. Standard

sieve. Gra vel is ma ter ial in th e ra nge of O. 187 to3 inches in diam eter.

Because most uses for sand and gravel specify

grain size, shape, type and uniformity of material,

maximum clay conten t, an d other char acteristics,

the attractiveness of a deposit can depend on how

closely it matches particular needs in order to min-

imize additional processing. Thus the sorting and

un iformity of an offshore deposit a lso will be de-termina nts in its potential ut ilization.

The Atlantic continental shelf varies in width

from over 125 miles in the north to less than 2 miles

off southern Florida. The depth of water at the outer

edge of the shelf varies from 65 feet off the Florida

Keys to more tha n 525 feet on Georges Bank an d

the Scotian Shelf. A combination of glacial, out-

wash, subaerial, and marine processes have deter-




Figure 2-3.—Sand and Gravel Deposits Along the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific Coasts

e Plateau

n

Significant sand and gravel deposits lie on the continental shelf near urban coastal areas. As local onshore supplies of con-

struction aggregate become exhausted, offshore deposits become more attractive. Sand is also needed for beach replenish-ment and erosion control.

SOURCES: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987; S. Williams, “Sand and Gravel–An Enormous Offshore Resource Within the U.S. Economic

Zone,” manuscript prepared for U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin on commodity geology research, edited by John DeYoung, Jr.

mined the general characteristics and distribution

of the sand and gravel resources on the sh elf.

The northern part of the Atlantic shelf as far

south as Long Island was covered by glaciers dur-ing the Pleistocene Ice Age. At least four major epi-

sodes of glaciation occurred. Glacial deposition and

erosion ha ve directly affected th e locat ion of san d

an d gravel deposits in this r egion. Glacial till and

glaciofluvial outwash sand and gravel deposits covermuch of the shelf ranging in thickness from over300 feet to places where bedrock is exposed at the

surface. The subsequent raising of sea level has al-

lowed marine processes to rework and redistribute

sediment on the shelf. Major concentrations of gravel in this region are located on hummocks and

ridges in t he vicinity of Jeffrey’s Ban k in th e Gulf

of Maine and off Massachusetts on Stellwagen Bank

and in western Massachusett s Bay.

Concentrations of sand are found off Portland,

Maine, in t he n orth western Gulf of Maine an d in

Cape Cod Bay north ward a long th e coast thr ough

western Massachusetts Bay to Cape Ann (figure 2-3). Large accumulations of sand also occur along

the south coast of Long Island and in scattered areas

of Long Island Sound. Large sand ridges on Georges

Bank and Nantucket Shoals are also an impressive



Ch. 2—Resource Assessments and Expectations q 47

Figure 2-4.—Plan and Section Views of ShoalsOff Ocean City, Maryland

Several drowned barrier beach shoals off the DelmarvaPeninsula are potential sources of sand and possibly heavymineral placers.

SOURCE: S. Jeffress Williams, U S. Geological Survey

potential resource of medium to coarse sand. These

ridges range in height from 40 to 65 feet and inwidth from 1 to 2 miles, with lengths up to 12 miles.

The ridge tops are often at water depths of less than

30 feet, and a single ridge could contain on the or-

der of 650 million cubic yards of sand.

South of Long Island through the mid-Atlanticregion, the shelf area was not directly affected by

glacial scouring and deposition, but the indirect ef-

fects are extensive. During the low stands of sea

level, the shelf became an extension of the coastal

plain through which the major rivers cut valleys

and transported sediment. The alternating periods

of glacial advance and marine transgression re-worked th e sediments on the sh elf, yet a num ber

of inherited features remain, including filled chan-

nels, relict beach ridges, and inner shelf shoals. Fea-

tures such as these are particularly common off New

Jersey and the Delmarva Peninsula and are poten-

tia l sources of san d a nd p ossibly gravel (figure 2-4). Seismic profiles and cores indicate that the

ma jority of these sh oals consist of medium t o coarse

sand similar to onshore beaches. Geologic evidence

suggests that most of the shoals probably formedin the nearshore zone by coastal hydraulic proc-

esses reworking existing sand bodies, such as relictdeltas and ebb-tide shoals.

cSome of the shoals may

also represent old barrier islands and spits that were

drowned and left offshore by the curr ent mar ine

transgression. Typical shoals in this region are on

the order of 30 to 40 feet high, are hundreds of feet

wide, and ext end for ten s of miles. Sout h of LongIsland, gravel is much less common and found only

where ancestral river chan nels and deltas ar e ex-

posed on the surface and reworked by moving

processes.

The southern Atlantic shelf from North Caro-

lina to the tip of Florida was even further removedfrom th e effects of glaciat ion a nd also from la rge

volumes of fluvial sediment. The shelf is more thinly

covered with surficial sand, and outcrops of bed-rock are common. Furthermore, unlike the mid-

dle Atlantic region, the southern shelf is not cut byriver channels and submarine canyons, Sand re-sources in this region are described as discontinuous

sheets or sandy shoals with the carbonate content

(consisting of shell and coral fragments, limestonegrains, and oolites) increasing to the south.

Although there is more information on the At-

lantic EEZ than on other portions of the U.S. EEZ,estimates of sand a nd gra vel resources on the At-lant ic cont inent al sh elf ar e limited by a pau city of

data. Resource estimates have been made using

assum ptions of uniform distribution and average

thickness of sediment but these are rough approx-

imations at best since the assumptions are known

to be overly simplistic. A number of specific areas

have been cored and studied in sufficient detail bythe U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to make local

resource estimates.7Resource assessments of spe-

cific sand deposits on the Atlantic shelf in water

Williams, “Sand and Gravel Deposits Within the U.S. Ex-clusive Economic Zone: Resource Assessment and Uses, Proceed-

ings of the 18th Annual Offshore Technology Conference, Houston,TX, May 5-8, 1986, pp. 377-386.

Du ane and W. L. ‘‘Sand and Gravel Resources,U.S. Continen tal Shelf, ” Geology of North America: Atlantic Re-

gion, LT

. S., Ch. XI-C, Geological Society of America, Decade of North

American Geology (in press).




Table 2=2.—Areas Surveyed and Estimated Offshore Sand Resources of the United States

Area surveyed Sand volumeGeographic area Seismic miles Cores (mile 2) (X 10’ cubic yards)

New England:Maine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Massachusetts (Boston). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Rhode Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Connecticut (Long Island Sound). . . . . . . . . . . .

Area totals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Southshore Long Island:Gardiners-Napeague Bays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Montauk to Moriches Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Moriches to Fire Island Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Fire island to East Rockaway lnlet . . . . . . . . . .Rockaway ......,.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Area totals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

New Jersey:Sandy Hook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Manasquan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Barnegat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Little Egg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Cape May...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Area totals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Virginia:

Norfolk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Delmarva. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

North Carolina. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Florida:Northern:

Fernandina—Cape Canaveral . . . . . . . . . . . . .Southern:

Cape Canaveral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Cape Canaveral—Palm Beach . . . . . . . . . . . .Palm Beach—Miami . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Area totals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

California:Newport-Pt. Dume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Pt. Dume—Santa Barbara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Area totals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Hawaii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Great Lakes:Erie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Grand totals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1,900

955

25586

200389760

1,660

260

435

734

1,328

356611176

2,471

360145

505

Unknown

Unknown

280

122

10

38107

198

57

78

112

197

917231

391

6934

103

Unknown

Unknown

8.920 1.341

10175

2550

260

100160350125

50

785

502575

120340

12357

141130

531

1621,9122,4041,3591,031

6,868

1,00060

448180

1,880

610

180

310

950

1,650

350450141

3,568

20

225

218

295

2,00092

581

2,591

140

90

230

Unknown

Unknown

2,673

49190

599

Unknown

Unknown

15,0117,266

SOURCES: Published and unpublished reaortsof U.S. Armv CorDsof Enalneers Coastal Enalneerino Research Center: David B. Duane. “Sedimentation and OceanEngineerlng:PIac6r Mineral R&sources/’ MarheSedhrent Tra;spofi and Env/ronhenta/ fianagernerr~D.J. Stanley and D.J.P. Swlft(eds) (New York, NY:John Wiley&Sons, 1976~p. 550.

dept h of 130 feet or less ar e included in ta ble 2-2. Placer Depos i t sA total of over 15 billion cubic yards of commer-

cial quality sand are identified in the table, and it Offshore placer deposits are concentrations of

is fair to say that the potential for additional heavy detri tal minerals that are resistant t o the

amounts is large. Since the current annual U.S. chemical and physical processes of weathering.

consumption of sand and gravel is about 1,050 mil- Placer deposits are usually associated with sand and

lion cubic yards, t hese r esources would clearly be gravel as th ey are concentra ted by the sa me flu-

ample to meet t he n eeds of the east coast for t he vial an d ma rine processes tha t form gravel bars,

foreseeable future. sandbanks, and other surficial features. However,




because they have different hydraulic behavior than

less dense materials they can become concentrated

into mineable deposits.

In a ddition t o hydraulic behavior, a num ber of

other factors influence th e distribution an d char-

acter of placer deposits on the continental shelf and

coastal areas. These factors include sources of theminerals, mechanisms for their erosion and trans-port, and processes of concentr at ion a nd pr eserva-

tion of the deposits.

While placer min era ls can be der ived from pre-

viously formed, consolidated, or unconsolidated

sedimentary deposits, their primary source is from

igneous and metamorphic rocks, Of these rocks,

those tha t h ad originally been enr iched in hea vy

minerals and were present in sufficiently largevolumes would provide a richer source of material

for forming valuable placer deposits. For example,

chromite an d platinum -group meta ls occur in ultr a-mafic rocks such as dunite and peridotite, and the

proximity of such rocks to the coast would enhance

the possibility of finding chromite or platinum

placers. While sma ll podiform per idotite deposits

are found from northern Vermont to Georgia,

ultramafic rocks are not overly common in the At-lant ic coast al region. Consequen tly, the pr ospects

for locat ing chromite or platin um p lacers in su rfi-

cial sed iment s of the Atlan tic shelf would be low.

Other rock types, such as high-grade metamorphicrocks, would be a likely source of titanium minerals

such as rutile, and high-grade metamorphic rocks

are found throughout the Appalachians. Placer de-posits are generally formed from minerals dispersed

in rock units, when great amounts of rock have been

reduced by weathering over very long periods of

time.

Time is a factor in the formation of placer de-

posits in several respects. In addition to their

chemistry, th e resistan ce of minerals t o weath er-

ing is time and climat e dependent. In a geomor-

phologically matu re en vironment where a broad

shelf is adjacent to a wide coast al pla in of low re-

lief, such as the middle and southern Atlantic mar-

gin, the most resistant heavy minerals will be foundto dominate placer deposit composition. These

would include the chemically stable placer minerals

such as the precious metals, rutile, zircon, mona-

zite, and tourmaline. Less resistant heavy minerals,

such as amphiboles, garnets, and pyroxenes, which

are more abundant in igneous rock, dominate

heavy mineral assemblages in more immature tec-

tonically active areas such as the Pacific coast.

These min era ls ar e curren tly of less economic in-

terest .

Placer deposits are frequently classified into three

groups based on their physical and hydraulic char-acteristics. The first group is t he h eaviest minerals

such as gold, platinum, and cassiterite (tin oxide).

Because of their high specific gravities, which range

from 6.8 to 21, these minerals are deposited fairly

near their source rock an d tend t o concentr ate in

strea m chann els. For gold and platinu m, the me-

dian distance of transport is probably on the order

of 10 miles.8Heavy minerals with a lighter specific

gravity, in the range of 4.2 to 5.3, form the sec-

ond group and tend to concentrate in beach depos-

its; but they also can be found at considerable dis-

tan ces from shore in ar eas where sediments h ave

been worked and reworked through several ero-sional and depositional cycles. Minerals of eco-

nomic importance in this group include chromite,

rutile, ilmenite, monazite, and zircon.9The third

group is the gemstones of which diamonds are the

major example. These are very resistant to weather-

ing, but are of relatively low specific gravity in the

range of 2.5 to 4.1.

As a first st ep in assessing placer miner als re-

sour ces potential in t he Can adian offshore, a set

of criteria was developed and the criteria were listed

according to their relative importance. A rank-

ing scheme was t hen adopted to assess th e impli-cations of each criterion with regard to the likeli-

hood of a placer occurring offshore (table 2-3). This

approach can be applied to the U.S. EEZ.

‘K. O. Emery and L.C. Noakes, “Economic Placer Deposits onthe Continen tal Shelf, United N ations Economic Commission forAsia and the Far East, Technical Bulletin, vol. 1, 1968, pp. 95-111.

‘Rutile and ilmenite are major titanium minerals (along with leu-coxene), and monazite is a source of yttrium and rare earth elementswhich have many catalytic applications in addition to uses in metal-lurgy, ceramics, electronics, nuclear engineering, and other areas. Zir-con is used for facings on found ry molds, in ceramics and other refrac-tory applications, and in several chemical produ cts. Zircon is alsoprocessed for zirconium and halfnium metal, which are used in nu-

clear components and other specialized applications in jet engines,reentry vehicles, cutting tools, chemical processing equipment, andsuperconducting magnets.

IOP. B. Hale and P. McLaren, “A Preliminary Assessment of Un-consolidated Mineral Resources in the Canadian Offshore, Cl&f

Bulletin, Septem ber 1984, p. 11.




Table 2-3.—Criteria Used in the Assessment of Placer Minerals

Information required

Criterion Implication a Types and sources.- . . . -. . .1. Presence in marine sediments or

interest

2. Mineral presence in onlandunconsolidated deposits close to

the shoreline3. Presence of drowned river

channels and strandlines offshoreof coastal host rocks

4. Occurrence in source rock close toshore

5. Presence of unconsolidatedsediments seaward of onland hostrocks

6. Evidence of preglacial regolithsand mature weathering of bedrock

7. Sea-level fluctuations:(i) Transgression

(ii) Stable sea level

(iii) Regression

8. High-energy marine

9. Previously glaciated

10. Ice cover

11. Circulation patterns

12. Climate

+ + + Direct evidence

+ + + Alluvial sediments in seaward

++

+++

+

+

+

+

+

+

.

+

++

flowing watershed in glacial

deposit

With seaward flowing watershedNo watershed but previously

glaciated with offshore icemovement

Liberation of resistant heavyminerals from bedrock forsubsequent transportation andconcentration

For preservation of relict fluvial

placers now submergedFor formation of a contemporarybeach placer

For formation of a contemporaryriver mouth placer

For formation of a contemporaryplacer

For preservation of a relict placer

Glacial ice tends to scour out,disseminate or bury the heavyminerals

In some circumstances glaciationliberates heavy minerals andtransports them to considerabledistance to the offshore

Generally the longer the ice-freeperiod the greater potential togenerate a marine placer

Important to the maturity of themineral assemblage

Onsite bottom samples

Historical placer mining records,geological reports

High-resolution seismic surveys,detailed hydrographic surveys

CANMINDEX geological reports,mining records, topographicmaps, surficial geology maps

Offshore surficial geology maps,seismic records

Reports of residual deposits andearlier formed regoliths

Geological reports, air photos, tide

recordsGeological reports, air photos, tiderecords

Geological reports, air photos, tiderecords

Regional wave climates

Geological reports, surficialgeology maps

Ice cover maps

Current maps

Paleoclimatic maps

aA relative ranking scheme wag adopted to assess the irnpllmtlorls of each factor with regards to the likelihood of a placer occurring in the offshore. Favorable indications

are as follows: + + + extremely favorable, + + + very favorabie and, + favorable. Factors Iikeiy to detract from the possibility of an offshore placer utiiize a similarapproach with a negative sign.

SOURCE: Modified from Peter B. Hale and Patrick McLaren, “A Preliminary Assessment of Unconsolidated Mineral Resources in the Canadian Off shore,” C/M Bu//efirr,

September 19S4, p. 7.

Recent studies of heavy minerals in Atlantic con-

tinental shelf sediments have found mineral assem-

blages in t he n orth Atlant ic region dominat ed by

less chemically stable minerals. The relatively im-

mature mineral assemblages result from the directglaciation that the northern shelf recently received.

In gener al, glacial debris is less well sorted an d often

contains fresher mineral assemblages than sedi-

ment, which has been exposed to fluvial transport

and weathering processes over a long period of

time. While data for t he n orth Atlantic region a re

too limited to be conclusive in terms of potential

resources, greater concentrations of heavy minerals

ar e foun d sout h of Long Isla nd (figure 2-5). Tota lheavy mineral concentrations in the middle Atlantic

region reach 5 percent or more in some areas, and

the mineral assemblages show a greater degree of

weathering. In compar ison t o the north ern r egions,




Figure 2-5.—Atlantic EEZ Heavy Minerals

J- 1

Several areas of the Atlantic EEZ contain high concentrationsof heavy minerals in the surficial sediments. Further researchis needed to determine the extent of these deposits andpossible economic potential.

SOURCES: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987; A.E. Grosz, J.C, Hathaway,

and EC. Escowitz, “Placer Deposits of Heavy Minerals in Atlantic Con-tinental Shelf Sediments,” Proceedings of the 18th Annual OffshoreTechnology Conference, Houston, Texas, OTC 5198, May 1988.

sediments of the southern Atlantic region containlower concentrations of heavy minerals, but the as-

semblage becomes progressively more mature to

the south and, hence, more concentrated in heavy

minerals of more economic interest such as tita-

nium.11

This situation suggests that the mineral

composition of th e south ern Atlant ic shelf region

holds the best prospects for economically attractive

deposits.

Precious Metals

Although, in general, the north Atlantic region

may have relatively poor prospects for economic

placer deposits compar ed to th e souther n region,

11A, E, Grosz, J, C. Hathaway, and E.C. Escowitz, ‘‘Placer Depositsof Heavy Minerals in Atlantic Continental Shelf Sediments, Procee-

dings of the 18th Annual Offshore Technology Conference, Houston,TX, May 5-8, 1986, pp. 387-394.

it might possibly be the m ost favora ble area a long

the Atlantic EEZ for gold placers. Gold occurrences

have been found in a variety of rocks along the Ap-

palachians an d in th e mar itime provinces of Can-

ada, a nd both lode and placer gold deposits h avebeen worked in areas that drain toward the coast.

Because of its high specific gravity, placer gold is

expected to be near its point of origin, which would

be nearer to the coast in the New England area than

in sout hern area s where broad coastal plains are

developed. Further, glacial scouring and movementcould have brought gold-bearing sediment offshore

where it could be reworked and the gold concen-

trated by marine processes. While the prospects for

gold placers are poor in the Atlantic EEZ, gold

placers have been found on the coastal plain in the

mid- and south Atlantic regions. To reach the EEZin those regions, gold would have been transported

by fluvial processes a considerable distance from

its source and, if found, probably would be veryfine-grained.

Heavy Minerals —Titanium Sands

The major area of interest for economic placer

deposits, particularly titanium minerals, would be

the middle and south Atlantic EEZ. Again the cri-

teria in table 2-3 are useful. Concentrations of the

commercially sought heavy minerals have been

found in the sediments offshore (criterion 1) and

titan ium m inerals m ined onshore (criterion 2). Inaddition, several other criteria are also evident.

These indicators would suggest a good potential for

placer deposits offshore. An interesting aspect of

this, however, is a reconna issance study by th e U.S.

Geological Survey (USGS) that found significantconcentrations of heavy minerals in surface grab-

samples offshore of Virginia, where no economic

deposits are found onshore.12

However, rich rutile

and ilmenite placer deposits h ave been mined in

the drainage basin of the James River, a tributary

of Chesapeake Bay. These deposits had their sourcein anorthosite and gneisses of the Virginia Blue

Ridge.13

An earlier study, which had found high

12A, E . GroSz an d E . c. Escowitz, ‘‘Economic Heavy Minerals of the U.S. Atlantic Contin ental Sh elf, W. F. Tanner (cd.), Proceed-

ings of the Sixth Symposium on Coastal Sedimentology, Florida StateUniversity, Tallahassee, FL, 1983, pp. 231-242.

13J. P. Min ard, E.R. Force, and G.W. Hayes, “Alluvial I lmeni t e

Placer Deposits, Central Virginia, ” U.S. Geological Survey Profes-

sional Paper 959-H, 1976.




concentrations of heavy minerals parallel to the

present shoreline off the Virginia coast in water

depths between 30 and 60 feet, hypothesized sources

from the Chesapeake Bay and the Delaware River.14

The deposit was thought to be a possible ancient

strandline where the heavy minerals were concen-

tra ted by h ydraulic fractionat ion.

Bottom topography may be an important clue

to surface concentrations of heavy minerals. One

investigation off Smith Island n ear the m outh of

Chesapeake Bay found high concentrations of heavy

minerals on the surface of a layer of fine sand that

was distributed along the flanks of topographic

ridges.15

However, coring data ar e needed t o pro-

vide information on the vertical distribution of

placer minerals and on whether or not similar bur-ied topography is pr eserved and contains similar

heavy minera l concentrat ions.

Overall, the south Atlantic EEZ would be a

favora ble prospective region for tit an ium pla cers,

based on mat urity of heavy mineral a ssemblages,

although sediment cover is thinner and more patchy

tha n farth er north . However, individual featu res

such as submerged sand ridges could contain con-

centrated deposits.

As with sand and gravel, regional resource esti-

mat es ar e probably not very useful since they are

based on gross generalizations. This caveat notwith-

standing, recent studies indicate that the averageheavy minera l content of sediments on t he Atlan-

tic shelf is on th e order of 2 percent, an d th at th e

total volume of sand and gra vel may be larger tha nearlier estimates.

16 17These studies suggest that

what ever th e total offshore resource base is esti-mat ed to be, th e south ern Atlant ic EEZ may hold

consider able promise for titan ium placer deposits

of future interest, pa rticularly in ar eas of paleo-

stream channels where there are major gaps in the

14B, K. Goodwin and J. B. Thomas, ‘ ‘Inner Shelf Sediments Off of Chesapeake Bay III, Heavy M inerals, ” Special Scientific Report No.

68, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, 1973, p. 34.ISC. R. Be~uist an d C. H . H o b b s ! “Assessment of Ekonomic Heavy

Minerals of the Virginia Inner Continental Shelf, ” Virginia Divisionof Mineral Resources Open-File Report 86-1, 1986, p. 17.

IG U S Department of the Interior, Program Feasibility Document.’. .OC S Hard Minerals Leasing, prepared for the Assistant Secretaries

of Energy and Minerals and Land and Water Resources by the OCS

Mining Policy Phase II Task Force, August 1979, Executive Sum-mary, p. 40.

‘7Grosz , Hathaw ay, and Esowitz, “Placer Deposits of Heavy

Minerals in Atlantic Continental Shelf Sediments, ” p. 387,

Trail Ridge formation (a major onshore titanium

sand deposit). In any event, only high-grade, acces-sible deposits would be potentially attractive, and

th e total heavy mineral assemblage would deter-

mine the economics of the deposit.

Phosphor i t e Depos i t s

Sedimentary deposits consisting primarily of phosphate minerals a re called phosphorites. The

principal component of marine phosphorites is car-bonate fluorapatite. Marine phosphorites occur as

muds, sands, nodules, plates, and crusts, gener-

ally in water dep th s of less tha n 3,300 feet. Phos-

pha tic minerals are also found as cement bonding

other detrital minerals. Marine phosphorite deposits

are related to areas of upwelling and high biopro-

ductivity on the continental shelves and upper

slopes, particularly in lower latitudes.

Bedded phosphorite deposits of considerable arealextent are of major economic importance in the

Southeastern United States. The bedded deposits

in the Southeastern United States a re related to

multiple depositional sequences in response to

transgressive and regressive sea level cha nges.18

Major phosphate forma tion in t his r egion began

about 20 million years ago during the Miocene.Low-grade phosphate deposits are found in young-

er surficial sediments on the continental shelf, but

these are largely reworked from underlying units.

While th ese surface sediments are probably not of economic interest , they ma y be importa nt tra cers

for Miocene deposits in the shallow subsurface.

On th e Atlant ic shelf, the north ernmost ar ea of interest for phosphate deposits is the Onslow Bay

area off North Carolina. (Concentrations of up to

19 percent phosphate have been reported in relict

sediments on Georges Bank, but these are unlikely

to be of economic inter est. ) In t he Ons low Bay ar ea,the Pungo River Formation outcrops in an north-

east-southwest belt about 95 miles long by 15 to

30 miles wide and extends into the su bsurface to

t he east and southeast. The Pungo River Forma-

tion is a major sedimentary phosphorite unit un-

der the north-central coastal plain of North Caro-

IBS.R. Riggs, D.W. Lewis, A,K. Scarborough, et al., ‘‘Cyclic Depo-sition of Neogene Phosphorites in the Aurora Area, North Carolina,and Their Possible Relationship to Global Sea-Level Fluctuations,S outheastern Geology, vol. 23, N o. 4, 1982, pp . 189-204.




lina. F ive beds cont aining high ph osphat e values

ha ve been cored in t wo ar eas of Onslow Bay. The

northern area harboring three phosphate beds con-

tains an estimated resource of 860 million short tons

of phosphate concentrate with average phosphorus

pent oxide (P 2O5) values of 29.7 to 31 percent . The

P 2O 5 content of the total sediment in these beds

ran ges from 3 to 6 percent. The Frying Pan area

to the south contains two richer beds estimated to

contain 4.13 billion tons of phosphate concentrate

with an average content of 29.2 percent P2O

5.

19Th e

P 2O 5 content of the total sediment in these beds

ra nges from 3 to 21 percent. Of the two areas, th e

Frying Pan district is given a better potent ial for

economic development. The deposits are in shal-

low water relatively close to shore.

Further to the south, from North Carolina to

Georgia, phosphates occur on the shelf in relictsands. Phosphate grain concentrations of 14 to 40

percent have been reported in water depths of 100to 130 feet. On the Georgia shelf off, the mouth

of the S avanna River, a deposit of phosphat e san ds

over 23 feet thick has been drilled. Other deposits

near Tyber Island, off the coast of Georgia, include

a 90-foot-thick bed of phosphate in sandy clay aver-

aging 32 percent phosphate overlying a 250-foot

thick bed of phosphatic limestone averaging 23 per-

cent phosphate. Concerns over saltwater intrusion

into an underlying aquifer may constrain poten-

tial development in th is area.

Further offshore, the Blake Plateau is an area of

large surficial deposits of manganese oxides andphosphorites (figure 2-6). The Plateau is swept by

the Gulf Stream and water depth ranges from 2,000

feet on the northern end to nearly 4,000 feet on the

southeast ern end. Ph osphorite occurs in the sh al-lower western and northern portions as sands,

pellets, and concretions, The northern portion of

the Blake P lateau is estimated t o contain 2.2 bil-

lion tons of phosphorite.20

Off the Florida coast near Jacksonville, deep and

extensive sequences of phosphate-rich sediments ex-

f gs R Riggs, s. W. P. Snyd er, A.C. H in e, et al., ‘‘Geol ogic Frame-. .work of Ph osphate Resources in Onslow Bay, North Carolina Con-tinental Shelf, Economic Geology, vol. 80, 1985, pp. 716-738.

20F. T. Manheim, “Potential Hard Mineral and Associated Re-

sources on the Atlantic and Gulf Continental Margins, Program Fea-

sibility Document—OCS Hard Minerals Leasing, app . 12, U.S. De -partment of Interior, 1979, p. 42.

tend eastward onto the shelf. One bed, 20 feet thick

beneath 260 feet of overburden, containing 70 to

80 percent phosphate grains, was slurry test-mined

in th is ar ea. A core h ole 30 miles east of Ja ckson-

ville contained a 11 5-foot section of cyclic phos-

phat e-rich beds with t he th ickest u nit u p to 16 feetthick. The phosphate facies ran between 30 and 70

percent phosphate grains.

Deep drill data in the Osceola Basin have shown

two phosphate zones extending eastward onto the

continental shelf. The lower grade upper zone is

1,000 feet thick with 140 feet of overburden and

phosphate grain concentrations of 10 to 50 per-

cent of the total sediment. The higher grade deeper

zone is 82 feet thick with 250 feet of overburden

and phosphate gra in concentra tions r anging from

25 to 75 percent of total sediment.

The Miami and Pourtales Terraces off the south-

east coast of Florida are also known to have phos-phate occurrences. On the Pourtales Terrace,phosphorite occurs as conglomerates, phosphatic

limestone, and phosphatized marine mammal bones.

This deposit is thought to be related to the ph os-

phatic Bone Valley Formation onshore.

Ma n g a n e s e No d u l e s a n d Pa v e me n t s

Ferromanganese nodules are concretions of iron

and manganese oxides containing nickel, copper,

cobalt, and other metals that are found in deepocean basins and in some shallower areas such as

the Blake Plateau off the Southeastern UnitedStat es. On the Blake Plateau , nodule concretions

are found at depths of 2,000 to 3,300 feet; and their

centers commonly are phosphoritic. Ferroman-

ganese crusts and pavements are more common at

shallower depths of around 1,600 feet. The fer-romanganese concretions of the Blake Plateau are

well below the metal values found in the prime nod-

ule sites in the Pacific Ocean, but the Blake Pla-

teau offers the advantages of much shallower depths

and proximity to the U.S. continent. Potential fer-

romangan ese nodule resources on t he Blake Pla-

teau are estimated to be on the order of 250 billion

tons averaging O. 1 percent copper, 0.4 percentnickel, 0.3 percent cobalt, and 15 percent man-

ganese.21

“I bid., p. 15.




Figure 2-6.–Potential Hard Mineral Resources of the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific EEZs

Explanation

Knownoccurrence

Placers

o2

Phosphorites o3Mn-nodules o4Co-crusts o5

Likelyoccurrence

1

2

3

4

5

6

SOURCES: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987; U.S. Department of the Interior, “Symposium Proceedings —A National Program for the Assessment and Develop-

ment of the Mineral Resources of the United States Exclusive Economic Zone, ” US. Geological Survey Circular 929, 1983.

PUERTO RICO AND THE U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS

Puer to Rico and th e U.S. Virgin Islands ar e part

of an island arc complex with narrow insular shelves.

The geologic environment of this type of active plate

bounda ry suggests th at sa nd an d gravel deposits

would not be extensive and that placer mineral as-

semblages would be relatively immature.

S and and G rave l

Modern a nd relict n earsh ore delta deposits are

the main source of offshore sediment for both

Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Further

offshore the elastic sediments contain increasing

amounts of carbonate material. In general, the is-

lands lack large offshore sand deposits because wave

action and coastal currents tend to rework and

tra nsport th e sand across the narr ow shelves into

deep water. Submarine canyons also play a role in

providing a conduit thr ough which san d migratesoff the sh elf. The outer edge of th e shelves is at a

water depth of around 330 feet.

Three major sand bodies are located on the shelf of Puerto Rico in water depths of less than 65 feet.

As one might expect in a n a rea of westwar d mov-

ing winds an d water curr ents, all thr ee deposits are

at the western en ds of islands. In ferred r esources




have been calculated for two of these areas, the

Cabo Rojo area off the west end of the south coast

of Puerto Rico and the Escollo de Arenas area north

of the west end of Vieques Islan d (near the east

coast of Pu ert o Rico). The t otal volume of san d in

these deposits is estimated at 220 million cubic

yard s, which could su pply Pu ert o Rico’s constr uc-

tion needs for over 20 years .22

In the U.S. Virgin Islands, several sand bodies

contain an estimated total of 60 million cubic yards.

Some of the more promising are located off thesouth west coast of St, Thomas, near Buck Island,

and on the southern shelf of St. Croix.

‘2R. W. Rodriguez, ‘ ‘Submerged Sand Resources of Puerto Ricoin USGS Highlights in Marine Research, USGS Circular 938, 1984,

~Q . 57-63.

Placer Depos i t s

Heavy mineral st udies along th e north coast of

Puerto Rico found a strong seaward sorting withrelatively heavy minerals such as monazite and

magnet ite enriched on t he inner shelf relative to

pyroxenes and amphiboles. The high degree of

nearshore sorting may indicate a likelihood of theoccurrence of placers, particularly in the inner shelf zone.

23Gold has been mined in the drainage ba-

sin of th e Rio de La Plat a which dischar ges to the

north coast of Puerto Rico, although no gold placers

as yet h ave been found on the coast.

NO , H . pilkey and R. Lincoln, “Insular Shelf Heavy Mineral Par-titioning Northern Puerto Rico, “ Marine Mining, vol. 4, No. 4, 1984,

pp . 403-414.

GULF OF MEXICO REGIONThe Gulf of Mexico is a small ocean basin whose

continental margins are structurally complex and,

in some cases, rather unique. The major structural

feature of the U.S. EEZ in the northern Gulf of

Mexico is the vast amount of sediment t hat accu-

mulat ed while the region was subsiding. The str uc-

tur al complexity of the northern Gulf mar gin was

enhanced by the mobility of underlying salt beds

tha t were deposited when the r egion was a shallowsea . In general , the sedimentary beds dip and

thicken southward and are greatly disrupted by di-

apiric structur es an d by flexures and fau lts of re-gional extent.

Sulfur and salt are both recovered from bedded

evaporite deposits a nd sa lt domes in th e Gulf re-

gion. Sulfur is generally extracted by the Frasch

hot water process, which is easily adaptable to oper-

ation from an offshore platform. Sulfur has beenrecovered from offshore Louisiana and could be

more widely recovered from offshore deposits if the

mar ket were favorable.


The sand and gravel resources of the Gulf of

Mexico are even more poorly characterized than

the Atlantic EEZ. Most of the shallow sedimentary

and geomorphological features of the Gulf were

similarly developed as a result of the sea-level fluc-

tuations during the Quaternary. The Mississippi

River dominates t he sediment discharge into thenorthern Gulf of Mexico. Over time, the Missis-

sippi River has shifted its discharge point, leaving

ancestral channels and a complex delta system. As

channels shift, abandoned deltas and associated bar-

rier islands are reworked and eroded, forming

blanket-type sand deposits and linear shoals.24

A

nu mber of these sh oals having a relief of 15 to 30feet are found off Louisiana. Relict channels and

beaches are also good prospects for sand deposits.

Relict channels and deltas have been identified off Galveston, cont ainin g over 78 million cubic yar ds

of fine grained sand which may have uses for beach

replenishment or glass sand. Sand a nd gravel re-

source estimates for the U.S. EEZ are given in ta-

ble 2-4. Based on an avera ge thickness of 16 feet,

these are projected to be around 350 billion cubic

yards of sand for the Gulf EEZ. No gravel resources

are identified on the Gulf shelf although offshoreshell deposits ar e common an d ha ve been m ined

as a source of lime. Until more surveys aimed at

evaluating specific sand and gravel deposits are con-

ducted, resource estimates are little more than an

educated guess. In any event, the resource base islarge, although meeting coarser size specifications

may be a limiting factor in some areas.

2+

Williams, ‘ ‘Sand and Gravel Deposits Within the United StatesExclusive Economic Zone, p. 381._




Table 2-4.—Estimates of Sand and Gravel ResourcesWithin the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone

VolumesProvince (cubic meters)

Atlantic:Maine—Long Island. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 billionNew Jersey—South Carolina . . . . . . . . . . 190 billion

South Carolina—Florida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 billionGulf of Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 billion

Caribbean:Virgin Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .> 46 millionPuerto Rico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 million

Pacific:Southern California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 billionNorthern California—Washington . . . insufficient data

Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . > 160 billion

Hawaii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 billionSOURCE: Modified after S.J. Williams, “Sand and Gravel Deposits Within the

United States Exclusive Economic Zone: Resource Assessment andUses,” 18th Annual Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, TX,1986, pp. 377-386.

Placer Depos i t s

Although reconnaissance surveys have not been

conducted over much of the region, concentrations

of heavy minerals have been found in a numberof locations in the Gulf of Mexico. Several offshore

sand bars or shoals are found off Dog Island, Saint

George Island, and Cape San Bias in northwestern

Florida t hat may conta in concentra tions of heavy

minerals .25 Some of these shoals are believed to be

drowned barrier islands.

One recent survey of the shelf off northwest

Florida found heavy mineral concentrations asso-ciated with shoal areas offshore of Saint George and

Santa Rosa Islands. *G The heavy minerals of eco-

Z5W. F. Tanner, A. Mu]]ins, and J. D. Bates, ‘‘Possible Masked

Heavy Mineral Deposit: Florida Panhandle, ” ~conornk Geology, vol.

56, 1961, pp . 1079-1087.MJ. D. Arthur, s. Melk ote, J. Applegate, et al., ‘‘Heavy Miner~

Reconnaissance Off the Coast of the Apalachicola River Delta, North-west Florida, ” Florida Bureau of Geology in Cooperation with U.S.Minerals Management Service, Contract No. 14-12-001-30115, Aug.16, 1985 (unpublished).

nomic interest totaled about 39 percent of the heavy

mineral fraction averaged over the study area.However, the percenta ges of heavy minerals a nd

the composition of the heavy mineral sites reported

are lower and of less economic interest, respectively,

tha n t hose on t he Atlantic shelf. Sediments derived

from the Mississippi River off Louisiana contain

heavy mineral fractions in which ilmenite and zir-con are concentrated. In the western part of the

Gulf, less economically interesting heavy minerals

of the amph ibole and pyroxene groups a re domi-

nan t .27

An aggregate heavy-mineral sand resource esti-

mat e was not att empted for th e gulf coast a s part

of the Depart ment of the Inter ior’s Pr ogram Fea-

sibility Study for Outer Continental Shelf hardminera ls leasing done in 1979. Too little dat a a re

available and aggregate numbers are not verymeaningful in terms of potentially recoverable re-

sources.


Recent seismic studies indicate t hat th e phos-

pha te-bearing Bone Valley Format ion extends at

a r elatively shallow depth at least 25 miles into theGulf of Mexico and the west Florida continentalshelf. An extensive Miocene sequence also extends

across the shelf, and Miocene phosphorite has been

dredged from outcrops on th e mid-slope. This sit-

uation would suggest that the west Florida shelf may

have considerable potential for future phosphate ex-

ploration.28

Core data would be needed to assessthis region more fully.

27R. G. BeauC

hamp and M.J. C r u i c k s h a n k , ‘‘Placer Minerals on

the U.S. Continental Shelves—Opportunity for Development,Proceedings OCEAN S ’83, vol. II, 1983, pp. 698-702.

26W .C. Burnett, “Phosphorites in the U.S. Exclusive EconomicZone, ” Proceedings, the Exclusive Economic Zone Symposium Ex-

ploring the New Ocean Frontier, held at Smithsonian Inst i tu t ion ,Washington, DC, October 1985 (Washington, DC: U.S. Departmentof Commerce, May 1986), pp. 135-140.

PACIFIC REGION

The continental margin along the Pacific coast tensional complex of basins, islands, banks, ridges,

and Alaska has several subregions. Southern Cali- and submarine canyons. Tectonically, this regionfornia, from Mexico northward to Point Concep- is undergoing lateral or transform movement along

tion, is t erm ed a ‘‘borderlan d, a geomorph ic ex- the San Andr eas fault system. The offshore base-




ment (deep) rocks include metasediments, schist,

andesites, and dacites. Thick sequences of Tertiary

sediments were deposited in deep ma rine basins

thr oughout th e region. The sh elf is fairly na rr ow

(3 to 12 miles) and is t ran sected by several subma -

rine canyons extending to the edge of the shelf.From Point Conception north along the moun-

ta inous coast to Mont erey Bay, the shelf is quitenarrow in places, but north of San Francisco to

Cape Men docino it widens a gain t o 6 to 25 miles.

The coast in th is area is genera lly rugged with a

few lowland areas along river valleys. Wave energyis high along the en tire coast and uplifted wave-

cut terraces indicating former higher stands of sea

level are common.

Northward along the coast of Oregon, the con-

tinental shelf is as narrow as 6 miles and averages

less than 18 miles in width. Off Washington, the

shelf gradually widens to over 30 miles and is un-

derlain by a var ied terra in of sedimentar y rocks,mafic and ultramafic intrusive, and granite rocks.

The Washington coast also has been influenced by

glaciation, and glacial till and alluvium extend out

onto the shelf. The Columbia River is a majorsource of sediment in the south ern Wash ington a nd

northern Oregon region. Beyond the shelf, but

within t he U.S. E EZ, the seafloor spreading centers

of the Gorda and Juan de Fuca ridges and related

subduction zones at the base of the continental slope

contribute to the tectonic activity of the region.


The narrow continental shelf and high wave

ener gy along th e Pa cific coast limit t he pr ospects

for recovering a great abundance of sand and gravel

from surficial deposits. In southern California, de-

posits of sand and gravel at water depths shallow

enough to be economic are present on the San

Pedro, San Diego, and Santa Monica shelves. Most

coarse material suitable for construction aggregate

is found in relict blanket, deltaic, and channel de-

posits off the mouth of major rivers. One deposit

of coarse sand and gravel within 10 miles of San

Diego Bay in less than 65 feet of water has been

surveyed and estimated to contain 26 m illion cu-bic yards of aggregate. Total resource estimates for

the southern Californ ia region indicat e about 40

billion cubic yards of sand and gravel .29 However,

‘gWilliams, “Sand and Gravel Deposits Within the U.S. Exclusive

Economic Zon e, ” p . 382.

excessive amoun ts of overlying fine sa nd or m ud,

high wave energy, and unfavorable water depth

may all reduce the economically recoverable ma-

terial by as mu ch a s an order of magnitude. Indi-

vidua l deposits would need to be stud ied for their

size, quality, an d a ccessibility.

Sand and gravel resource estimates for northernCalifornia are based primarily on surface informa-

tion with little or no data on depth and variability

of the deposits. As is typical elsewhere, the sand

and gravel deposits are both relict and recent. Much

of th e relict m ater ial appear s to be too coarse tohave been deposited by transport mechanisms oper-

ative at the present depth of the outer continental

shelf. 30 These relict sands ar e thought t o be near-

shore bars and beach deposits formed during lower

stands of sea level in the Pleistocene. Recent coarse

mat erial is nearer t he coast and genera lly depos-

ited parallel to the coastline by longshore currents.

Sand a nd gravel estimates for th e northern Cali-fornia shelf, assuming an average thickness of about

1 yard, are 84 million cubic yards of gravel, 542

million cubic yar ds of coarse s an d, an d 2.6 billion

cubic yards of medium sand.31 Most of this mate-rial would lie in St ate waters.

Off the coast of Oregon and Washington, sea

level fluctuations and glaciation controlled the loca-

tion of coarse sand and gravel deposits. Most of

the gravel lies to the north off Washington, whereit was deposited in broad outwash fan s by glacialmeltwater stream s when th e sea level was about 650

feet lower than present. Promising gravel resourceareas convenient to both Portland and Seattle are

off Gra y’s Har bor, Washin gton, and t he south ern

Olympic Mounta ins. Smaller gravel deposits off

Oregon lie in swales between subma rine ban ks inrelict reworked beach deposits. Little da ta on th e

thickness of individual deposits are available, but

general information on the thickness of outwash and

beach sediments in the area suggest that estimates

of 3 to 15 feet average thickness are reasonable .32

‘OS.G. Martindale and H .D . Hess, “Resource Assessment: Sand ,

Gravel, and Shell Deposits on the Continental Shelf of Northern andCentral California, ” Program Feasibility Document—OCS Hard

Minerals L-easing, app . 9, U.S. Dep artmen t of th e Interi or, 1979, p. 5.311 bid ., p. 7.

32G. W. Moore and M.D. Luken, “Offshore Sand and Gravel Re-sources of the Pacific Northwest, Program Feasibility Document—

OCS Hard Minerals Leasing, app. 7, U.S. Departmen t of the In -terior, 1979, p. 8.

72-672 0 - 87 -- 3




Prec ious Meta l s

Placer deposits containing precious metals have

been found throughout the Pacific coastal region

both offshore an d along modern day bea ches (fig-

ure 2-6). In the south, streams in the southern Cali-

fornia borderland drain a coast al region of sand-

stone and mudstone marine sediments and graniticintrusive. These source rocks do not offer much

hope of economically significant precious metal con-

centrations offshore, and fluvial placers have not

been importa nt in th is area. North of Point Con-ception, gold placers have been worked and addi-

tional deposits might be found offshore.

The most promising region along the Pacific

coast of the coterminous States is likely to be off northern California and southern Oregon where

sediments from the Klamath Mountains are depos-ited. The Klamath Mountains are excellent source

rocks conta ining, among other u nits, podiform

ultra mafic intru sive, which a re th ought to be the

source of the platinum placers found in the region.

Gold-bearing diorite intrusive are also present and

provide economically interesting source rocks. Plati-

num an d gold placers h ave both been mined from

beaches in th e region. In some ar eas, sma ll flecks

of gold appear in offshore surface sediments.

Several sm all gold and platinum beach placers

have been mined on the coast of Washington from

deposits which may have been supplied by glaciallytransported material from the north. The Olym-

pic Mountains are not particularly noted for their

ore mineralization, but gold and chromite-bearingrocks a re found in th e Cascades.

Two questions r ema in: do offshore d eposits ex-

ist? and, if so, are they economic? For heavierminerals such as gold or platinum, only very fine-

grained ma ter ial is likely to be foun d offshore. Gold

is not uncommon on Pacific beaches from north-

ern California to Washington, but is often too fine-

grained and too dispersed to be economically re-

covered at present. However, some experts also ar-

gue that in areas undergoing both uplift and cyclic

glaciation and erosion, such as the shelf off south-

ern Oregon, there may be several cycles of retrain-ment and progressive transport which could allow

even t he coarser grains of the precious m etals t o

be transported some distance seaward on the shelf.33

33K. C. Bowman, ‘ ‘Evaluation of Heavy Minera t Concentrations

on the Southern O regon Continental Shelf, ” Proceedings, Eighch An -

B l a c k S a n d —Ch r o mi t e De p o s i t s

Chromite-rich black sands are found in relict

beach deposits in uplifted ma rine ter races and in

modern beach deposits along the coast of southern

Oregon. The terrace deposits were actively minedfor their chromium content during World War 11.

Remaining onshore deposits are not of current eco-nomic interest. H owever, th ere ar e indications th at

offshore deposits may be of future economic inter-

est. Geologic factors in t he developmen t of placer

deposits in relatively high-energy coastal regimes

offer clues to chromite resource expectations in the

EEZ.

Geologic Considerations

The ultimate source of chromite in the black

sands found along the Oregon coast of Coos and

Curry coun ties is th e more or less serpent inized

ultra mafic rock in the Klama th Mount ains. How-

ever much of the chromite in the beach deposits

appears to have been reworked from Tertiary

sedimentary rocks.34

Chromite eroded out of th e

peridotites an d serpent ine of the Klama th Moun-

tains was deposited in Tertiary sediments. Changes

in sea level eroded these deposits and the chromite

was released again and concentrated into deposits

by wind, wave, and current action. These depos-

its ha ve been uplifted an d preserved in the pr esent

terr aces and beach deposits.

This reworking through deposition, erosion, and

redeposition is a n importa nt considerat ion in t he

formation of offshore placer deposits. Not only doesreworking allow for the accumulation of more min-

erals of economic value over time, but it also al-lows th e less resistan t (and generally less valuable)

heavy minerals such as pyroxenes and amphiboles

to break down and thus not dilute or lower the

grade of the deposit.

The river systems in the region were largely re-

sponsible for er oding and tra nsporting th e heavy

minerals from the Klamath Mountains. Once in

the marine environment, reworking of minerals was

enhanced during periods of continental glaciation

when the sea level fluctuated and the shoreline

nual Conference, Marine Technology Society, 1972, pp. 237-253.34A. B. Grig gs, “Chrom ite-Bearin g Sands of the South ern Part of

the Coast of Oregon, U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin, 945-E, pp .113-150.




retreated and advanced across the shelf at least four

times. Dur ing these glacial periods, high ra infall,

probable alpine glaciation in th e higher Klamat hpeaks, and increased stream gradients from lowered

base levels al l contributed to accelerated erosion of

the source area. Concentr ations of heavy opaqueminera ls along th e outer edge of the continenta l

shelf off southern Oregon demonstrat e th e t rans-port capacity of the pluvial-glacial streams during

low sta nds of the sea.35

High discharge and lo w

stands of sea also allow for the formation of chan-

nel deposits on the shelf. During high interglacial

stands of the sea, estuarine entrapment of sediments

is a larger factor in the distribution of heavy min-

erals in the coasta l environment. Ea ch tr ansgres-

sion and regression of the sea has the opportunityto rework relict or previously formed deposits. Pres-

ervation of th ese deposits is r elated to changes in

the en ergy inten sity of their environment .

While most geologists agree that uplifted beachterr ace deposits a nd submerged offshore deposits

are secondary sources of resistant heavy minerals

in the formation of placer deposits, questions re-

main about which secondary source is more impor-

tant. Differing views on the progressive enrichment

of placer deposits have implications for locating con-

centr at ions of heavy min era ls of economic value.

One view is t hat each sea-level transgression re-

works and concentrates on the shelf the heavy min-

erals laid down earlier, and any deposits producedduring th e more recent t ran sgression are likely to

be richer or more extensive than the raised terrace

deposits that served as secondary sources since theiremer gence. This concentr at ion effect would espe-

cially include th ose deposits n ow offshore which

could be enriched by a winnowing process that re-

moves the finer, light er ma ter ial, thereby concen-

t ra t ing the heavy minerals .36

The other view is that

offshore deposits are likely to be reworked as the

sea level rises and heavy mineral concentrations in

former beaches tend to move shoreward with the

transgressing shore zone so that then the modernbeaches would be richest in potentially economic

heavy minerals. In this view, offshore deposits

would be important secondary sources to the mod-

351 bid., p. 241.t cBowman , Ev~ua t i o n of Heavy Mine r a f Concentrations on the

Southern Oregon Continental Shelf, p. 243.

ern beaches, and raised terraces would be the next

richest in heavy minera ls. 37

Prospects for Future Development

The black sand deposits that were mined for

chromite in the past offer a clue as to the n a t u r e

of the deposits that might be found offshore. Dur-ing World War II, approximately 450,000 tons of

crude sand averaging about 10 percent chromiteor 5 per cent chromic oxide (Cr 2O3) were produced.

This yielded about 52,000 tons of concentrate at

37 to 39 percent Cr 2O 3. The chromium to iron ra-

tio of the concentrate was 1.6:1. A number of in-

vestigators have examined other onshore deposits.

The upraised terraces near Bandon, Oregon, have

been assessed for t heir chromite conten t with t he

aid of a drilling program. Over 2, 1 million tons of

sand averaging 3 to 7 percent Cr 2O 3 is estimated

for t his 15-mile a rea .38 Deposit thicknesses range

from 1 to 20 feet, an d a ssociated minera ls includemagnetite, ilmenite, garnet, a nd zircon.

In a minerals availability appraisal of chromium,

the U.S. Bureau of Mines assessed the southwest

Oregon beach sands as having demonstrated re-

sources (reserve base) of 11,935,000 short tons of

mineral ized material with a contained Cr 2O 3 con-

tent of 666,000 t ons .39

In the broader category of identified resources, the Oregon beach sands con-

tain 50,454,000 tons of mineralized material with

a Cr 2O 3 content of 2,815,000 tons. None of thebeach sand material is ranked as reserves because

it is not economically recoverable at current prices.If recovered, the demonstrated resources would

am ount t o a little over one year’s cur ren t domes-

tic chromium consumption.

Another indication of the nature of potential Ore-

gon offshore deposits comes from studies of coastal

terrace placers, modern beach deposits, and off-

shore current patterns. In general, longshore cur-

rents tend to concentrate heavy minerals along the

southern side of headlands. This concentration is

37Emery and Noakes, “Economic Placer Deposits on the Continental

Shelf, ” p. 107.‘8

Bowman, “Evaluation of Heavy Mineral Concentrations on (h eSouthern Oregon Continental Shelf, ” pp. 242-243.

39J. F, Lemons, Jr, , E. H. Boyle, Jr. , and CC. Kilgore, ‘ ‘Chro-mium Availability—Domestic, A Minerals Availability System Ap-praisal, “ U.S. Bu reau of Mines Information Circular, IC 8895, 1982,

p. 4.




thought to be the result of differential seasonal long-

shore transport and shoreline orientation with re-

gard to storm swell approach and zones of deceler-ating longshore currents. In addition, platformgra dient a lso influences the distr ibution of placer

sands, with steeper gradients increasing placer

thickness. Similarly, the formation of offshore

placer deposits would be determined by paleo-shoreline position and geometry, platform gradient,

an d paleo-current orienta tion .40

Bathymetric data indicate several wave-cut

benches left from former s till sta nds of sea level.

Concentrations of heavy minerals that may be re-

lated to submerged beach deposits have been found

in water depths ran ging from 60 to 490 feet. Sur-

face samples of these deposits have black sand con-centr at ions of 10 to 30 percent or more, and some

are associated with magnetic anomalies indicating

a likelihood of black sand placers within sediment

thicknesses ranging from 3 to 115 feet. In addition,gold is found in surface sediments in some of these

area s. These submerged featur es would be likely

prospects for h igh concentr at ions of chr omite an d

possibly for associated gold or platinum.

Several Oregon offshore areas containing con-

centrations of chromite-bearing black sands in the

surface sediment have been mapped. These areas

range from less than 1 square mile to over 80 square

miles in areal extent, and they are found from Cape

Ferrelo north to the Coquille River, with the largest

area nearly 25 miles long, centered along the coast

off the Rogue River. If metal tenor (content) in-

creases with depth , as some investigators expect,

there may be considerable potential for economi-

cally interesting deposits offshore. Also depending

on the value of any associated heavy minerals, chro-

mite might be recovered either as the primary prod-

uct or as the byproduct of other minerals extraction.

O t h e r H e a v y M i n e r a l s

North of Point Conception in California, a few

small ultramafic bodies are found within coastal

drainage basins. Heavy mineral fractions in beach

and st ream sediments ar e relatively high in titanium

+OC. D. peterson, G. W, Gleeson, and N. Wetzel, ‘‘Stratigr-aphicDevelopment, Mineral Sources, and Preservation of Marine Placersfrom Pleistocene Terraces in Southern Oregon, USA, ” Sedimentary

Geology, in press.

minerals associated with monazite and zircon, and

small quantities of chromite have been found.Titanium minerals have been mined from beach

sands in this area in the past .

The Klama th Moun tains of southwestern Or e-

gon a nd n orth western Ca lifornia conta in a com-

plex of sedimentar y, metasedimenta ry, meta vol-canic, granitoid, and serpentinized ultramafic rocksthat are the source of most, if not all, of the heavy

minerals and free metals found on the continental

shelf in that region. In addition to metallic gold,

platinum metals, and chromite discussed previ-

ously, these minerals include ilmenite, magnetite,

garnet , and zircon. Abrasion during er osion and

tra nsport of these minera ls is minimal, and th ey

are generally resistan t t o chemical weath ering.

Another area of interest for heavy mineral placer

deposits is off the mouth of the Columbia River.

The Columbia River drains a large and geologi-

cally diverse region and its sediments dominate thecoastal areas of northern Oregon and southern

Washington. A large concentration of titanium-rich

black sand has been reported on the shelf south of

the Columbia River.41

Sand from th is deposit ha s

been found to average about 5 percent ilmenite and

10 to 15 percent magnetite. Several other smallerarea s on th e Oregon sh elf conta ining high heavy

miner al concent ra tions lie seawa rd of or adjacent

to river systems. Estimates of heavy mineral con-

tent on the Oregon shelf suggest a potential of sev-

era l million tons each of ilmenite, ru tile, and zir-

con.42

Chromite, ilmenite, and magnetite are also found

in heavy minera l placers on t he Washington coast.

Five areas on t he Washington sh elf contain a no-

malously high concentrations of heavy minerals.

Three areas south of the Hoh River and off Gray’s

Har bor a re at depths of 60 to 170 feet an d prob-

ably represent beach deposits formed dur ing low

stands of the sea. Two more areas are near the

mouth of the Columbia River.

41R . L.. Phillips, “Heavy Minerals and Bedrock M inerals on theContinen tal Shelf off Washington, Oregon, and California, ” Program

Feasibility Document—OCS Hard M inerals Leasing, app . B, U.S.Department of the Interior, 1979, pp. 14-17.4Z~auchmp an d Cru i ck s hank , “Placer Minerals on the U.S. Con-

tinental Sh elves—Opp ortunity for Developm ent, p. 700.





The southern portion of the California border-lan d is well kn own for ma rin e phosphorite depos-

its. The deposits are located on the tops of the nu-

merous banks in areas relatively free of sediment.

The phosphorites are Miocene in age and are gen-

erally found in water depths between 100 and 1,300feet. The deposits consist of sand, pebbles, biologi-

cal remains, and phosphorite nodules. Relatively

rich surficial nodule deposits averaging 27 percent

P 2O5 are found on the Coronado, Thirty Mile and

Forty Mile banks, and west of San Diego. Estimates

based on available data on grade and extent of the

major deposits kn own in the region indicate a re-

source base of approximately 72 million tons of

phosphate nodules and 57 million tons of phosphatic

sands .43 However, because assumptions were nec-

essary to derive these tonnages, these estimates

should be regarded as being within only an order

of magnitude of the actual resource potential of thearea. Further sampling and related investigations

are necessary to define the resource base more ac-

curately.

Phosphorite deposits are also found further north

off central California at water depths of 3,300 to

4,600 feet. These deposits, located off Pescadero

Point, on Sur Knoll and Twin Knolls, range inP 2O5 cont ent from 11.5 to 31 percent, with an aver-

age content of 24 percent .44

However, their patchy

distribution and occurrence at relatively great water

depths make them economically less attractive than

the deposits off the southern California shore.

Polymeta l l i c Su l f ide Depos i t s

‘‘Polymetallic sulfide ‘‘ is a popular term used to

describe the suites of intimately associated sulfide

minerals that have been found in geologically ac-

tive ar eas of th e ocean floor. The r elatively recentdiscovery of the seabed sulfide deposits was not an

accident. The discovery confirmed years of research

and suggestions regarding geological and geochem-

ical processes at the ocean ridges. Research related

43H. D. Hess, ‘ ‘Preliminary Resource Assessment—Phosphorites

of the South ern California Borderland ,Program Feasibility DOCU-

ment—OCS Hard Minerals Leasing, app. 11, U.S. Department of th e In terior , 1978, p. 21.

44H ,T, h4uHins and R. F. Rasch, ‘ ‘Sea-Floo r Phosphorites alongthe Central California Continental Margin, Economic Geology, vol.

80, 1985, pp. 696-715.

to: 1) separation of oceanic plates, 2) magma up-welling a t th e ocean ridges, 3) chem ical evolution

of seawater , and 4) lan d-based ore deposits t hat

were once submar ine, has contr ibuted to an d cul-

minated in hypotheses of seawater circulation and

mineral deposition at ocean spreading centers that

closely fit recent observations. Much of the current

interest in the marine polymetallic sulfides stemsfrom the dynamic nature of the processes of for-

mat ion a nd t heir r ole in h ypotheses of the evolu-

tion of the Ea rth ’s crust. An un dersta nding of the

conditions resulting in the formation of these ma-

rine sulfides allows geologists to better predict the

occurrence of other marine deposits and to better

understand the processes that formed similar ter-

restrial deposits.


The Gorda Ridge and possibly part of the J ua n

de Fuca Ridge (pending unsettled boundary claims)are within the EEZ of the United States. They are

part of the seafloor spreading ridge system th at ex-

ten ds over 40,000 miles t hr ough th e world’s ocean s.

These spreading centers are areas where molten

rock (less dense than the solid, cold ocean crust)

rises to the seafloor from depth, as the plates move

apart. Plates move apart from one another at differ-

ent rates, ranging from 1 to 6 inches per year.

Limited evidence suggests that the relative rate of

spreading ha s an influence on th e type, distribu-tion, and nature of the hydrothermal deposits

formed, and that significant differences can be ex-

pected between slow-spreading centers and inter-mediate- to fast-spreading centers .45

The mineralization process involves the interac-

tion of ocean water with h ot ocean ic crust . Simply

stated, ocean water percolates downward through

fractures in the solid ocean crust. Heated at depth,the water interacts with the rock, leaching metals.

Key to the creation of an ore deposit, the metals

become more concentrated in the percolating water

than they are in the surrounding rocks. The hot

(300 to 400° cent igrade) met al-laden br ine moves

upward and mixes with the cold ocean water, caus-

ing the metals to precipitate, forming sulfide min-

——45P. A. Rona, “Hydrothermal Mineralization at Slow-Spreading

Centers: Red Sea, Atlantic Ocean, and Ind ian O cean, Marine A4 in -

ing, vol. 5, No. 2, 1985, pp . 117-145.




Figure 2-7.— Formation of MarinePolymetallic Sulfide Deposits

The Juan de Fuca and Gorda Ridges are active spreadingcenters off the coasts of Washington, Oregon, and California.Polymetallic sulfides are formed at spreading centers, whereseawater heated by magma circulates through the rocks ofthe seafloor dissolving many minerals and depositingmassive sulfide bodies containing zinc, copper, iron, lead,cadmium, and silver. Such sulfide deposits have been foundon the Juan de Fuca Ridge within the EEZ of Canada and onthe Gorda Ridge within the U.S. EEZ.

SOURCES: Office of Technology Assessment, 19S7; Champ, Dillon, end

Howell, “Non-Living Resources: Minerals, Oil, and Gas,”volume 27, number 4, winter 19S4/S5.

erals along cracks, crusts on the oceanfloor, or

chimneys or stacks (figure 2-7). High temperatures

suggest litt le or n o mixing with cold seawat er be-fore the solutions exit t hrough t he vents.

The degree t o which th e ore solution is dilutedin th e subsu rface depends on the porosity or frac-

tur ing of the nea r su rface rock a nd a lso determinesthe final exit t emperat ure an d composition of the

hydrothermal fluids. The fluid ranges from man-

ganese-rich in extreme dilution to iron-dominated

at intermediate dilution levels to sulfide depositionwhen little dilution occurs. In support of these ob-

servations, investigators have found sulfide depo-

sition at the vents with manganese oxide depositsfarther away from the seawater-hydrothermal fluidinterface.

46Iron oxides are often found in associa-

tion with, but at a dista nce from, the a ctive vent

and sulfide mineralization.

An important control on the location of hydro-

therm al mineralization, either benea th or on theseafloor at a spreading center, is whether the sub-

seafloor hydroth erm al convection syst em is leaky

or tight. In leaky high-intensity hydrothermal sys-tems, seawater penetrates downward through frac-

tures in the crust a nd mixes with u pwelling primary

hydrothermal solutions, causing precipitation of dis-

seminated, stockwork, and possibly massive copper-

iron-zinc sulfides beneath the seafloor. Dilute, low-

temperat ure solutions depleted in met als dischar ge

through vents to precipitate stratiform iron andma ngan ese oxides, hydroxide, and silicate depos-

its on the seafloor and suspended particulate mat-ter enr iched in iron an d man ganese in the watercolumn.

47In tight, high-intensity hydrothermal sys-

tems, primary hydrothermal solutions undergo neg-

ligible mixing with normal seawater beneath the

seafloor and discharge through vents to precipitate

massive copper-iron-zinc sulfide deposits on the

seafloor and suspended particulate matter enriched

in various meta ls in the water column.

Pacific Rise Study Group, Processes of the Mid-Ocean Ridge, ” Science, vol. 213, Jul y 3, 1981, pp . 31-40.

47

Rena, “Hydrothermal Mineralization at Slow-Spreading Centers:Red Sea, Atlantic Ocean, and Indian Ocean, ” p. 123.




Table 2-5.—Estimates of Typical Grades of Contained Metals for Seafloor MassiveSulfide Deposits, Compared With Typical Ore From Ophiolite Massive

Sulfide Deposits and Deep-Sea Manganese Nodules

Sulfides, Iat 21° N. & Sulfides Sulfide ore, Deep-seaJuan de Fuca Ridge Galapagos rift Cyprus manganese nodules

Typical grade, Typical grade, Typical grade, Typical grade,Element in percent in percent in percent in percent

Zinc . . . . . . . . 30 0.2 0.2 0.13Copper . . . . . 0.5 5.0 2.5 0.99Nickel . . . . . . — — — 1.22

Cobalt . . . . . . — 0.02 — 0.23

Molybdenum — 0.017 — 0.018Silver . . . . . . . 0.02 — — —

Lead . . . . . . . 0.30 — — —

Manganese. . — — — 28.8

Germanium. . 0.01 — — .

SOURCE Adapted from V. E. McKelvey, “Subsea Mineral Resources,” U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin, 1669-A, 1966, p. 62


At the present time, too little is known about ma-

rine polymetallic sulfide deposits to project theireconomic significance. Analysis of grab samples of

sulfides collected from several other spreading zones

indicate variable metal values, particularly from one

zone to another. In general, all of the deposits sam-

pled, except those on the Galapagos rift, have zinc

as th eir main meta l in th e form of sphalerite an d

wurtzite. The Galapagos deposits differ in that they

contain less t han 1 percent zinc but h ave copper

contents of 5 to 10 percent, mainly in the form of

chalcopyrite. Weight percentage ranges of somemetals found in the sulfide deposits are given in ta-

ble 2-5. Some of th e higher an alyses ar e from in-

dividual grab samples composed almost entirely of

one or two metal sulfide minerals and analyze much

higher in those metal values (e. g., a Juan de Fuca

Ridge sample which is 50 percent zinc is primar-

ily zinc su lfide). While th is is impr essive, it says

nothing about t he extent of the deposit or its uni-

formity. In any event, it is certain that any future

minin g of hydrother ma l deposits would recover a

number of metal coproducts.

Highly speculative figures assigning tonnages

and dollar values to ocean polymetallic sulfide oc-

currences have begun to appear. Observers should

be extremely cautious in evaluating data related tothese deposits. The deposits have only been exam-

ined from a scientific perspective related primar-ily to the pr ocess of hydr otherm al circulat ion a nd

its chemical and biological influence on the ocean.

No deta iled economic evalua tions of these depos-

its or of potential recovery techniques have been

made. Thus, estimat es of the extent and volumeof the deposits are based on geologic hypotheses and

limited observational information. Even estimates

of the frequency of occurrence of submarine sul-

fide deposits would be difficult to make at present.

Less than 1 percent of the oceanic ridge system has

been explored in an y detail.

A further note of caution is also in order. In

describing the potential for polymetallic sulfide de-

posits, several investigators have drawn parallels

or ma de compa risons t o the costs of recovery an d

environmental impacts of ferromanganese nodule

mining. There is also a parallel with regard to eco-

nomic speculation. Early speculative estimates of the tonnages of ferromanganese nodules in the Pa-

cific Ocean were given by John Mero in 1965 as

1.5 trillion tons.48

Even though this estimate was

subsequently expressed with caveats as to whatmight be potentially mineable (10 to 500 billiontons) ,

49the estimate of 1.5 trillion tons was widely

quoted and popular ized, thus engendering a com-

mon belief at t he time th at the deep seabed nod-

ules were a virtually limitless untapped resource—a

wealth that could be developed to preferential ben-

efit of less developed nations. The unlimited abun-

qeMero, T h e Mjneral Resources o f th<’ S c’a, P. 175.

49J . L, Mere, “Potential Economic Value of Ocean-Floor ManganeseNodule Deposits, ’ Ferromangancsc Deposits on the Ocean Floor,

DR. Horn (cd.), National Science Foundation , International Dec-ade of Ocean Exploration, Washington, DC, 1972, p. 202.




dance of seabed nodules was a basic premise onwhich the Third United Nations Conference on the

Law of the Sea was founded. Economic change and

subsequent research indicate both a m ore limited

mineable resource base and much lower projected

rates of return from nodule mining. However, as

often happens, positions that become established

on the basis of one set of assumptions are difficultto amend when the assumptions change.

Creating expectations on the basis of highly

speculative estimates of recoverable tonnages and

values for hypothetical metal deposits serves little

Photo credit: U.S. Geological Survey

Hand sample of sulfide minerals recovered fromJuan de Fuca Ridge.

purpose. Avoiding t he pr esent t emptat ion to ex-trapolate into enormous dollar values could avoid

what may, upon further research, prove to be less

than a spectacular economic resource in terms of recovery. This is not to say th at th e resource may

not be found, but simply that it is premat ure t o de-

fine its extent and estimate its economic value.

What then can be said about expectat ions for t he

U.S. EEZ? The Gorda Ridge is a relatively slow

spreading active ridge crest. Until recently, most

sulfide deposits were found on the intermediate- tofast-spreading center s (great er th an 2 inches per

year). This trend led some investigators to consider

the potential for sulfide mineralization at slow-spreading centers to be lower than at faster spread-

ing centers. On the other hand, the convective heat

tra nsfer by hydrotherma l circulation is on th e same

order of magnitude for both types of ridges. This




suggests tha t, if crust al mat erial remains close tohydrotherm al h eat sources for a longer per iod of

time, it might become even more greatly enriched

through hydrothermal mineralization .50 In any

event, a complete series of hydrothermal phases can

be expected at slow-spreading centers, ranging from

high-temperature sulfides to low-temperature ox-

ides. The hydrothermal mineral phases include

massive, disseminated and stockwork sulfide depos-

its and stratiform oxides, hydroxides, and silicates,

To account further for their differences, the

deeper seated heat sources at slow-spreading centers

can be inferred to favor development of leakyhydrotherm al systems leading to precipitation of

the sulfides beneath the seafloor. This inference,

however, cann ot be verified un til the deposits ar e

drilled extensively.

Another view regarding the differences in poten-

tial for mineralization between fast- versus slow-spreading ridge systems suggests that the extent of

hydrothermal activity and polymetallic sulfide depo-

sition along ocean ic ridge systems is more a func-

tion of th at pa rt icular segment ’s episodic ma gmat ic

phase than the spreading rate of the r idge as a

whole .51 According to this view, at any given time

a r idge segment with a medium or slow average

spreading rate may show active hydrothermal vent-

ing as extensive as tha t found a long segments with

fast spreading rates. Thus, massive polymetallic sul-

fide deposits may be present along slow-spreadingridge segments, but they probably would be sepa-

ra ted by greater t ime and distance inter vals.

Another factor, particularly on the Gorda Ridge,

is the amount of sediment cover. The 90-mile-long,

sediment-filled Escanaba Trough at t he souther n

part of the Gorda Ridge is similar to the Guaymas

Basin in t he Gulf of California, wher e hydroth er-mal sulfide mineralization has been found. The

amount of sediment enter ing an a ctive spreading

center is critical to the formation and preservation

of the sulfide deposits. Too much material deliv-ered du ring miner alization will dilute t he su lfide

an d redu ce the economic valu e of th e deposit. On

th e other h and, a n insu fficient sediment flux canresult in eventual oxidation and degradation of the

unprotected deposit.

Sulfide deposits a nd active hydrother mal dis-

charge zones have been found on the southern Juan

de Fuca Ridge beyond the 200-nautical-mile limitof the EEZ. The Juan de Fuca Ridge is a medium-

rat e spreading axis separat ing at t he ra te of 3 inches

per year. Zinc and silver-rich sulfides have been

dredged from two vent sites that lie less than a mile

apart. Photographic information combined with ge-

ologic inference suggests a crude first-order esti-ma te of 500,000 tons of zinc and silver sulfides in

a 4-mile-long segment of the axial valley .52

Although marine polymetallic sulfide deposits

may someday prove to be a potential resource in

their own right, the current value of oceanfloor sul-

fides lies in the scientific understanding of their for-

mation processes as well as their assistance in the

possible discovery of analogous deposits on land(figure 2-8). Cyprus; Kidd Creek, Canada; and theKuroko District in J apan are a ll mining sites for

polymet allic sulfides, and a ll of these a rea s showth e presen ce of under lying ocean ic crust . The key

to the past by studying the present is unr aveling

the m echan isms by which t his very importan t class

of minerals and ores were formed.50

Rena, “Hydrothermal Mineralization at Slow-Spreading Centers:Red Sea, Atlantic Ocean and Indian Ocean, ” p. 140.

s IA . M~aho f f , ‘ polymet~l i c Sulfides-A Renewable Marine Re-

source, Marine Mining: A New Beginning, Conference Proceed-

ings, July 18-21, 1982, Hilo , HI, State of Hawaii, sponsored b y De-partment of Planning and Economic Development, 1985, pp. 31-60.

ALASKA

In southeastern Alaska, the coast is mountainous

and heavily glaciat ed. Glacial sediments cover

mu ch of th e shelf, which avera ges about 30 miles

in width. The Gulf of Alaska has a wide shelf that

52R, A. Koski, W. R. Nor mar k, and J. L. Morton, ‘‘Ma ssive SUl -

fide Deposits on the Southern Juan de Fuca Ridge: Results of Inves-tigations in the USGS Study Area, 1980-83, Marine Mining, vol.

4, No. 2, 1985, pp. 147-164.

REGION

was mostly covered by glaciers du ring t he P leisto-

cene. The eastern coast of the Gulf is less moun-

tainous and lower tha n t he steep western coast. The

source rocks in t he r egion include a wide ran ge of




Figure 2-8.—Locations of Mineral Deposits Relative to Physiographic Features (vertical scale exaggerated)

Salt domes

SOURCES: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987; A. McGregor and Millington Lockwood, “Mapping and Research In the Exclusive Economic Zone,” Departmentof the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey and Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

sedimentary, metamorphic, volcanic, and intrusive

bodies.

The Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian Islands con-

sist of intrusive and volcanic rocks related to thesubduction zone along the Pacific side. The shelf

narrows westward from a width of nearly 125 milesto places where it is nearly nonexistent between the

Aleutian Islands. The Aleutians are primarily an-

desitic volcanics while granitic intrusive are found

on the peninsula.

The Bering Sea shelf is very broad a nd gener-

ally featureless except for a few islands, banks, and

depressions. A variety of sedimentary, igneous, and

metamorphic rocks are found in the region. In the

south, of particular mineralogical interest, are the

Kuskokwim Mountains containing Precambrian

schist and gneiss, younger intrusive rocks, anddunite. The Yukon River is th e dominan t dr ain-

age system ent ering the Bering shelf, although sev-

eral major rivers contribute sediments including

streams on the Asian side, The region also has been




significan tly affected by glaciation a nd ma jor s ealevel chan ges. Glacial sediment was der ived from

Siberia a s well as Alaska. Ba rrier islands ar e found

along the n orth ern side of the Seward P eninsula.

The major physiographic feature of the north

coast of Alaska is the gently sloping arctic coastal

plain, which extends seaward to form a broad shelf under the Chu kchi and Beaufort Seas. This areawas not glaciated during the Pleistocene, and only

one m ajor river, the Colville, drains most of the

region int o the Beaufort Sea. The draina ge area

includes the Paleozoic sedimentary rocks of the

Brooks Range and their associated local graniticintrusive and metamorphosed rocks.


Approximately 74 percent of the continental shelf

area of the United States is off the coast of Alaska.

Consequent ly, Alaskan offshore sa nd and gravelresources are very large. However, since these ma-

terials are not generally located near centers of con-

sumption, mining may not always be economically

viable.

While glaciation has deposited large amounts of

sand and gravel on Alaska’s continental shelf, therecovery of economic amounts for construction ag-

gregat e is complicated by two factors:

1. much of the glacial debris is not well sort ed,

and

2. it is often buried under finer silt and mud

washed out after deglaciation.

Optimal areas for commercial sand and gravel de-

posits would include outwash plains or submerged

moraines th at have not been covered with recent

sediment, or where waves and currents have win-

nowed out finer mat erial.

In general, much of the shelf of southeasternAlaska h as a medium or coarse sa nd cover and is

not p resen tly r eceiving depositional cover of fine

material. The Gulf of Alaska is currently receiv-

ing glacial outwash of fine sediment in the eastern

part and, in addition, contains extensive relict de-

posits of sand and gravel. Economic deposits of sand

have been identified parallel to the shoreline west

of Yaku tat and west of Kayak Islan d. An exten-

sive area of sand has been mapped in the lower

Cook In let, and gravel deposits ar e also present

there (figure 2-9). Large quantities of sand and

gravel are also found on the shelf of Kodiak Island.

The Aleutian Islan ds ar e an unfavora ble area for

extensive sand and gravel deposits. Relict glacial

sediments should be present on the n arr ow shelf,

but the area is currently receiving little sediment.

Large amount s of fine sand lie in the south ern

Bering Sea an d off the Yukon River, but t he north -

ern areas may offer the greatest resource potential

for constr uction aggregat e. Extensive well-sorted

sands and gravels are found at Cape Prince of

Wales and northwest of the Seward Peninsula.

However, distances to Alaskan mar ket ar eas ar e

considerable. Sand, silt, and mud are common onthe shelf in the Chukchi Sea and Beaufort Sea.

Small, thin patches of gravel are also present, but

available data are sparse. The best prospect of

gravel in the Beaufort Sea is a thick layer of Pleisto-

cene gravel buried beneath 10 to 30 feet of over-burden east of the Colville River.

Overall sand and gravel resource estimates of great er th an 200 billion cubic yar ds ar e projected

for Alaska (table 2-4). In many areas, environ-

mental concerns in addition to economic consider-

ations would significantly influence development.

Prec ious Meta l s

Source rocks for sediments in southeasternAlaska are varied. Gold is found in the region and

has been mined from placer deposits. Platinum hasbeen mined from lode deposits on Prince of WalesIsland. Although few beach or marine placer de-

posits are found in the area, the potential exists

since favorable source rocks are present. However,

glaciation has redistributed much of the sediment,

an d th e shelf is receiving rela tively little modern

sediment.

Some gold has been recovered from beach placers

in th e eastern Gulf of Alaska; but, in general, the

prospects for locating economic placers offshorewould not be grea t because of the large a mount of

glacially derived fine-grained material entering the

area. In the western Gulf, the glaciation has re-

moved much of the sediment from the coastal area

and deposited it offshore where subsequent rework-

ing may have formed economically interesting




Figure 2-9.– Potential Hard Mineral Resources of the Alaskan EEZ

\

Gold and gravel have been mined from Alaskan waters and the potential exists for locating other offshore placer deposits.

SOURCES: Off Ice of Technology Assessment, 1987; U.S. Department of the Interior, “SYmPosium Proceedings-A National Program for the Assessment and Develop-ment of the Mineral Resources of the United States Exclusive Economic Zone,” U.S. Geological Survey Circular 929, 1983.

placer deposits.53

Gold is found in the region and

has been mined from beaches on Kodiak Island an d

Cook Inlet. Placer deposits may have formed onthe outer shelf but recovery may be difficult. Lower

Cook Inlet might be t he best a rea of the Gulf to

prospect.

SSH, E.

Cli f ton an d

G.Lu ep k e , Heavy-Minera/ placer Deposits of

the Continence Margin of Alaska and the Pacific Coast States,in Ge-ology and Resouree Potential of the Continental Margin of Western

North America and A~”acent Ocean Baaisn-Beaufort Sea to Baja, Cali-

fornia, American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir, ed.,D .W . Scholl, (in press).

The shelf along th e Aleutian Islands is a rela-

tively unfavorable prospective locale for finding eco-

nomic placer deposits. Sediment supply is limited,

and ore mineralization in the volcanic source rocks

is rare. Lode and placer gold deposits have been

foun d on th e Alaska Peninsula, a nd gold placers

may be found off the south shore near former min-

ing areas.

Platinu m h as been m ined from alluvial placers

near Goodnews Bay on the Bering Sea. Anoma-

lous concent ra tions of plat inu m ar e also found on




the coast south of the Salmon River a nd in sedi-

ments in Chagvan Bay.54

The possibility exists that

platinum placers may be found on the shelf if gla-

cially transported material has been concentrated

by mar ine processes. Source rocks a re t hought t o

be dunites in t he coasta l Kuskokwim Mount ains,

but lode deposits have not been found. Gold placers

are also found along the coast of the Bering Sea

and are especially important to the north near

Nome. Lode gold and alluvial placers are commonalong th e south ern side of the Seward Peninsula,

and tin placers have also been worked in the area.

Gold has been found offshore in gravel on sub-

merged beach ridges and dispersed in marine sands

and muds. Economic deposits may be found in the

submerged beach ridges or in buried channels off-

shore. The region around Nome has yielded about

5 million ounces of gold, mainly from beach de-

posits, and it is suggested that even larger amounts

may lie offshore.55

How much of this, if any, may

be discovered in economically accessible deposits

is uncertain, but the prospects are probably prettygood in the Nome area.

54R. M. Owen, ‘ ‘Geochemistry of Platinu m-Enriched Sediments:

Applications to M ineral Exploration, Marine Mining, vol. 1, No.4, 1978, pp. 259-282.

jjBeauchamp and Cmickshank, “Placer Minerals on the U.S. Con-tinental Shelves—Oppor tun ity for Develop men t, p. 700.

HAWAII

Ha waii is a tectonically

O t h e r H e a v y M i n e r a l s

The eastern Gulf of Alaska is strongly influenced

by the m odern glaciers in t he ar ea. Fresh , glacially

derived sediments, including large amounts of fine-grained material, are entering the area and being

sorted by marine processes. Heavy mineral suites

are likely to be fairly immatu re an d burial is ra pid.In general, the prospects for locating economically

interesting h eavy mineral placers offshore in t his

area would not be great.

About 2,000 tons of tin have been produced from

placers on the western par t of the Seward P enin-

sula. Tin in association with gold and other heavy

minera ls may occur in a prominent sh oal which ex-

tends over 22 miles north-northeast from Cape

Prince of Wales along the northwest portion of theSeward Peninsula. While seafloor deposits off the

Seward Peninsula might be expected to contain

gold, cassiterite, and possibly tun gsten minera ls,data are lacking to evaluate the resource potential.

In general, the Chukchi and Beaufort seas may

not conta in m an y economic placers. Sour ce rocksare distant , and ice gouging tends to keep bottom

sediments mixed.

REGION AND U.S. TRUST TERRITORIES

active, mid-ocean vol-canic chain with typically narrow and limited shelf

areas. Sand and gravel resources are in short sup-ply. The narrow shelf areas in general do not pro-

mote large accumulations of sand and gravel off-shore. One area of inter est is the Penguin Ban k,

which is a drowned shore terr ace about 30 miles

southeast of Honolulu (figure 2-10). The bank’s re-

source potential is conservatively estimated at over

350 million cubic yards of calcareous sands in about

180 to 2,000 feet of water.56

This resource could

supp ly Hawa ii’s long-ter m n eeds for bea ch rest o-

ration and, to a lesser extent for construction. How-

ever, high winds and strong currents are common

‘b~. Il. Murdaugh, ‘ ‘Preliminary Feasibility Assessment: OffshoreSand Mining, Penguin Bank, Hawaii, ” Program Feasibilit}r

Document—OCS Hard Minerals Leasing, app. 19, U.S. Departmentof the Interior, 1979, p. 14.

on the Penguin Bank. Total sand and gravel re-source estimates for Hawaii may be as high as 25

billion cubic yards (table 2-4).

No metalliferous deposits are mined onshore in

Hawaii. Thus the prospects are somewhat poor for

locating economically attractive placer deposits on

the Hawaiian outer continental shelf. Minor phos-

phorite deposits have been found in the Hawaii

area, although phosphorite is found on seamounts

elsewhere in t he P acific.

The geology of the U.S. Trust Territories is gen-

erally similar t o Hawaii with the islands being of

volcanic origin, often supporting reefs or limestonedeposits. Clastic debris of the same material is

present and concentrated locally, but very little in-

formation is available as to the nature and extent

of any sand or gravel deposits. Other areas are rela-




Figure 2-10.– Potential Hard Mineral Resources of the Hawaiian EEZ

Cretaceusseamounts

\

Explanation

Known Likelyoccurrence occurrence

1

Mn-nodules o4 4

Co-crusts o5 5

0Massive sulfides 6 6

SOURCES: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987; U.S. Department of the Interior, “Symposium Proceedings—A National Program for the Assessment and Develop-ment of the Mineral Resources of the United States Exclusive Economic Zone,” U.S. Geological Survey Circular 929, 1983.

tively free of sediment or are covered with fine sedi-

ment consisting of red clay and/or calcareous ooze.The extent to which th e United Stat es has juris-

diction over the EEZs of the various Trust Terri-

tories (figure 2-1 1) is examined in app endix B.

C o b a l t -F erro m a n g a n ese C ru s t s

Recently, high concentrations of cobalt have beenfound in ferromanganese crust s, nodules, an d slabs

on the sides of several seamounts, ridges, and other

ra ised ar eas of ocean floor in th e EE Z of the cen-

tr al Pa cific region. The curr ent inter est in cobalt-

enriched crusts follows an earlier period of consid-

erable activity dur ing the 1960s an d 1970s to de-

termine the feasibility of mining manganese nod-

ules from t he deep ocean floor, While commer cialprospects for deep seabed nodule mining have

receded because of unfavorable economics com-

pounded by political uncertainties resulting from

the Law of the Sea Convention, commercial inter-

est in cobalt-ferromanganese crusts is emerging. A

number of factors are contributing to this shift of

interest, including seamount crust s tha t:

1. appear to be richer in metal content and more

widely distributed than previously recognized,

2. are at ha lf the depth or less than their abyssal

counterparts,




Figure 2-11 .—Cobalt-Rich Ferromanganese Crustson the Flanks of Seamounts and Volcanic Islands

Iron-manganese crusts enriched in cobalt occur on the flanksof volcanic islands and seamounts in geochemically favorableareas of the Pacific. Samples have been recovered forscientific purposes, but equipment for potential commercialevaluation and recovery has not been developed.

SOURCES: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987; Bonnie A. McGregor andTerry W. Of field, “The Exclusive Economic Zone: An Exciting New

Frontier, ” U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey.

3.

4.

can be found within the U.S. EEZ which

could provide a more stable investment cli-mate, and

may provide alternative sources of strategicmetals.


Ferromanganese crusts range from thin coatings

to thick pavements (up to 4 inches) on rock sur-faces that have remained free of sediment for mil-

lions of years. The deposits are believed to form

by precipitation of hydrated metal oxides from near-

bottom seawater. The crusts form on submarine

volcan ic an d phosph orite rock su rfaces or a s nod-

ules around nucleii of rock or crust fragments. They

differ from deep ocean nodules, which form on the

sediment surface and derive much of their metals

from the interstitial water of the underlying sedi-

ment. Several factors appear to influence the com-

position, distribution, thickness, and growth rateof th e crust s. These factors in clude m eta l concen-

tra tion in th e seawater, age and t ype of the su b-

strate, bottom currents, depth of formation, lati-

tu de, presen ce of coral a tolls, developmen t of an

oxygen-minimum zone, proximity to continents,

an d geologic setting.

The cobalt content varies with depth, with max-imum concentrations occurring between 3,300 and

8,200 feet in th e Pa cific Ocean . Cobalt concentr a-

tions greater than 1 percent are generally restricted

to these depths. Platinum (up to 1.3 parts per mil-

lion) and nickel (to 1 percent) are also found asso-

ciat ed with cobalt in significant concentr at ions in

many ferromanganese crust areas. Other metalsfound in lesser but significant amounts include lead,

cerium, molybdenum, titanium, rhodium, zinc,and vanadium (table 2-6).

At least two periods of crust form at ion occur in

some crusts. Radiometric dating an d other a naly-

ses indicate t hat crust s ha ve been forming for t he

last 20 million year s, with one ma jor int err upt ion

in ferromanganese oxide accretion during the late

Miocene, from 8 to 9 million years ago, as detectedin some samples. During this period of interrup-tion, phosphorite was deposited, separating the

older and younger crust materials. In some areas,

there is evidence of even older periods of crust for-

mation. Crust thickness is related to age; conse-

quently, within limits, the age of the seafloor is an

important consideration in assessing the resource

potential of an area. However, crust thickness doesnot ensure high cobalt and nickel concentrations.

The U .S. Geological Su rvey foun d t hick crust s

with moderate cobalt, manganese, and nickel con-

centrations on Necker Ridge, which links the Mid-



72 qMarine Minerals: Exploring Our Ne w Ocean Frontier

Table 2-6.–Average Chemical Composition for Various Elements of Crusts From <8,200 Feet Water DepthFrom the EEZ of the United States and Other Pacific Nations (all data are in weight percent)

Areas n Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Pb Ti SiO2 P205 Fe/Mn

Hawaii and Midway (on axis) . . . . . . . .Hawaii and Midway (off axis) . . . . . . . .Johnston Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Palmyra Atoll-Kingman Reef . . . . . . . .Howland-Baker Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . .Marshall Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Average central Pacific crusts . . . . . . .Northern Marianna Islands

(and Guam). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Western U.S. borderland . . . . . . . . . . . .Gulf of Alaska Seamounts . . . . . . . . . .Lau Basin (hydrothermal) . . . . . . . . . . .Tonga Ridge and Lau Basin

(hydrogenous) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .South China Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Benin Island area (Japan) . . . . . . . . . . .French Polynesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Average for Pacific hydrogenous

crusts (all data from figures 2-8) . . .

2-38 24 16.0 0.91 0.45 0.054-15 21 18.0 0.60 0.37 0.10

12-40 22 17.0 0.70 0.43 0.117-8 27 16.0 1.1 0.51 0.063 29 18.0 0.99 0.63 0.08

5-13 26 14.0 0.94 0.56 0.1334-117 23 17.0 0.81 0.45 0.09

6-7 12 16.0 0.09 0.13 0.052-5 19 16.0 0.30 0,30 0.043-6 26 18.0 0.47 0.44 0.152 46 0.600.007 0.005 0.02

6-9 16 20.0 0.33 0.22 0.0514 13 13.0 0.13 0.34 0.041-1o 21 13.0 0.41 0.55 0.062-9 23 12.0 1.2 0.60 0.11

55-319 22 15.0 0.63 0.44 0.08

1.1 7.90.18 1.3 16.00.17 1.3 12.00.17 1.1 5.50.14 1.2 6.20.25 1.1 5.60.18 1.2 9.1

0.07 – –0.15 0.31 17.00.17 0.57 –0.006 0.005 –

0.16 1.0 –0.08 – 14.00.12 0.67 4.90.26 1.0 6.5

0.16 0,98 11.0

—

1.01.21.91.7

0.901.3

— —

0.870.05

1.0 —

0.820.34

1.1

0.730.880.810,610.640.560.75

1.410.950.720.01

1.261.070.700.56

0.81

n = Number of analyses for various elements. — = No data.

SOURCE: JR. Hein, L.A. Morgenson, D.A. Clague, and R.A. Koski, “Cobalt-Rich Ferromanganese Crusts From the Exclusive Economic Zone of the United States andNodules From the Oceanic Pacific,” D. Schoil, A. Grantz, and J. Vedder (eds.), Geology and Resource Potential of th e Corrth’rerrta/ Margins of Western NorthAmerican and Adjacent Ocean Basins: American Association of Petroleum Geologkts, Memoir, in press.

Pa cific Mountains and the Hawa iian Archipelago .57

Further, high cobalt values of 2.5 percent were

found in the top inch or so of crusts from the S.P.

Lee Seamount at 8° N. latitude. These deposits oc-

cur at depths coincident with a water mass that con-

tains minimum concentrat ions of oxygen, leading

most investigators to attribute part of this cobalt

enrichment to low oxygen content in the seawater

environment. However, high cobalt values (greater

than 1 percent) have also been found in the Mar-

shal l Islands, the western part of the Hawaiian

Ridge province , and in French Polynesia, all of

whi c h a re ou t s i de t he we l l -de ve l ope d re g i ona l

equatorial oxygen-minimum zone but which ap-

pear to be associated with locally developed oxygen-

minimum zones. Oxygen-minimum zones are also

associated with low iron/manganese ratios. Figure

2-12 illustrates the zone of cobalt enrichment infer-

romanganese crusts on seamounts and volcanic is-

lands. In general, while progress is being made to

understand more fully the physical and geochemi-

cal mechanisms of cobalt-manganese crust forma-

57J. R. He i n e , et al., “Geological an d Geochemica l Data for Sea-

mounts and Associated Ferromanganese Crusts In and Near th e Ha-waiian, Johnston Island, and Palmyra Island Exclusive Economic

Zones, ” U.S. Geological Survey, Open File Report 85-292, 1985,

p. 129.

tion, the cobalt enrichment process is still uncer-

tain. investigations to gain insight in this area will

be of considerable benefit in identifying future re-

sources.

Surface texture, slope, and sediment cover also

may influence crust growth rates. For example,

sediment-free, current-swept regions appear to be

favorable sites for crust formation.

Nodules are also found associated with cobalt-

rich manganese crusts in some areas. These nod-

ules are similar in composition to the crusts and,

consequently, differ from their deep ocean coun-

terparts. Another difference between crust-

associated n odules an d deep ocean nodules is the

greater predominan ce of nu cleus mat erial in the

crust -associated nodules. The cobalt-rich nodules

generally occur as extensive fields on the tops of

seamounts or within small valleys and depressions.

While of much lesser extent overall than crust

occurrences, these nodules may prove more easilyrecoverable and, hence, possibly of nearer term eco-

nomic interest.


The geologic considerations mentioned previ-

ously are important determinants in assessing the




Figure 2-12.— EEZs of U.S. Insular and Trust Territories in the Pacific

Midway Island

Howland andBaker Islands

In addition to the waters off the fifty states, the Exclusive Economic Zone includes the waters contiguous to the insular territoriesand possessions of the United States. The United States has the authority to manage these economic zones to the extentconsistent with the legal relationships between the United States and these islands.

SOURCES: Office of Technology Assessment, 19S7; D.A. and “Cobalt-Rich Crusts From the Exclusive

Economic Zone of the United States and Nodules From the Oceanic Pacific,” in D. Scholl, A. and J. “Geology and Resource Potentialof the Continental Margin of Western North America and Adjacent Ocean Basins,” American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 43, in press.

resource potential of cobalt-rich ferromanganese cial concent ra tions of cobalt-rich crust s would becrusts. Using three primary assumptions based on confined to the slopes and plateau areas of sea-these factors, the East West Center in Hawaii mounts in wat er depths between 2,600 and 7,900

produced a cobalt-rich ferromanganese crust re- feet. The second assumption was that commercialsource assessment for the Minerals Mana gement concentrations would be most common in areasService .58 The first assum ption wa s th at commer- older than 25 million years, where both generations

of crust would be found, and less common in areas

P. Humphrey, C .J, Johnson, et younger than 10 million years, where only thin-

Manganese Crust Potential, Study, MMS 85-0006, U.S. ner younger crust generation occurs. The thirdof the Interior, Minerals Management Service, 1985, 35 pp. primary assumption was that commercial concen-




Table 2-7.—Resource Potential of Cobalt, Nickel,Manganese, and Platinum in Crusts of U.S. Trust

and Affiliated Territories

Resource Potential

Nickel PlatinumTerritory Cobalt ( t x 10°) Manganese (OZ X 1O E)

Belau/Palau . . . . . . . . 0.55 0.31 15.5 0.68

Guam . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.55 0.31 15.5 0.68Howland-Baker . . . . . 0.19 0.11 5.5 0.48Jarvis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.06 0.03 1.6 0.15

Johnston Island . . . . 1.38 0.69 41.6 3.50

Kingman—Palmyra . 3.38 1.52 76.1 5.70

Marshall Islands. .. .10.55 5.49 281.3 21.50Micronesia. . . . . ....17.76 9.96 496.0 34.70

Northern MarianaIslands . . . . . . . . . . 3.60 1.97 100.2 7.70

Samoa . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.03 0.01 0.8 0.04

Wake . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.98 0.51 26.8 2.00

NOTE: The above are estimates of in-place resources and as such do not indicateeither potential recoverability or mineable quantities.

SOURCE: Allen L. Clark, Peter Humphrey, Charles J. Johnson, and Dorothy K.Pak, Coba/t-Rich Manganese Crust Potential, OCS Study MMS 65-0006,1985, p. 20.

trations would be most common in areas of lowsediment cover that have been within the geographi-

cally favorable equ at orial zone for t he m ajority of

their geologic history.

The East-West Center’s procedure was to use

detailed bathymetric maps to determine perm issive

areas for each EEZ of the U.S. Trust and Affiliated

Territories in the Pacific. The permissive areas in-

cluded all the seafloor between the depths of 2,600

and 7,900 feet, making corrections for areas of sig-

nificant slopes. Then, based on published dat a, th e

metal content and thickness of crust occurrences

for each area were averaged. Crust thicknesses werealso assigned on the basis of ages of the seamounts,

guyots, and island areas. Seamounts older than 40

million years were assigned a thickness of 1 inch.

Seamounts younger than 10 million years were as-

signed a thickness of one-half inch, and seamounts

younger than 2 to 5 million years were not includedin th e resource calculations. These data are su m-

marized in table 2-7.

According to table 2-7, the five territories of high-

est resource potential would be the Federated States

of Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Commonwealth

of the Nor thern Mariana Is lands , Kingman-

Palmyra Islands, and J ohnston Island. Furth er ge-

ologic inference suggests th at t he resour ce poten-

tial of the Federated States of Micronesia and the

Commonwealth of the North ern Mar iana Islan ds

could be reduced because of uncertainties in age

and degree of sediment cover. Thus, according to

their more qualitative assessment, the largest re-

source potential for cobalt crusts would likely bein the Marshall Islands, followed by the Kingman-

Palmyra, Johnston, and Wake Islands (figure 2-

13). The territories of lesser resource potential

would include, in decreasing order, the FederatedStates of Micronesia, Commonwealth of the North-ern Mariana Islands (figure 2-14), Belau-Palau ,

Guam, Howland-Baker, Jarvis, and Samoa. 59

Another assessment of crust resource potent ial

using grade and permissive area calculations with

geologic an d ocean ogra phic criteria factored in is

given in table 2-8.60

This assessment is also a qual-itative ranking without attempting to quantify ton-nages. In this r egard, other factors tha t would have

to be considered to assess the economic potential

of any particular area include: nearness to port fa-

cilities and processing plants, and the cost of trans-portation. In addition, factors highly critical to theeconomics of a potential crust mining operation

would be the degree to which the crust can be sep-

arated from its substrate and the percentage of the

‘gIbid., p. 21.

‘OJ. R. Hein, L.A. Morgenson, D.A. Glague, an d R.A. Koski,

‘(Cobalt-Rich Ferr omanganese Cru sts From the Exclusive Economic

Zone of the United States and Nodules From the Oceanic Pacific,

D. Scholl, A. Grantz, and J , Vedder (eds. ), Geology and Resource

Potent]af of the Continental Margins of Western North America and

Adjacent Ocean Basins, American Association of Petroleum Geolo-

gists, Memoir (in press), 1986.

Table 2-8.—Estimated Resource Potential of CrustsWithin the EEZ of Hawaii and U.S. Trust

and Affiliated Territories

RelativePacific area banking Potential

Marshall Islands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 HighMicronesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 HighJohnston Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 HighKingman-Palmyra. . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 High

Hawaii-Midway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 MediumWake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 MediumHowland-Baker. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Medium

Northern Mariana Islands. . . . . . 8 LowJarvis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Low

Samoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 LowBelau/Palau. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 LowGuam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 LowSOURCE: Modified from J.R. Hein, F.T. Manheim, and W.C. Schwab, Coba/t-Rich

Ferrornangwrese Crusts from the Centra/ Pac/flc, OTC 5234, OffshoreTechnology Conference, May 1966, pp. 119126,




Figure 2-13.– Potential Hard Mineral Resources of U.S. Insular Territories South of Hawaii

0 .0.

q

q

Se

q

q

Seamounts

Seamounts

Co-crusts

o5

0Massive sulfides 6

5

6 0500

1000 MilesJ i 1 J

SOURCES: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987; U.S. Department of the Interior, “Symposium Proceedings—A Program tne Assessment ana

ment of the Mineral Resources of the United States Exclusive Economic Zone,” U.S. Geological Survey Circular 929, 1983.

area that could not be mined because of roughness

of small-scale topography. When asked to place the

stage of knowledge of the economic potential of co-balt crusts on the time-scale experienced in the in-vestigations of manganese nodules, one leading

researcher chose 1963.61

M. Broadus, Seabed Mining, report to the Office of Technol-

ogy Assessment, U.S. Congress, Feb. 14, 1984, p. 24,

M a n g a n ese N o d u les

Ferromanganese nodules are found at most water

depths from the continental shelf to the abyssal

plain. Since th e form at ion of nodules is limited toareas of low sedimentation, they are most common

on the abyssal plain. Nodules on the abyssal plain

are enriched in copper and nickel and, until re-

cently, have been regarded as candidates for com-mercial recovery. Nodules found on topographichighs in the Pacific are enriched in cobalt and were

mentioned in the previous section.




Figure 2-14.– Potential Hard Mineral Resources of U.S. Insular Territories West of Hawaii

Northern Mariana Islands Wake Island

Co-crusts o5 51 I I

Massive sulfides o6 6

SOURCES: Office of Technology Assessment, 19S7; U.S. Department of the Interior, “Symposium Proceedings-A National Program for the Assessment and Develop-ment of the Mineral Resources of the United States Exclusive Economic Zone,” U.S. Geological Survey Circular 929, 19S3.

The prime area considered for commercial re- per square yard to be commercially interesting. Be-covery of nodules in the Pacific lies in international cause of uncerta inties brought about by the U nitedwaters between t he Clarion a nd Clipperton frac- Nations Law of the Sea Convention in r egard t o

ture zones in the mid-Pacific ocean. However, sev- mining in international waters, and because of theeral other smaller areas may contain suitable mine low price of copper on the world market, the re-sites, for example, southwest of Hawaii. A mine covery of nodules from t he Clar ion-Clippert on re-site should have an average grade of about 2.25 per- gion is n ot a ttr active at this time.cent copper plus nickel with 20 pounds of nodules



Chapter 3

Minerals Supply, Demand,

and Future Trends



CONTENTS

Page

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Trends in Minerals Consumption . . . . . . . . . 81

Commodity Prices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

State of the Mining Industry . . . . ........ 85

Fer roa lloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Na tiona l Defense St ockpile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87Substitution, Conservation, and Recycling . 88

Major Seabed Mineral Commodities . . . . . . 89Cobalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Chr omium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Manganese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97Zinc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Gold . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................100Platinum-Group Metals . . . . . . . . . . .. ....102

Titanium (Ilmenite and Rutile) . . . . . . . . .104

Phosphate Rock (Phosphorite) . . . . . . . . . .107

S a n d a n d G r a v e l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 1G a r n e t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 2

Monazite . . . . . . . . . . . . ................112

Z i r c o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 2

Box

B ox Page3-A. Government Sources of Information

and Units of Measure Used in This

Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Fig u r e s

Figure No. Page3-1.

3-2.

3-3.

3-4.

3-5.

Actual and Projected Consumption of

Selected Minerals in t he Mar ket-

Economy Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Price Trends for Selected Seabed

Mineral Commodities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

Cobalt Prices, 1920-85 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

U.S. Ferrochromium and ChromateOre Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Percentage of Manganese Imported

Into the United States as

Ferromanganese, 1973-86 . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Figure No. Page3-6.

3-7.

Tab le3- 1

3-2.

3-3.

3-4.

3-5.

3-6.

3-7.

3-8.

3-9<

3-10 (

3-11.

3-12.

3-13.

3-14.

3-15.

3-16.

Vorld Titanium Pigment

Manufactur ing Capaci ty . . . . . . . . . . . . .105Major World Exporters of Phosphate

Rock Since 1975, With Pr ojections to

995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108

Ta b l e s

N o. PageMajor U.S. Strategic Materials

Contained in the National Defense

Stockpile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Forecast of U.S. and World Cobalt

Demand in 2000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

1986 National Defense Chromium

Stockpile Goals an d In ventories . . . . . . 91

Forecasts for U.S. Chromium

Demand in 2000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93Status of Manganese in the NationalDefense Stockpile-1986 . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Forecast for U.S. and World

Manganese Demand in 2000 . . . . . . . . 96

Forecast of U.S. and World Nickel

Demand in 2000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

U.S. and World Copper Demand

in 2000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Forecast of U.S. and World ZincD e m a n d i n 2 0 0 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0 0

Platinum-Group Metals in the

National Defense Stockpile . . . . . . . . ..102

Forecast of Demand for Platinu m-Group Metals in 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103

U.S. Titanium Reserves and ReserveB a s e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0 5

Forecast for U.S. Titanium Demand

in 2000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ...106

World and U.S. Phosphate Rock

Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108World Phosphate Rock Reserves and

R e s e r v e B a s e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0 9

Forecasts of U.S. and World

Phosphate Rock Demand in 2000. ...110



Ch a p t e r 3

Minerals Supply, Demand, and Future Trends

INTRODUCTION

Commodities, materials, and mineral concen-trates—the stuff made from minerals-are actively

traded in international markets. An analysis of do-

mestic demand, supply, and prices of minera ls and

their products must also consider future global sup-

ply and demand, and international competition.

This is importan t t o all mining and minera ls ven-

tures, but particularly so for seabed minerals, which

must not only compete with domestically produced

land-based minerals, but which m ust also matchthe prices of foreign onshore and offshore pro-

ducers.1

The commercial potential of most seabed min-

erals from th e EE Z is u ncertain. Several factors

make analysis of their potential difficult, if not im-

possible:

q

q

q

q

q

First, very little is known about the extent and

grade of the mineral occurrences that have

been identified thus far in the EEZ.

Second, without actual experience or pilot

operat ions, th e mining costs a nd the unfore-

seen operational problems that affect costs can-

not be a ssessed accura tely.

Third, unpredictable performance of domes-

tic and global economies adds u ncertaint y to

forecasts of minerals demand.Fourt h, cha nging technologies can cau se un-

foreseen shifts in demand for minerals and ma-

terials.

Fifth, past experience indicates that methods

for projecting or forecasting minerals demand

‘J. Broadus, “Seabed Materials, ” S cience, vol. 235, Feb. 20, 1987,

p. 835.

fall short of perfection and are sometimes in-corr ect or misleadin g.

Mineral commodities demand is a function of de-man d for constr uction, capital equipment, tr an s-

portation, agricultural products, and durable con-

sumer goods. These markets are tied directly or

indirectly to general economic trends and are nota-

bly uns ta ble. With economic growth as th e “com-

mon denomina tor’ for deter minin g mat erials con-

sumption and hence minerals demand, and withrecognition of the short comings in pr edicting global

economic changes, any hope for reasonably ac-

curate forecasts evaporates.

It is pr obably unwise to even a ttempt to specu-

late on the future commercial viability of seabed

mining, but few can resist the temptation to do so.The case of deep seabed ma ngan ese nodule min-

ing offers a graphic example of how external in-

ternational and domestic political events and eco-

nomic factors can affect the business climate and

economic feasibility of offshore mining ventures.

After considerable investment in resource assess-

ments, development and testing of prototype min-

ing systems, and detailed economic and financial

analyses, the downturn of the minerals markets

from th e late 1970s thr ough the 1980s continu esto keep the m ining of seabed mangan ese nodulesout of economic reach, although many of the in-

tern ational legal uncertaint ies once facing the in-

dustry have been eliminated through reciprocal

agreements among th e ocean m ining nat ions. As

a consequence, several deep seabed mining ven-

tures have either shrunk their operations or aban-

doned th eir efforts a ltogether.

TRENDS IN MINERALS CONSUMPTION

Minerals consumption for a pr oduct is deter- consumed in the economy (product composit ion),

mined by th e number of units ma nufactured an d because each consumes different materials as well

the quan tity of metal or ma terial used in each unit. as different amount s of those ma terials. Finally,

Total demand is influenced by the mix of goods minerals demand is closely related to macroeconomic

81




activity, consumer preference, changing technol-

ogies, prices, and other unpredictable factors (see

box 3-A).

Long-ter m dem an d is difficult to forecast . Sim-

ple projections of consumption trends may be mis-

leading (figure 3-1).2From the lat e 1970s th rough

‘J. “Changing Trends in Metal Demand and the Decline

of Mining and Mineral Processing in Nonh America, paper pre-

sented at Colorado School of Mines Conference on Public Policy and

the Competitiveness of U.S. and Canadian Metals Production,

Golden, CO, Jan. 27-30, 1987.

Figure 3-1 .—Actual and Projected Consumption ofSelected Minerals in the Market-Economy Countries

(1950-85)

Copper

Projected

Changes in the world economy since 1973 have made itdifficult to forecast the long-term consumption of metals

by the Market-Economy Countries.

SOURCE: “Changing Trenda in Metal Demand and the of Min-ing and Mineral Processing in North America,” paper presented at aconference on public Policy and the Competitiveness of U.S. and Cana-

dian Metals Production, Colorado School of Mines, Jan. 27-30, 1967(modified).



Ch. 3—Minerals Supply, Demand, and Future Trends 83

middle 1980s, unforeseen changes in the world

economy significant ly altered consu mpt ion; th esechanges were partially caused by economic pres-

sures resulting from substantial increases in energyprices, coupled with technological advancements

(including substitution), changes in consumer atti-

tude, imports of finished products rather than rawmaterials, and growth in the service sector of the

U.S. economy.

These shifts in minerals dema nd a re r eflected in

both the intensity of use a nd in consumption.3 Of

the major industrial metals derived from minerals

kn own to occur in th e U.S. EEZ, only two—plati-num and titanium —show growth in domestic con-

sumption between 1972 and 1982. Whether the

long-term trends in use intensity and consumption

will continu e, sta bilize, or recover depends on ma ny

complex factors and unpredictable events that con-found even the most sophisticated analyses. How-ever, there a re indications tha t tr ends in reduced

intensity of use and consumption for some metals,

e.g., nickel, have stabilized since 1982.

3 ’ Intensity of use, as used in th is report, is the quan tity of metal

consumed per constant dollar output.

For most minerals,

and demand r esulting

COMMODITY PRICES

th e norm al forces of sup ply demand are notably volatile (figure 3-2). While all

from macroeconomic trends minerals are subject to some oscillations in marketdetermine the market price. 4 Mineral prices and prices due to normal economic events, some thatare produced by only a few sources (where there

‘Broadus, “Seabed Materials, ” p. 857. is a relatively low level of trade, e.g. , cobalt) and

Photo credit: Jenifer Robison

Considerable onshore mining capacity remains idle as a result of depressed mineral prices, foreign competition, andreduced demand. Idle capacity will likely be brought back into production to satisfy increased future consumption before

new mining operations are begun either onshore or offshore.




Figure 3-2.– Price Trends for SelectedSeabed Mineral Commodities

Prices of several commodities that are derived from minerals known to occur on the seabed within the U.S. EEZ can changeabruptly in world markets.

SOURCE: “Seabed Materials,” vol. 235, Feb. 20, 19S7, p. S57 (modified and abbreviated).



Ch. 3—Minerals Supply, Demand, and Future Trends q 85

those tha t a re t argets of speculators (e. g., the pre-

cious metals) undergo drastic and often unpredict-

able swings in price. Although at tempt s at forming

mineral cart els similar to Organization of Petro-

leum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in order to

stabilize prices have generally failed eventually,

e.g., attempts by Morocco to control the produc-tion and pr ice of phosphat e rock an d th e Intern a-

tional Tin Coun cil’s effort to st abilize tin prices,

they nevertheless can trigger serious price disrup-

tions.5Speculative surges, such as t hat encount ered

by silver in 1979-80, also can have tremendous im-

pacts on price stru cture.

In addition, unforeseen supply interruptions or

the fear of such int erru ptions can drive the price

of commodities up. The short-lived guerrilla inva-

sion of the Zairian province of Shaba in 1977 an d1978, had a psychological effect on cobalt con-

sumers tha t sent prices up from $6.40 per pound

in February 1977 to $25 per pound in February1979, although the invasion caused little interrup-

tion in production and Zairian cobalt production

actu ally increased in 1978 (figure 3-3).6Threat s of

a possible cut off of the supp ly of plat inum -group

met als from th e Republic of South Africa, resu lt-

ing from U.S. san ctions against apar theid, recently

caused similar increases in the market price of

platinum.

5S. Strauss, Trouble in the Third Kingdom (London, U. K.: M in -

in g Journal Books, Ltd., 1986), p. 116; see also, K. Hendrixson and

J. Schanz, Jr., International Mineraf Market Control and Stabiliza-tion: Historical Perspectives, 86-601 S (Washington, DC: Congres-

sional Research Service, 1986).

bOfiice of Technology Assessment, Strategic Materials: Technol-

ogies to Reduce U.S. Import Vulnerability, OTA-ITE-248 (Wash-

ington, DC: U .S. Congress, 1985), pp. 97-104; see also, W. Kirk

“A Third Pricing Phase: Stability?” American Metaf Market, Aug.

23, 1985, pp. 9-12.

Figure 3-3.—Cobalt Prices, 1920-85

—1920 1930 1940 1950 1980 1970 1980 1990

YearCobalt is a good example of how mineral commodity pricescan be affected by the fear of a supply interruption. Althoughsupplies of cobalt were only briefly interrupted during theShaba guerrilla uprising in Zaire, the psychological impact ontraders caused cobalt prices to skyrocket from 1978 to 1979.

SOURCE: F. Manheim, “Marine Cobalt Resources,” Science, vol. 232, May 2, 19S6.

Such commodity price fluctuations pose signifi-cant economic uncertainties for investors in new

mineral developments, including seabed mining.

Macroeconomic cycles coupled with macroeconomic

disruptions within the minerals sector make plan-

ning difficult a nd t he business futur e uncertain.

Nonmetallic minerals, while not completely im-

mun e from downtur ns in the business cycle, as a

whole have fared better than metals in recent years.

The prices of phosphate rock, sulfur, boron, diato-mite, and salt ha ve all increased at a higher ra te

than has inflation since 1973, whereas only the

prices of tin (temporarily) and certain precious me-tals have matched that performance among the non-

ferrous m etals.7However, a ll minera l prices fluc-

tuated greatly during that period.

‘Str auss, Trouble in the Third Kingdom, p. 140.

STATE OF THE MINING INDUSTRY

The downturn in the world minerals industry

into the 1980s had a combination of causes:

q First, there has been a long-term (but only re-cently recognized) trend toward less metal-in-

ten sive goods.

q Second, growth has slackened in per capitaconsumption of consumer goods and capital

expenditures.

qThird, developing countries’ economies have

not expanded to the point th at t hey have be-

come significant consumers, while at the same

time some of these countries have become low-cost mineral producers competing with tradi-

tional producers in the industrialized countries.

q Fourth, petroleum companies diversified by

investing in minerals projects that turned out




to be poor investments due to the 1982-83

recession.8

As a result, metal prices have remained quite low

during t he 1980s and will probably remain so un -

til demand absorbs the unused mineral production

capacity. The World Bank Index of metal and min-

eral prices indicates that the constant-dollar value

of mineral prices in the 1981 to 1985 period was19 percent below the value from 1975 to 1979 and

37 percent lower than the years 1965 through 1974.9

To survive these prices, the domestic industry has

undergone a significant shakedown and restructur-

ing, coupled with cuts in operations to improve effi-

ciency. While the surviving firms may emerge asstronger competitors, their ability and willingness

to invest in futur e risky ventu res such as seabedmining are likely to be limited.

Recent increases in the number of government-

owned or state-controlled foreign mining ventures

have added a new twist to the structure of the world

‘Tilton, “Changing Trends in Metal Demand. ”

‘World Ban k, Commodities Division, ‘‘Prim ar y Commodity P rice

Forecas t s , Aug . 18, 1986 .

mining industr y. The domestic industr y tends t o

blame state-owned producers for ignoring market

forces and maintaining production despite low

prices or supply surpluses. There is some evidence

tha t st ate-owned operat ors may continu e produc-

tion in order to maintain employment or generatemuch-needed ha rd curr ency.

10

Until recently, production costs in the United

States have been well above the world average.

Overvalued currency (high value of the dollar) dur-

ing 1981-86 also ma y have cont ribut ed to makin g

North American production less competitive. Thesefactors may have masked any effect that state

ownership might have played in distorting the world

market .11

Nevertheless, domestic competition with

stat e-owned mining ventures is a t rend t ha t willlikely continu e in t he futu re.

IOM. Radetzki, “The Role of State Owned Enterprises in the In-

ternational Metal Mining Industry, paper present ed at Conference

on Public Policy and the Competitiveness of U.S. and Canadian MetalsProduct ion, Colora do School of Mines, Golden, CO, J an. 27-30, 1987,

p. 15.

“J. Ellis, “Copper,” The Competitiveness of American Metal Min-

in g an d Processing (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service,

1986). p. 17.

FERROALLOYS

Manganese, chromium, silicon, and a number

of other alloying elements are used to impart spe-

cific properties to steel. Manganese is also used to

reduce the sulfur content of steel and silicon is a

deoxidizer. Most elements are added to molten steelin the form of ferroalloys, although some are ad-

ded in elemental form or as oxides. Ferroalloys are

intermediate products made of iron enriched with

the alloying element. Ferromanganese, ferrochro-

mium, and ferrosilicon are the major ferroalloys

used in th e United Stat es. There are n o domestic

reserves of either manganese or chromium; there-

fore the United States must import all of these al-

loying elements.

U.S. ferroalloy producers have lost domestic

markets to cheaper foreign sources. Higher domes-

tic opera ting costs r elated t o electr ic power rat es,labor r ates, tax ra tes, tran sporta tion costs, and r eg-

ulat ory costs ha ve given foreign pr oducers a com-

petitive edge.

As a resu lt, th e form of U.S. chr omium import s

has chan ged during th e last decade. Since 1981,the United States has imported more finished fer-

roalloys and metals than chromite (figure 3-4). Do-

mestic production of chromium ferroalloys has de-creased steadily since 1973, when 260,000 tons

(chromium content) of ferroalloy was produced, to

59,000 tons in 1984 (largely convers ion of stock-

piled chromite).12

Foreign producers now supply

U.S. mar kets with a bout 90 percent of the high-

carbon ferrochromium consumed and all of the ore

used domestically for the manufacture of chemi-

cals and refractories.

This shift from imports of ores and concentrates

to imports of ferrochromium and finished metals

could have important strategic implications. Since

1975, an increasing number of ferrochromium1 ZR, Brown a n d G. Mur phy, ‘‘ Ferroalloys, Mineral Facts and

Probk*ms-~985 Edition, Bulletin 675 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bu-

reau c,f Mines, 1986), p. 269.




plants have been built close to sources of chromite

ores in distant countries, such as the Republic of

South Africa, Zimba bwe, Greece, th e Ph ilippines,Turkey, India, and Albania. This trend in the

movement of ferrochromium supply is expected to

continue. Decline of U.S. ferroalloy production ca-

pacity in r elation to demand will likely make t he

United States nearly totally dependent on foreign

processing capacity in the future.

Domestic demand for ferroalloys is related to steel

production. Domestic steel capa city fell by almost

50 million tons (30 percent) between 1977 and 1987.

Iron castings capacity also has sh run k considera-

bly in recent years. In 1986, the United States im-

ported about 21 percent of its iron a nd st eel. The

decline in domestic steel production has also re-

duced the domestic demand for ferroalloys. With

the decreases in both U.S. ferroalloy production

an d iron an d steel production, deman d for chro-

mium and manganese ores for domestic produc-tion of ferr oalloys is likely t o continu e t o declineproportionately.

Figure 3-4 .—U.S. Ferrochromium andChromite Ore Imports

40 0

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

NATIONAL DEFENSE STOCKPILE

In 1939, Congress authorized stockpiling of crit-

ical materials for national security. World War 11precluded the accumulation of stocks, and it was

not unt il the Korean War th at m ater ials stockpil-ing began in earnest. Since that time, U.S. stock-

pile policy has been erratic and subject to periodic,lively debate. Past presidents have supported stock-

piling critical materials for times of emergency, but

some ha ve favored disposal of some of the stock-

piled items for fiscal or budgetary reasons. The

quest ion of how mu ch of each comm odity s hould

be retained in the stockpile remains a hotly debated

issue.

Stockpile goals a re curren tly based on th e ma te-rials needed for critical uses for a 3-year period that

are vulnerable to supply interruption. Some ob-

servers conclude that an increase in one unit of do-

mestic production capacity from domestic reservescould offset three units of stockpiled materials. This

view argues in favor of promoting domestic pro-

duction of stockpiled materials where feasible so as

to reduce the need for emergency stockpiling. Sev-

eral sea bed minerals, including cobalt, m angan ese,

an d chromium could be considered a s candidat es

for special treatment if government policies were

to shift away from emergency stockpiling towardeconomic support of marginal resource develop-

ment for strategic and critical purposes. To be con-sidered a secure source of supply, however, ma-

rine mineral operations offshore would have to be

protected from saboteurs or hostile forces.

The stockpiling program was overhauled in 1979to create a National Defense Stockpile with a Trans-

action Fund that dedicates revenue received by the

Federal Government from the sale of stockpile ex-

cesses to th e pur chase of ma ter ials short of stock-

pile goals.13

In 1986, the stockpile inventory was

valued at approximately $10 billion. If the stock-

pile met current goals, it would have a value of

about $16.6 billion.

14

A number of materials de-

I tS t ra teg ic a n d Critical Materi~s Stock Piling Act of 1979, Public

Law 96-41, 50 U.S. C. 98 et seq.1+Feder~ Em ergency Management Agency, Stockpile Report to the

Congress: October J985-March 1986, FEMA 36 , 1986, p, 61,




rived from minerals known to occur within the U.S.

EEZ are included in the stockpile: r-utile, platinum-

group metals, chromium, lead, manganese, nickel,

cobalt, zinc, chromium, copper, and titanium (ta-ble 3-l).

The stockpile program can affect minerals mar-

kets when there are large purchases to meet stock-pile goals or sa les of ma ter ials in excess of goals,

although the authorizing legislation prohibits trans-

actions that would disrupt normal marketing prac-

tices. Stockpile policies have on occasion opened

additiona l mar kets for certain minerals, while at

other times sales from the stockpile have signifi-

cantly depressed some commodity prices. The mere

existence of stockpile invent ories can also ha ve a

psychological effect on potent ial min era l produ c-ers’ actions.

Table 3-1.—Major U.S. Strategic MaterialsContained in the National Defense Stockpile

Most vulnerable Vulnerable Less vulnerable

Chromium Bauxite/alumina CopperCobalt Beryllium LeadManganese Columbium NickelPlatinum-group Diamond (industrial) Silver

Graphite (natural)ZincRutile

TantalumTinTitanium spongeVanadium

SOURCE: Adapted from Federal Emergency Management Agency, Sfockpi/e

Report to the Congress (Washington, DC: Federal EmergencyManagement Agency, 1986), pp. 30-31.

SUBSTITUTION, CONSERVATION, AND RECYCLING

Changes in production technology can substan-

tially affect m inerals an d ma terials use. Chan gesin use are generally made in response to economic

incentives, although environmental regulations also

have been instrumental in promoting some conser-

vation a nd r ecycling. Cheaper ma terials or ma te-

rials that perform better can replace their compet-

itors by substitution. Similarly, there is significant

motivation to reduce the amount of material used

in a production process or t o use it more efficiently.

Finally, if the material is valuable enough to offsetthe cost of collecting, separating, and reclaiming

scrap, there is an incentive to recycle the material

through secondary processing. Each of these op-tions can reduce the demand for primary minerals

production.

Materials substitut ion is a continuing, evolution-

ary pr ocess where one ma terial displaces a nother

in a specific use. Examples of substitution abound.

Steel has replaced wood for floor joists, studs, andsiding in many construction applications. Plastics

are replacing wood as furniture parts and finishes,

many metals in non-stress applications, and steel

in a ut omobile bodies. Ceram ics sh ow promise for

displacing carbide steels in some cutting tools and

some internal combustion engine components.

Glass fiber optics have replaced copper wire in some

telecommunications applications. At a more ele-mental level, there are other examples: manganese

can par tially substitute for n ickel and chromium

in some stainless steels; the increased use of nickel-

based superalloys have reduced the quantity of co-balt used in aircraft engines; and, for some elec-

tronic applications, gold can replace platinum.

Conservation technologies can reduce the

amount of meta l used in the ma nufacturing proc-

ess. Near-net-shaping, in which metals are cast into

shapes that correspond closely to the final shape of the object, can reduce materials waste in some in-

stances. Conventional processing generally involves

considerable machining of billets, bars, or other

standard precast sha pes and generates substantial

amounts of mill cuttings and machine scrap. In

some cases, the rat io between purchased meta l and

used metal may be as high as 10 to 1.15 While much

of th is ‘‘ne w scrap ‘‘ is reclaimed, some is contami-

nated and is unusable for high-performance appli-

cations like aircraft engines.

Improvements in production processes can also

reduce metals needs. The use of manganese todesulfurize steel has been reduced with the intro-

IJOfflce of TeChnOIO~ Assessment, Strategic Materials: Technol-

ogies to Reduce U.S. Import Vulnerability, p. 24.




duction of external desulfurization processes. Con-

tinuous casting technology can reduce the amount

of scrap produced in steel manufacturing. Emerg-

ing technologies, for example, surface tr eatmen t

technologies (e. g., ion-implantation) and powdered

metal technologies, may also reduce the use of some

metals for high-performance applications in the

future.

For several metals, ‘ ‘obsolete scrap’ (’‘old

scrap’ could play an even more importa nt role

in reducing the need for virgin materials if economic

conditions cha nge an d inst itutional problems a re

overcome. Recycling and secondary production has

become a sta ble sector for severa l of the min era ls

(e. g., copper, lea d, zinc, nickel, silver, iron , stee l,

and to a lesser extent platinum, chromium, and co-

balt). Very little manganese is recycled. Economicfactors largely determine the recyclability of ma-

terials, factors such as price; cost of collecting, iden-

tifying, sorting, and separating scrap; and the cost

of clean ing, processing, an d refining th e meta l. It

is technologically possible to recover significantly

more chromium, cobalt, and platinum from scrap

should the need ar ise and economics perm it.

MAJ OR SE ABED MINER AL COMMODITIES

Cobal t

Properties and Uses

Cobalt imparts heat resistance, high strength,

wear resistance, and magnetic properties to mate-

ria ls. In 1986, about 36 per cent of th e cobalt con-

sumed in t he United Sta tes was for air craft enginesand industrial gas turbines (superalloys containfrom 1 to 65 percent cobalt); 14 percent was for

magnetic alloys for perman ent magnets; 13 percent

for driers in paints and lacquers; 11 percent for

catalysts; and 26 per cent for various other appli-

cations. These other applications included using of

cobalt to cement carbide abrasives in the manu-facture of cutting tools and mining and drilling

equipment; to bind steel to rubber in the manu-factur e of radial tires; as a hydrat ors, desulfurizer,

and oxidizer and as a synthesizer of hydrocarbons;

in nutritional supplements; and in dental and med-

ical supplies.

There are currently no acceptable substitutes or

replacements for cobalt in high-temperature appli-

cations, although alternatives have been proposed.

However, th e possible substitu tes ar e also strat e-

gic and critical metals such as nickel. While cer-

amics have potential for h igh-temperat ure appli-cations, it will be some time in the future before

they can be used extensively in jet engines or in-dustrial gas turbines. Use of some cobalt-rich al-

loys could be reduced by substitution of ceramic

or ceramic-coated automobile turbochargers, and

there are possible replacements for cobalt inmagnets.

National Importance

The United States imported 92 percent of the co-

balt it consumed in 1986.16 Cobalt is consideredto be a potentially vulnerable strategic material (ta-

ble 3-1) and is a priority item in t he Na tional De-

fense Stockpile. The stockpile goal for cobalt is

42,700 tons, and the inventory is currently 26,590

tons of contained cobalt, or about 62 percent of the

goal. Much of the stockpiled cobalt is of insufficient

grade to be used for the production of high-perform-

ance metals, although it could be used to produce

importa nt chemical products and for m agnets.17

No cobalt ha s been mined in the Un ited Statessince 1971. Zaire su pplied 40 per cent of U.S. co-

balt n eeds from 1982 to 1985, Zam bia 16 percent ,

Canada 13 percent, Norway 6 percent, and vari-ous other sources 25 percent.

18In addition, about

600 tons of cobalt was recycled from purchased

scrap in 1986, or approximately 8 percent of appar-

ent consumption. There has been no domestic co-

balt refinery capacity since the AMAX Nickel

Refining Company closed its nickel-cobalt refin-ery at Port Nickel, Louisiana, (capacity of 2 mil-

lion pounds of cobalt per year), although two firms

use the facility to produce extra-fine cobalt pow-

der from virgin and recycled material.

“~’. Kirk, ‘ ‘Cobalt, ” .bfineraf Commodit,v S u m m a r i e s - 1 9 8 7

(Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1987), p. 38,I TAmerican Smiety for Met~s, Qua lit}, Assessment of i%’afional De-

fense S tockpile Cobalt In\ ’entory (Metals Park, OH: American Soci-

ety for Metals, 1983), p. 40.

“Kirk, ‘ ‘Cobalt, ’ ,$ finera) Commodi[j Summaries—1987, p. 38.

7 2 - 67 2 0 - 8 7 - 4




With 56 percent of cobalt imports originating

from Zaire and Zambia, which together producealmost 70 per cent of the world’s su pply of cobalt,

th e U.S. supply of cobalt is concent ra ted in devel-

oping countries with uncertain political futures. For

example, th e invasion of Sha ba P rovince in Zaire

in 1977 and 1978 by anti-government guerrillas

caused some concern about th e impact of politicalinstability on cobalt supply. Abrupt increases in

market prices followed, driven more by market op-

portunists and fear of the consequences than from

direct interdiction of cobalt supply. Mining andprocessing facilities were only briefly closed and the

impa ct on Zaire’s pr oduction capa city wa s n egli-

gible.19

Domestic Resources and Reserves

Cobalt is recovered as a byproduct of nickel, cop-

per, and, to a m uch lesser extent , platinum. Eco-

nomic deposits typically conta in concent ra tions of between 0.1 and 2 percent cobalt. The U.S. reservebase is large (950,000 tons of contained cobalt), but

ther e are curren tly no domestic reserves of cobalt.

Domestic cobalt r esources ar e estimat ed at about

1.4 million tons (conta ined cobalt) .20

The economics of cobalt recovery are linked morewith the market price of the associated major me-

ta ls (copper a nd n ickel) tha n with th e price of co-

balt. It is necessary, therefore, that the major me-

tals be economically recoverable to permit therecovery of cobalt as a byproduct. As a resu lt, th e

price sensitivity of cobalt production is difficult toforecast. Depressed prices for the base metals re-

duce the economic feasibility of recovering cobalt.

Domestic land-based cobalt-bearing deposits are

likely not to be mined until some time in the fu-

‘9Kirk , “A Third Pricing Phase: Stability ?,” pp. 9, 12.

20Kirk, ‘ ‘Cobalt, ’ Mineral Commodity Summar-ies-f987, p. 39 .

tur e. However, in a n emergency an d with govern-

ment support , they could produce a significantproportion of U.S. cobalt consu mpt ion for a s hort

time.21

In addition, cobalt-rich manganese crusts

in the Blake Plateau off the southeastern Atlantic

coast and crusts or pavements on seamounts in the

Pa cific Ocean cont ain cobalt concent ra tions of be-

tween 0.3 an d 1.6 percent (some ferromangan esecrust samples have been reported to contain up to

2.5 percent), along with nickel, manganese, andother metals. These compare favorably with U.S.

land-based resources tha t ran ge from 0.01 to about

0.55 percent cobalt.22

Future Demand and Technological Trends

U.S. consum ption gener ally account s for a bout35 percent of total world consumption. There is lit-

tle prospect for major reductions in cobalt demand

through substitution. Total U.S. demand for co-

balt in 2000 is forecast to be between 24 millionand 44 million pounds, with a probable demand

of 34 million pounds (table 3-2).23 Future demand

for cobalt is difficult to forecast. Both the intensity

of cobalt use and the amount of cobalt-based ma-

terials consumed have changed abruptly in the past

and will likely continue to change in the future.

C h r o m i u m

Properties and Uses

Chromium is used in iron an d steel, nonferrous

metals, meta l plating, pigment s, leather process-

ZIG. Pe t e r son , D. Blciwas, and P. Thomas, CobaJt AvaiJab i l i t y—

Domestic, IC 8849 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1981),

p. 27.22c. M ish ra , C. Sheng-Fogg, R. Chr is t iansen , et al. , cob~t

Avadab i f i t y—A4arket Economy Countries, IC 9012 (Washington, DC:

U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1985), p. 10,23

W. Kirk, “Cobalt,” Mineral Facts and Problems-1985 Edition,

Bulletin 675 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1986), p. 180.

Table 3-2.—Forecast of U.S. and World Cobalt Demand in 2000

2000 Annual growthActual Low Probable High 1983-2000

(thousand pounds) (percent)United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5,000a 24,000 34,000 44,000 3.9Rest of world. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31,500 50,000 65,000 75,000 3.5

Total world. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 74,000 99,000 120,000 3.7au , s , data fo r 1966 from W , Ki r k , “cobalt ,” Mineral Commodi ty Summaries— 1987 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1~7), P. 38.

SOURCE: Adapted from W. Kirk, “Cobalt,” Mineral Facts and Problems–1985 Edition, Bulletin 675 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1966), p, 182,




ing, catalysts, and refractories. In 1986, 88 percent

of the chromite (common ore form of chromium)

consumed in the United States was used by the

metallurgical an d chemical indust ry, and 12 per-

cent by the r efractory industry.

Metallurgical Uses. —Chromium is used in a

variety of alloy steels, cast irons, and nonferrousalloys. Chromium is used in these applications to

improve h ardn ess, reduce creep, enha nce impact

strength, resist corrosion, reduce high-temperature

oxidation, improve wear, or reduce galling.

High-carbon ferrochromium contains between

52 and 72 percent chromium and between 6 and9.5 percent carbon. Low-carbon ferrochromium

contains between 60 and 75 percent chromium and

between 0.01 and 0.75 percent carbon. Ferrochro-

mium -silicon conta ins between 38 an d 45 percent

silicon and between 34 and 42 percent chromium.

The largest amount of ferrochromium (76 per-cent in 1986) is used for stainless steels. Chromium

is also used in nonferrous alloys and is essential in

the so-called ‘‘superalloys’ used in jet engines and

industr ial gas tur bines. In 1984, about 3 percent

of the ferrochromium and pure chromium metal

used for metallurgy was for superalloys; less than

1 percent was used for other nonferrous alloys.

Chromium, along with cobalt, nickel, aluminum,

titanium, and minor alloying metals, enables super-

alloy to withstand high mechanical and thermalstress and to resist oxidation and hot corrosion at

high operating temperatures.

Chemical Uses.—Chromium-containing chem-

icals include color pigment s, corr osion inhibitors,

drilling mud additives, catalysts, etchers, and tan-

ning compounds. Sodium bichromate is the pri-

mary intermediate product from which other

chromium-containing compounds are produced.

Refractory Uses. —Chromite is used to produce

refractory brick and mortar. The major use for

refractory brick is for metallurgical furnaces, glass-

making, and cement processing. Use of chromite

in refractories improves structural strength and

dimensional sta bility at high temperat ures.

National Importance

Chromium is considered to be a strategic mate-rial that is critical to national security and poten-

table 3-3.—1986 National Defense ChromiumStockpile Goals and Inventories (as of Sept. 30, 1986)

Inventory asMaterial Goal Inventory percent of goal

(thousand tons)Chromite:

Metallurgical . . . . . 3,200 1,874 59

Chemical . . . . . . . . 675 242 36Refractory . . . . . . . 850 391 46Ferrochromium:

High-carbon . . . . . . 185 502 271Low-carbon 75 300 400Silicon . . . . . . . . . . 90 57 63Chromium metal . . 20 4 20

SOURCE J Papp, “Chromium,”Mineral COrnrnocfity Summaries– 1987 (Wash-ington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1987), p. 35,

tially very vulnerable to supply interruptions24

( ta-

ble 3-1 and 3-3). It is critical because of limitations

on substitutes for chromium in the vacuum-melted

superalloys needed for hot corrosion and oxidation

resistance in high-temperature applications and in

its extensive use in stainless steels.

The Repu blic of Sout h Africa a ccount ed for 59

percent of total chromium imports (chromite ore,

concentrates, and ferroalloys) between 1982 and1985. Other s uppliers in cluded Zimbabwe, which

provided 11 percent, Tur key 7 percent, an d Yugo-

slavia 5 percent.25

The Republic of South Africa

and the U.S.S.R jointly led in world production

of chromite in 1986, producing about 3.7 and 3.3

million tons respectively, far ahead of the next

largest pr oducer, Albania, with about 1 milliontons.

26Some foreign producing countries, such as

Brazil, are producing and exporting ferrochromiumfrom chromite deposits which would not be com-

petitive in t he world mark et if shipped as ore or

concentrate. However, by adding the value of con-version to ferroalloy, both the Brazilian and the

Zimbabwe deposits remain competitive.


The United States currently has no chromite re-

serves or reserve base. Domestic resources havebeen mined sporadically when prices are high, or

L+ Office of TechnoloW Assessment, Strategic Materials: Technol-

ogies to Reduce U.S. Import Vulnerability, p. 52.25

J . Papp , “Chromium,” Mineral Facts and Problems—J985 Edi-

t ion, Bulletin 675 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1986),

p. 141.

2’J. Papp, ‘ ‘Chromium, Minerals Yearbook (Washington DC:

U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1985), p, 229.




with the aid of government price supports, or in

times of national emergencies. Under normal eco-

nomic conditions of world trade, U.S. chromite re-

sources are not competitive with foreign sources of

supply. There are 43 known domestic deposits esti-mated to contain approximately 7 million tons of

cont ained chromic oxide as demonstrated resources

and 25 million tons as identified resources .27 U.S.chromite deposits r ange between 0.4 percent and

25.8 percent chromic oxide content.

The major known domestic deposits of chromite

minerals are the stratiform deposits in the Stillwater

Complex in Montana and in small podiform-type

deposits in northern California, southern Oregon,

and southern Alaska. Placer chromite deposits oc-

cur in beach san ds in southwest Oregon an d str eam

sands in Georgia, North Carolina, and Penn-sylvania.

Although 91 percent of U.S. demonstrated chro-

mite resources and 84 percent of identified resourcescould be converted as low-chromium ferrochro-

mium, th e U.S. Burea u of Mines doubts tha t do-

mest ic chr omite res ources could be produced eco-nomically even with much higher market prices

tha n the current $470 per ton for low-chromium

ferrochromium and $600 per ton for high-chro-

mium ferrochromium. Most low-chrome ferrochro-

mium could be produced domestically for a little

less than about $730 per ton, and high-chrome fer-

rochromium would cost even more.28

With enormous reserves of all grades of chromite

in other par ts of the world, it is doubtful tha t th emeager chromite resources of the United States

could justify the investment needed to rebuild the

domestic ferrochromium production capacity thathas been lost. In addition, th ere is current ly sig-

nificant overcapacity in the ferrochromium indus-

try in the market economy countries. Estimates in

1986 showed production capacity of 2.6 million tons

compared to demand of 1.9 million tons.29

There

have been no significant shortages of ferrochro-

mium encountered in world markets in the past toindicate that things might change in the future.

“J . L em o n s, J r . , E . B oy le , J r . , a n d C . Kilgore, Chromium

Atailabifity-Domestic, IC 8895 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of

Mines, 1982), p. 4.

*eIbid., p. 9.

29W. Dres ler , ‘‘A Feasibility Study of Ferrochromium Extraction

from Bird River Concentrates in a Submerged-Arc Furnace, Cl&f

Bulletin, vol. 79 (September 1986), pp. 98-105.

Domestic Production

The United States was the world’s leading chro-

mite producer in the 1800s, but, since 1900, sel-

dom more than 1,000 tons have been produced an-

nually except for periods of wartime emergencies.

During both World Wars and the Korean War,production increased when the Federal Govern-

ment subsidized domestic chromite production. Do-

mestic production ceased in 1961 when the last pur-

chase contract under the Defense Production Act

termina ted. Since then , ther e was one att empt to

reopen a mine closed in t he 1950s, but, after pr o-

ducing only a small amount of chromite for export

in 1976, the mine was again abandoned. There has

been no domestic production reported since.

The United St ates imported an d consum ed about512,000 tons of chromite ore and concentrate in1984, primarily for use in chemicals and refracto-

ries. In 1973, the United States ferrochromium ca-

pacity was about 400,000 tons (contained chro-mium); by 1984, domestic capacity had shrunk to

about 187,000 tons—a decrease of about 54 per-cent.

30U.S. capacity is expected to shrink further,

to perhaps 150,000 tons by 1990.31

Ferrochromium

production in 1984 was about 51,000 tons (con-

tained chromium), or approximately 27 percent uti-

lization of installed capacity .32 Production in 1984was near ly four times th at of 1983 as a r esult of

governm ent cont ra cts for t he conversion of stock-

piled chromite to ferrochromium for the National

Defense Stockpile. Once upgrading of the stock-

pile is completed, ferr ochr omium pr oduction m ay

return to levels at or below 1983 production (13,000

tons—conta ined chr omium). In 1984, only two of

the six domestic ferrochromium firms were oper-

ating plants, and those only at low production levels

or intermittently.


Commodity analysts differ on the outlook for fu-ture chromium demand. One U.S. Bureau of

30G. Guenther, “Ferroalloys,” The Competitiveness of American

A4etaJ Mining and Processing, ch. VIII (Washington, DC: Congres-

sional Research Service, 1986), p. 127.31Papp, ‘ ‘Chromium, Mineral Facts and Problems—1985 Edi-

tion, p. 141.32

Papp, ‘ ‘Chromium, Minerals Yearbook—1984, p, 220.




Table 3-4.–Forecasts for U.S. Chromium Demand in 2000(thousand tons of contained chromium)

2000End use 1983 Low Probable High

Chemical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 90 110 121Refractory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 27 35 47Fabricated metal products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 60 80 100

Machinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 7510 0

130Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 80 100 130Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 300 390 500

SOURCE: J, Papp, “Chromium,” &fineral Facts and Problems— 1965 Editiorr, Bulletin 675 (Washington, DC: U S. Bureau of Mines,

1986), p. 152

Mines report foresees an increase in domestic chro-

mium demand at a rate of about 6.5 percent per

year between 1983 and 2000 (table 3-4),33

from ap-

proximately 329,000 tons in 1983 to between

632,000 tons a nd a bout one million t ons by 2000,

with the most probable estimate being 815,000 tons.

About 83 percent of the probable estimated demand

in 2000 is expected to be used in metals; 13 per-

cent in chemicals; and 4 percent in refractories.

Based on trends in chromium consumption and

use, an other Bureau of Mines r eport, pr oduced in

cooperation with basic industry analysts of the De-

partment of Commerce, foresees a different de-

man d scenario. This scenar io is based on the t he-

ory that demand for ferrochromium is largely

determined by the demand for stainless steel. Do-

mestic production of stainless st eel has rema ined

relatively stable since 1980 at between 1.7 millionand 1.8 million tons per year, with the exception

of 1982 when it dipped to 1.2 million tons. Although

chromium content of specific alloy and stainlesssteels remains stable, the use of high-chromiumcontent steels has decreased in volume .34

There is significant potential for reducing the

consumption of chromium through substitution by

low-chromium steels, titanium, or plastics for stain-

less steel in less-demanding applications. The Na-

tional Materials Advisory Board (NMAB) deter-mined that 60 percent of the chromium used in

stainless steel could be saved in a supply emergency

by the use of low-chromium substitutes or no-chro-

mium materials that either currently exist or could

be developed within 10 years.35

Only 20 to 30 per-33Papp , ‘ ‘Chromium, ,$ fincral Facts and Prob lcms—1985 , p. 152.

34 Domc5t1c ~onsumption Trends, 1972-82, and Forecasts tO J 993

for Twel}e Major Me(a/ s, Open File Report 27-86 (Washington DC:

U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1986), p. 7,

35 ~-at iona] Mater ia l s Advisorv Board, Concingenc}, Plans for Chro-

cent of th e chr omium curr ent ly used domest icallyin stainless steel is considered to be irreplaceable.

Substitution may also displace some of the chro-

mite used in refractories with the use of low-chro-

mite bricks or dolomite bricks. Substitutes for chro-

mium in pigments an d plating ar e also available,

although at some sacrifice in desirable properties.

Use of chromium in chemicals generally reflectsa slow but steady growth in chromium consum p-

tion, with expanded capacity of the chemical in-

dustry offsetting a decrease in the intensity of use

of chromium. The use of chromite-containing

refractories has significantly declined as the result

of technological improvements in steel furnaces;

open hearth furnaces have given way to electric arc

furnaces and basic oxygen furnaces (BOF) in the

steelma king process. As a resu lt of th ese cha nges

in th e inten sity of use of chromium, th e combined

Bureau of Mines and Department of Commercereport forecasts a reduction in chromium demand

from about 330,000 tons in 1983 to 275,000 tonsin 1993.

36

New technology for processing chromite ores has

also increased the world supply of usable chromite

reserves. Improvements in technologies to recover

chromium from laterite deposits may also make

low-grade deposits, some located in th e western

United States, more desirable for chromium recov-

ery, but probably still not competitive.37

m i um Utilization, NMAB-335 (Washington, DC: N’ational .Academ}

of Sciences, 1978).

3GIbid., p. 44.37A, Silverman,

J, Schm idt, P, Qu cn e a u , et al , Strate,qic and ~rit-ka l Mineral Position of the United States with Respect to Chromlurn ,

Nickel, Cobalt, Alangancscr and Plat inum, OTA Contract Report

(Washington, DC: Office of Technolog y Assessment, 1983), p. 133;

see also, H, Sal i sbu ry , M. Wouden, and M, Shirts, Beneficiation of

Low-Grade California Chromite Ores, RI 8592 (Washington, DC:

U.S. Bureau of %lincs, 1982), p. 15.



94 q Marine Minerals:E x p l o r i n g Ou r New Oc e a n F r o n t i e r

M a n g a n e s e

Properties and Uses

Manganese plays a major role in the production

of steels and cast iron. Originally, manganese was

used to control oxygen and sulfur impurities in

steel. As an alloying element, it increases the

strength, toughness, and hardness of steel and in-

hibits the formation of carbides which could cause

brittleness. Manganese is also an important alloy-

ing element for nonferrous materials, including alu-

minum and copper.

Hadfield steels cont aining between 10 a nd 14

percent manganese, are wear-resistant alloys used

for certain railroad tr ackage and for m ining and

crushing equipment. An interm ediate form of man-

ganese alloy—ferromanganese —is usually used in

the manufacture of steels, alloys, and castings. Be-cause manganese can exist in several chemical ox-

idation st ates, it is u sed in batt eries and for chemi-cals. Several forms of mangan ese are u sed in th e

manufacture of welding-rod coatings and fluxes and

for coloring bricks and ceramics.

Nat ional Impor tance

Demand for manganese is closely related to steel

production. Two major trends have combined to

lessen domestic consumption of manganese. First,

domestic steel production has declined; in 1986, itwas at about h alf of its pea k year in 1973, when

the U.S. produced 151 million tons of raw steel.

Second, developments in steel manufacturing tech-nology have reduced the per-unit quantities of man-

ganese needed. As a result, ma nganese consu mp-

tion decreased from 1.5 million tons (contained

manganese) in 1973 to 700,000 tons in 1986.

In the early 1970s, the United States was import-

ing about 70 percent of its manganese in the form

of ores, a lar ge sha re of which was pr ocessed int o

ferromanganese by U.S. producers. By 1979, the

picture had reversed, with imports of foreign-

produced ferromanganese running at about 70 per-cent and manganese ores at about 30 percent. Since

1983, imports have been about one-third as ore andtwo-thirds as ferromanganese and metal (figure 3-

5). There currently is no remaining domestic ca-

pacity for ferromanganese production.

Figure 3-5.—Percentage of Manganese importedinto the United States as Ferromanganese, 1973=86

73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86

YearLike chromium and ferrochromium, the proportion of man-ganese imported by the United States as ferromanganese andmanganese metal has increased compared to imported man-ganese ore. Manganese producing countries find it advan-tageous to ship processed ferromanganese or metal ratherthan unprocessed ore to gain the value added for export.

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987,

Today, the United States is highly dependent on

foreign sources for manganese concentrates, ores,

ferromanganese, and manganese metal. About 30

percent of the imports (based on conta ined man -

gan ese) are from t he Repu blic of South Africa, 16

percent from France (produced largely from ore im-

ported from Gabon), 12 percent from Brazil, 10percent from Gabon, and 32 percent from diverse

other s ources .38

Manganese is a strategic material which is criti-

cal t o national security and is potentially vulner-

able to supply interruptions (table 3-l). Severalforms of manganese are stockpiled in the NationalDefense Stockpile (table 3-5). However, the diver-

sification of imports among many producing coun-

tries tends to somewhat reduce U.S. vulnerability

to supply inter rupt ions, alth ough some supplier n a-

tions obtain raw material from less-secure African

sources,


Manganese pavements and nodules (approxi-

mat ely 15 percent m an ganese) on t he Blake Pla-

teau in the U.S. EEZ off the southeast coast are

3*T. Jones, “Manganese,” Minera/ Commodity Summaries-1987 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1987), p, 98.

.




Table 3-5.—Status of Manganese in the NationalDefense Stockpile— 1986 (as of Sept. 30, 1986)


(thousand tons)Battery grade. . . . . . . 87 175 201Chemical ore . . . . . . . 170 172 1 0 1

Metallurgical ore. . . . 2,700 2,235 a 83Ferromanganese . . . . 439 700 160Sil icomanganese . . . 0 24 —

Electrolytic metal . . . 0 14 —

astockpiled metallurgical grade ore is being converted to high-carbon ferroman-

ganese which will add about 472,000 tons of ferromanganese to the stockpileand reduces the amount of manganese ore.

SOURCE T Jones, “Manganese,” Mineral Commodity Summaries–1987(Wash- ington, DC: U.S Bureau of Mines, 1987), p 99.

estimated to contain as much as 41 million tons of

manganese. Similar deposits off Hawaii and the Pa-

cific Islands represent even m ore mangan ese on t he

seafloor within the U.S. EEZ.39

At current prices, there are n o reserves of man-

ganese ore in the continental United States that con-tain 35 percent or more man ganese, nor ar e there

resources from which concentra tes of that grade

could be economically produced. The 70 million

tons of conta ined ma ngan ese resources estimated

to exist in the Un ited States a verage less tha n 20

percent and generally contain less than 10 percent

manganese. The U.S. Bureau of Mines estimates

that the domestic land-based subeconomic resources

would require from 5 to 20 times the current world

price of manganese to become commercially via-

ble.40

Should an emergency require that economicallysubmarginal domestic deposits be brought into pro-

duction, the most likely would be in the northAroostook district of Maine and the Cuyuna north

range in Minnesota .41

It is u nlikely tha t t here will be much improve-

ment in the U.S. manganese supply position. Past

efforts to discover rich ore bodies or to improve the

efficiency of processing technology have not been

successful. What is known about seabed resources

39F. Manheim, “Marine Cobalt Resources, ” S cience, vol. 232, May

2, 1986, Pp. 600-608.

40T. Jones, “Manganese,” ,$lineral Facts and Problems—19&5 Edi-

[ion, Bulletin 675 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1986),

p. 486.41 Na t ion~ Materi~s Advisor), Board, , k lanqanesc ~eCOt’C’~r ~ec~-

.nolo<gy’, h ’ MAB-323 (Washington, DC: N’ational Academ y of Sciences,

1976).

of manganese pavement and nodules indicates that

manganese content may range between 15 and 30

percent, which makes offshore deposits at least com-

para ble with some onshore deposits. But th e un-

certainties of offshore mining ventures and their

associated costs, coupled with marginal mineral

prices, raise doubts as to their economic feasibility

as well.42


Future manganese consumption will be deter-

mined mainly by requirements for steelmaking.

The amount of man ganese required for steelmak -

ing depends on two factors: 1 ) the quantity of man-

ganese u sed per t on of steel produced, and 2) the

total amount of steel produced in the United States.

Compa ring 1982 with 1977, th e inten sity of use of manganese in the steel sector was reduced by half,

an d th e total consum ption of mangan ese used for

producing steel also dropped around 50 percent .43

Although there has been a trend toward the use

of higher manganese contents for alloying in high-

strength steels and steels needed for cryogenic ap-plications, the reduction in the intensity of use for

steels used in lar ge volumes ha s far exceeded the

increases for the high-performance steels. Because

manganese is an inexpensive commodity, there is

little incentive to develop conservation technologies

further.

The U.S. Bureau of Mines expects domestic

manganese demand in 2000 to range between

700,000 and 1.3 million tons (manganese content),with probable demand placed at 900,000 tons (ta-

ble 3-6). With 1986 apparent consumption about

665 million tons, only modest growth in demandis expected th rough th e end of the centu ry.

N i c k e l

Properties and Uses

Nickel impart s st rength, h ardn ess, and corrosionresistance over a wide range of temperatures when

42c, Hi]]man, Manganese Nodu]e Resources of Three Areas in the

Northeast Pacific Ocean: With Proposed Mining-Beneficiation Sys-

tems and Costs, IC 8933 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines,

1983).4 3 D ome s t i c C ons umpt i on Trends, 1 9 7 2 - 8 2 , an d F o r e c a s t s t o 1993

for T welve Major Meta/ s , Open File Report 27-86 (Washington, DC:

U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1986), p. 77.




Table 3-6.—Forecast for U.S. and World Manganese Demand in 2000


(thousand tons) (percent)United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665 a 660 920 1,260 1.9Rest of world. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,132 8,200 10,200 13,900 1.3

Total world. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 8,900 11,100 15,200 1.4

au,s, data for 1988 from T. Jones, “Manganese, ” ~irreral Commodity Surnrnaries-1987 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1987), p. 98.

SOURCE: Adapted from T. Jones, “Manganese, “ in Minera/ Facts and Problems— 1985 Edition (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1988), p. 495

alloyed with other metals. Approximately 39 per-

cent of the primary nickel consumed in the United

States in 1986 went into stainless and alloy steels;

31 percent was used in nonferrous alloys; and 22

percent was used for electroplating. The remain-ing 8 percent was used in chemicals, batteries, dyes

and pigments, and insecticides.

Stainless steels may conta in between 1.25 per-

cent a nd 37 percent nickel, although the a verage

is about 6 percent. Alloy steels, such as those usedfor high-strength components in heavy equipment

and aircraft operations, contain about 2 percent

nickel, although the average is less than 1 percent,

while superalloy used for very high-tempera tur e

and high-stress applications like jet engines and in-

dustrial turbines may contain nearly 60 percent

nickel. Nickel also is used in a wide range of other

alloys (e. g., nickel-copper, copper-nickel, nickel-

silver, nickel-molybdenum, and bronze).

National Importance

Most uses for nickel ar e consider ed critical for

national defense and are generally important to the

U.S. industrial economy overall. However, based

on criteria t hat consider su pply vulnera bility and

possible substitut e ma terials, OTA determined in

a 1985 assessment that nickel, while economicallyimporta nt, is not a m ajor ‘‘stra tegic’ material .44

Nickel is stockpiled in the National Defense Stock-pile. The stockpile goal is 200,000 tons of contained

nickel, and the inventory in 1986 was 37,200 tons—

about 20 percent of the goal.

The United States imported about 78 percent of

the nickel consumed in 1986.45

Canada was the ma-

jor supplier of nickel (40 percent) to the United

440ffice of Technology Assessment, Strategic Materials: Technol-

ogies to Reduce U.S. Import Vulnerability, p. 52.4sp. Chamberlain, ‘‘Nickel, Mineral Commodity Summaries—

1987 (Washington, DC: L’, S. Bureau of Mines, 1987), p. 108.

States; Australia provided 14 percent, Norway 11

percent, Botswana 10 percent, and 25 percent was

obtained from other countries, including the Repub-

lic of South Africa, New Caledonia, Dominican

Republic, Colombia, and Finland. In 1986, the

United States consumed 184,000 tons of nickel,

compared to 283,000 tons in 1974.


Domestically produced nickel will probably con-tinue to be a very sma ll part of U.S. total supply

in the future. U.S. demonstrated resources are esti-mated to be about 9 million tons of nickel in place,

from wh ich 5.3 m illion tons m ay be r ecoverable.46

Identified nickel resources are about 9.9 million

tons, which could yield 6 million tons of metal. The

domestic reserve base is estimated to be 2.8 mil-

lion tons of contained nickel.47

Although U.S. re-

sources ar e substa nt ial, the average gra de of do-

mestic nickel resources is about 0.21 percent

(ran ging from 0.16 per cent t o 0.91 percent ), com-

pared to the average world grade of nearly 0.98 per-

cent. Ferromanganese crusts on Pacific Ocean sea-mounts are reported to be about 0.49 percent

nickel .48

Domestic Production

Nickel production from U.S. mines was 1,100

tons in 1986, with about 900 tons of nickel recov-

ered as a nickel sulfate byproduct of two primary

4’D . Buck ingham a n d J . Le m o n s , J r , , IVickef Ava i ] ab i / i t y -

Dornes[ic, IC 8988 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1984),

p. 25.47

Chamberlain , ‘ ‘Nickel, ” Mineral Commodit y Summaries—1987,

p. 109.48W, Harvey an d P. Ammann, “Metallurgical Processing Com-

ponent for the Mining Development Scenario for Cobalt-Rich Fer-

r om an g a n e s e Oxide Crust, Final Draft Chapter, Manganese Crust

E IS Project (Arlington, MA: Arlington Technical Services, 1985),

pp. 3-2




copper operations. 4 9 T h e o n l y d o m e s t i c m i n e t o

meta l production came from Ha nna Mining Com-

pan y’s Nickel Moun ta in Mine in Oregon, which

produced ferronickel; the mine closed permanently

in August 1986. Secondary recovery of nickel from

recycled old and new scrap contributed about

39,000 tons in 1986, which was approximately 21percent of apparent consumption.


After growing at an average rate of roughly 6

percent per year for most of the century, nickel con-

sumption flattened in the 1970s. From 1978 to

1982, the consumption sharply declined before

stabilizing in the mid- 1980s. A major factor in the

declining consumption between 1978 and 1982 was

the drop in t he int ensit y of nickel use. Less nickel

was used per value of Gross Nationa l Product and

per capita each year during the period. Since 1982,

the int ensity of use has r emained fairly constant .

Much of the decrease in th e intensity of use r e-

sulted from the substitution of plastics in coatings,

conta iners, aut omobile part s, and plumbing, and

displacement in the use of some stainless steel.Other possible substitute materials include alumi-

num, coated steel, titanium, platinum, cobalt, and

copper. These substitutes, however, can mean

poorer performance or added cost. Higher imports

of finish ed goods a nd t he r educed size of au tomo-

biles also reduce domestic nickel demand.

Domest ic deman d for n ickel in 2000 is forecastto be between 300,000 and 400,000 tons, with the

probable level being about 350,000 tons (table 3-7). 50 The forecast for a 2.6 percent annual growth

in domestic nickel demand thr ough 2000 is due to

projected growth in total consumption, primarily

for pollution abatement and waste treatment ma-

chinery, mass transit systems, and aerospace com-

ponents.51

Properties and

Copper offers

C o p p e r

Uses

very high electrical and t herm al

conductivity, strength, and wear- and corrosion-

resistance, and it is nonmagnetic. As a result, cop-

per is valuable both as a basic metal and in alloys

(e.g., brass, bronze, copper nickel, copper-nickel-zinc-alloy, and leaded copper), an d ra nk s th ird in

world metal consumption after steel and aluminum.

About 43 percent of U.S. copper products are used

in building construction, 24 percent in electrical and

electronic products, 13 percent for industrial ma-

chinery an d equipment, 10 percent in tra nsporta-tion, and the r emaining 10 percent in general prod-

ucts manufacturing.

In t he a ggregate, th e largest u se of copper (65

percent) is in electrical equipment, in th e tr ansm is-

sion of electrical energy, in electronic and comput-

ing equipment, and in telecommunications systems.

Because of its corrosion resistance, copper has many

uses in industrial equipment and marine and air-

craft products. Copper is used extensively forplumbing, roofing, gutters, and other construction

purposes. Brass is used in ordnance, military equip-

ment, and machine tools that are important to na-tional securit y. Copper chemicals are a lso used in

agriculture, in medicine, and as wood preservatives.

Once used extensively in coinage, copper has been

*gChamberlain , “Nickel,” Mineral Commodity Summaries-1987,

p. 109.50S. Sibley, ‘‘ Nickel ,’ Mineral Facts and Problems—1985 Edition,

Bulletin 675 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1986), p. 547.

SIIn terna t ion~ Trade Administration, Th e End- USC Market fi)r 13

Non-Ferrous Meta l s (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of

Commerce, 1986), p. 32.

Table 3-7.— Forecast of U.S. and World Nickel Demand in 2000


(thousand tons) (percent)United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184a 300 350 400 2.6Rest of world. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800 1,000 1,300 1,500 2.9

Total world. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 1,300 1,700 1,900 2.7au, s. data for 1986 from P. Chamberlain, “Nickel,” Minera l Commodity Summaries– 1987 Edifion (Washington, DC: US. Bureau of Mines, 1987), p 108.

SOURCE Adapted from S. Sibley, “Nickel, ” Mineral Facts and Problems– 1985 Edition (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1986), p. 548.




largely r eplaced by zinc an d zinc-copper a lloys in

U.S. currency.

National Importance

Copper is a strategic commodity in the National

Defense Stockpile. The stockpile goal is one mil-

lion tons, with an inventory of 22,000 tons in 1986.The United States is the leading consumer of re-

fined copper; it accounted for about 29 percent of

world consumption, or 2.2 million tons of copper,

in 1986. In 1982 the United States import reliance

was 1 percent of the copper it consumed; by 1985,

it was importing 28 percent .52

Imports came largely

from North and South America: Chile, 40 percent;

Canada, 29 percent; Peru, 8 percent; Mexico, 2

percent. Other sources were: Zambia, 7 percent;

Zaire, 6 percent; and elsewhere, 8 percent. Since

1982, Chile has led the world in copper produc-

tion, followed by the United States, Canada,

U. S. S. R., Zambia, and Zaire,


World copper reserves total about 375 million

tons, with 80 percent r esiding in mar ket economy

countries. The world’s reserve base is about 624

million tons of copper, Chile has the largest single

sha re of world reserves, accounting for 23 percent;

the United States is second with 17 percent .53

The United Sta tes ha s a r eserve base of about

99 million tons of copper, with reserves of 63 mil-lion tons. The average grade of domestic copper

ore is about 0.5 percent copper, while the world

average is close to 0.87 percent .54 By comparison,

copper in some polymetallic sulfide deposits th at

ha ve been recovered from th e seafloor show high

varia bility ra nging between 0.5 to 5 percent .55

Domestic Production

The United States mined 1.2 million tons of cop-

per in 1986—second only to Chile in world mine

production. Domestic mine production peaked in

5’J. Jo]IY and D. Edelstein, “Copper,” ~ineraf c om r n o ~ j t y s u m .

maries—J987 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1987), p. 42.“J Jolly, “COpper,” Mineral Facts and Problems-1985 Edition,

Bulletin 675 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1986), p. 203.ML . Sousa , The U.S. Copper Industry (Washington, DC: U.S.

Bureau of Mines, 1981), p. 27.SSV, McKe]vey, Subsea Mineral Resources, Bulletin 1689-A (Wash-

ington, DC: U.S. Geological Survey, 1986), p. 82.

1970, 1973, and 1981 at about 1.7 million tons eachyear, but th en in response to depressed prices and

a worldwide recession, production was cut back.

Since then, copper production has recovered slowlyto r oughly th e 1980 level. Copper’s r ecent recov-

ery has benefited from industry-wide cost cutting

and improvements in efficiency and productivity

resulting from equipment modernizations and re-

negotiated labor agreement s.

The Un ited St at es is one of th e world’s lar gestproducers of refined copper, accoun tin g for about

16 percent of world production in 1985. Copper

is one of the most extensively recycled of all the

common metals. Nearly 22 percent of domestic

apparent consumption is recycled from old scrap.

Copper pr ices peaked in 1980 at about $1.00 perpound (current dollars) as a result of high demand

and indu stry labor disruptions, but have since sunk

to nearly $0.62 (current dollars) in 1986. With

lower prices, there is little incentive to increase ef-fort s t o recycle used copper.

Notwithstanding the large reserve base of cop-per in the United States, lower-cost imported cop-

per has displaced appreciable domestic production

in r ecent year s. Dur ing 1984-85, domestic copper

refinery capacity was reduced by about 410,000

tons, and several major mines closed. Between 1974

and 1985, domestic operating refinery capacity de-

clined from 3.4 million tons to about 2 million tons

as th e result of major indust ry restru cturing and

cost redu ction.

A number of factors have contributed to the dis-

advantage that U.S. producers face in meeting for-

eign compet ition, e.g., lower ore gr ade, h igher la -

bor costs, and more stringent environmental

regulations and until recently, foreign exchange

rates. Although significant progress recently has

been made by U.S. copper producers to increase

productivity and reduce costs at the mine and

smelter, there is some doubt whether domestic pro-

ducers can m ainta in their mar ket position in the

long term.56

Future Demand and Technological TrendsSince 1981, worldwide copper production has in-

creased significantly while the rate of demand

sscomm~ities Research Unit, Copper Studies, VO1. 14, No. 4 (New

York, NY: CRV Consultants, 1986), p. 7.




growth has been moderated largely by economic

condit ions a nd, to a lesser exten t, by reduction in

the intensity of copper use and substitution of other

materials. Thus, today there is the possibility of

substantial excess mine capacity in the world cop-

per industry. Overly optimistic forecasts of demand

based on consumption trends made in the late 1960s

and early 1970s, forecasts of higher real prices, and

the unforeseen onset of worldwide recessions be-

ginning in 1975 and 1981 contr ibuted to excess cop-

per production.

The U.S. Bureau of Mines forecasts that domes-

tic demand will increase to between 2.6 tons and

4.5 million tons by 2000, with probable demand

about 3.1 million tons of copper (table 3-8). U.S.

demand is forecast to increase at an annual rate

of approximately 1.9 percent, while the rest of the

world is expected to expand copper use at the higher

rate of 2.9 percent.

The intensity of copper use fell by about one-

fourth between 1970 and 1980.57

Reductions in use

were caused by the reduction in size of automo-

tive and consumer goods, changes in design to con-

serve ma ter ials or increase efficiency, and su bsti-tutions of aluminum, plastics, and, to a lesser

extent, optical fibers. Although the decline in the

intensity of copper use is not expected to continue

at the 1970s’ rate and even could be offset by gains

in other areas, the future of copper demand is un-

certain. Moreover, copper is an industrial metal,and its consumption is linked to industrial activity

and capital expansion. This makes copper demandvery sen sitive to gener al economic activity.

sJDomes( ic consumption Trends; 1972-82, and Forecasts to J993

for Tweh’e Major Metals, p. 60.

Z i n c

Properties and Uses

Zinc is the third most widely used nonferrous

met al, exceeded only by alumin um an d copper. It

is used for galvanizing (coating) steel, for many

zinc-based alloys, and for die castings. Zinc is alsoused in industrial chemicals, agricultural chemicals,

rubber, and paint pigments. Construction mate-

rials a ccount for about 45 percent of th e slab zinc

consumed in the United States; transportation ac-

counts for 25 percent; machinery, 10 percent; elec-

trical, 10 percent; and other u ses, 10 percent.

National Importance

During the last 15 to 20 years, the United States

has gone from near self-sufficiency in zinc metal

production to importing 74 percent of the zinc con-

sum ed domestically in 1986.58

Zinc is a componen t

of the National Defense Stockpile; the stockpile goal

is 1.4 million tons and the inventory in 1986 was

about 378,000 tons—27 percent of the goal.

The United States consumed about 1.1 million

tons of zinc in 1986. Between 1972 and 1982, U.S.

slab zinc consumption decreased by nearly half,59

a dr ama tic drop at tribut able to the combined ef-fects of the economic recession and a decline in the

inten sity of use of zinc in const ru ction a nd m an u-

facturing.

Zinc is import ed as both m etal an d concentrat es.

Canada provides about half the zinc imported intothe United States; Mexico provides 10 percent;Peru, 8 percent; and Australia, 4 percent. All of

58J . Jolly, “Zinc,” Mineraf Commodity Summar]es- 1987 (k$’ash -

ington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1987), p, 18 0sgDomestic Consumption Trends, 1972-82, and Forecasts to 1 .99 .7

for Twelve Major Metals, p, 131,

Table 3-8.—U.S. and World Copper Demand in 2000


(thousand tons) (percent)United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,390” 2,600 3,100 3,900 1.9Rest of world. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,300 11,700 13,400 15,000 2.9

Total world. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 14,300 16,500 18,800 2.7

au s, data for 1986, J. Jolly, and D Edelstein, “copper,” Mineral Commodity Summaries— 1987 (Washington, DC: U S Bureau of Mines, 1987), p. 42, world data for1983 from source below

SOURCE Adapted from J Jolly, “Copper,” Minera/ Facts and Prob/ems– 1985 Ed/t/on (Washington, DC: Bureau of Mines, 1986), p 219




the major foreign sources of supply are considered

to be secure, and there is little risk of supply inter-

ruptions.


The U.S. reserve base is estimat ed to be about

53 million tons of zinc. Domestic reserves are nearly22 million tons. Zinc is gener ally associat ed with

other minerals conta ining precious meta ls, lead,

and/or copper. The world reserve base is est imated

to be 300 m illion t ons of zinc, with ma jor d epositslocated in Canada, Australia, Peru, and Mexico.

World zinc resources are estima ted to be near ly 2

billion tons,GO

Zinc occurs in seabed polymetallic

sulfide deposits a long with num erous other m etals.

The few samples of sulfide mat erial th at have been

recovered for analysis show wide ranges in zinc con-

ten t (30-0.2 percent).61

Domestic Production

U.S. mine pr oduction of zinc in 1986 was about

209,000 tons, down from 485,000 tons in 1976. Thedecline is attributed to poor market conditions anddepressed prices. Some mines shut down in 1986

are expected to reopen in 1987, and new mines willopen. Production is then expected to return to

ar ound t he 1985 level, or about 250,000 tons. Do-

mestic zinc metal production in 1986 also reached

lows comparable to those of the depression in the

early 1930s. Recycling accounted for 413,000 tons

of zinc—about 37 percent of domestic consump-

tion—in 1986.


The U.S. Bureau of Mines forecasts that both

domestic and world zinc demand will increase at

‘OJ. J olly, “Zinc,” Mineral Commodity S um maries—1987, p. 181.61 McKelvey, Subsea Miner& Resources, p. 82.

the rate of about 2 percent annually through 2000.

Probable U.S. demand in 2000 is forecast to be

about 1.5 million tons, with possible demand rang-

ing between a low of 1.1 million tons and a high

of 2.3 million tons (table 3-9).

A major determinant of future zinc demand will

be its use in the construction (galvanized metalstructural members) and automotive industries,

which together account for about 60 percent of zinc

consumption in the U.S. Although use of zinc by

the domestic automotive industry has decreased inrecent years, this trend is expected to reverse, and

manufacturers will again use more electro-galva-

nized, corrosion-resistant parts as a competitive

strategy through extended warranty protection.

Aluminum, plastics, and magnesium can substi-

tute for many zinc uses, including castings, protec-

tive coatings, and corrosion protection. Aluminum,

magnesium, titanium, and zirconium compete withzinc for some chem ical a nd p igment applications.

It is likely tha t t he U.S. will continu e to rely in

part on foreign sources of supply; however, domes-

tic resources in Alaska and perhaps Wisconsinmight be developed to offset some imports.

62Sec-

ondary sources and recycling of zinc could become

more importan t in th e futu re with improvements

in recycling technology and better market con-

ditions.

Gold

Properties and Uses

Gold is a unique commodity because it is con-

sidered a measur e and st ore of wealth. J ewelry and

art accounted for 48 percent of its use in the United

bZJo l ly , ‘‘Zinc, Mineraf Facts and Problems—J985 Edition, Bul]e-

tin 675 (Washington, DC: U. S, Bureau of Mines, 1986), p. 939.

Table 3.9.—Forecast of U.S. and World Zinc Demand in 2000


(thousand tons) (percent)United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 ,130a 1,100 1,540 2 , 3 1 0 2.0Rest of world. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,340 7,490 8,820 10,250 2.0

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — 8,590 10,360 12,560 2.0au,s, data for 19w from J, Jolly, “zinc,” &f/nera/ COnJr-nOdity Wrrrnan’m— 1987 (Washington, DC: US. Bureau of Mines, 1987), p. 180, wotld data for 1983 frOm 50urce below.

SOURCE: Adapted from J. Jolly, “Zinc,” Mineral Facts and Prob/erns-1985 Edition (Washington, DC: US. Bureau of Mines, 1988), p, 938,




States in 1986, Gold’s r esista nce t o corrosion ma kes

it suitable for electronics uses and dentistry. Gold

is also used in t he aer ospace industr y in brazing

alloys, in jet and rocket engines, and as a heat

reflector on some components. Industrial and elec-

tronic applications accounted for about 35 percent

of 1986 consumption, dental 16 percent, and in-vestment bars about 1 percent of the gold consumed

in 1986. Although gold is exchanged in the open

market, about 1.2 billion troy ounces—one-third

of the gold mined thus far in the world—is retained

by governments.

National Importance

Gold is not a component of the National Defense

Stockpile, but t he U.S. Treasury keeps a residual

stock of about 263 million troy ounces of bullion.

Although gold is no longer linked directly to the

U.S. monet ar y system, its value in th e world eco-

nomic equation continues to be a hedge against fu-ture economic uncertainties. Should the United

Stat es or other m ajor count ries retur n to a regu-

lated gold standard, its price could be affected sig-

nificant ly. Recently th e United Sta tes issued t he

Golden Ea gle coin for sale a s a collector’s a nd in-vestor’s item , but gold is not norma lly circulated

as currency.

Apparent U.S. consumption of gold was 3.3 mil-

lion troy ounces in 1986, whereas about 3.6 mil-

lion troy ounces were produced by U.S. mines.63

When U.S. primary industrial gold demand peaked

in 1972 at about 6.6 million troy ounces, importsrelative to domestic production were about 71 per-

cent. At the lowest primary demand level in 1980

(1 million t roy oun ces), net imports exceeded pr i-

ma ry dema nd by nea rly 2.6 million t roy oun ces.64

Canada is the largest single source of imported gold.


The United Stat es gold reserve base is about 120

million troy ounces. Most of the reserve base is in

lode deposits . The world reserve base of gold is

about 1.5 billion ounces, of which about ha lf is lo-

cated in th e Republic of Sout h Africa.

65

Some off-

‘3J . Lucas, “Gold,” Mineral Commodity Summar i e s—J987 (Wash-ington, DC: U. S, Bureau of Mines, 1987), p. 62.

“J . Lucas, “Gold,” ,%finera/ Facts and Problems— 1985 .Edition,

Bulletin 675 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1986), p. 336,65

Lucas, “Gold,” MincraJ Commodi t y Summari es -1987 , p. 63.

shore placer deposits, such as those current ly be-

ing experimentally dredge mined by In spiration

Mines near Nome, Alaska, maybe considered part

of the reserve base.

Domestic Production

Domestic gold production was at an all-time highin 1986 with about 3.6 million ounces mined.

Lowest production within the last 10 years was

964,000 ounces in 1979. The Republic of South

Africa produced about 21 million ounces of gold

in 1986—over 40 percent of total world production.

Compared to major gold mines in South Africa,

the U. S. S. R., and Canada, most existing and po-

tential U.S. gold mines are low-grade, short-life

operations with annual outputs between 20,000 and

90,000 troy ounces.66


Generally, domestic primary demand for gold

has decreased steadily since its peak at 6.3 million

ounces in 1972. Nevertheless, the U.S. Bureau of

Mines forecasts that domestic gold demand will in-

crease at an average annual rate of about 2.4 per-cent thr ough 2000. Domestic primary deman d is

forecast to be between a low of 2.8 million ounces

an d a h igh of 4.6 million oun ces in 2000, with t he

probable dema nd a t 3.7 million troy oun ces.67

De-

mand in the rest of the world is expected to grow

at a slower pa ce of 1.7 percent a nnu ally through

2 0 0 0 .

While other metals may substitute for gold, sub-

stitution is generally done at some sacrifice in prop-

erties and performance. Platinum-group metals are

occasionally substituted for gold but with increasedcosts and with metals considered to be critical andstrategic. Silver may substitute in some instances

at lower cost,

involves some

bendability.

but it is less corrosion-resistant and

compromise in performance and de-

G’p, Thomas and E. Boyle, Jr . , Gold A\ railabilir}’— W’orld, IC 9070

(Washington DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1986), p. 38.

b7Lucas , “Gold, ’ Mineral Facts and Problems—198.5 )iiition, p.

335.




P l a t i n u m - G r o u p M e t a l s

Properties and Uses

The platinum-group metals (PGMs) consist of

six closely related metals that commonly occur to-

gether in nature: plat inum, pal ladium, rhodium,

i r idium ruthenium, and osmium .68

They are not

abundant metals in the earth’s crust ; hence their

value is correspondingly high. At one time, nearly

all of the platinum metals were used for jewelry,

art , or laboratory ware but during the last 30 or

40 years they have become indispensable to indus-

try, which now consumes 97 percent of the PGMs

used annually in the United States.

Industry uses PGMs for two primary purposes:

1) corrosion resistance in chemical, electrical, glass

fiber, and dental-medical applications, and 2) a

catalysis for chemical and petroleum refining and

automotive emission control. About 46 percent of

PGMs was used for the automotive industry in

1986, 18 percent for electronic applications, 18 per-

cent for dental and medical uses, 7 percent for

chemical production, and 14 percent for miscellane-ous uses.

69Although the importance of plat inum

for jewelry and art has diminished as industrial uses

increase, a significant amount of the precious metal

is retained as ingots, coins, or bars by investors.

While the PGMs are often referred to collectively

for convenience, each has special properties. For

example, plat inum-palladium oxidat ion catalysts

are used for control of auto emissions, but a small

amount of rhodium is added to improve efficiency.Palladium is used in low-voltage electrical contacts,

bu t ru t he n i um i s o f t e n a dde d t o a c c ommoda t e

higher vol tages .70

National Importance

The United Sta tes is highly import-dependentfor PGMs. About 98 percent of PGMs consumed

in 1986 were imported. The Republic of South.——

bBT h e dispari t ies in demand among PGMs and the variance in

proportion and grade of individual metals recovered from PGM

mineral deposits complicate the assessment of supply-demand for this

metal group. For simplicity, the PGMs are discussed as a unit,69J . Loebenstein, “Platinum-Group Metals, ” Mineral Commodit y

Summaries—1987 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1987),p. 118.

70J. Loeben s t e i n , “Platinum-Group M etals, ” Mineral Facts and

Problems—1985 Edition, Bulletin 675 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bu-

reau of Mines, 1986), p. 599.

Africa supplied 43 percent of U.S. consumption,

Unit ed Kingdom 17 percent, U.S.S.R. 12 percent,

and Canada, Colombia and other sources 28 per-

cent. Because nearly all of the PGMs imported from

the United Kingdom originated in South Africa

prior to refining, the Republic of South Africa ac-

tual ly provides the United States with approxi-

mately 60 percent of i ts plat inum imports.

Potent ial instabi l i ty in southern Africa, depen-

dence on the U.S.S.R. for a portion of U.S. sup-

ply, scarcity of domestic resources, and the impor-

tance that PGMs have assumed in industrial goods

and processes make platinum metals a first tier crit-

ical and strategic material.71

Plat inum, pal ladium,

and iridium are retained in the National Defense

Stockpile (table 3-10).


There are several major areas with PGM deposits

that are currently considered to be economic or

subeconomic in the United States. The domest ic

reserve base is estimated to be about 16 million troyounces.

72Of that, however, only 1 million ounces

are considered to be reserves.73

Most of the PGM

reserves are byproduct components of copper re-

serves. Demonstrated resources may contain 3 mil-

lion ounces of platinum of which 2 million ounces

are gauged to be recoverable.74

S o m e e s t i m a t e s

place identified and undiscovered U.S. resources

at 300 million ounces.75

Tloffice of Techn ology Assessment, Strategic MateriaIs: Technol-

ogies to Reduce U.S. Vulnerability, p. 52 .72Loebenstein, “Platinum-Group Metals, ” Minera) Commodity

Summaries—1987, p. 119.73

1 bid., p. 21.T+T. Ans te t t , D, B]eiwas, and C. Sheng-Fogg, Platinum A vaiJabi l -

ity—Market Economy Countries, IC 8897 (Washington, DC: U.S.

Bureau of Mines, 1982), p. 4.75

1 bid., p. 6.

Table 3-10.—Platinum. Group Metals in the NationalDefense Stockpile (as of Sept. 30, 1986)


(thousand troy ounces)

Platinum. . . . . . . . . . . 1,310 440 34Palladium . . . . . . . . . . 3,000 1,262 42Iridium . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 30 30aThe stockpile also Contain 13,043 troyounces of nonstockpile-grade Platinum

and 2,214 ounces of palladium.

SOURCE: J.R. Lobenstein, “Platinum-Group Metals, ” Minera l Commodity Surn-rnaries — 1987 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1987), p. 119.




The PGM potential of the Stillwater Complex

in Montana is higher than that of the other known

domestic deposits. Stillwater PGMs are found in

conjunction with nickel and copper. The Stillwater

Mining Company, which is capable of producing

500 tons of ore per day, began producing PGMs

in March 1987, but the mineral concentrates are

being shipped abroad for refining to metal. Nearly

80 percent of the PGMs in Stillwater ores is pal-

l a d i um, a nd t he r e ma i nde r i s mos t l y p l a t i num.

Plat inum general ly brings several t imes the price

of palladium. The Salmon River deposit in Alaska

is an alluvial gravel placer that is estimated to con-

tain abo ut 500,000 tr oy oun ces of recovera ble plat i-

num . The Ely Spruce an d Minnam ax deposits in

northea stern Minnesota ar e estimated to contain

less than 800,000 troy ounces of platinu m a t t he

demonstrated level.7 6

World resources are estimated to be about 3.3

billion troy ounces of PGMs. The world reserve

base is about 2.1 billion troy ounces, with the

Republic of Sout h Africa contr olling 90 per cent of

the reserves. Other major reserves are found in the

U.S.S.R. and Can ada, The United Sta tes ha s less

than 10 percent of the world’s total PGM resources.

Domestic Production

Domestic firms produced approximately 5,000

troy ounces of PGMs in 1986, all as byproductsfrom copper refining. The Republic of South Africaand the U.S. S. R. dominate world production of

PGMs; in 1986 South Africa’s mine production was4 million oun ces and th e Soviet U nion’s was 3,7

..—

7GIbid., p, 7.

million ounces of PGMs. Togeth er th ey account ed

for 95 percent of world production. It is expected

th at existing world res erves will ha ve no problemin meeting cumulative demand through 2000.


U.S. demand for PGMs in 2000 is expected tobe between 2 million ounces and 3.3 million ounces

(table 3-1 1) with the probable deman d at about 2.9

million ounces. Domestic demand is forecast to

grow at a rate of 2.5 percent annually between 1983

and 2000. Demand in the rest of the world is ex-

pected t o increase more ra pidly—perha ps 3 per-

cent annually— due to the introduction of catalytic

auto emission controls in Europe and Australia, and

to the J apa nese an d U.S. empha sis on developing

fuel cell technology as an alternative power source.

For most PGM end uses, the intensity of use has

diminished since 1972.77 Although intensity of use

has declined, consumption has generally increased

as a result of the growth of the automotive, elec-

tronic, and medical industries that consume plati-

num, palladium, and iridium. Since 1982, inves-

tors and speculators have been purchasing large

quantities of platinum coins, bars, and ingots.

There are opportunities to reduce imports by im-proved recycling and substitution. About 97 per-

cent of th e PGMs used for pet roleum r efinin g and

85 percent of the catalysts used for chemicals andpharmaceutical manufacturing are recycled. Auto-

mobile catalysts are recycled much less frequently,

‘TDom e~tjc Consumption Trends, 1972-82, and Forecasts to 199.?

for Twelt’e Major Metals, p . 9 6 .

Table 3-11.– Forecast of Demand for Platinum-Group Metals in 2000

2000

Material 1983 Low Probable High

(thousand troy ounces)Platinum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797 900 1,300 1,400Palladium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 922 1,000 1,400 1,500Rhodium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 50 70 80Ruthenium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 140 210 230

Iridium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 5 10 20Osmium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 2 4

Total platinum-group . . . . . . 1,914 2,000a 2,900 3,300aTOtal differs from individual forecasts due to rounding.

SOURCE: J. Loebenste!n, “Platinum-Group Metals,” A4irreral Facts and Problems— 1985 (Washington, DC U.S Bureau of Mines,1966), p. 611.




but recycling could increase if PGM prices esca-

late a nd if collection an d wast e disposal costs ar e

reduced. It may be possible to reprocess as much

as 200,000 troy ounces of PGMs annually from

used automotive catalysts (about 3 percent of 1986

U.S. consu mpt ion). 78 Recycling of electronic scrap

has col lect ion and processing problems similar to

recycling of automotive catalysts.

Substitution opportunities for PGMs in automo-

tive catalysts are limited. Moreover, there is little

incentive to seek alternatives for catalysts in the pe-

t ro l e um i ndus t ry be c a use a h i gh p ropor t i on o f

PGMs used is currently recycled. Similarly, in the

chemical and pharmaceutical industry, the value

of the product far exceeds the return on investment

for developing non-PGM subst i tutes, which usu-

ally are less efficient. It is possible to reduce the

amount of PGMs used for electrical and electronic

applications by substituting gold and silver for plati-

num and pa l ladium.

T i t a n i u m ( I l m e n i t e a n d R u t i l e )

Properties and Uses

Titanium is used as a m etal and for pigments.

Ninety-five percent of world production is used for

white titanium dioxide pigment. Its high light

reflectivity makes the pigment valuable in paints,

paper, plastics, and rubber products. About 65 per-

cent of the titanium pigments used domestically are

for paint and paper.

Titanium alloys have a high strength-to-weightrat io and high heat and corrosion r esistance. They,

th erefore, ar e well-suited for h igh techn ology ap-

plications, including high performance aircraft,

electrical generation equipment, and chemical proc-

essing and handling equipment.

Although only 5 percent of all titanium goes into

meta l, it is an importa nt m aterial for aircraft en-gines. About 63 percent of the titanium metal con-

sumed in t he United St ates in 1985 was for a ero-

space applications. The remaining 37 percent was

used in chemical processing, electric power gener-

ation, marine applications, and steel and other al-loys. Tita nium carbide is used in commercial cut-

ting tools in combination with tungsten carbide.—.-—

Tap]at ;num, MCP-ZZ (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines,1978), p . 13.

Organotitanium compounds ar e used as catalystsin polymerization processes, in water repellents,

and in dyeing processes.

National Importance

Over 80 percent of the t itanium mat erials usedin the United States are imported. The major

sources of U.S. raw m ater ial imports are Ca nadaand Australia. Other suppliers include the Republic

of South Africa and Sierra Leone. The United

States also imported about 5,500 tons of titanium

metal in 1984 (about 5 percent of consumption),

mainly from Japan, Canada, and the United King-

dom. Titan ium’s importa nce to th e milita ry an d

to the domestic aerospace industry makes this metal

a second-tier strategic material (’strategic to some

degree’ with some small measure of potential sup-ply vulnerability.

79The current National Defense

Stockpile goal for titanium sponge is 195,000 tons,

and the curr ent inventory is about 26,000 tons. The

stockpile goal for rutile (used for metal production

as well as pigments) is 106,000 tons, with the cur-

rent inventory at 39,186 tons.


The United States h as reserves of about 7.9 mil-

lion tons of titanium in the form of ilmenite and

200,000 tons in the form of rutile, both located

mainly in a ncient beach sand deposits in F lorida

and Tennessee and in ilmenite rock (table 3-12).The domestic reserve base of 23 million tons of

titanium contains 15.5 million tons of ilmenite, 6,5

million tons of perovskite (not economically mina-ble), and 900,000 tons of rutile. Total resources (in-

cluding reserves and reserve base) are about 103

million tons of titanium dioxide, made up of 13 mil-lion tons of ru tile, 30 million tons of ilmenite, 42

million tons of low-titanium dioxide ilmenite, and

18 million tons of perovskite.80

These resources in-

clude large quantities of rutile at concentrations of

about 0.3 percent in some porphyry copper ores

an d mill tailings .81

‘gOffice of Technology Assessment, Strategic Materials: Technol-

ogies to Reduce U.S. Import Vulnerability, p. 52.L 7 0 E . Force and L . L y n d , T i t a n i um Mineral Resources of the United

States—Definitions and Docum entation, Geological Survey Bulletin

1558-B (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1984),

p. B-1.

8]E. Force, “Is the United States of America Geologicall y Depen-

dent on Imported Rutile?, ” Proceedings of the 4th Industrial Min-erals International Congress, Atlanta, GA, 1980.




same name.82 Th e six U.S. titanium sponge pro-

ducers import r utile, the ra w mat erial now used for

metal production in the market economy coun-

tries,83

primarily from Australia, Sierra Leone, and

the Republic of South Africa. Associated Minerals

(U.S.A.), Ltd., is the sole domestic producer of

na tur al ru tile concentr ate, alth ough Kerr -McGee

Chemical Corp. produces about 100,000 tons of synthetic rutile

84from high-grade ilmenite through

th e removal of iron at its Mobile, Alabam a, plan t.


Projected total titanium demand in 2000 is esti-

mat ed at 750,000 tons, an increase of 43 percent

from 1983; however, demand could range from a

low of 600,000 tons t o a h igh of 1 million t ons (ta-

ble 3-1 3).85

The greatest percentage increase in

titan ium dema nd is expected to occur in t he use-———

8ZW, H a N e y and F, Brown, offshore Ti tan ium Heavy Mineraf

Placers: Processing and Related Consid erations, ”OT A Contr act Re-port, November 1986, p. 3.asA]though the free market countries prefer to produce t I t an i um

metal from ru t i l e , the U. S.S. R and People’s Republic of China—

which collectively produce 63 percent of the world titanium met a l—

manufacture metal from high-grade titanium oxide slag made from

i lmenite. The process involves chlorination, purification, and reduc-

tion of titanium chloride. The U.S. could probably also use the same

process to produce titan ium met al feedstock, or synthetic rut i le could

be used,84s nthetic ruti]e i5 often referred to in the tr ade as ‘‘ beneflciated

Yi lmenite. A natural analogue of this m at eria l is ‘‘Ieucoxene. S]ag-

ging processes are also used elsewhere to produce high-titanium di-

oxide, low-iron products from i lmenite.BJA1though t i tanium demand is equated to e]ementtd titanium con-

tent, the major proportion of domestic demand will be for titanium

dioxide.

of metals, which is projected to increase over five-fold, from 8,000 to 45,000 tons (th is app ear s to be

an optimistic estimate). Nevertheless, non-metal

uses will continue to dominat e the t itanium mar -

ket, probably approaching 700,000 tons by 2000,

up from 515,000 tons in 1983.

In contrast, domestic titanium mine productionin 2000 is projected at about 210,000 tons, an an-

nua l growth rat e of about 4.6 percent from t he 1982

level of 98,000 tons. Cumulative domestic mine

production from the period 1983 to 2000 is pro-

jected to be 2.6 million tons titanium, significantly

less than the probable cumulative primary non-

metal demand of 10.5 million tons. Most of the fu-

ture 7.9-million-ton shortfall is expected to be sup-

plied by imports, even though domestic reserves

of 7.8 million tons of ilmenite (contained titanium

equivalent) and 199,000 tons of rutile (contained

titan ium equivalent) a re considered su fficient t o

meet about 80 percent of expected U.S. non-metaldemand in 2000.

Although a major proportion of future U.S. mine

production is considered suitable for conversion to

metal with intermediat e processing,86

nearly all of

the titanium concentrates used for domestic metalproduction are expected to come from cheaper im-

— -- —s cTheSe include intermediate products such a s synthetic IU td e an~or

high-titanium slags. Such slags have been ma de from American ores.

See G Elger, J. Wright, J. Tress, et al., Producing Ch]orination-

Grade Feedstock fm m Domestic 1lmenite—LaboratoV and Pilot Plant

Studies, RI-9002 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1985),

p. 24.

Table 3.13.—Forecast for U.S. Titanium Demand in 2000

2000End use 1983 Low Probable High

(thousand tons contained titanium)Nonmetal:

Paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 270 320 400Paper products . . . . . . . . . . . 137 160 200 280Plastics and synthetics . . . . 66 80 100 140Other. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 57 85 116

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515 570 700 940

Metal:

Aerospace , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 15 23 29Industrial equipment . . . . . . 2 7 13 20Steel and alloys . . . . . . . . . . 2 5 9 13

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 27 45 62

Grand total. . . . . . . . . . . . . 523 600 750 1,000

SOURCE: L. Lynd, “Titanium,” Mineral Facts and Prob/erns– 1985 Edition (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1988), p. 875.




ports. U .S. ilmenite reserves tha t could be used for

meta l production are estima ted to conta in about

10 times the probable forecast of metal cumulative

demand of 490,000 tons by 2000.

Ti tanium Metal . —Titanium is one of only

three metals expected to increase significantly in

consumption and intensity of use; its demand isclosely related to requirements for the construction

of military and civilian aircraft. The outlook for

titan ium m ill products t hrough 1990 will depend

primarily on military aircraft procurement and on

the rat e at which commercial air carriers replace

aging fleets. The intensity of use (ratio of use to

shipments) in the aerospace industry remained un-

changed during the period 1972 to 1982. It is ex-

pected that significant replacement of titanium by

carbon-epoxy composite m at erials-tita nium ’s ma -

jor competitor for lightweight, high-strength air-

craft const ru ction —will not occur before at least

1994. Titanium can be effectively used in conjunc-tion with composite materials because their coeffi-

cient s of th erm al expan sion ma tch closely. Selec-

tion of titanium alloys over other materials foraerospace applications generally is based on eco-

nomics a nd their special properties.

Because of its corrosion resistance and high-

strength, titanium is likely to be increasingly used

in industrial processes involving corrosive environ-

ments, although price has been somewhat of a de-terrent to expanded commercial use. Non-aircraftindustrial demand is currently showing strong

growth in intensity of use of titanium. Automotiveuses may also increase in the future. Currently,

however, the use of titanium metal represents a

relatively small amount of materials, and titaniumdioxide for use in pigments and chemicals remains

the major use in the United States.

Titanium Pigments.—Demand for paint pig-

ments is projected to increase from 246,000 tons

of tita nium in 1983 t o a pr obable level of 320,000

tons of titanium by 2000, but may range as low as

270,000 tons or a s high a s 400,000 tons. By 2000,

meta l and wood products precoated with dur able

plastic or ceramic finishes could be used in the con-struction industry, which would reduce or elimi-

nate the need for repainting, thus adversely affect-

ing demand growth of conventional coatings.

Paper products are projected t o consume a bout

200,000 tons of titanium by 2000, up from 137,000

tons in 1983. The Un ited Sta tes is th e world’s

largest producer of paper, accounting for 35 per-

cent of total world supply. The industry seems as-

sured of continued growth, which should also bereflected in increased demand for titanium pig-

ment. 87

Some substitution by alternative whiteners and

coloring agents may be developed in the future

which could slightly offset growth of titanium pig-

ment usage, but it is projected that total pigmentconsumption will probably reach 640,000 tons of

titan ium by 2000.

Because production of titanium dioxide pigment

by the chloride process results in fewer environ-

mental problems than does the sulfate process, fu-

ture trends are likely to be toward the development

of concentrates that are suited as chlorination feedmaterials and for making metals. Future commer-

cial a pplicat ions for ut ilizing domestic ilmen ite t o

produce high-titanium dioxide concentrates may

have the potential to make the United States self-

sufficient in supplying its titanium requirements,should they prove economically competitive. Tech-

nically, such concentrates can be produced from

rut ile, high-titan ium dioxide ilmenite sa nds, leu-

coxene, synthetic rutile, and low-magnesium, low-

calcium titaniferous slags. Perovskite found in

Colorado also might be convertible to synthetic ru-tile or titanium dioxide pigment.

Ph o s p h a t e Ro c k ( Ph o s p h o r i t e )

Properties and Uses

Over 90 percent of the phosphate rock (a sedi-men ta ry r ock composed chiefly of phosphat e min-

erals) mined in the United States is used for agri-

cultural fertilizers. Most of the balance of phosphate

consu med domest ically is used t o produce sodium

tripolyphosphate —a major constituent of householdlaundry detergents —and other sodium phosphatesthat are used in cleaners, water treatment, and

foods. Phosphoric acid is also used in the manu-

t37u s D e pa r tme nt of C o m m e r c e , f 986 ~“. S. ~ndustr;af ~ut~oo~

(Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1986), p. 5-5.




facture of calcium phosphates for animal feeds, den-

tifrices, food addit ives, and ba king powder. Tech-

nical grades of phosphoric acid are used for cleaning

metals and lubricants. Food-grade phosphoric acidis used as a preservative in processed foods.

National Importance

There is no substitute for phosphorus in agricul-

tural uses; however, its use in detergents has been

reduced by the substitution of other compounds to

reduce environmental damage in lakes and streams

partially caused by phosphorus enrichment (eutro-

phication).

The United States leads the world in phosphaterock pr oduction (table 3-14), but it is likely to be

challenged by Morocco as th e world’s la rgest pro-ducer in futu re years. Domestic production su p-

plies nearly all of the phosphorus used in the United

States, except for a small amount of low-fluorinephosphate rock imported from Mexico and the

Netherlan ds Antilles and high-quality phosphat e

rock for liquid fertilizers from Togo. The United

Stat es is cur rent ly a major exporter of phosphate

rock and phosphate chemicals but is facing in-

creased price competition from foreign sources (fig-

ure 3-7). Producers in th e Middle East and North

Africa may continue to encroach on U.S. export

markets as new phosphorus fertilizer plants begin

operat ion and U.S. production continues t o shut

down.

Table 3-14.—World and U.S. PhosphateRock Production

World U s . U s .Year Production Production production

(million tons)1977 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 521978 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 551979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 571980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 601981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 601982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 411983 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 471984 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 541985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 561986 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 44

(percent)41403934373032323329

SOURCE: Adapted from W. Stowasser and R. Fantel, “The Outlook for the United

States Phosphate Rock Industry and its Place In the World,” Societyof Mining Engineers of AlME, Society of Mining Engineers, Inc., Reprint65-116, 1965.

Figure 3.7.—Major World Exporters of Phosphate RockSince 1975, With Projections to 1995

1970 75 80 85 90 95

Year

The United States is currently a major exporter of phosphaterock and phosphate chemicals but is facing increased pricecompetition from foreign sources, principally Morocco.Domestic mines are shutting down, and some analysts be-lieve that the U.S. industry is in danger of collapsing in thefuture.

SOURCE: W. Laver, ‘“Phosphate Rock: Regional Supply and Changing Patternof World Trade,” TransactIons of th e Irrstltutlon of Mining and Meta/-Iurgy, Sec. A–Mining Industry, July 1966, Transactions Vol. 95, p. Al 19.


Phosphorus-rich deposits occur thr oughout the

world, but only a sma ll proport ion a re of commer-cial grade. Igneous phosphat e rock (apat ites) are

also commercially important in some parts of the

world. Commercial deposits in the United States

are all marine phosphorites that were formed un-

der warm, tropical conditions in shallow plateau

areas where upwelling water could collect. U.S.

phosphate rock reserves are estimated to be 1.3 bil-lion tons at costs of less than $32 per ton.88

Th e

reserve base is about 5.8 billion tons (at costs rang-

ing from less than $18 per ton to $91 per ton), with

total resources estima ted a t 6.9 billion t ons, Over70 percent of the U.S. reserve base is located in

Florida a nd North Carolina. There a re also large

phosphate deposits in some Western Stat es.

Although the United States has potentially vast

inferred an d hypoth etical resources (7 billion t ons

and 24 billion tons of phosphate rock respectively),

economic production thresholds for these resourceshave not been calculated. Other deposits probably

68W. Stowasser and R. Fan t e l , “The Outlook for the United States

Phosphate Rock Indust ry and its P lace in th e World, paper presented

at the SME-AIME Annual Meeting, New York, NY, Feb. 24-28,

1985, Society of Mining Engineers Reprint No. 85-116, p. 5.




will likely be discovered. Deep phosphate rock de-

posits may also hold promise if economically accept-

able means for recovering them without excessive

surface disturbance can be developed. Hydraulic

borehole technology may be adapted for this pur-pose, but very little is known about its economic

feasibility and environmental acceptability .89

The United Sta tes is a dista nt second in world

demonstrated phosphate resources (19 percent) be-

hind Morocco, whose en ormous r esources a ccount

for over 56 percent of the total demonstrated r e-

sources of the market economy countries, the

U.S.S.R, and the Federal Republic of China90

(ta-

ble 3-1 5). Morocco alone may have sufficient re-

sources to supply world demand far into the fu-

tu re .91

Domestic Production

The United States produced 44 million tons of phosphate rock in 1986, which accounted for about

one-third of total world production. U.S. produc-

tion of rock phosphate peaked in 1980-81 at approx-

imately 60 million tons each year, 92 Twenty-threedomestic companies were mining phosphate rock

in 1986, with an aggregate capacity of about 66 mil-

lion tons. Of the domestic phosphate rock that was

mined in 1984, 84 percent came from Florida a nd

North Carolina.

The domestic phosphate industry is vertically in-tegrat ed an d highly concentra ted .93 Most of the

phosphate rock produced in the United States isused to manufacture wet-process phosphoric acid,

which is produced by digestion with su lfur ic acid.

Elemental phosphorus is produced by reducing

phosphate rock in an electric furnace. About half

the elemental phosphorus produced is converted to

sodium t ripolyphosphat e for u se in deter gents.

89J . Hrabik a nd D. Godesky, Economic Evaluation of Borehole an d

Conventional Min ing S ystems in Phosphate Deposits, IC 8929 (Wash-

ington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1983), p. 34.90R, Fante],G, Peterson, and W. Stowasser , ‘ ‘ T h e W o r l d w i d e

Availability of Phosphate Rock, Na tu ra f Resources Forum VO1. 9,

No. 1 (New York, NY: United Nations, 1985), pp. 5-23.g] R, Fan t e l , T. Anstett, G, Peterson, et al. , P h o s p h a t e ROC~

Availability— World, IC 8989 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1984), p. 12.

‘2W . Stowasser , “Phosphate Rock, ” Mineral Commodity S u m -

maries—1987 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1987), p. 116.9JR, Fan t e ] , D. Su]livan, and G, Peterson, Phosphate Rock Avail-

ability-Domestic, IC 8937 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of hlines,

1983), p. 5.

Table 3-15.—World Phosphate Rock Reservesand Reserve Base

Reservesa Reserve baseb

(million tons)North America:

United States . . . . . . . . . . 1,543 5,951Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,543 6,127

South America:Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 386Colombia . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110Peru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 650

Europe:U. S.S.R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,433 1,433Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,433 1,587

Africa:Algeria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871Morocco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,604 22,040

Western Sahara . . . . . . . . 937 937South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . 2,865 2,865Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 231

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,670 27,220

Asia:China. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 231Jordan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 562Syria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 485

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418 1,449

Oceania:Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551Nauru. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 11

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 561

World total . . . . . . . . 15,119 37,594acost less ttlarr $32 per ton. Cost includes capital, oPerating exPenses, etc. and

a 15 percent rate of return on investment. Costs and resources as of January1983, f.o.b. mine.bcost tess than $91 per ton.

SOURCE: Adapted from W. Stowasser, “Phosphate Rock,” Mlnera/ Facts andProb/ems– 1985 .Editlorr (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1986),

p. 582.


Deman d for ph osphat e rock is closely link ed to

agricultural production. Domestic primary demandfor p hospha te r ock (including exports) grew from

31.2 million t ons in 1973 to 45 million tons in 1980.

The global recession that followed, coupled withagricultural drought conditions and government

agricultural policies aimed at reducing excessive do-

mestic grain inventories, reduced phosphate rock

consumption to 31.7 million tons in 1982. Domestic

consumption rebounded in 1984 to 46 million tons




as the world economy improved and U.S. grain

production increased.94

But depressed agricultural

prices an d increased operating costs h ave tended

to stabilize demand growth as domestic farmers

continue to struggle with the cost-price squeeze.

Probable domestic demand for phosphate rock

is projected to be 52 million tons by 2000, with thelow forecast a t 50 m illion tons an d th e high a t 55

million t ons (table 3-1 6).95

However, these forecasts

are very uncertain due to global changes takingplace in agricultural production. End uses in 2000

ar e expected to rema in in about th e same pr opor-

tion as current uses.

From the mid-1970s, when exports represented

about 40 percent of domestic production, theproportion of exported phosphate rock, fertilizers,

and chemicals increased slowly through 1982 but

decreased to its 10-year low by 1985. In 1983, fer-

tilizer and chemicals slightly exceeded phosphaterock as export commodities (in terms of contained

phosphorus pentoxide).96

Competition for international market share is ex-

pected to increase. Economics favors the conver-

sion of phosphate rock to higher valued chemicalsand fertilizers for export. There is currently a trend

in phosphat e rock pr oducing count ries to expand

facilities for processing raw material into intermedi-

ate or finished products, particularly among Mid-

dle Eastern and North African nations.

The U.S. share of world markets is expected to

continue to decline in the future. Probable annualgrowth rate for phosphate fertilizer exports through

“W. Stowasser , “Phosphate Rock, ” Mineral Facts and Problems—

1985 Edition, Bulletin 675 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines,

1986), p. 585.95Stowasser , “Phosphate Rock, ” Mineral Facts and Problems—

1985 Edition, p. 591.

9’Stowa sser and Fan t e l , “The Outlook for the United States Phos-

phate Rock Industry, ” pp. 85-116.

2000 is forecast to be 2 per cent, with a low of 1.5

and a high of 3 percent. 97 Exports of phosphate rock

are projected to decline at an annual rate of about

1 percent th rough 2000. In summ ary, the ann ual

growth rate is expected to approach 0.8 percent

from 1983 through 2000.

Future export levels of phosphate rock and phos-pha te fertilizer will be largely determined by th eavailability of resources from Florida and North

Carolina, competition from foreign producers, andan increase in international trade of phosphoric acid

rat her t ha n ph osphat e rock. U.S. phosphate r ock

supply is likely to be sufficient to meet demand

through 1995, but demand could exceed domestic

supp ly by 2000 if U.S. producers r educe domestic

capacity as a result of foreign competition.

In addition to the domestic industry’s problems

with foreign competition and diminishing ore qual-

ity and quantity, problems associated with the envi-ronment affect phosphate rock mining and benefic-iation. Environmental concerns include disposing

of wast e clay (slimes) pr oduced from t he ben efici-

ation of phosphate ores, disposing of phosphogyp-

sum from acid plants, developing acceptable recla-

mation procedures for disturbed wetlands, and

operat ing with redu ced water consumption.

Indust ry analysts think t he phosphate industry’s

problems will grow with time. It is likely th at th e

price will not increase enough to justify mining

higher -cost deposits, and t ha t t he pu blic will con-

tinue to oppose phosphate mining and manufac-

turing phosphatic chemicals. In that event, the re-

main ing low-cost , high-quali ty deposits will

continue to satisfy demand until they are exhausted

or until the markets for phosphate rock or fertilizer

become unprofitable. If domestic phosphate rock

‘7Stclwasser, ‘ ‘Phosphate Rock, ” Mineraf Facts and Problems—

1985 Edition, p. 590.

Table 3-16.– Forecasts of U.S. and World Phosphate Rock Demand in 2000


(million tons) (percent)United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 a 50 50 60 1.8Rest of world. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 220 220 230 4.2World total ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 270 290 3.6au,s, data for 19M, frOtTI w. stowasser, “Phosphate Rock,”Mh?eml Corrrrrrodity Summar/es— 1987 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1987), p. 116.

SOURCE: Adapted from W. Stowasser, “Phosphate Rock,” A4irteral Facts and Prob/ems– 1985 .Editlorr (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1966), p 592.




production costs continu e to r ise and investment

in new mines is not justified, the shortfall between

domestic supply and domestic demand will have

to come from imports of lower-cost phosphate

rock. 98


Properties and Uses

Sand and gravel is a nationally used commodity

which is an important element in many U.S. in-

dustries and is used in enormous quantities. Sand

and gravel can be used for indu strial purposes such

as in foundary operations, in glass manufacturing,

as abr asives, and in infiltrat ion beds of water tr eat-

ment facilities.

Most sand and gravel, however, is used in con-

struction. Much of the aggregate is used in con-

crete for residential housing, commercial buildings,bridges an d dam s, and in concrete or bituminousmixes for highway construction. A large percent-

age of sand and gravel is also used without binders

as r oad bases, as r oad coverings, and in railroad

ballast.

National Importance

Generally, there is an abundance of sand and

gravel in the United States. Even though these ma-

terials are widely distributed, they are not univer-

sally available for consumptive use. Some areas are

devoid of san d an d gra vel or m ay be covered with

sufficient m ater ial to mak e sur face mining impra c-

tical. In some areas, many sand and gravel sources

do not meet toughness, strength, durability, or

other physical pr operty requirement s for certa in

uses. Similarly, many sources ma y contain m ineral

constituents tha t r eact adversely when used a s con-

crete aggregate. Furthermore, even though an areamay be endowed with a n a bunda nce of sand an d

gravel suitable for t he int ended pu rpose, existing

land uses, zoning, or regulations may preclude

commercial exploitation of the aggregate.

Domestic Resources and ReservesSand and gravel resources are so extensive that

resource estimates of total reserves are probably not

‘* Ibid., p. 593.

obtainable. Mineable resources occur both onshore

and in coastal waters. Large offshore deposits have

been located in th e Atlantic cont inenta l shelf and

offshore Alaska .99

The a vailability of constr uction

sand and gravel is controlled largely by land use

and/or environmental constraints. Local shortages

of sand and gravel are becoming common, espe-cially near large metropolitan areas, and therefore

onshore resources may not meet future demand.

Crushed stone is being used often as a substitute,

despite its h igher price.

Domestic Production

In 1986, about 837 m illion tons of constr uction

sand and gravel were produced in the United

Stat es, industr ial sand an d gravel production ap-proached 28.5 million tons 100 and about 2.5 mil-

lion tons of construction a nd indu strial sa nd a nd

gravel were exported.101

The domestic industry is

made up of many producers ranging widely in size.Most produce materials for the local market. The

western region led production and consumption of

sand and gravel, followed by the east north-central,

mountain, and southern regions.


Demand forecasts for U.S. construction sand andgravel for 2000 range between a low of 650 mil-

lion tons and a high of 1.2 billion tons, with thedemand probably about 1 billion tons. Average an-

nual growth in demand is expected to be about 2.9

percent annually through 2000. 102 Apparent con-

sumption in 1986 was about 836 million tons.

Offshore resources may find futu re m ark ets incertain urban areas where demand might outpace

onshore su pply becau se of scarcity or limited pr o-

duction due to land use or environmental con-

99J . Williams, “Sand a nd Gravel Deposits Within t he United States

Exclusive Economic Zone: Resource Assessment and Uses, OTC

5197, Proceedings of the 18th Annual Offshore Technology Confer-

ence, Houston, Texas, May 5-8, 1986, p. 377.

‘ OOV. Tepordei, “Sand and Gravel, ” Minera) Comtnodity S u m -

maries— 1987 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of M incs, 1985 ), pp.136-137.

101 v, Tepordei and L, Davis, ‘‘ Sand and Gravel, Minerafs Year-

book—1984 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1985), p. 775.

‘02V. Tepordei, “Sand a nd Gra ve l,” Miner-al Facts and Problems-

198.5 Edi[ion, Bulletin 675 (Washington, DC: L’. S. Burea u of Mines,

1986), p. 695.



112 qMarine Minerals: Exploring Ou r N ew Ocean Frontier

straints. Such areas include New York, Boston, Los

Angeles, San Fra ncisco, San J uan , and Honolulu.

Ga r n e t

Garnet is an iron-aluminum silicate used forhigh-quality abrasives and as filter media. Its size

and shape in its natural form is important in de-termining its industr ial use. The United Stat es is

the dominant world producer an d user of garnet ,

accounting for about 75 percent of the world’s out-

put and 70 percent of its consumption. In 1986,

the U.S. produced about 35,000 tons of garnet and

consumed about 28,000 tons.103

Domestic demand

is expected to rise only modestly to about 38,000

tons per year by 2000.104 World resources are very

large and distributed widely among nat ions.

M o n a z i t e

Monazite is a rare-earth and thorium mineralfoun d in a ssociation with heavy minera l sands. Itis recovered mainly as a byproduct of processing

titanium and zirconium minerals, principally in

Australia and India. Domestic production of

monazite is small relative, to demand. As a result,

the Un ited States imports monazite concentra tes

and intermediates, primarily for their rare-earth

content.

The rare earths are used domestically in a wide

variety of end uses including: petroleum fluid crack-

ing catalysts, metallurgical applications in high-

str ength low-alloy steels, ph osphors u sed in colortelevision and color computer displays, high-

strength permanent magnets, laser crystals for h igh-

energy applications such as fusion research and spe-

cial underwater-to-surface communications, elec-

tronic components, high-tech ceramics, fiber-optics,

and superconductors. I t is est imated th at about15,400 tons of equivalent rare-earth oxides were

consumed domestically in 1986.105

Substitutes for the rare earths are available for

man y applications, but a re u sually much less ef-

fective. The United States imported 3,262 tons of

monazite concentrates in 1986, representing about

12 percent of the total estimated domestic consump-

tion of equivalent rar e-eart h oxides.

World resources of the ra re-earth element s ar elarge, and critical shortages of most of the elements

ar e not likely to occur . Becau se domestic deman dfor thorium is small, only a small amount of the

thorium available in monazite is recovered. It isused in aerospace alloys, lamp mantles, welding

electrodes, high-temperature refractory applica-

tions, an d n uclear fuel.

Z i rcon

Zircon is recovered a s a bypr oduct from t he ex-

traction of titanium minerals from titaneous sands.

Zirconium meta l is used a s fuel cladding and stru c-tural material in nuclear reactors and for chemical

processing equipment because of its resistance to

corrosion. Ferrozirconium; zircon and zirconium

oxide, is used in abrasives, refractories, and cer-

amics. Zircon is produced in the United States with

about 40 to 50 percent of consumption imported

from Australia, South Africa, and France.

Domestic consumption of contained zirconium

was a bout 50,000 tons in 1983.106

The United States

is estimated to have about 14 million tons of zir-

con, prima rily associated with tita neous san d de-

posits. It is expected that domestic contained zir-conium demand may r each about 116,000 tons by

2000, an ann ua l growth of nearly 6 percent. Sub-

stitutes for zirconium are available, but at a sacri-

fice in effectiveness. Domestic reserves are gauged

to be adequate for some time in t he futur e although

the United States imports much of that consumed

from cheaper sources.

’03G. Austin, “Garnet, Indu strial, ” Mineral Commodity S u m -

maries—1987 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1986), p. 56.

‘“’J. Smoak, “Garnet,” Mineral Facts and Problems—1985 Edi-

tion, Bulletin 675 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1986),

p. 297.105J . Hedrick, ‘ ‘Rare-Earth Metals, Mineral Commodity S u m -

ma r i e s—J987 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bur eau of Mines, 1986), p. 126.

locw. Adams , “Zirconium an d Hafn ium, ” Minera) Facts ~d Prob-fems—f985 Edition, Bulletin 675 (Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of

Mines, 1986), p. 941.



Chapte r 4

Technologies for Exploring the

Exclusive Economic Zone



CONTENTS

Page

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Reconnaissance Technologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...........119Side-Looking Sonars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................119

Bathymetric Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...........,124

Reflection and Refraction Seismology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...132

Magnetic Methods.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................136

Gravity Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .....................138Site-Specific Technologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...............139

Electrical Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................139

Geochemical Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................143

Manned Submers ibles and Remotely Operated Vehic les . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145

Optical Imaging. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .....................152

Direct Sampling by Coring, Drilling, and Dredging . . . . ....................154

Navigation Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...............162

Figures

Figure No. Page

4-1. USGS Research Vessel S.P. Lee and EEZ Exploration Technologies. .. ....117

4 - 2 . G L O R I A L o n g - R a n g e S i d e - L o o k i n g S o n a r . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 14-3. SeaMARC CL Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............125

4-4. Multi-Beam Bathymetry Products . . . . . . . . . . ..............,............1264-5. Sea Beam Beam Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............127

4-6. Operating Costs for Some Bathymetry and Side-Looking Sonar Systems ...129

4-7. Compar ing SeaMARC and Sea Beam Swath Widths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . .130

4-8. Frequency Spectra of Various Acoustic Imaging Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133

4-9 . S e i sm ic R ef l ec t ion and R ef rac t ion P r inc ip les . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

4-10. Seismic Record With Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ...135

4-11. Conceptual Design of the Towed-Cable-Array Induced Polarization System .142

4-12. A Tethered, Free-Swimming Remotely Operated Vehicle System. ..,..... .1474-13. Schematic of the Argo-J ason Deep-Sea Photographic System . . . . . . . . . .. ...153

4-14. Prototype Crust Sampler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............159

4-15. Conceptual Design for Deep Ocean Rock Coring Drill. . .................162

T a b l e s

Table No. Page

4-1. Closing Range to a Mineral Deposit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ...116

4-2. Side-Looking Sonars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................,.120

4-3. Swath Mapping Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..............123

4-4. Bathymetry Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................1274-5. U.S. Non-Government Submersibles (Manned) . . . . . . . . ..................145

4-6. Federally Owned and Operated Submersibles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ...146

4-7. U.S. Government Supported ROVs. . . . . . . . . . . . ........................146

4-8. Worldwide Towed Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , ............150

4-9. Vibracore Sampling Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............155



C h a p t e r 4

Technologies for Exploring the

Exclusive Economic Zone

INTRODUCTION

The Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is the

largest piece of “real estate” to come under the

jurisdiction of the United States since acquisitions

of the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 and the purchase

of Alaska in 1867. The EEZ remains largely un-

explored, both in the Lewis and Clark sense of gain-

ing general knowledge of a vast new territory and

in the more detailed sense of assessing the location,

quantity, grade, or recoverability of resources. This

chapter identifies and describes technologies for ex-

ploring this vast area, assesses current capabilitiesand limitations of these technologies, and identi-

fies future technology needs.

The goal of mineral exploration is to locate, iden-

tify, an d qua nt ify minera l deposits, either for sci-

entific purposes (e. g., better understanding theirorigin) or for potential commercial exploitation.

Deta iled sampling of promising sites is necessar y

to prove the commercial value of deposits. Obvi-

ously, it would be impractical and costly to sam-

ple the entire EEZ in the detail required to assess

the commercial viability of a mineral deposit. For-

tunately, this is not necessary as techniques other

than direct sampling can provide many indirect

clues t hat help researchers or m ining prospectors

nar row the search area t o the m ost promising sites.

Clues to the location of potential offshore mineral

accumulations can be found even before going tosea to search for them. The initial requirements of

an exploration pr ogram for t he EE Z are a thorough

understanding of its geological framework and of

th e geology of adjacent coasta l area s. In some in-

stances, knowledge of onshore geology may lead

directly to discoveries in a djacent offshore a rea s.For example, a great deal is curr ently known about

the factors responsible for the formation of offshoreheavy mineral deposits and gold placers. These fac-

tors include onshore sources of the minerals, trans-

port paths, processes of concentration, and pres-

ervation of the resulting deposit.1In contrast,

relatively little is known about the genesis of co-

balt crusts or massive sulfides. Although a thorough

un derst an ding of kn own geology and curr ent geo-

logical th eory may n ot lead directly to a comm er-

cial discovery, some knowledge is indispensable for

devising an appropr ia te offshore explora t ion

strategy.

Rona a nd oth ers h ave u sed t he concept of ‘clos-

ing ra nge to a min era l deposit’ to describe an ex-

ploration strategy for hydrothermal mineral depos-its.

2With some minor modifications this strategy

may be applicable for exploration of many typesof offshore mineral accumulations. It is analogous

to th e use of a zoom lens on a cam era which first

shows a large area with little detail but then is ad-

justed for a closeup view to reveal greater detail in

a much smaller area. The strategy of closing range

begins with regional reconnaissance. Reconnais-sance technologies are used to gather information

about th e ‘‘big pictu re. While n one of these tech-

niques can provide direct confirmation of the ex-

isten ce, size, or n at ur e of specific minera l depos-

its, t hey can be powerful tools for deducing likely

places to focus more attention. As knowledge is ac-quired, exploration proceeds toward increasingly

more focused efforts (see table 4-1), and the explo-

ration technologies used have increasingly specific

applications. Technologies that provide detailed in-

formation can be used more efficiently once recon-

naissance techniques have identified the promising

‘H . E, Clifton and G. Luepke, “Heavy Mineral Placer Deposits

of the Continental Margin of Alaska and the Pacific Coast States,

Geology and Resource Potential of the Continental Margin of West-

ern North Am erica and AdJ ”acent Ocean Bas ins—Beaufor t Sea to BaJ’a

California, American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Memoir

43, in press, 1986, p. 2 (draft).

‘P. A. Rona, ‘ ‘Explorat ion for Hydr otherm al Miner al Deposits at

Seafloor Spreading Centers, Marine Mining, Vol. 4, No. 1, 1983,

pp. 20-26.

115



1 1 6 qMarine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Table 4-1.—Closing Range to a Mineral Deposit

Approximaterange to deposit Method

10 kilometers . . . . Long-range side-looking sonarRegional sediment and water sampling

1 kilometer . . . . . . Gravity techniquesMagnetic techniques

BathymetryMidrange side-looking sonarSeismic techniques

100 meters. . . . . . . Electrical techniquesNuclear techniquesShort-range side-looking sonar

10 meters. . . . . . . . Near-bottom water samplingBottom images

0 meter. . . . . . . . . .Coring, drilling, dredgingSubmersible applications

SOURCE: Adapted from P.A. Rona, “Exploration for Hydrothermal Mineral

Deposits at Seafloor Spreading Centers,” Marine Mining, vol. 4 No.

1, 1963, pp. 20-26.

areas. Systematic exploration does not necessarily

mean comprehensive exploration of each acre of

the EE Z.

Accurate information about seafloor topography

is a prerequisite for detailed exploration. Side-

looking sonar imaging and bathymetr ic mapping

provide indispensable reconnaissance information.

Side-looking sonar provides an image of the seafloor

similar to that provided by aerial radar imagery.

Its use has already resulted in significant new dis-coveries of subsea geological features within the

U.S. EEZ. By examining side-looking sonar im-

ages, scientists can decide where to focus more

detailed efforts and plan a more detailed explora-

tion strategy.

Long-range side-looking sonar (e. g., GLORIA

or SeaMARC II, described below) may show pat-

terns indicating large seabed structures. At some-

what closer range, a number of other reconnais-

sance technologies (figure 4-1) may provide more

de ta i l ed t ex tu ra l and s t ruc tu ra l da ta abou t the

seabed that can be used to narrow further the fo-

cus of a search to a specific mineral target.


USGS S.P. Lee




q

q

q

q

q

q

q

Bathymetric profiling yields detailed informa-

tion about water depth, and hence, of seabed

morphology.

Midra nge side-looking sonar s pr ovide acous-

tic images similar to long-range sonars, but

of higher resolution.

Seismic reflection and refraction techniques ac-

quire information about the subsurface struc-tur e of the seabed.

Magnetic profiling is used to detect and char-

acterize the magnetic field. Magnetic traverses

may be u sed offshore to map sediments a nd

rocks containing magnetite and other iron-rich

minerals.

Gravity surveys are used to detect differences

in th e density of rocks, leading to estimates of

crustal rock types and thicknesses.

Electrical techniques are used to study resis-

tivity, conductivity, electrochemical activity,

and other electrical properties of rocks.

Nuclear techniques furnish information about

the radioactive properties of some rocks.

Many of these reconnaissance technologies are

also useful for more detailed studies of the seabed.

Most are towed through the water at speeds of from

1 to 10 knots. Hence, much information may be

gathered in relatively short periods of time. It is

often possible to use more than one sensor at a time,

thereby increasing exploration efficiency. Data sets

can be integrated, such that the combined data are

much more useful than information from any onesensor alone. Generally, the major cost of offshore

reconnaissance is not the sensor itself, but the useof the ship on which it is mounted.

At still closer ranges, several other remote sens-

ing techniques and technologies become useful.

Short-range, higher frequency side-looking sonars

provide very high resolution of seafloor features at

a r an ge of 100 met ers (328 feet) 3 an d less. At less

tha n a bout 50 meters in clear wat er, visual imag-

ing is often used. Photographs or videotapes may

be tak en with camer as m oun ted on towed or low-

3

Many geophysical and geological measurements are commonly ex-pressed in metric units. This convention will be retained in this chapter.

For selected measur es, units in both metr ic and English systems will

be given.

ered platforms or on either unmanned or manned

submersibles. Instruments for sampling the chem-

ical properties and temperature of near-bottom

water also may be carried aboard these platforms.

Indirect methods of detection give way to direct

methods at the seabed. Only direct samples can pro-

vide information about the constituents of a deposit,

their relative abunda nce, concentr ation, grain size,

etc. Grab sa mpling, dredging, coring, and d rilling

techniques have been developed to sample seabed

deposits, although technology for sampling consoli-

dated deposits lags behind tha t for sam pling un -

consolidated sediments. If initial sampling of a

deposit is promising, a more detailed sampling pro-

gram may be carried out. In order to prove the

commer cial value of a miner al occurr ence, it m ay

be necessary t o take th ousands of samples.

While some technology has been specifically de-

signed for m inera ls explora tion, much t echnology

useful for this purpose has been borrowed fromtechnology originally designed for other purposes.

Some of the most sophisticated methods availablefor exploration were developed initially for military

purposes. For instance, development of multi-beam

bathymetric systems by the U.S. Navy has proven

useful for civilian charting, oceanographic research,

and mar ine minerals explorat ion. Much technol-

ogy developed for m ilita ry pu rposes is not imm e-

diately available for civilian uses. Some technol-

ogies developed by the scientific community foroceanographic research are also useful for minerals

exploration.

Advances in technology usually generate inter-

est in finding applications to practical problems.

It is often costly to adapt technology for marine use.

When the military defines a need, the cost of de-

velopment of new technology is commonly less con-

strained than may be the case for the civilian sec-

tor . Conversely, al though certain explorationtechniques (e. g., for sampling polymetallic sulfides)

are not yet very advan ced, it does not n ecessarily

follow that the technical problems in research and

development are overwhelming. Identification of the need for new technology may be recent, and/or

the urgency to develop the technology, which mightbe high for militar y use, ma y be relat ively low for

civilian use.



Ch. 4—Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone q 119

RECONNAISSANCE

S i d e - Lo o k i n g S o n a r s

Side-looking sonars are used for obtaining acous-

tic images of the ocean bottom. Most side-looking

sonars use ship-towed transducers which transmit

sound through the water column to the seafloor.The sound is reflected from the seabed and returned

to the t ransducer. Modern side-looking sonars

measure both echo-time and backscatter intensity.

As the ship moves forward, successive sound pulses

are transmitted, received, and digitally recorded.

Side-looking sonars were original ly designed for

analog operation (i. e., for producing a physical

trace of the returned echo), but most now use dig-

ital methods to facilitate image processing. The data

are usually processed to correct for variations in

the ship’s speed, slant-range distance to the seafloor,

and at tenuat ion of sound in the water. The final

product is a sonograph, or acoustic image, of the

ocean floor. It is also possible to extract informa-

tion about the texture of some seabed deposits from

the sonar signal. Side-looking sonars useful for EEZ

explorat ion are of three types:

1. long-range (capable of mapping swaths 10 to

60 kilometers wide),

2. mid range (1 to 10 kilometers swaths), and

3. short range ( <1 kilometer swaths).4

Table 4-2 displays characteristics of several side-

looking sonars.

Long-Range Side-Looking Sonar

One of the few technologies used to date to in-

vestigate large portions of the U.S. EEZ is a long-

range side-looking sonar known as GLORIA (Geo-

logical LOng Range Inclined Asdic) (figure 4-2).

GLORIA was designed by the Institute of Oceano-

graphic Sciences (IOS) in the United Kingdom and

i s b e i n g u s e d b y t h e U . S . G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y

(USGS) for obtaining acoustic images of the U.S.

EEZ beyond the cont inenta l she l f .5W h e n p r o c -

4P. R, Vogt and B. E. Tucholke (eds. ) ‘‘Ima ging t he O cean Floor—Hist ory and Sta te of the Art, ‘‘ in The G eology of North America,

Volume M, The Western North Atlantic Region (Boulder, CO: Geo-

logical Society of America, 1986), p. 33 .

5EEZ Scan 1984 Scientific Staff, Adas of th e ExcJusi}’e Economic

Zone, Western Conterminous United States, U.S. Geological Sur-

vey Miscellaneous Investigations Series 1-1792, Scale 1 :500,000, 1986.

T E C H N O L O G I E S

essed, GLORIA images are similar to slant-range

radar images. GLORIA’s main contribution is that

it gives geologists a valua ble first look at expanses

of the seafloor and enables them to gain insight

about seabed structure and geology. For instance,

the orientation and extent of large linear features

such as ridges, bedforms, channels, and fracture

zones can be determined.6Horizonta l separa t ions

as little as 45 meters (148 feet) and vertical distances

on the order of a few meters can be resolved.

USGS is using GLORIA to survey the EEZ rela-

tively inexpensively and quickly. GLORIA can sur-

vey swaths of seabed as wide as 60 kilometers (al-

though, in practice, a 45-kilometer swath width is

used to improve resolution). When towed 50 meters

beneath the sea surface at 8 to 10 knots and set to

illuminate a 60-kilometer swath, GLORIA is ca-

pable of surveying as much as 27,000 square kilom-eters (about 8,300 square nautical miles) of the

seafloor per day. It is less efficient in shallow water,

since swath width is a function of water depth be-

l o w t h e s o n a r , i n cr e as i n g as d e p t h i n cr e as e s.

GLORIA can survey to the outer edge of the EEZ

in very deep water.

Processing and enhancement of digital GLORIA

data are accomplished using the Mini-Image Proc-

essing System (MIPS) developed by USGS.7MIPS

is able to geometrically and radiometrically correct

the original data, as well as enhance, display, and

combine the data with other data types. In addi-t ion, the system can produce derivat ive products,

al l on a relat ively inexpensive minicomputer sys-

t e m.8It is also possible now to vary the scale and

projection of the data without having to do much

manual manipula t ion.

‘R. W. Rowland, M. R. Goud, and B.A. McGregor, ‘‘The U.S.

Exclusive Economic Zone—A Summary of Its Geology, Exploration,

and Resource Potential, U.S. Geological Survey, Geological Cir-

cular 912, 1983, p. 1 6 .

7P. S. Chavez, “Processing Techniques for Digital Sonar Images

From GLORIA, Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sens-

ing, vol. 52, No. 8, 1986, pp. 1133-1145.8

G. W. Hill, ‘‘U.S. Geological Survey Plans for Mapping the Ex-clusive Economic Zone L’sing ‘GLORIA’, Proceedings: The Ex-

clusive Economic Zone Symposium: Exploring the New Ocean Fron

tier, M. Lockwood and G. Hill (eds. ), conference sponsored by

National Oceanic an d Atmospheric Administrat ion, L’. S. Departm ent

of the Interior, Smithsonian Institution, and Marine Technology. So-

ciety, held at Smithsonian Institution, Oct. 2-3, 1985, p. 76.




Figure 4-2.—GLORIA Long-Range Side. Looking Sonar

a) GLORIA ready for deployment b) Schematic of GLORIA system

125°30'W

c) GLORIA image of Taney Seamounts

SOURCE: U S. Geological Survey.

7 2 - 6 7 2 0 - 87 -- 5




USGS used GLORIA in 1984 to survey the EEZ

adjacent to California, Oregon, and Washington.

This entire area (250,000 square nautical miles) was

surveyed in 96 survey days (averaging about 2,600

squar e nau tical miles per da y). In 1985, USGS used

GLORIA to complete the survey of the Gulf of

Mexico started in 1982 and to survey offshore areas

adjacent to Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. In1986, GLORIA surveys were conducted in parts

of the Bering Sea and in Hawaiian waters. The ben-

efits of using GLORIA data to reconnoiter the EEZ

have become apparent in that, among other things,

severa l dozen previously un kn own volcan oes (po-

tential sites for hard mineral deposits) were discov-

ered.9These and other featur es appear in USGS’s

recently published west coast GLORIA atlas, a col-

lection of 36, 2- by 2-degree sheets at a scale of 1:500,000.

10Digital GLORIA data will be even

more useful in the future, as additional bathymet-

ric, magnetic, gravity, and other t ypes of data are

collected and integra ted in th e data base.

USGS has now acquired its own GLORIA (itpreviously leased one owned by 10 S). Known as

GLORIA Mark III, this newest system is an im-

proved version of earlier models, incorporating

titanium transducers and a digitized beam-steering

un it to corr ect for yaw.11

During the next several

years, GLORIA Mark III is scheduled to survey

Alaskan, Hawaiian, and Atlantic EEZs. The USGS

plan is t o survey the entir e U.S. EEZ by 1991, with

the exception of the U.S. Trust Territories, the ice-covered area s of the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas,

and continental shelf areas (i. e., areas shallowerthan 200 meters (656 feet)).

The potential ma rket for GLORIA surveys ha s

recently attracted a private sector entrepreneur,

Marconi Underwater Systems of the United King-

dom. Marconi is convinced that other coastal states

will wish to explore their EEZs and will look to com-

mercial contractors for assistance. Eventually,

USGS also may be in a position to use its GLORIA

for mapping the EEZs of other countries. Once the

U.S. EEZ is surveyed, GLORIA would be avail-

able for use to explore EEZs of countries that have

cooperative science programs with the UnitedS t a t e s .—

‘Ibid.10EEZ Scan 1984 Scientific Staff , A das .

I ID, Swinbanks, “New GLORIA in Record Time, ’ Nature, \ Tol .

320, Apr. 17, 1986, p. 568.

USGS is coordinating its GLORIA programwith th e detailed EEZ survey program of the Na-

tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration(NOAA). NOAA is using Sea Beam and Bathy-

metric Swath Survey System (BS3) technology (dis-

cussed below) to produce detailed bathymetric

charts. NOAA uses GLORIA information pro-

vided by USGS for det erm ining sur vey priorities.USGS geologists use NOAA’s bathymetry in con-

junction with GLORIA data to assist in inter pret-

ing t he geologic featu res of th e sea floor. Th e most

accurate geological interpretations will result from

use of many different types of data simultaneously:side-looking sonar, bathymetry, gravity, magnetic,

seismic, electrical, etc.

Midrange Side-Looking Sonar

Like GLORIA, midrange systems record the

acoustic reflection from the seafloor; however, they

are capable of much higher resolution. In addition,whereas GLORIA is used to obtain a general pic-

tur e of the seafloor, midra nge and shortra nge side-

looking sonars are usually used for more detailed

surveys. A seabed miner interested in looking for

a specific resource would select and tune the side-

looking sonar suitable for the job. For example,

manganese nodule fields between the Clarion and

Clipperton fracture zones in the Pacific Ocean were

mapped in 1978 using an imaging system specially

designed and built for that purpose.

The Sea Mapping And Remote Characteriza-

tion systems—SeaMARC I and II—developed byInternational Submarine Technology, Ltd. (1ST),

and, respectively, Lamont-Doherty Geological Ob-

servatory an d th e Ha waii Institut e of Geophysics

(HIG), are t wo of severa l such system s ava ilable.

SeaMARC I recently ha s been u sed to survey th e

Gorda a nd J uan de Fuca ridges.12

It can resolve

tectonic and volcanic features with as little as 3

met ers of relief. Higher resolution is obtain ed be-

cause midrange systems use wider bandwidths andgenerally operate at higher frequencies (10 to 80

12J.G Kosalos and D. Chayes, “A Portable System for Ocean Bot-

tom Imaging and Charting, Proceedings, Oceans 83, sponsored byMarine Technology and IEEE Ocean Engineering Society, Aug. 29-

Sept. 1, 1983, pp. 649-656.I JE ,S . Kappel and W. B. F. Ryan, “Volcanic Episodicity and a N on-

Steady Sta te Rift Valley Along Northeast Pacific Spreading Centers:

E \ i d en ce from Sea Marc I,’’ Journal of Geophysical Research, 1986,

in press




kilohertz) than long-range systems and because they

ar e towed closer t o the bottom.14

However, h igher

resolution is obtained at the expense of swath width.

SeaMARC I data is relatively expensive to ac-

quire, given the smaller area that can be surveyedin a given time; however, SeaMARC I coverage

in specific areas is a logical follow-on to GLORIAregional coverage, as the information it provides

is of much higher resolution. For example, little is

known about the small-scale topography of sea-

mounts a nd r idges where cobalt crusts a re found.

SeaMARC I surveys (or surveys by a similar deep-

towed system) will be needed to determine this

small-scale topography before appropriate mining

equipment can be designed.15

Interferometric Systems

By measuring the angle of arrival of sound echoes

from the seafloor in addition to measuring echo am-

plitude and acoustic travel time, interferometric sys-

tems a re able to generate m ulti-beam-like bathy-

metric contours as well as side-scanning sonar

imagery (table 4-3).16

SeaMARC II developed

jointly by 1ST and HIG, newer versions of Sea-

——-—14Rowland , Goud, McGregor , ‘ ‘Th e L’ .S. Exclusive Economic

Zone—Summary, ” p. }8.

‘5J. R, Hein, L.A. Morgenson, D.A. Clague, et al , “Cobalt-Rich

Ferromanganese Crusts From the Exclusive Economic Zone of the

United States and Nodules From the Oceanic Pacific, Geology and

Resource PotentiA of the Continental Margin of k$’es[ern . \ 7 0 r t h Amer-

ica and Adjacent Ocean Basins—Beaufbrt Sea to I?aJ”a California, D.

Scholl, A, Grantz, and J. Vedder (eds. ), American Association of Pe -

t ro leum Geologists, Memoir 43, in press, 1986.“J . G. Black in ton , D.M. Hussong, and J.G, Kosalos, “First Re-

sults From a Combination Side-Scan Sonar and Seafloor Mapping

System (SeaMARC I I),” Proceedings, Offshore Technology Confer-

cncc, Houston, TX, May 2-5, 1983, OTC 4478, pp. 307-314.

Table 4-3.—Swath Mapping Systems

Image only Image and bathymetry Bathymetry only

Side looking Inter fe rometr ic Sector scan Swath Map SeaMARC II HydrosearchGLORIA SeaMARC/S SNAPSeaMARC I SeaMARC TAMU Multibeam SeaMARC II Bathyscan Sea BeamSeaMARC CL TOPO-SSS BSSS/HydrochartDeep Tow SASSSAR BOTASSEDO 4075 Krupp-AtlasEG&G SMS960 Honeywell-ElacEG&G 260 SimradKlein BenetechSOURCE: International Submarine Technology, Ltd.

MARC I, and several other systems have this dual

function capability.

SeaMARC II is a midrange to long-range side-looking sonar towed 100 meters below the surface

(above SeaMARC I, below GLORIA). It is ca pa -ble of surveying over 3,000 square kilometers (875

square nautical miles) per day when towed at 8knots, mapping a swath 10 kilometers wide (20

kilometers or more when used for imaging only)in water depths greater t han 1 kilometer. Some re-

cent SeaMARC II bath ymetry products ha ve pro-

duced greater spatial resolution than Sea Beam or

SASS bathymetry technologies (discussed below).

Currently, SeaMARC II does not meet Interna-

tional Hydrograph ic Bureau accura cy sta ndar ds for

absolute depth, which call for sounding errors of

no more than 1 percent in waters deeper than 100meters, Although t here a re ph ysical limits t o im-

provements in SeaMARC accura cy, the substa n-

tial advantage in rate of coverage may outweighneeds for 1 percent accur acy, par ticular ly in deepwater.

17SeaMARC II’s swath width is roughly four

times Sea Beam’s in deep water, so at similar shipspeeds the survey rate will be about four times

greater.

Two other SeaMARC systems, both of which

will have the capability to gather bathymetry data

and backscatter imagery, are now being developed

a t 1 S T : S e a M A R C T A M U a n d S e a M A R C C L .

SeaMARC TAMU is a joint project of the Naval

Ocean Research and Development Activity, Texas

A&M Univers i ty , and John Chance Assoc ia tes .The unit will be able to transmit and receive sig-

nals simultaneously at several frequencies, which

may enable ident ificat ion of texture and bottom

roughness.

Concurrently, developments are underway to use

S e a B e a m r e t u r n s t o m e a s u r e b a c k s c a t t e r i n g

strength; hence, technical developments are begin-

ning to blur the distinction between SeaMARC and

Sea Beam systems.18

Additional advances in seabed

mapping systems are being made in the design of

tow vehicles and telemetry systems, in signal proc-

1 TD , E. p ryor , Nation~ Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

OTA Workshop on Technologies for Surveying and Exploring th r

Exclusive Economic Zone, Washington, DC, June 10, 1986.1 B \ ~ og t and Tucholke, ‘‘ Ima ging th e Ocean Floors, p. 34.




Photo credit: International Submarine Technology, Ltd.

Sea MARC II towfish

essing, in materials used in transducers, and in

graphic recording techniques.19

Short-Range Side-Looking Sonar

Short-range side-looking sonar systems are usedfor acquiring acoustic images of small areas. They

are not used for regional reconnaissance work, but

th ey may be u sed for det ailed ima ging of seafloor

features in areas previously surveyed with

GLORIA or SeaMARC I or II. Operating fre-

quencies of short-range sonars are commonly be-

tween 100 and 500 kilohertz, enabling very high

resolution. Like midrange systems, they are towedclose to the ocean bottom. Deep Tow, developed

by Scripps Institution of Oceanography, has been

used to study morphology of sediment bedforms

and processes of crustal accretion at the Mid-

Atlantic Ridge.20 SAR (Systeme Acoustique Re-

morque) is a similar French system, reportedly ca-

pable of distinguishing objects as small as 30 by 76

centimeters (12 by 30 inches). It is towed about 60

meters off the seafloor and produces a swath of about 1,000 meters. Both of these deep-water sys-

tems ha ve been used in th e search for the Titanic .21

SeaMARC CL is a short-range deep-towed inter-

ferometric system which is under development (fig-

ure 4-3). One model has been built for use in the

Gulf’ of Mexico; another has been configured by

Sea Floor Surveys International for use by the pri-

vate sector and is available for hire. Shallow water,high-resolution, side-looking sonar systems devel-

oped by EG&G an d Klein ar e used for such a ctiv-ities as harbor clearance, mine sweeping, and

detailed mapping of oil and gas lease blocks.

B a t h y m e t r i c S y s t e m s

Bathymetry is the measurement of water depths.

Modern bath ymetric technologies ar e used to de-

termine water depth simultaneously at many loca-

tions. Very accura te bathymetr ic char ts showingthe topography of the seafloor can be constructed

if sufficient data are collected with precise naviga-

tional positioning (figure 4-4). These charts are im-

portant tools for geological and engineering inves-tigations of the seafloor, as well as aids t o navigation

and fishing. If bathymetric and side- looking so-nar data are integrated and used jointly, the prod-

uct is even more valuable.

Most existing charts are based on data acquired

using single beam echo-sounding technology. This

technology has now been surpassed by narrow,

multi-beam technology that enables the collection

of larger amounts of more accurate data. The older

data were obtained without the aid of precise posi-

tioning systems. Moreover, existing data in the off-

shore regions of the EEZ generally consist of sound-ings along lines 5 to 10 miles apart with positional

uncertainties of several kilometers .22 Charts in the

existing National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad-

ministrat ion/National Ocean Service (NOAA/

NOS) series are usually compiled from less than

10,000 data points. In contrast, similar charts using

the newer multi-beam technology are compiled

from about 400,000 data points, and this quantityconst itut es a su bset of only about 2 per cent of th e

observed data. Hence, much more information is

available for constructing very detailed charts.

‘9M, Klein, “High-Resolution Seabed Mapping: New Develop-m e n t s , Proceedings, Offshore Technology Conference, Houston,

TX, May 1984, p.75.ZoVogt and Tucholke, “Imaging the Ocean Floor, ” p. 34.ZIP,R. Ryan and A. Rabushka, “The Discovery of the Ti tanic by

the U.S. and French Expedition, ’ Ocean us, vol. 28, No. 4, winter

1985/86, p. 19.

22D. E. Pryor, “Overview of NOAA’s Exclusive Economic Zone

Survey P rogram, Ocean Engineering and the Environment, Oceans

85 Conference Record, sponsored by Marine Technology and IEEE

Ocean Engineering Society, Nov. 12-14, 1985, San Diego, CA, pp.

1186-1189.



Ch. 4—Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone 125

Figure 4-3.—SeaMARC CL images

Three images made of a PB4Y aircraft at the bottom of Lake Washington near Seattle. Swath width, altitude, and depth oftowfish varies.

SOURCE: International Submarine Technology, Ltd.




Figure 4-4.—Multi-Beam Bathymetry Products

45” 10’

a ) Contour map of part of the Kane Fracture Zone, Mid-Atlantic Ridge

b) Three-dimensional Mesh Surface Presentation of the samedata. Charts and 3-D presentations such as these are impor-tant tools for geological and engineering investigations of

the seafloor,

SOURCE: R. Tyce, Sea Beam Users Group.

Improvements in seafloor mapping have resulted

from t he development of multi-beam bath ymetry

system s (table 4-4), th e ap plicat ion of heave-roll-pitch sensors to correct for ship motion, the im-

proved accuracy of satellite positioning systems, and

improved computer and plotter capability for proc-

essing map data.23

These improvements make

possible:

Z$C . Andreasen, “National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra-

tion Exclusive Economic Zone Mapping Project, in Proceedings:

The Exclusive Economic Zone Symposium: Exploring the New Ocean

Frontier, M, Lockwood and G. Hill (eds. ), conference sponsored by

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra tion, U.S. Departm ent

of the In terior, Smithsonian Inst itution, and Ma rine Society, held at

Smithsonian Institution, Oct. 2-3, 1985, pp. 63-67.

1.

2.

3.

4.

much higher resolution

bottom featu res;

a significant decrease

making area surveys;

nearly instantaneous

charts, eliminating the

cartography;24

a n d

for detecting fine scale

in time required for

automated contour

need for conventional

the availability of data in digital format.

Deep-Water Systems

Swath bathymetric systems are of two types:

those designed to operate in deep water and those

designed primarily for shallow water. The principaldeep-water multi-beam systems currently in use in

the United States are Sea Beam and SASS. Sea

Beam technology, installed on NOAA’s NOS ships

to survey EEZ waters deeper th an 600 meters, first

became available from General Instrument (GI)

Corp. in 1977. GI’s original multi-beam bathymet-

ric sonar, the Sonar Array Sounding System (orSASS) was developed for the U.S. Navy and is not

available for civilian use. Sea Beam is a spinoff from

th e original SASS t echnology.

Sea Beam is a hull-mounted system, which uses

16 adjacent beams, 8 port and 8 starboard, to sur-

vey a wide swath of the ocean bottom on both sides

of th e sh ip’s t ra ck (figure 4-5). Each bea m covers

an a ngular a rea 2.670 square. The swath angle is

the sum of the individual beam width an gles, or42.670, With the swath angle set, the swath width

depends on the ocean depth. At the continental shelf

edge, i.e., 200 meters, the swath width is about 150meters at the bottom; in 5,000 meters (16,400 feet)

of water, t he swat h width is a pproximately 4,000

met ers. Therefore, Sea Beam ’s sur vey ra te is

greater in deeper waters. By carefully spacing ship

tracks, complete (or overlapping) coverage of anarea can be obtained. The contour interval of

bath ymetric cha rts produced from Sea Beam can

be set as fine as 2 met ers.

The Na vy’s older SASS model uses a s ma ny a s

60 beams, providing higher resolution than Sea

Beam in the direction perpendicular to the ship’strack (Sea Beam resolution is better parallel to the

ship’s tr ack). In cur ren t SASS models, the out er

10 or so beams a re often unr eliable and n ot u sed .25

24H. K. Farr, “Multibeam Bathymetric Sonar: Sea Beam and

H y d r o c h a r t , Marine Geodosy, vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 88-89.

Zsvogt an d Tucholke, “Imaging the Ocean Floor, ” p. 37.




used in making bathymetric charts (except for

charts of very small areas), and generating charts

with a 1- meter contour interval is impractical. Sea

Beam, unlike SASS, may be installed on small

ships. In order t o build a Sea Beam with a 10 beamwidth, an acoustic array 2.5 times longer than cur-

rent models would be required. To accommodate

such an a rra y, one must either tow it or use a lar gership. The Navy has found that the current Sea

Beam system is capable of producing contour charts

of sufficient quality for most of its needs and is cur-

rently considering deploying Sea Beam systems for

several of its sma ller ships.

It is important to match resolution requirementswith the purpose of the survey. Use of additional

exploration technologies in conjunction with Sea

Beam data may provide better geological interpre-

tat ions t ha n improving th e resolution of the Sea

Beam system alone. For instance, combined ba-

thymetr y and side-looking sonar da ta m ay revealmore features on the seafloor.

Improving swath coverage is probably more im-

portant tha n improving resolution for reconna is-sance surveys. Wider swath coverage, for exam-

ple, could increase the survey rate and reduce the

time and cost of reconnaissance surveys. SeaBeam’s swath angle is narrow compared to that of

GLORIA or SeaMARC (figur e 4-6); thu s t he a rea

tha t can be surveyed is smaller in th e same time

period. It may be possible to extend Sea Beam ca-pability from the current 0.8 times water depth to

as much as 4 times water depth without losing hy-drographic quality.28 The current limit is imposed

by the original design; hence, a small amount of

development may pr oduce a lar ge gain in sur vey

coverage without giving up data quality.

Another factor that affects the survey rate is the

availability of the Global Positioning System (GPS)for navigation and vessel speed. Currently, NOAA

uses GP S when it can ; however, it is not yet fully

operational. When GPS is inaccessible, NOAA

survey vessels periodically must approach land to

maintain navigational fixes accurate enough for

charting purposes. This reduces the time available

for surveying. Ship speed is also a factor, but in-

creases in speed would not resu lt in as grea t im-

provements in the survey rate as increases in swath

width. Operating costs for some typical bathymet-

ric systems are shown in figure 4-7.

Shallow-Water Systems

Several shallow-water bathymetric systems areavailable from manufacturers in the United States,

Norway, West Germany, and J apan . NOAA uses

Hydrochart, commonly known as the Bathymet-

ric Swath Survey System (BS3), for charting in

coastal water s less tha n 600 m eters (1 ,970 feet)

deep. One of the principle advantages BS3has over

Sea Beam is the wider angular coverage available,

1050 versus 42.70, enabling a wider swath to becharted. This angular coverage converts to about

260 percent of wat er depth , in contra st t o 80 per-cent of depth for Sea Beam. Data acquisition is

more rapid for BS3because the swath width is wider

and transmission time in shallow water is reduced.29

Hence, signal processing and plotting requirements

for BS3are different tha n t hose for Sea Beam. GI

has recently introduced Hydrochart H, an im-proved version of Hydrochart. The principal differ-

ence is a maximum depth capability of 1,000

meters. With its 17 beams, Hydrochart II offers

much great er resolution a nd a ccura cy tha n older

single-beam sonars.

Along the narrow continental shelf bordering the

Pacific Coast, bathymetry in very shallow water is

fairly well known. Thus, NOAA has set an inshore

limit of 150 met ers for its BS

3

surveys (except forspecial applications), even th ough BS3is designed

to be used in water a s sha llow as 3 met ers. In re-

gions where there are broad expanses of relatively

shallow water and where the bathymetry is less well

known, as off Alaska and along the Atlantic Coast,

BS3maybe used in water less than 150 meters deep.

Various bath ymetric char ting systems ar e cur-

rent ly under development which m ay enable sys-

tem at ic sur veying of very sha llow water s, limitedonly by the draft of the vessel. One such system,

for u se in waters less tha n 30 meters deep, is the

airborne laser. Laser systems a re un der develop-

ment by the U.S. Navy, the Canadians, Aus-

tr alian s, and others . NOAA’s work in t his fieldZ8R, Tyce, Director, Sea Beam Users Group, OTA Workshop on

Technologies for Surveying and Exploring the Exclusive Economic

Zone, Washington, DC, June 10, 1986.29F a r r , “Multibeam Bathymetric Sonar, ” p. 91.




1 , 0 0 0

1 0 0

10

1

Figure 4-6.–Operating Costs for Some Bathymetryand Side. Looking Sonar Systems

“lo 100 1,000 10,000

Depth (meters)

NOTES: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Operating costs are not really system characteristics but are primarily determined by platform (ships, etc.) costs

(including Positioning system operation). platform costs are highly variable. Variability is influenced more by eco-nomic conditions, ship operating costs, etc. than by survey system requirements.

For shallow water imaging systems, work generally takes place in relatively protected areas not far from a port.Shallow water surveys can be performed using small (30-60 ft long) vessels at costs of from $500-$1200 per day,but operations would likely be limited to daylight hours. Considering daily transits, it would be difficult to surveymore than 8 hours per day in an area or, given downtimes caused by inclement weather, to average more than 4

hours daily

Acquisition of deep water acoustic data commonly requires use of a larger, oceangoing vessel that can operate

24 hours a day. At this time, operational costs range from $5K-$15K a day for such vessels. With a system cap-

able of withstanding 10 knot towing speeds, it should be possible to survey, on the average, 100 nautical trackmiles a day. Production goals for the Surveyor and the Davidson are 65 linear nautical miles per day.

Several imaging systems can be operated in different modes to give higher resolution data, but this will be at apenalty to the cost of coverage.

Experience with only three bathymetric systems is adequate enough (and not classified) to estimate operatingcosts. These are Sea Beam, BSSS/Hydrochart 11, and the Simrad EM100.

Bathymetric system operating costs are based on the assumption that 100 nautical miles of seafloor a day can besurveyed using a vessel costing $5K-$15K per day.

Costs of processing data (whether side-looking or bathymetric) are not included.

SOURCE: D. Pryor, National Oceanic and Atmospheric




Figure 4-7.—Comparing SeaMARC and Sea Beam Swath Widths

The SeaMARC II system can acquire both bathymetric data andthat of the Sea Beam system. The Sea Beam system, however,

sonar imagery and has a swath width more than four timesproduces more accurate bathymetry.

SOURCE: International Submarine Technology, Ltd., Redmond, WA.

stopped in 1982, due to limited funds. The Cana-dian system, the Larsen 500, is now being used by

the Canadian Hydrographic Service. The Aus-

tra lian laser depth sounding system, WRELADS,

has been used experimentally to map a swath 200

meters wide.30

Water must be clear (i. e., without

suspended sediments) for the airborne lasers towork. Towed underwater lasers have not yet been

developed.

Another method current ly under development

for use in very shallow water is airborne electromag-

netic (AEM) bathymetry. This technique has re-

cently been tested at sea by the Na val Ocean Re-

search and Development Activity (NORDA).31

NORDA reports that with additional research anddevelopment, the AEM method maybe able to pro-

duce accurate bathymetric charts for areas as deepas 100 meters. Passive multispectral scanners also

have been applied to measuring bathymetry.32

Acombination of laser, AEM, and multispectral tech-

niques may be useful to overcome the weather and

turbidity limits of lasers alone. Satellite altimeters

and synthetic aperture radar images of surface ex-pressions can also indicate bathymetry, but much

K. “Land Into Sea Does Not Go, ” Remote Sensing

Applications in S cience and Technology, (cd.)

MA: D. Pu blish ing Co., 1983), p. 366.

Won and K. Smits, “Airborne Electromagnetic

try, ” Report 94, U.S. Navy, Nava l Ocean Resear ch and De-

velopment Activity, April 1985.32

D. R. Lyzenga, “Passive Remote Sensing Techniques for Map-

ping Water Depth and Bottom Features, Optics,

No. 3, February 1978, pp. 29-33.




less accurately.33

If airborne bathymetric survey

techniques for shallow water can be further refined,

they would have the distinct advantage over ship-

based systems of being able to cover much more

territory in much less time and at reduced cost.

Technology for airborne surveys in deep water has

not yet been developed.

Systematic Bathymetr ic Mapping of the E E Z

NOAA ha s recent ly begun a long-ran ge project

to survey and produce maps of the entire U.S.

EEZ. The NOAA ship S urveyor is equipped with

Sea Beam and has been mapping the EEZ since

May 1984. Initial Sea Beam surveys were madeof the Outer Continen tal Sh elf, slope, and upper

rise off th e coast s of California an d Or egon. 34 A

second Sea Beam was installed aboard Discoverer

in 1986. The Davidson has been equipped with BS3

since 1978, NOAA plans to acquire two additional

swath mapping systems with 1987 and 1988 fiscalyear funds.

NOAA is currently able to map between 1,500

and 2,500 square n aut ical miles per m onth (with

two ships, Surveyor and Davidson, working on the

west coast continental slope). This is significantly

below the expected coverage rate for the Sea Beam.Transit time, weather, crosslines, equipment fail-

ure, and decreased efficiency in shallower water are

factors t hat have limited production t o about 50

square nautical miles per ship per day. Moreover,NOAA has not yet surveyed any areas beyond 120

miles from the coast. With the GPS available onlypart -time, too much time would be wasted in m ain-

taining accurate navigation control on the outer half

of the EEZ. Delays in launching satellites, the

Challenger accident, and several recent failures of

GPS satellites already in orbit are further eroding

the near-term usefulness of GPS and, therefore,limiting the efficiency of NOAA surveys.

33W. Alpers and 1. Hennings, “A Theory of the Imaging Mecha-

nism of Underwater Bottom Topograph y by Real and Synt hetic Aper-ture Radar, ’ ‘~ournzd of Geophysical Research, vol. 89, N o. C6, No\”.

20, 1984, Pp. 10,529-10,546.

34D. E. Pryor, “NOAA Exclusive Economic Zone Su rvey Pro-

gram, ‘‘ in PA CON 86, proceedings of the Pacific Congress on Ma-

rine Technology, sponsored by Marine Technology Society, Hawaii

Section, Honolulu, HA, Mar. 24-28, 1986, pp. OST5/9,10.

The agency would like to map all 2.3 million

square nautical miles of the U.S. EEZ. With cur-

rent technology, funding, and manpower, this

project could t ake m ore tha n 100 years. In order

to ensure th at th e most importan t ar eas are sur-veyed first, NOAA consults with USGS and uses

USGS’s GLORIA side-looking sonar imagery to

select survey targets. USGS has provided funds toNOAA for data processing; in return, NOAA ac-

cepts the survey priorities set by USGS.

By mid-1986, less than 1 percent of the U.S. EEZhad been systematically surveyed with NOAA’s Sea

Beam and BS3system s. To dat e, few of the char ts

or r aw da ta ha ve been pu blicly released because

the U.S. Navy has determined that public dissem-

ination of high-resolution bathymetric data could

endan ger nat iona l security. NOAA and th e Navy

are current ly exploring ways t o reduce the secu-

rity risks while producing bathymetric charts use-

ful for marine geologists, potential seabed miners,fishermen, and other legitimate users (see ch. 7).

NOAA’s Survey Program is the only systematic

effort to obtain bathymetry for the entire EEZ; how-

ever, several academic institu tions h ave ma pped

small portions of the EEZ. For instance, Woods

Hole Oceanographic Institution, Lamont-Doherty

Geological Observatory, and Scripps Institution of

Oceanography have their own Sea Beam systems.

Much of the mapping these institutions have donehas been outside the U.S. EEZ. Moreover, addi-

tional bathymetric data (how much of it useful is

unknown) are gathered by the offshore petroleumindustry during seismic surveys. As much as 10 mil-

lion miles of seismic profiles (or about 15 percent

of the EEZ) have been shot by commercial geo-

physical service companies in the last decade, and

almost all of these surveys are believed to contain

echo soundings in some form (probably mostly 3.5

kilohertz data) .35 Some of these data are on file at

the National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) inBoulder , Colora do; however, most rem ain propri-

etar y. Moreover, maps m ade from t hese data might

35

R. B. Perry, ‘ ‘Mapping the Exclusive Economic Zone, Ocean Engineering and the En;’ironmenf, Oceans 85 Conference Kc-curd,

Sponsored by Ma rine Technology Society and IEEE Ocean Engineer-

ing Society, Nov. 12-14, 1985, San Diego, CA, p. 1193. The seismic

profiles themselves generally include ocean bottom reflections when

water depth s are m ore than a bout 150 meters. These profiles am ac-

curate, continuous bathymetric records along the line of sun.e)’.




also be considered classified under current Depart-

ment of Defense pol icy. The grid l ines are often

only one-quarter mile apart , indicat ing that these

maps would be very accurate (al though a stand-

ard 3.5 kilohertz echo sounding does not have the

resolution of Sea Beam) .36

NOAA is currently exploring ways to utilize dataacquired by academic and private inst i tut ions to

upgrade existing bathymetric maps to avoid dupli-

cation. In some areas, it may be possible to accumu-

late enough data from these supplemental sources

to improve the density and accuracy of coverage.

Howe ve r , be c a use t he se da t a usua l l y we re no t

gathered for the purpose of making high-qual i ty

bathymetric maps, these data may not be as ac-

curate as needed. NOAA is adhering to Interna-

t i ona l Hydrogra ph i c Bure a u s t a nda rds be c a use

these standards are: widely accepted by nat ional

surveying agencies, result in a product with a high

degree of acceptan ce , and a re feasible to meet .NOAA could relax its standards if this meant that

an acceptable job could be done more efficiently.

For example, if depth accuracy of the SeaMarc 11

system (which has a much wider swath width than

Sea Beam) could be improved from the present 3

percent of depth to 1.5 percent or better, NOAA

might consider using SeaMarc II in its bathymet-

ric surveys.

Public data sets rarely have the density of cov-

erage that would provide resolut ion approaching

that of a mult i -beam survey. Commercial survey

data are not contiguous over large areas becausethey cover only selected areas or geologic structures.

Data may be from a wide beam or deep seismic

system, possibly uncorrected for velocity or un-

edited for quality. Data sets would also be difficult

to merge. Unless the lines are sufficiently dense,

computer programs cannot grid and produce con-

tours from the data at the scale and resolution of

m u l t i - b e a m d a t a .37

SASS data acquired by the U.S. Navy is classi-

fied. NOAA neither knows what the bathymetry

is in areas surveyed by SASS nor what areas have

b e e n s u r v ey e d . M o r e o p ti m i st i ca l ly , on c e th e

S6C. Savi t , s en i o r vice President, Western Geophysical, OTA

Workshop on Technologies for Surveying and Exploring the Exclu-sive Economic Zone, Washington, DC, June 10, 1986.

“Perry, “Mapping the Exclusive Economic Zone, ” p. 1193.

Global Pos i t ioning System becomes ava i lable

around the clock, thereby enabling precise naviga-

tional control at all times, it may be possible for

NOAA to utilize multi-beam surveys conducted by

others, e.g., by University National Oceanographic

Laboratory System (UNOLS) ships. If the three

university ships currently equipped with Sea Beam

could be used as ‘ ‘ships of opportuni ty’ when

o t he rwi se une mpl oye d o r unde re mpl oye d , bo t h

NOAA and the academic institutions would bene-

fit. NOAA has already discussed the possibility of

funding Sea Beam surveys with the Scripps Insti-

tut ion of Oceanography.

Re f l ec t ion and Re f rac t ion Se i smology

Seismic techniques are the primary geophysical

methods for acquiring information about the geo-

logical structure and stratigraphy of continental

margins and deep ocean areas. Seismic techniques

are acoustic, much like echo sounding and sonar,

but lower frequency sound sources are used (fig-

ure 4-8). Sound from low-frequency sources, rather

than bouncing off the bottom, penetrates the bot-

tom and is reflected or refracted back to one or more

surface receivers (channels) from the boundaries

of sedimentary or rock layers or bodies of differ-

ent density (figure 4-9). Hence, in addition tosedimentary thicknesses and stratification, struc-

tural characteristics such as folds, faults, rift zones,

diapirs, an d other featur es and th e cha racteristic

seismic velocities in different strata may be deter-

mined (figure 4-10).

Seismic reflection techniques are used extensively

to search for oil, but they are also used in mineral

exploration. Reflection techniques have been and

continue to be refined primarily by the oil indus-

try. Seismic refraction, in contrast to seismic reflec-

tion, is used less often by the oil indust ry th an it

once was; however, the techn ique is st ill used foracademic research. Ninety-eight percent of all seis-

mic work supports petroleum exploration; less than

2 percent is minera l oriented.

The depth of wave penetra tion var ies with the

frequency and power of the sound source. Low-fre-quency sounds penetrate deeper than high-fre-

quency sounds; however, the higher the frequency

of the sound source, the better the resolution pos-

sible. Seismic systems used for deep penetration




Figure 4-8.—Frequency Spectra of Various Acoustic Imaging Methods

Fr equenc y

SOURCE: “A Historical to Underwater Acoustics, With Reference to Echo Sounding, Sub-bottom Profiling, and Side Scan

in (cd.), Developments in SidesCan Sonar Techniques (Capetown, South Africa: ABC Press, Ltd., 1982).

range in frequency from about 5 hertz to 1 kilo-

hertz. The systems with sound frequencies in this

ran ge are very useful to the oil and gas indust ry.

Most often these are expensive multi-channel sys-

tems. Since most mineral deposits of potential eco-

nomic interest are on or near the surface of the

seabed, deep penetra tion systems ha ve limited use-fulness for mineral exploration. Seismic systems

most often used for offshore mineral explorationare those tha t operate at acoustic frequencies be-

tween 1 an d 14 kilohertz (typically 3.5 kiloher tz).

These systems, known as sub-bottom profilers, pro-

vide continuous high-resolution seismic profile

recordings of the uppermost 30 meters of strata.38

High-Resolution Geophysical Methods:

Offshore Hazards (Boston, MA: International Hu-

man Resources Development Corp., 1984), p. 81.

Typically, they are single-channel systems. Theycan be operated at the same ship speeds as bathy-

metric and sonar systems. A few towed vehicles are

equipped with both side-looking sonar and sub-

bottom profiling capability using the same coaxial

tow cable.39

One drawback with single-channel systems is that

they suffer from various kinds of multi-path and

pulse reverberation problems, problems best han-dled by multi-channel systems. A 100 or 500 hertz

multi-channel system is able to provide shallowpenetra tion data while avoiding t he pr oblems of

Ingram, “High-Resolu t ion S ide-Scan

Profiling to 6000M Water Depth, ” unpublished, presented at th e Pa-

cific Congress on Marine Technology, sponsored by Marine Tech-

nology Society, Hawaii Section, Honolulu, HA, Mar. 24-28, 1986.




Figure 4.9.—Seismic Reflection and Refraction Principles

In the seismic reflection technique, sound waves from a source at a ship bounce directly back to the ship fromsediment and rock layers. In the seismic refraction technique, the sound waves from a “shooting” ship travel

along the sediment and rock layers before propagating back to a “receiving” ship.

SOURCE: Rena, Exploration Methods for the Continental Geology, Geophysics, NOAA Technical Report ERL 238-AOML 8

CO: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1972), p. 15.

single-channel systems. Because of cost, however,a multi-channel system is usually not used forreconn aissan ce work.

High-resolution seismic reflection techniques are

able to detect the presence of sediment layers orsand lenses as little as 1 meter thick. In addition,

information about the specific type of material de-

tected sometimes ma y be obtained by evaluatingthe acoustic velocity and frequency characteristicsof the material. Seismic techniques may provide

clues for locating t hin, su rficial deposits of man -

ganese nodules or cobalt crusts, but side-looking

sonar is a better tool to use for this purpose. Ryanreport s th at a 1 to 5-kiloher tz sub-bottom profiler

was ver y effective in r econn aissa nce of sediment -

hosted sulfides of the J ua n de F uca Ridge.40

While

seismic meth ods provide a cross-sectiona l view of

stratigraphic and structural geologic framework, ge-

ologists prefer to supplement these methods withcoring, sampling, and drilling (i. e., direct meth-

ods), with photography and submersible observa-

Geological Observatory,Workshop on Technologies for Surveying and Exploring the Exclu-

sive Economic Zone, Washington, DC, June 10, 1986.




Figure 4-10.—Seismic Record With Interpretation

I Sea-surface I

SOURCE: U.S. Geological Survey.

tions, and with geochemical sampling of bottom

sediments and of the water column, etc., for thehighest quality interpretations.

Advances in reflection seismology have beenmade more or less continuously during the approx-imately 60 years since its invention .41 Recent tech-

nological inn ovat ions h ave been t he development

of th ree-dimensional (3-D) seismic sur veying a ndinteractive computer software for assisting interpre-

tation of the mountains of 3-D data generated. Toacquire enough data for 3-D work, survey lines are

set very close together, about 25 to 100 meters

apart. Data for the gaps between lines then can

be int erpolated. Th e efficiency of dat a acquisition

can be increased by towing two separat e str eamers—

H. Sa vit, “The Acceleratin g Pa ce of Geophysical Technology, ”

Oceans Conference Record, Sponsored by Marine Technology So-

ciety and IEEEE Ocean Engineering Society, Sept. 10-12, 1984,

(Washington, D. C.: Marine Technology Society, 1984), pp. 87-89.

(and technical advances will soon enable two lines

of profile to be acquired from each of two separatecables) .

42

Interactive programs allow the viewer to look at

cons ecut ive cross-sections of a 3 -D seismic profileor at any part of it in horizontal display. Thus, if

desired, the comput er can strip a way everything

but the layer under study and look at this layer at

any angle. Moreover, the surveyed block can be

cut along a fault line, and one side can be slid along

the other un til a match is made. Inter preta tion of

data can be accomplished much faster than on pa-per. Such systems are expensive. While the cost of acquiring and processing 20 kilometers of two-

dimensional seismic data may be from $500 to

$2,000 per kilometer, a 3-D high-density survey

OTA Workshop, June 10, 1986.




of a 10-by 20-kilometer area could cost on the or-

der of $3 million.

Resolution also continues to improve, assistedby better navigation, positioning, and control meth-

ods. An innovation which promises to further im-

prove resolution is th e use of chirp signals r ath er

tha n sound pulses. Chirp signals ar e oscillating sig-nals in which frequency is continuously varying.

Using computer-generated chirp signals, it is pos-sible to ta ilor a nd contr ol emitt ed frequencies. In

contrast, pulse sources produce essentially uncon-

trolled frequencies, generating both useful and un-

needed frequencies at th e same time.

About 10 million miles of seismic profiles have

been run in th e U.S. EEZ. Most of th ese data are

deep penetration profiles produced by companiessearching for oil and are therefore proprietary. The

Minerals Management Service within the U.S. De-

part ment of the In terior (MMS) purchases a bout15 percent of the data produced by industry, most

of the data are held for 10 years and then turned

ove r t o t he Na t i ona l Ge ophys i c a l Da t a Ce n t e r .

NGDC archives about 4 mil l ion miles of public

(mostly academic) seismic data. Much of this data

is for regions outside the EEZ. NGDC also archives

USGS data, most of which are from the EEZ (see

ch. 7).

It is possible to acquire shallow-penetration seis-

mic information (as well as magnetic and gravi ty

data) at the same time as bathymetric data, so that

surface features can be related to vertical structure

and other characteristics of a deposit. NOAA ac-

knowledges that simultaneous collection of differ-

ent types of data could be accomplished easi ly

aboard its survey ships. Additional costs would not

be significant relative to the cost of operating the

ships, but would be significant relative to currently

available funds. The agency would like to collect

this data simultaneously i f funds were avai lable.

NOAA hopes to interest academia and the private

sector, perhaps with USGS help, to form a con-

sort ium to coordinate and manage the gathering

of seismic and other data, using ships of opportu-

ni ty. 43 The offshore seismic firms serving the oil

and gas industry are opposed to any publicly funded

data acquisition t hat could deprive th em of busi-

ness opportu nities. All but very sh allow penetr a-

tion data generally are of interest to the petroleum

industry and therefore could be considered compet-

itive with private sector service companies.

M a g n e t i c M e t h o d s

Some marine sediments and rocks (as well as

sunken ships, pipelines, oil platforms, etc. ) contain

iron-rich minerals with magnetic properties. Mag-

netic methods can detect and characterize thesemagnetic materials and other features by measur-

ing differen ces (or an omalies) in t he geomagnet ic

field. Magnetic (and gravity) techniques are inher-

ently reconnaissance tools, since the data produced

must be compiled over fairly broad areas to detect

tren ds in the composition and stru ctur e of rock.However, spatial resolution, or the ability to de-

tect increasingly fine detail, varies depending on

the design of the sensor, the spacing of survey lines,

an d th e distan ce of the sensor from t he source of

anomaly.

Satellite surveys are able to detect magnetic

an omalies on a global or nea r-global scale. Satel-

lite data are important for detecting global or con-

tinental structural trends of limited value to re-

source exploration. At such broad scale, mineral

deposits would not be detected. Airplane and ship

surveys record finer scale data for smaller regions

than satellites, enabling specific structures to be de-

tected. The closer t he sensor to th e stru ctur e be-

ing sensed, the better the resolution, but the timerequired to collect the data, as well as the cost to

do so, increases proportionately.

Regional magnetic surveys, usually done by air-plane, can detect the regional geologic pattern, the

magnetic character of different rock groups, and

major stru ctur al features which would not be noted

if the survey covered only a limited area. 44 For ex-

ample, oceanic rifts, the transition between con-

tinental and oceanic crusts, volcanic structures, and

major faults have been examined at this scale. Re-

gional magnetic surveys also have been used ex-

ten sively in exploring for hydr ocar bons. Accur at emeasu rement of magnetic anomalies can h elp ge-

+3c, And re a s e n , NOAA EE Z project manager, interview by f~.

Westermeyer at NOAA, Rockville, MD, Apr. 22, 1986.

+4P. V. S h a rm a , Geophysical Methods in Geology (New York, NY:

Elsevier Science Publishing Co., 1976), p, 228.




ophysicists delineate geologic structures associated

with petroleum and measure the thickness of sedi-

ments above magnetic basement rocks .45

Surveys also may be conducted to locate concen-

trat ions of ferromagnetic minerals on or beneath

the seafloor. The detect ion of magneti te may be

part icularly important in mineral prospect ing be-cause it is often found in association with ilmenite

and other heavy minerals. I lmenite also contains

iron, but it is much less strongly magnetized than

the magnetite with which it is associated (it also may

have weathered during low stands of sea level and

may have lost magnetic susceptibility).

The precise location of a mineral deposit or other

object may require a more detailed survey than is

possible by satellite or airplane. Use of ship-towed

magnetometers has met with varying measures of

success in identifying placer deposits. Improve-

ments in sensitivity are needed. If enough data aregathered to determine the shape and amplitude of

a local anomaly, the size of an iron-bearing body

and i ts t rend can be est imated, a common prac-

t ice on land. When magnetic information can be

correlated with other types of information (e. g.,

bathymetric , seismic, and gravi ty) interpretat ion

is enhanced.

Magnetic anomalies also can be used to locate

and study zones of alteration of the oceanic crust.

The initial magnetization of the oceanic crust is ac-

quired as it cools from a magma to solid rock. For

the next 5 to 10 million years, hydrothermal cir-

culation promotes the alteration of this igneous rock

and the generation of new secondary minerals. Ini-

tially, the heat of hydrothermal circulation destroys

the thermal remanent magnetizat ion. Rona sug-

gests that this reduction in magnetization will pro-

duce a magnetic anomaly and signal the proximity

of active or inactive smokers or hydrothermalvents. 46 The Deep Sea Drilling project and Ocean

Drilling Program drilling results suggest that as the

secondary minerals grow, they acquire the mag-

netization of the ambient magnetic field. This ag-

gregate magnetization produces a signature which

45P. A. Rona, “Exploration Methods for the Continental Shelf: Ge-

ology, Geophysics, Geochemistry, NOAA Technical Report, F. RI.

238-AOML 8 (Boulder, CO: NOA.4, 1972), p. 22.

4bRona, ‘‘ Exploration for Hydrothermal Mineral Deposits at

Seafloor Spreading Centers, ” p. 25.

is detectable on a regional scale and might be used

to determine the degree and rate of regional alter-ation. 47

Variations in the intensity of magnetization (total

field variations) are detected using a magnetome-

ter. Magnetometers deployed from ships or air-

planes are either t owed behind or mount ed at anextreme point to minimize the effect of the vessel’s

magnetic field. Among the several types of mag-

netometers, proton precession and flux-gate types

are most often used. These magnetometers are rela-

tively simple to operate, have no moving parts, and

provide relatively high-resolution measurements in

the field. The technology for sensing magnetic

anomalies is considered mature. A new helium-

pumped magnetometer with significantly improved

sensitivity has been developed by Texas Instru-

ments and is being adapted to oceanographic work.

Most magnetic measurements are total fieldmeasurements. A modification of this technique is

to use a second sensor to measu re t he differencein the total field between two points rather than the

total field at any given point. Use of this gradiom-

etry t echnique h elps eliminat e some of the exter-

nal noise associated with platform motion or ex-

ternal field variation (e. g., the daily variation in

the magnetic field). This is possible because sen-

sors (if in close enough proximity) measure the

same errors in the total field, which are then elim-

inated in determining the total field difference be-

tween t he t wo points. Gradiometry improves sen-

sitivity to closer ma gnetic sources .48

The most importan t pr oblem in acquiring high-

quality data at sea is not technology but a ccura te

na vigation. The Global Positioning System, when

available, is considered more than adequate fme

navigation a nd positioning needs. Futu re dat a, to

be most useful for mineral exploration purposes,

will necessar ily need to be collected as d ensely as

possible. It is also importan t t hat magnet ic (an d

gravity) data be recorded in a ma nn er tha t mini-

mizes the effects of external sources, such as of the

towing platform, and that whatever data are meas-

+TJ. L, LaBrecque, Lament-Dohe~ y Geological Obsen’atory, ~TA,

May 1, 1987,

4 8 J . Brozena , Nava l Research Labora to ry , and J . LaBrcque,

Lament-Doherty Geological Observatory, OTA Workshop on Tech-

nologies for Surveying and Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone,

Washington, DC, June 10, 1986.




ured be incorporated into larger data sets, so that

data at different scales are simultaneously available

to investigators.

G r a v i t y M e t h o d s

Like magnetic methods, the aim of gravity meth -

ods is to locate anomalies caused by changes inphysical properties of rocks .

49The anomalies sought

are variations in the Earth’s gravitational field re-

sult ing from differences in densit y of rocks in th e

crust— th e difference between th e norma l or ex-

pected gravity at a given point and t he measu redgravity. The inst rum ent used for conducting total

field gravity surveys is a gravimeter, which is a well-

tested and proven instrument. Techniques for con-

ducting gradiometric surveys are being developed

by the Department of Defense, although these will

be used for classified defense projects and will notbe available for public use.

50

The end product of a gravity survey is usually

a contoured an omaly ma p, showing a plane view

or cross-section. The form in which gravity, as well

as m agnetic, data is presented differs from tha t for

seismic data in that the fields observed are integra-

tions of contributions from all depths rat her th an

a distinct record of information at various depths.

Geophysicists use such anomaly characteristics as

amplitude, shape, and gradient to deduce the loca-

tion and form of the structure that produces the

gravity disturban ce.51

For example, low-density

featu res su ch a s salt domes, sedimentary infill in

basins, and granite appear as gravity “lows” be-cause they are not as dense as basalt and ore bod-ies, which appea r a s gravity ‘‘highs. Int erpr eta -

tion of gravity data, however, is generally not

straightforward, as there are usually many possi-ble explanations for any given anomaly. Usually,

gravity data are acquired and analyzed together

with seismic, ma gnetic, an d other da ta , each con-

tributing different information about the sub-bot-

tom geological framework.

Since variations in terrain fleet the force of grav-ity, terrain corrections m ust be applied to gravity

4gSharma , Geophysical Methods in Geology, p. 88 .

5~ . Brozena , Naval Research Laboratory, OTA Workshop on Tech-

nologies for Surveying and Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone,

Washington, DC, June 10, 1986.S l s h a rma , Geophysic~ Methods in Geology, p. 131.

data to produce an accura te pictur e of the str uc-

ture and physical properties of rocks. Bathymetric

data are used for this purpose; however, terrain cor-

rections u sing existing bathymetry da ta a re rela-

tively crude. Terrain corrections using data pro-duced by swath mapping techniques provide a

much improved adjustment.

Like magnetic data, the acquisition of gravity

data may be from satellite, aircraft, or ship. The

way to measure the broadest scale of gravity is from

a satellite. SEASAT, for instance, has providedvery broad-scale measurements of the geoid (sur-

face of constant gravitational potential) for all the

world’s oceans. To date, almost all gravity cover-

age of the EEZ has been acquired by ship-bornegravimeters. Gravimetry technology and interpre-

ta tion t echniques a re n ow considered ma tur e for

ship-borne systems. However, the quality of ship-

based gravity data more than 10 years old is poor.

Airborne gravimetry is relatively new, and tech-nology for airborne gravity surveys (both total field

and gravity gradient types) is still being refined.

As airborne gravity technology is further developed,

it can be expected that this much faster and more

economical method of gathering data will be used.

Of all the techniques useful for hard mineral

reconnaissance, however, gravity techniques are

probably the least useful. This is because it is very

difficult to determine variations in structure for

shallow features (e. g., 200 meters or less). Shallow

material is all about the same density, and excess

noise reduces resolution. Gravity techniques areused primar ily for investigating interm ediate-to-

deep structures—the structure of the basement and

the transition between continental and oceaniccrust. Many of these str uctures a re of interest t o

the oil industry. Although large faults, basins, or

seamounts may be det ected with air- or ship-borne

gravimeters, it is u nlikely tha t shallow placer de-

posits also could be located u sing th is techniqu e.

USGS has published gravity maps of the Atlan-tic coast, the Gulf of Mexico, central and south-

ern offshore California, the Gulf of Alaska, and the

Bering Sea. However, little of the EEZ has been

mapped in detail, and coverage is very spotty. For

example, port areas appear to be well-surveyed, but

density of track lines decreases quickly with distance

from port. Oil companies have done the most grav-




ity surveying, but the information they hold is pro-

prietary. Little surveying has been done in very

shallow waters (i. e., less than 10 meters), as the

larger survey ships cannot operate in these waters.

The availability of high-density gravity data (and

possibly also magnetic data) for extensive areas of

the EEZ may pose a security problem similar tothat posed by high-resolution bathymetry. Gravita-

tional variations affect inertial guidance systems and

flight trajectories. The Department of Defense has

concerns about proposals to undertake systematic

EEZ gravity surveys, particularly if done in con-

junction with the systematic collection of bathym-

etry data, since characteristic subsea features might

be used for positioning missile-bearing submarines

for st rikes on the United States.

SITE-SPECIFIC TECHNOLOGIES

Site-specific exploration technologies generally

are those that obtain data from small areas rela-

t ive to information provided by reconnaissance

techniques. Some of these technologies are deployed

from a stationary ship or other stationary platform

and are used to acquire detailed information at a

specific site. Often, in fact, such techniques as cor-

ing, drilling, and grab sampling are used to verify

data obtained from reconnaissance methods. Other

site-specific technologies are used aboard ships mov-

ing at slow speeds. Electrical and nuclear techniques

are in this category.

E lec t r i ca l Techniques

Electrical prospect ing methods have been used

extensively on land to search for metals and min-

erals, but their use offshore, particularly as applied

to the shallow targets of interest to marine miners,

is only just beginning. Recent experiments by re-

searchers in the United States and Canada suggest

that some electrical techniques used successfully on

land may be adaptable for use in marine mineral

exploration. 57 Like other ind irect exploration tech-

niques, the results of electrical methods usually can

be interpreted in various ways, so the more i nde -

pendent lines of evidence that can be ma rsha led in

making an interpretation, the better.

The aim of electrical techniques is to deduce in-

formation about the nature of materials in the earth

based on electrical properties such as conductivity,

5ZA. D. Chave, S.C, Coustab]e, an d R.N. Edwar ds, ‘‘Electrical E x -

ploration Methods for the Seafloor, ‘‘ in press, 1987. See also S, Chees -

man, R.N. Edwards, and AD . Chave, “On the Theory of Seafloor

Conductivity Mapping Using Transient EM Systems, Geophysics,

Februar y 1987; and J .C. Wynn, ‘ ‘Titanium Geophysics—A Marine

Application of Induced Polarization, unpublished draft, 1987.

electr ochem ical a ctivity, a nd th e capa city of rock

to store an electric charge. Electrical techniques are

similar to gravity and magnetic techniques in that

they are used to detect anomalies—in this case,an omalies in resist ivity, condu ctivity, etc. , which

allow inferences to be made about t he na tur e of the

material being studied.

The use of electrical methods in the ocean is very

different from t heir use on land. One r eason is t hat

seawater is generally much more conductive thanthe underlying rock, the opposite of the situation

on land where the underlying rock is more conduc-

tive than the a tmosphere. Hence, working at sea

usin g a cont rolled-sour ce electromagn etic method

is somewhat ana logous t o working on land a nd t ry-

ing to determine the electrical characteristics of the

atmosphere. In both cases, one would be looking

at the resistive medium in a conductive environ-ment . The fact th at seawater is more conductive

th an rock a ppeared t o preclude th e use of electri-cal techniques at sea, Improvements in instrumen-

tation and different approaches, however, have

overcome this difficulty to a degree, A difference

which benefits the use of electrical techniques at sea

is that the marine environment is considerably

quieter electrically than the terrestrial environment.

Thus, working in a low-noise environment, it is

possible to use much higher gain amplifiers, and

it is usual ly not necessary to provide the noise

shielding that would be needed on land. Also, coup-

ling to the seafloor environment for both source and

receiver electrodes is excel lent . Thus, electrode

resistances on the seafloor are typically less than

1 ohm, whereas on land the resistance would be

on the order of 1,000 ohms.

Electrical techniques that may be useful for ma-

rine mineral prospecting include electromagnetic




methods, direct current (DC) resistivity, self po-

tent ial, and indu ced polarization.

Electromagnetic Methods

Electromagnetic (EM) methods detect variations

in the conductive properties of rock. A current is

induced in the conducting earth using electric orma gnetic dipole sources. The electric or m agn etic

signatu re of the curr ent is detected an d yields ameasure of the electrical conductivity of the under-

lying rock. The Horizontal Electric Dipole and the

Vertical Electric Dipole method are two controlled-

source EM systems that have been used in academic

studies of deep structure. Both systems are under-

going fur th er developmen t. Recent work su ggeststhat these techniques may enable researchers to de-

termine the thickness of hydrothermal sulfide de-

posits, of which little is currently known. Changes

in porosity with depth ar e also detectable .53 To date,

little work h as been done regarding th e potent ialapplicability of these techniques for identifying ma-rine placers.

Researchers at Scripps Institution of Oceanog-

raphy are currently developing the towed, fre-

quency domain Horizontal Electric Dipole method

for exploration of the upper 100 meters of the

seabed. A previous version of this system consistsof a towed silver/silver-chloride transmitting an-

tenna and a series of horizontal electric field

receivers placed on the seafloor at ranges of 1 to70 kilometers from the transmitter. Since this ar-

rangement is not very practical for exploratory pur-poses, the Scripps researchers are now developing

a system in which the transmitter and receiver can

be towed in t andem along the bottom. Since the

system must be towed on the seabed, an armored,

insu lat ed cable is used. The n eed for conta ct with

the ocean floor limits the speed at which the sys-

tem can be towed to 1 to 2 knots and the t ype of

topography in which it can be used; hence, this

method, like other electrical techniques, would be

most efficiently employed after reconnaissance

meth ods have been u sed to locate ar eas of specialinterest.

sJp.A. Wo] f g r a r n , R.N. Edwards, L. K. Law, an d M. N. Bone ,“Polymeta l l i c Sulfide Exploration on the Deep Seafloor: The Mini-Moses Experiment, ” Geophysics 51, 1986, pp. 1808-1818.

The Vertical Electric Dipole method is being de-veloped by resea rcher s at Can ada ’s Pa cific Geo-

science Center and the University of Toronto. The

Canadian system is kn own as MOSES, short for

magnetometric offshore electrical sounding. It con-

sists of a vertical electric dipole which exten ds from

the sea sur face to th e seafloor a nd a magnet ome-

ter r eceiver which mea sures t he azimutha l magneticfield generated by the source .54 The receiver is fixed

to the seafloor an d rema ins in place while a ship

moves the transmitter to different locations. A

MOSES survey was conducted in 1984 at two sites

in the sediment-filled Middle Valley along the

norther n J uan de Fuca Ridge. Using MOSES, re-

searchers estimated sediment and underlying ba-

salt resistivity, thickness, and porosity.

Another electromagnetic method with some

promise is the Transient EM Method. Unlike con-

trolled source methods in which a sinusoidal sig-

nal is generated, a source transmitter is turned onor off so tha t th e resp onse to t his ‘‘tr an sient ’ can

be studied. An advantage of the Transient EM

method is that the effects of shallow and deep struc-

tur e tend t o appear at discrete t imes, so it is possi-

ble to separate their effects. Also, the effects of to-

pography, which are difficult to interpret, can be

removed, allowing researchers to study the under-

lying structure. The Transient EM method also

may be par ticularly useful for locating su lfides, since

they have a high conductivity relative to surround-

ing rock and are located in ragged areas of the

seafloor. A prototype Transient EM system is cur-

ren tly being designed for sur vey purposes. It willuse a horizontal magnetic dipole source and receiver

and will be towed along the seafloor. 55

Direct Current Resistivity

Resistivity is a measure of the amount of cur-

rent that passes through a substance when a speci-

fied potential difference is applied. The direct cur-rent resistivity method is one of the simplest

electrical techniques available an d ha s been used

extensively on land to map boundaries between

54D. C. Nobes, L.K. Law, and R.N. Edwa rds, ‘‘The Deter mina -

tion of Resistivity and Porosity of the Sediment and Fr actured Basalt

Layers Near the Juan de Fuca Ridge, ” Geophysical Journal of the

Royal Astronomical Society 86, 1986, pp. 289-318.

J sChee sman , Edwards, and Chave, ‘ ‘On the Theory of Seafloor

Conductivity Mapping. ”




layers having different conductivities.56

Recent ma-

rine DC resistivity experiments suggest that the DC

resistivity method may have applications for locat-

ing and delineating sulfide ore bodies. For exam-

ple, during one experiment at the East Pacific Rise

in 1984, substantial resistivity anomalies were de-

tected around known hydrothermal fields, and sea-

floor conductivities were observed that were twice

that of seawater .57

In this experiment the source

and receiver electrodes were towed from a research

submers ible . Converse ly, res i s t ivi ty t echniques

would not be expected to detect placer deposits, ex-

cept under the most unusual circumstances. This

is because seawater dominates the resistivity re-

sponse of marine sediments (as they are saturated

near the surface), and, in this case, only the rela-

tive compaction (porosity) of the sediments could

be measured .58

Self Potent ia lThe self potential (or spontaneous polarization)

(SP) method is used to detect electrochemical ef-

fects caused by the presence of an ore body. The

origin of SP fields is uncertain, but it is believed

that they result from the electric currents that are

produced when a conducting body connects regions

of different electrochemical potential, 59 On land,SP ha s been used primar ily in t he search for sul-

fide mineral deposits. It is a simple technique in

that it does not involve the application of external

electr ic fields. However, its use offshore ha s been

limited. Results of some experiments have been in-

conclusive, but the offshore extension of known land

sulfide deposits was successfully detected in a 1977

experiment.60

More recently, researchers at the

Univers ity of Wash ington ha ve proposed buildinga towed SP system for exploring the Juan de Fuca

Ridge. SP may prove effective for detecting the

presence of sulfide deposits; however, it is unlikely

to be of help in assessing the size of deposits.

S6M, B, Dobrin, Introduction to Geoph,vsical p r o s p e c t i n g (New

York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1976), p. 6.57

T.J.G. Francis, “Resistivity Measurements of an Ocean Floor

Sulfide Mineral Deposit From th e Submersible C}’ana, Marine Geo- physical Research 7, 1985, pp . 419-438 .

“J. Wynn, U.S. Geological Survey, letter to W, Westerrneyer ,

OTA, May 1986.sgchal~e, Coustable, and Edwards, “Electrical Exploration Meth-

ods for the Seafloor.

‘“Ibid,

Induced Polarization

The indu ced polarizat ion (1P) met hod ha s been

used for years to locate disseminated sulfide

minerals on land. Recent work by USGS to adapt

the technique for use as a r econn aissance tool to

search for offshore titanium placers (figure 4-11)

has produced some promising preliminary results.The 1P effect can be measur ed in several ways, but,in all cases, two electrodes are used to introduce

curr ent int o the ground, setting up a n electric po-

tential field. Two additional electrodes are used,

usua lly spaced some distan ce away, to detect t he

1P effect. This effect is caused by ions under the

influence of the potential field moving from the sur-

rounding electrolyte (groundwater onshore, sea-

water in the seabed sediments) onto local mineral-grain int erfaces an d being adsorbed there. When

the potential field is suddenly shut off, there is a

finite decay time when these ions bleed back into

the electrolyte, similar to a capacitor in an electriccircuit.

If perfected for offshore use, the reconnaissance

mode of 1P may enable investigators to determine

if polarizable minerals ar e present , although n ot

precisely what kind they are (although ilmenite and

some base metal sulfides, especially pyrite and chal-

copyrite, have a significant 1P effect, so do certain

clays an d sometimes graphite). In th e reconna is-

sance mode, the 1P streamer can be towed from

a ship; as seawater is highly conductive, it is not

necessary to implant the 1P electrodes on the sea-

floor. Consequent ly, it is ‘‘th eoret ically possible t ocover more terrain with 1P measur ements in a week

offshore than has been done onshore by geophysi-

cists worldwide in the last 30 years."61

Best resultsare pr oduced when t he electr odes ar e towed 1 to

2 meters off the bottom (although before 1P explo-ration becomes routine, a better cable depressor and

more abra sion-resistant cables will have to be de-

veloped). Electrodes spaced 10 meters apart enable

penetration of sediments to a depth of about 7

meters. The current USGS system is designed to

work in maximum water depths of 100 meters.

“J. C. Wynn and A.E. Grosz, ‘ ‘Application of the Induced Polari-zation Method to Offshore Placer Resource Exploration, Proceed-

ings, Offshore Technology Conference 86, May 5-8, 1986, Houston,

TX, OTC 5199, pp. 395-401.




Figure 4-11 .—Conceptual Design of the Towed-Cable-Array Induced Polarization System

Induced polarization, used for many years onshore, is currently being adapted for use at sea to search for titanium placers.

SOURCE: Wynn and A.E. Grosz, “’Application of the Induced Polarization Method to Offshore Placer Resource Exploration, ”Proceedings, Offshore Technology

Conference S6, May 5-8, 1986, Houston, TX (OTC 5199), p. 399.

When polarizable minerals are located, there issome hope that a related method, spectral induced

polarization (which requires a stationary ship), maybe able to discriminate between the various sources

of the 1P effect, It has been demonstrated that cer-

tain onshore titanium minerals (e. g., ilmenite and

altered ilmenite) have strong and distinctive 1P sig-

nat ures, and tha t these signat ures can be used inthe field for estimating volumes and percentagesof these minerals.

62One factor complicating inter-

pretation of the spectral 1P signature for ilmenitecould be the degree of weathering. More work is

required to determine if spectral 1P works as well

offshore as it does onsh ore. If so, it m ay be p ossi-

ble to survey large ar eas of th e EEZ using recon-

E. and V. M. Foscz, ‘‘Ind ucedResponse of Titanium-Bearin

gPlacer Deposits in the

States, ” Open-File Report 85-756 (Washington, DC: U.S.Geological Survey, 1985).

naissance and spectral 1P. Sampling then could be

guided in a much more efficient manner.63

The applicability of 1P to placers other than tita-nium-bearing sands has not been demonstrated, but

USGS researchers also believe that it may be pos-

sible, by recalibrating 1P equipment, to identify and

quant ify other mineral san ds. Experiments a re now

being designed to determine if 1P methods can beused to identify gold and platinum sands.

64The ap-

plicability of 1P t echniques t o mar ine su lfide de-posits and to manganese-cobalt crusts, too, has yet

to be demonstrated. USGS researchers hope to ac-quire samples of both types of deposits to perform

the n ecessary laborat ory measur ements.

and Grosz, “Applications of the Induced Polarization

Method, ” p. 397.WA. East ern Mineral Resources, USGS, telephone conver-

sation with W. Westermeyer, OTA, Apr. 8, 1986.




Induced Polarization for Core Analysis

Another interesting possibility now being in-

vestigated is to use 1P at sea t o assay full-lengthvibracore samples. Many techniques can assist ge-

ologists and mineral prospectors in identifying

promising areas for mineral accumulations. Never-

theless, to determine pr ecisely what minerals a represent and in what quantities, it is still necessary

to do laborious, expensive site-specific coring. More-

over, once a core is obtained, it often takes many

hours to analyze its constituents, and much of this

work must be done in shore-based laboratories.

To explore a prospective offshore mine site

thoroughly, hundreds or even thousands of core

samples would be needed. Geologists need analyti-

cal methods that would enable them to quickly iden-

tify an d char acterize deposits. USGS researchershave begun to insert 1P electrodes into un opened

vibracores t o determine th e identity an d propor-tion of polarizable minerals present. Such a pro-

cedure can be done in a bout 20 minutes and canther efore save considerable time an d expense. If

the analysis showed interesting results, the ship

could immediately proceed with more detailed cor-

ing (shore-based analysis of cores precludes revisit-

ing promising sites on the same voyage).

Ge o c h e mi c a l Te c h n i q u e s

Water Sampling

Measurement of geochemical properties of the

water column is a useful exploration method fordetecting sulfide-bearing hydrothermal discharges

at active ridge crests.65

Some techniques have been

developed for det ecting geochem ical a noma lies in

the water column 500 kilometers (310 miles) ormore from active vent sites. Used in combina tion

with geophysical and geological methods, these

techn iques h elp resea rcher s “zero in’ on hydr o-

thermal discharges. Other geochemical methods are

used to sense water column pr operties in th e im-

mediate vicinity of active vent sites.

Reconnaissance techniques include wat er sa m-

pling for particulate metals, elevated values of dis-solved manganese, and the helium-3 isotope. Ironand man ganese adsorbed on weak acid-soluble par-

c~Rona, ‘‘ Explorat ion for Hydr otherm al Miner al Deposits, pp.7-37.

ticulate matter have been detected 750 kilometers(465 miles) from the vent from which they were is-

sued. Total dissolvable manganese is detectable sev-

eral t ens of kilometers from a ctive hydrotherma l

sources. Methane, which is discharged as a dis-

solved gas from active vent systems, can be detected

on the order of several kilometers from a vent site.

66

Analysis of water samples for methane has the

advan tage th at it can be done aboard sh ip in less

th an an hour. Ana lysis for total dissolvable man -

ganese requires about 10 hours of shipboard time.

At a dista nce of 1 kilometer or less from an ac-

tive vent, the radon-222 isotope and dissolved me-

tals also may be detected. The radon isotope pro-

duced by uran ium series decay in basa lt, reaches

the seafloor through hydrothermal circulation and

can be sampled close to an active vent. Helium-3derived from degassing of the mantle beneath

oceanic crust an d ent rained in su bseafloor hydro-

thermal convection systems may be detectable in

the vicinity of active vents. Other near-field water

column measurements which may provide evidence

of the proximity of active vents include measure-ments of light scattering due to suspended partic-

ulate matter, temperature, thermal conductivity,

and salinity. Light scattering and temperature ob-

serva tions pr oved to be very useful in identifying

hydrothermal plumes along the southern Juan de

Fu ca Ridge. 67

Geochemical properties of the water column aremeasured using both deep-towed instrument pack-

ages and ‘‘on-station’ sampling techniques. Forexamp le, NOAA’s deep-towed instr um ent ed sled,

SLEUTH has been used t o systemat ically survey

portions of the Juan de Fuca Ridge. Measurements

made by SLEUTH sensors over the ridge crest

were supplemented by on-station measurements up

to 100 kilomet ers off the r idge axis.68

Similar sur -

veys have been made over the Mid-Atlantic Ridge69

and elsewhere. The sensitivity and precision of in-

struments used to acquire geochemical information

continues to improve. Perhaps as importan tly,

bbIbid.

6TE.T, Bake r , J .W. Lavdle, an d G.*J. Massoth , ‘‘ H}drorh ermalParticle P l umes Ch e r the Southern Juan de Fu~a Ridge, Nature,

vol. 316, July 25, 1985, p, 342.

b81bid.

cgp, A. Ron a, G. Klinkhammer, T.A. Nelsen, J. H. Trefcy, and

H. Elder!ield, ‘ ‘Black Smoker s, Massive S ulfides, and Vent Biota at

the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, ” Nature, vol. 321, Ma } 1, 1986, p. 33.




towed instru ment packages like SLEUTH ar e en-

abling systematic surveys of large ocean areas to

be undertaken.

Nuclear Methods

Nuclear methods consist of physical techniques

for studying the nuclear or radioactive reactions andproperties of substances. Several systems have been

developed to detect the radiation given off by such

minerals as phosphorite, monazite, and zircon. One

such device was developed by the Center for Ap-

plied Isotope Studies (CAIS) at the University of

Georgia. In the mid-1970s, the Center developed

an underwater sled equipped with a radiation de-

tector t hat is pulled at about 3 knots over relat ively

flat seabed terrain. The towed device consists of afour-chan nel an alyzer t hat detects potassium -40,

bismuth-214, thallium-208, and total radiation. The

sled ha s been u sed to locat e phosphorite off the coast

of Georgia by detecting bismuth-214, one of theradioactive daughters of uranium, often a constit-

uent of phosphorite. In another area offshore Geor-

gia, the Center’s towed sled detected thallium-208,

an indicator of certa in heavy minera ls. Subsequent

acquisition of surficial samples (grab samples) of

th e area confirmed th e presence of heavy mineral

sands.70

A similar s ystem for detecting miner als a ssoci-

ated with radioactive elements has been developed

by Harwell Laboratory in the United Kingdom.The Harwell system identifies and measures three

principal elements: uran ium, thorium, and potas-sium. The seabed probe resembles a snak e and is

towed at a bout 4 knots in water dept hs up t o 400

meters (1, 300 feet). The Harwell system is nowcommercially available and is being offered by Brit-

ish Oceanics, Ltd., as part of its worldwide survey

services .71

A second t ype of nuclear t echnique with prom-

ise for widespread application in m arine mineral

exploration uses X-ray fluorescence to rapidly ana-lyze surface sediments aboard a moving ship. The

method was developed by CAIS and uses X-ray

fluorescence as th e final st ep. X-ray fluorescence

is a r outine method used in chemical an alyses of

solids and liquids. A specimen to be analyzed using

this technique is irradiated by an intense X-raybeam which cau ses the elements in th e specimen

to emit (i. e., fluoresce) their char acteristic X-ray

line spectra. The elements in the specimen maybe

identified by the wavelengths of their spectral

lines.72

The CAIS Continuous Seafloor Sediment Sam-

pler was originally developed for NOAA’s use in

rapid sampling of heavy metal pollutants in near-

shore marine sediments. A sled is pulled along the

seafloor at about three knots. The sled disturbs the

surficial sediments, creating a small sedimentplume. The plume is sucked into a pum p system

within the sled and pulled to the surface as a slurry.

The slurr y is further processed, after which small

portions are collected on a continuous filter paper.

After the water is removed, a small cookie-like wa-

fer remains on the paper (hence, the system isknown as t he ‘‘cookie maker’ ‘). ‘ ‘Cookies’ arecoded for time, location, and sample number and

can be made about every 30 seconds, which, at a

ship sp eed of 3 kn ots, is about every 150 feet. An

X-ray fluorescence unit is then used to analyze the

samples. It is possible to analyze three or four ele-

ments aboard ship and approximately 40 elements

in a shore-based laboratory. The system ha s been

designed to operate in water 150 feet deep but could

be redesigned to operate in deeper water.73

The cookie maker can increase the speed of ma-

rine surveys. Not only are samples quickly obtainedbut preliminary analysis of the samples is available

while the s ur vey is still un derwa y. Availability of

real-time data that could be used for making ship-

board decisions could significantly improve the effi-

ciency of marine surveys. One current limitation

is that samples are only obtainable from the top 3

or 4 centimeters of sediment. Researchers believe

that some indication of underlying deposits may beobtained by sampling the surfacial sediments, but

further tests a re needed to determine if the t ech-

nique also can be used for evaluating the composi-

tion of deeper sediments.

70J . Noakes, Center for Applied Isotope Studies, OT A Workshop

on Site-Specific Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic

Zone, Washington, DC, July 16, 1986.

7“’Radiometric Techniques for Marine Mineral Survey s,” World

Dredging and Marine Construction, Apr. 1, 1983, p. 208.

~zEncyc]opedia of Science and Technolo~, 5th ed. , (New York,

NY: McGraw-Hill, 1982), p. 741.

73J . Noakes , OT A Workshop on Site-Specific Technologies for Ex-

ploring the Exclusive Economic Zone, Washington, DC, July 16, 1986.




A third type of nuclear technique, neutron acti-

vation analysis, has been used with some success

to evaluate the components of manganese nodules

from the deep seafloor.74

The technique consists of

i rradiat ing a sample with neutrons, using cal i for-

nium-252 as a source. Gamma rays that are emitted

as a result of neutron interactions then can be ana-

lyzed. Ideally, the identification and quantification

of elements can be inferred from the spectral in-

tensities of gamma ray energies that are emitted

by naturally occurring and neutron-activated radi-

oisotopes.75

Although the neutron act ivat ion tech-

nique can be used at sea to obtain chemical analy-

ses of many substances, i ts use is l imited by the

difficulty of taking precise analytical weights at sea.

The X-ray fluorescence method has proven both

easier to use at sea and less expensive.

Ma n n e d S u b me r s i b l e s a n d Re mo t e l y

Operated Vehic les

Both manned and remotely operated vehicles

(ROVs) have been working in the EEZ for many

years. One characteristic that all undersea vehicles

— ------74

1bid.75 A BOrChOle Pr obe for In Situ Neutron ~ctitrat;on Anal) ’sis, Open

File Report 132-85 (Washington, DC: U S. Bureau of Mines, June

1984), p. 8.

sha re is t he a bility to provide the explorer with a

direct visual or optical view of objects in real-time.

Another common chara cteristic is tha t u ndersea ve-

hicles operate at very slow speeds r elative to sur face-

oriented techniques. Indeed, a great deal of the

work for which undersea vehicles are designed is

accomplished while remaining stationary to exam-ine or sample a n object with th e vehicles manipu-

lators. As a consequence, neither ma nned nor un -

manned vehicles are cost-effective if they are

employed in large area exploration. Their best ap-

plication is in performing very detailed exploration

of sma ll area s or in invest igating specific char ac-

teristics of an area .

All manned submersibles carry a crew of at least

1 and as many as 12, one of which is a pilot. Most

of the many types of manned submersibles are

ba t t e ry -powe re d a nd f r e e - swi mmi ng; o t he r s a re

tethered to a surface support craft from which they

receive power and/or life support (tables 4-5 and

4 - 6 ) . A t y p i c a l u n t e t h e r e d , b a t t e r y - p o w e r e d

manned submersible is Alvin which carries a crew

of three (one pilot; two observers); its maximum

operating depth is 4,000 meters (13,000 feet).

ROVs ar e unm an ned vehicle systems operat edfrom a r emote stat ion, generally on t he sea surface.

There are five main categories of ROVs:

Table 4-5.—U.S. Non-Government Submersibles (Manned)

Date Operating PowerCrew/ Manipulators/Vehicle built Length (ft) depth (ft) supply observers viewports Operators

Arms /,//,1// and IV .1976 -1978 8 . 5 3 , 0 0 0 Battery 1/1 3/Bow dome Oceaneering International, Santa Barbara, CAAugus te Piccard ., ,1978 93.5 2 , 0 0 0 Bat tery 6/3 0 / 1 Chicago, Inc., Barrington, ILBeaver ... .1968 24.0 2,700 Battery 1/4 I/Bow dome International Underwater Contractors, City

Island, NY, NYDeep Ques t ,1967 39.9 8,000 Bat tery 2/2 2 / 2 Lockheed Missiles & Space, San Diego, CADelta 1982 15.0 1,000 Battery 1/1 1/19 Marfab, Torrence, CADiaphus ... .,1974 19.8 1,200 Battery 1/1 l/Bow dome Texas A & M University, College Station, TXJim (14 ea) ., .. .,1974 – 1,500 H u ma n 1 / 0 2/1 Oceaneering International, Houston, TXJohnson-Sea-Link I & II . ..1971 22.8 3 , 0 0 0 Bat tery 1/3 1/Panoramic Harbor Branch Foundation, Ft. Pierce, FL

1975Mermaid II ... .,1972 17.9 1,000 Battery 1/1 l/Bow dome International Underwater Contractors, City

Island, NYNekon B&C ., ., 1968 1 5 . 0 1 , 0 0 0 Battery 1/1 l/Bow dome Oceanworks, Long Beach, CA

19701972

Pionee r . . . . . . . . , 1978 17.0 1,200 Bat tery 1/2 2/ 3 Martech International, Houston, TXPisces VI ., 1976 2 0 , 0 6 , 6 0 0 Bat tery 1/2 2/3 International Underwater Contractors, CityIsland, NY

Snooper ., . ....,1969 14.5 1 , 0 0 0 Battery 1/1 1 /10 Undersea Graphics, Inc., Torrance, CAMakalii ., . .....1966 17,7 1,200 Battery 1/1 1/ 6 University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HIWasp ., ,1977 – 2 , 0 0 0 Surface 1/10 2/Bow dome Oceaneering International, Houston, TXSOURCE Busby Assooales, Inc. Arlington, VA




Table 4-6.—FederalIy Owned and Operated Submersibles

Date Operating Power Crew/ Manipulators/ Speed (kts) Endurance (hrs)Vessel built Length (ft) depth supply observers view ports cruise/max cruise/max

UNOLSAlv in . . . . . . . 1964 25 1 2 , 0 0 0 Battery 1/2 1/4 1/2 —

NOAAPisces V .. ..1973 2 0 4 , 9 0 0 Battery 1/2 2/3 0.5/2 6/2

NAVYSea Cliff .. ..1968 26 2 0 , 0 0 0 Battery 2/1 2/5 0.5/2.5 8/2

Tur t le . . . . . . .1968 26 10,000 Battery 2/1 2/5 0.5/2.5 8/2NR-1 . . . . . . . .1969 136 — Nuclear 7/— — — —

SOURCE: Busby Associates, Inc., Arlington, VA.

1.

2 .

3 .

4 .

5.

tethered, free-swimming vehicles (the most

common);

towed vehicles;

bottom cra wling vehicles;

structurally-reliant vehicles; and

au tonomous or un teth ered vehicles.

For exploring the EEZ, two types of ROVs ap-

pear most appropriate: tethered, free-swimming ve-

hicles and towed vehicles (table 4-7). A typicaltet her ed, free-swimming ROV system is shown infigure 4-12. Typically, vehicles of this type carry

one or more closed-circuit television cameras, lights,

and, depending on their size, a variety of tools and

monitoring/measuring instrumentation. Almost all

of them receive electrical power from a surface sup-

port vessel and can maneuver in all directions using

onboard thrusters.

Towed vehicles are connected by a cable to a sur-

face ship. Most often these vehicles carry television

cameras and still cameras. Lateral movement is

Photo credit: Office of Undersea Research, NOAA

The Submersible Alvin and the At/antis //. Alvin is anuntethered, battery-powered manned submersible

capable of operating in 13,000 feet of water.

Table 4-7.—U.S. Government Supported ROVs

Type Depth (ft) Operator

Tethered fnw-swimming: Mini Rover. . . . . . . . . . . . 328

ADROV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 , 0 0 0Mini Rover MK II, . . . . . . 1,200Pluto, ... . . . . . . . . . . 1,300Snoopy (2). .. .,., . . . . . . . . 1,500Recon IV (4) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,500

Curv II (2) . . . . . . . 2,500 URS-1 3,000 Super Scorpio (2) . . . . . . . 4,900 Deep Drone ., . . . . . 5,400 Cu r v I I I . . . . . . . . . . 1 0 , 0 00

Towed:

Manta, ., ., 2,100 Teleprobe, ., . . . . . . . . 20,000 Deep Tow, . . . . . . . . 20,000 Argo/Jason . . . . . . . . . . . 20,000 ANGUS . . 20,000 Katz Fish 2,500 STSS ., . . . . . 20,000

Untethered:

E a v e E a s t . 150 Eave West ... . . . . . 200 SPURV 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,000 SPURV II . . . . . 5,000 UFSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,500

U.S. NavyU.S. NavyNOAAU.S. NavyU.S. NavyU.S. Navy

U.S. NavyU.S. NavyU.S. NavyU.S. NavyU.S. Navy

NOAA, NMFSU.S. NavyScrippsWoods HoleWoods HoleLamont-DohertyU.S. Navy

University of New HampshireU.S. NavyUniversity of WashingtonUniversity of WashingtonU.S. Navy

SOURCE Busby Associates, Inc , Arlington, Vlrgma

generally attained by maneuvering the towing ves-

sel, and depth is controlled by reeling in or reelingout cable from th e sur face. These vehicles are de-

signed to operate within the water column and not

on the bottom, but some have been designed an d

equipped to periodically scoop sediment samples

from the bottom.

Advantages and Limitations

Manned submersibles, particularly in the indus-

trial arena, have gradually given way to ROVs.

The relatively few man ned vehicles that have r e-

mained in service have done so because they offer

a unique capability which ROVs have yet to dupli-



Ch. 4—Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone q 1 4 7

Figure 4-12.—A Tethered, Free-Swimming Remotely Operated Vehicle System

Vehicles of this type usually carry one or more closed-circuit television cameras, lights, grabbers, and instruments for monitoringand measuring.

SOURCE: Busby Associates, Inc.

cate. Compar isons of the relative advanta ges and three-dimensional view of the target to be investi-disadvantages of manned submersibles and ROVs gated or worked on. Second, the manipulative

are difficult to make u nless a part icular t ask h as capability of certain types of manned vehicles is su-

been specified and the environment in which it has perior to ROVs. Third, th e absen ce of a dra g-pro-

to operat e is kn own. The first m ajor advant age of ducing cable connecting the manned submersible

a manned vehicle is that the observer has a direct, to its support sh ip permits t he submersible to oper-




ate within stronger currents and at greater depths

than most ROVs can presently operate.

Nonetheless, manned submersibles have several

drawbacks. Most industrial applications requireworking around and within a structure where the

possibility of entanglement/entrapment is often

present and, consequently, human safety is poten-tially in jeopardy. Manned vehicles that operate in-

dependently of a surface-connecting umbilical cord

can operate for a duration of 6 to 8 hours before

exhausting batteries. Even with more electrical

power, there is a limit to how long human oc-cupants can work effectively within the confines of

a small diameter sphere—6 to 8 hours is about the

limit of effectiveness. Relative to ROVs, a manned

submersible operation will always be more com-plex, since there is the added factor of providing

for t he hu man crew inside.

The two major a dvanta ges of ROVs are tha t t hey

will operate for longer durations than manned ve-

hicles (limited only by the electrical producing ca-

pability of the support ship) and that there is a lower

safety risk for humans. Towed ROVs, for exam-

ple, can an d do operat e for da ys and even weeks

before they need to be retrieved and serviced. The

many varieties of ROVs (at least 99 different

models produced by about 40 different manufac-

tur ers) permit great er latitude in selecting a sup-

port craft than do manned submersibles (which usu-

ally have dedicated support vessels). Many ROVs,because of their small size, can access areas that

man ned vehicles cann ot. Becau se ROV dat a a ndtelevision signals can be relayed continuously to the

surface in real-time, the number of topside ob-

servers participating in a dive is limited only by the

number of individuals or specialists that can crowdaround one or several television monitors. Depend-

ing on the depth of deployment and the type of work

conducted, an ROV may incur only a fraction of

the cost of operat ing a man ned su bmersible.

Probably the most debated aspect of manned v.

unmanned vehicles is the quality of viewing the sub-

sea ta rget. There is no question t hat a t elevision

camer a cannot convey the information tha t a hu-

man can see directly. Even with t he h igh qua lity

and resolution of present underwater color tele-

vision cameras and the potential for three-dimen-

siona l television viewing, th e ima ge will probably

never equal human observation and the compre-

hen sion it pr ovides. To the scientific observer, d i-

rect viewing is often mandatory. For the industrial

user, this is not necessarily the case. Some segments

of industry may be satisfied with what can be seen

by television, and, while they would probably liketo see more, they can see well enough with tele-

vision to get the job done. The distinction betweenscientific and indu strial needs is important because

in large part, it allowed the wide-scale application

of the ROV, which contributed to the slump in

man ned vehicle use.

cos ts

The cost of undersea vehicles varies as widely

as their designs and capabilities. One of the few

generalizations th at can be made r egarding costs

is that they increase in direct proportion to the ve-

hicle’s maximu m operat ing depth .

Manned submersibles can cost from as little a s

$15,000 for a one-person vehicle capable of diving

to 45 meters (150 feet) to as much as $5 million

for a n Alvin replacement . A replacement for the

Johnson-Sea-Link, which is capable of diving to

over 900 meters (3,000 feet), would cost from $1.5million to $2 million. These figures do not include

the support ships necessary to transport and deploy

the deeper diving vehicles. Such vessels, if bought

used, would range from $2 million to $3 million;if bough t n ew, they could cost from $8 million to

$10 million.ROVs also range widely in costs. There are

tethered, free-swimming models currently available

that cost from $12,000 to $15,000 per system, reach

depths of 150 and more meters, and provide video

only. At the other end are vehicles that reach depths

in excess of 2,400 meters, are equipped with a widearr ay of tools and instru menta tion, an d cost from

$1.5 million to $2 million per system. Intermedi-

ate depth (900 meters/3,000 feet) systems equipped

with manipulators, sonars and sensors range from

$400,000 to $500,000. Most of the towed vehicles

presently available are deep diving (20,000 feet) sys-

tems requiring a dedicated support ship and exten-

sive surface support equipment. Such systems st art

at a bout $2 million and can, in the case of the towed

hybrid systems, reach over $5 million.




The foregoing prices are quoted for new vehi-

cles only. However, in today’s depressed offshore

service market , there are numerous opportuni t ies

for obtaining used manned and remotely operated

vehicle systems for a fraction of the prices quoted

above. Likewise, support ships can be purchased

at similar savings. This generalization does not ap-

ply to the towed or the hybrid systems, since they

were built by their operators and are not commer-

cial vehicles.

Capabil i t ies

The environmen tal limits within which a vehi-

cle can work are determined by such design fea-

tur es as operating depth , speed, diving dura tion,

and payload. These factors are also an indication

of a vehicle’s potential to carry equipment, The ac-

tual working or exploration capabilities of a manned

or unm ann ed vehicle are mea sured by th e tools,instru ments, and/or sensors that it can carry and

deploy. These capabilities are, in large part, de-

ter mined by th e vehicle’s carr ying capacity (pay-

load), electrical supply, and overall configuration.

For example, Deep Tow represents one of the most

sophisticated towed vehicles in operation. Its equip-

ment suite includes virtually every data-gathering

capability available for EEZ exploration that can

be used with this type of vehicle. On the other hand,

th ere ar e towed vehicles with th e same depth ca-pability and endurance as Deep Tow but which

cannot begin to accommodate the vast array of in-

strumentation this vehicle carries, due to their de-sign. Table 4-8 is a current worldwide listing of

towed vehicles and the instrumentation they are de-

signed to accommodate. Towing speed of these ve-

hicles ranges from 2 to 6 knots.

Tethered, free-swimming ROVs offer another

examp le of the wide ran ge in explora tion capabil-ities availa ble in today’s ma rk et. Vehicles with t he

most basic equipment in this category have at least

a t elevision camer a a nd a dequate lighting for t he

camera (although lighting may sometimes be op-

tional). However, there is an extensive variety of

additional equipment that can be carried, TheROV Solo, for example, is capable of providing

real-time observations via its television camera,

photographic documentation with its still camera,

short-range object detection and location by its

scanning sonar, and samples with its three-function

grabber (i. e., man ipulator). The vehicle is also

equipped for condu cting bath ymetr ic sur veys. As-

suming it is supported by an appropriate subsea

navigation system, it can provide:

q

q

q

q

q

q

a h igh-resolut ion t opogra phic profile map on

which the space between sounding lanes is

swept and recorded by side-looking sonar,a sub-bottom profile of reflective horizons be-

neat h t he vehicle,

a char t of magnetic anomalies along th e tra cks

covered,

television documentation of the entire track,

selective stereographic photographs of objectsor featu res of interest, an d

the capability to stop and sa mple at th e sur-

veyor’s discretion.

With adequate equipment on the vehicle and

support ship an d the proper computer programs,

the en tire ma pping program , once underway, canbe performed a utomat ically with little or n o human

involvement. At least a dozen more competitive

models exist th at can be similarity equipped.

In a ddition to ROVs of th e Deep Tow and Solo

class, severa l vehicles ha ve been designed t o con-

duct a single task rather than multiple tasks. One

such vehicle is the University of Georgia’s Con-

tinuous Seafloor Sediment Sampler, discussed

earlier in th e section on n uclear meth ods.

Untet hered, man ned vehicles are, for t he m ostpart, equipped with at least one television camera,

still camera, side-looking sonar, and manipulator,and with pingers or transponders compatible with

whatever positioning system is being used. The ab-

sence of an umbilical cable has an advantage that

received little attention until the Challenger space

shut tle tra gedy in 1986. Challenger’s debris was

scattered under the Atlantic Ocean’s Gulf Stream,which flows at maximum speed on the surface but

decreases to less than 0.25 knot at or near the bot-

tom. Once the manned submersibles used in the

sear ch descended below the swift flowing su rface

waters (upwards of 3 knots), they worked and ma-

neuvered without concern for the current. The

ROVs used, on the other hand, were all tethered,and, even though the vehicle itself might be oper-

ating within little or no discernible current, the um-

bilical had to contend with the current at all times.

This caused considerable difficulty at times during

the search operat ion.




Table 4-8.—Worldwide Towed Vehicles

DepthVehicle (ft.) Instrumentation Operator

ANGUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 ,000

Brut /V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900

CSA/STCS . . . . . . . . . . . 1,000

CSA/UTTS. . . . . . . . . . . . 1,150

Deep Challenger . .....20,000

Deep Tow . ...........20,000

Deep Tow Survey System . ...........20,000

DSS-125 (4 each) . .....20,000

Manta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,132

Nodule Collection Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . NA

Ocean Rover . . . . . . . . . 1,000

OFOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 ,000

Raie // . ..............20,000

Sea Bed 2. . . . . . . . . . . . 6,500

Sea Kite . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,000

Sound (b each)... . ....13,000

STSS . . . . . . . . . . . . ....20,000

Teleprobe . ...........20,000

Turn s . . . . . . .. . ... ...20,000

Still camera w/strobe, echo sounder,tem-perature sensor

TV camera w/light, still camera w/strobe,automatic altitude control

TV w/light

TV w/lights, still camera w/strobe, al-timeter

TV w/lights, still camera w/strobe, side-Iooking sonar, sub-bottom profiler,depth/altitude sensor, C/T/D sensors

Slow-scan TV w/ strobe illumination, echosounder, side-looking sonar, scanningsonar, magnetometer, stereo camera sys-tem, C/T/D sensors, transponder

TV w/ light, still camera w/ strobe, side-Iooking sonar, magnetometer sub-bottomprofiler, current meter, altitude/depthsensor

TV w/ light, still camera w/ strobe, magnet-ic compass

TV w/ lights, still camera w/ strobe, side-

Iooking sonar, C/T/D sensors

Cutting and pumping devices to collectnodules for transport to surface

TV on pan/tilt w/ light, still camera w/ strobe, depth and speed sensor

Color TV and three still cameras w/ ap-propriate lighting

Still cameras w/ strobe echo sounder, pres-sure/depth sensor, transponder

Side-looking sonar (6km swath), sub-bottomprofiIer

TV, still camera, pipe, tracker, scanningsonar, side-looking sonar, sub-bottomprofiler, magnetometer

TV w/ light, still camera w/ strobe, side-Iooking sonar, magnetometer, seismic

profilerTV w/ light, still camera w/ strobe, scan-

ning sonar, side-looking sonar, alti-tude/depth sonar, transponder

TV w/ light, stereocameras w/ strobes,magnetometer, side-looking, alti-tude/depth sonar

TV w/ light, stereocameras w/ strobe, scan-ning sonar, side-looking sonar, mag-netometer, manipulator

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution,Woods Hole, MA, USA

Biological Station, St. Andrews, NewBrunswick, NS, Canada

Continental Shelf Associates, Jupiter, USAContinental Shelf Associates, Jupiter, USA

Japan Marine Science & TechnologyCenter, Yokosuka, Japan

Marine Physical Laboratory, Scripps Institu-tion of Oceanography, La Jolla, CA, USA

Lockheed Ocean Laboratory, San Diego,CA, USA

Japanese and West German industrialfirms.

National Marine Fisheries Service, Pas-

cagoula, MS, USA

National Research Institution forResources & Pollution, Japan

Seametrix Ltd., Aberdeen, Scotland

Preussag Meerestechnik, Hannover, WestGermany

IFREMER, Brest, France

Huntec, Ltd. Scarborough, Ontario,Canada

Blue Deep Sari, Valmondois, France

Institute of Oceanology, Moscow, USSR

Submarine Development Group One, U.S.Navy, San Diego, CA, USA

U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office, Bay St.Louis, MS, USA

Royal British Navy

SOURCE: Busby Associates, Inc., Arlington, Virginia.

Very little work using manned or ROVs has been and a wide variety of other tasks. Scientific appli-

done solely for exploration purposes. In the indus- cation of undersea vehicles has been almost always

trial arena, the work has been in support of offshore directed at studying a pa rticular ph enomenon oroil and/or gas operations, including pipeline and aspect of an ecosystem. In only a few instances have

cable route mapping a nd inspection, bottom site undersea vehicles been used to verify the data col-

surveying, structural inspection and maintenance, lected by surface-oriented techniques.



Ch. 4—Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone . 151

Hard mineral exploration, however, is a task

well-suited for manned vehicles and tethered, free-

swimming ROVs. A wide array of manipulator-

held sampling equipment for these vehicles has been

developed over the past two decades. This sampling

capability ranges from simple scoops to gather un-consolidated sediment to drills for taking hard-rock

cores. Present undersea vehicles cannot, however,collect soft sedimen t cores m uch beyond 3 feet in

length or hard-rock cores more than a few inches

in length,

The Continuous Seafloor Sediment Sampler isan examp le of a specially designed vehicle. Vehi-

cles of th is type m ight find ext ensive ap plicat ion

in th e EEZ by providing relatively rapid m ineral

assays of the bottom within areas of high interest.

If supported with appropriate navigation equip-

ment, a surficial mineral constitu ent char t couldbe developed fairly ra pidly. Due t o th e vehicle’s

present design, such a map could only be made overbottoms composed of unconsolidated, fine-grained

sediments.

A recent example of a vehicle application was the

search for a nd subsequent examination of the RMSTitanic , which sank in the Atlantic in 1912. The

vessel was thought to be somewhere within a 120-

square-nautical-mile area. A visual search with an

undersea vehicle could literally take years to com-

plete at the 4,000-meter (13,000-foot) depths in

which she lay. Instead, the area was searched using

a side-looking sonar which detected a target of likely

proportions after about 40 days of looking. To ver-ify that the target was the Titanic, the towed vehi-

cle ANGUS was dispatched with its television and

still cameras. The next step, to closely examine the

vessel, was done with the manned vehicle Alvin and

the tethered, free-swimming ROV Jason Junior

(JJ). Alvin provided the means to ‘ ‘home on’ andboard the vessel, while JJ provided the means to

explore the close confines of the vessel’s interior.

The search for the space shuttle Challenger d e-

bris is another example of the division of labor be-

tween undersea vehicles and over-the-side tech-

niques. Since the debris was scattered over manysquare miles and intermixed with debris from other

sources, it would have taken months, perhaps years,

to search the area with undersea vehicles. Instead,

as with the Titanic, side-looking sonar was used

to sweep the ar ea of interest a nd likely tar gets were

plotted to be later identified by manned and un-

manned vehicles. The same vehicles were subse-

quently used to help in the retrieval of debris. Once

again, the large area was sear ched with th e more

rapid over-the-side techniques while precision work

was a ccomplished with th e slower moving under -

sea vehicles.

These two examples suggest th at the m ain role

of undersea vehicles in the EEZ is and will be toprovide the fine details of the bottom. A typical ex-

ploration scenario might begin with bottom cov-erage with a wide-swath side-looking sonar, like

GLORIA, progress to one of the midrange side-

looking sonars or a Sea Beam -type system, an d end

with deployment of a towed vehicle system or a

tethered, free-swimming ROV or manned sub-

mersible to collect detailed information.

Needed Technical Developments

Thanks to technological advances in offshore oil

exploration, the tools, vehicles, and support systems

available to the EEZ minerals explorer have increaseddram atically in num bers and t ypes since the 1960s.

It would appear that adequate technology now ex-ists to explore selected areas within the EEZ using

un dersea vehicles. But, a s with offshore oil, some

of these assets will probably prove to be inadequate

when t hey are u sed for har d minera l explorat ion

instead of the tasks for which they were designed,Identification of these shortcomings is probably best

accomplished by on-the-job evaluation.More than likely, whatever technological im-

provement s ar e made will not be so much to th e

vehicles themselves but to the t ools and inst rum en-

tation aboard the vehicles that collect the data.

Hence, it is important to identify precisely the data-

collecting requirements for hard mineral explora-

tion and mining. Potential discovery of new under-

water featur es, processes, and conditions must also

be anticipated. For example, prior to 1981, noth-

ing was known of the existence of deepwater vents

or of the existence of the an imals th at inhabit t hese

area s. Once the vents an d their a ssociated faun a

were discovered, tools and techniques for their in-

vestigation were developed as necessary.

Certain aspects of undersea vehicles and their

equipment a re perenn ial candidat es for improve-





Underwater camera system, ready for deployment

ment. These include, but are not limited to, broaderbandwidths for television signals, greater manipula-

tive dexterity and sensory perception, an d more

precise sta tion-keeping an d cont rol of the vehicle

itself. The advent of the microprocessor has intro-

duced other candidates: artificial intelligence, pat-

tern recognition, teach/learn programs, greater

memory, all of which can ser ve to improve the ca-pability of the vehicles and their accompanying sen-

sors and tools. There is no question that these

aspects of vehicle technology are worthy of consid-

eration and that they will undoubtedly improve our

underwater exploration capability. But before ad-ditional development or improvement of undersea

vehicle technology for EEZ hard minerals explo-

rat ion begins, it ma y be more important to assessfully th e applicability of the curr ently ava ilable tech-

nology.

O p t i c a l I m a g i n g

Optical images produced by underwater cameras

and video systems are complementary to the images

and bathymetry provided by side-looking sonars

and bathymetry systems. Once interesting features

have been identified using long-range reconnaissance

techniques, still cameras and video systems can be

used for closeup views. Such syst ems can be used

to resolve seafloor featur es on t he order of 10 centi-

meter to 1 meter. The swath width of imaging sys-

tems depends on such factors as the number of cam-

eras used, the water characteristics, and the height

of th e imaging system above the sea floor. Swat hs

as wide as 200 meters are curren tly mappable.

ANGUS (Acoustically Navigated Underwater

Sur vey) is typical of man y deep-sea photograph ic

systems. Basically, ANGUS consists of three 35-

millimeter cameras and strobe lights m ount ed on

a rugged sled. The system is towed approximately10 meters off the bottom in water depths up to 6,000

meters (19,700 feet), and is capable of taking 3,000frames per s ortie. It has been u sed in conjunction

with dives of the submersible Alvin.

A newer system, currently u nder development

at the Deep Submergence Laboratory (DSL) at

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, is Argo.

On her maiden voyage in September 1985 Argo

assisted in locating the Titanic. Like AN GUS, Argo

is capable of operating in water depths of 6,000meters. Argo, however, is equipped with a wide-area television imaging system integrated with side-

looking sonar .76 It currently uses three low-light-

level, silicon-inten sified t ar get cam era s (one for-

ward-looking, one down-looking, and one down-

looking telephoto), extending the width of the im-

aged swath to 56 meters (184 feet) when towed at

an altitude of 35 meters. Argo is being designed to accommodate a sec-

ond ROVs, to be known as Jason. Jason will be

a tethered robot capable of being lowered from Argo

to the seafloor for detailed camera (and sampling)

work (figure 4-13). Its designer s plan t o equip J a-

son with st ereo color television ‘‘eyes."77

One cur-

rent limitation is the lack of availability of an ade-

quate transmission cable for the color televisionpictures. Color television transmissions exceed 6

million bits per second, and large bandwidth ca-

bles capable of carrying this amount of informa-

tion have not yet been developed for marine use.

Fiber-optic cables are now being designed for t his

Har ris and K. “Argo: Capabilit ies for Deep Ocean

E x p l o r a t i o n , vol. 28, No. 4, 1985/ 86, p. 100.77

R. D. Balla rd , ‘ ‘Argo-Ja son, Oceans, March 1983, p. 19.




Figure 4-13.—Schematic of the Argo-Jason Deep-Sea Photographic System

The Argo-Jason system is currently under development at Woods Hole’s Deep Submergence Laboratory. Argo has alreadyassisted in locating the Titanic. Jason is being designed to be launched from Argo and will handle detailed camera work.

SOURCE: Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.

and related marine data transmission needs. How- The current subject-to-lens range limit for opti-ever, before fiber-optic cables can be employed, cal imaging is 30 to 50 meters in clear water. Sev-problems of han dling tensional str ess and repeated eral improvements are expected in the future that

flexing of th e cable mu st be overcome. Personn el may enable subjects to be imaged as far as 200at DSL believe tha t when t he Argo-Jason system meters from the lens under optimal viewing con-

is fully developed, the need for manned submersi- ditions. For instance, work is underway to increase

bles wil l be much reduced. the sensitivity of film to low light levels. A 200,000

72-672 0 - 87 -- 6




ASA equivalent speed film was used to take pic-

tures of the Titanic under more than 2 miles of

water. Higher film speed ratings, perhaps as high

as 2 million ASA equivalent, will enable pictur es

to be taken with even less light. Improved lighting

will also help. The optimal separation between cam-

era a nd light in th e ocean is about 40 meters, which

suggests that towed light sources could provide an

advantage. Use of polarization filters can also help

increase viewing potential. Gated light sources,

which emit short pulses of light, will be more ex-

pensive to develop. Development of a technique to

open the camera shu tter a t t he precise t ime the

gated light illuminates the subject will help reduce

scattering of the reflected light. 78

Direc t Sampl ing by Cor ing , Dr i l l ing ,

a n d Dr e d g i n g

Once a p rospective site is locat ed us ing geophysi-

cal and/or other reconnaissance methods, direct

sampling by coring, drilling, or dredging (as appro-

priate) is required to obtain detailed geological

information. Direct sampling provides ‘‘ground

tr ut h’ corr elation with indirect explorat ion meth -ods of the presence (and concentration) or absence

of a mineral deposit. The specific composition of

a deposit cannot be determined without taking sam-

ples and subjecting them to geochemical analyses.

Representative sampling provides potential miners

with information about the grade of deposit, whichis necessary to decide whether or not to proceed

with developing a mine site.

Placer Deposits

The state-of-the-art of sampling marine placers

and other unconsolidated marine sediments is more

advanced than that of sampling marine hard-rock

mineral deposits such as cobalt crusts and massive

sulfides. There are various methods for sampling

unconsolidated sediments in shallow water, whereas

technology for sampling crusts and sulfides in deep

wat er is only now beginning t o be developed. Two

significant differences exist between sampling placer

deposits and marine hard-rock deposits. One is the

greater depth of water in which crusts and sulfides

T8R. B~]ard , De e p Submergence Laboratory, Woods Hole Oceano-

graphic Institution, OTA Workshop on Technologies for Surveying

and Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone, June 10, 1986.

occur. The other is the relative ease of penetrating

placers.

Grab samplers obtain samples in the upper fewcentimeters of surfacial sediments. For obtaining

a sa mple over a th icker section of sediment s an d

preserving the sequence of sedimentary layers,

vibracore, gravity, piston, and other coring devices

are used. These corers are used to retrieve relativelyundisturbed samples that may indicate the concen-tra tion of minerals by layer an d th e thickness of

the deposit. On the other h an d, to determine th e

average grade of ore at a pa rt icular site and for u se

in processing studies, large bulk samples obtained

by dredging (including any waste material or over-

burden), rather than undisturbed cores, may be

sufficient.

The char acter istics of a sampling device app ro-

priate for a scientific sampling program are not nec-

essarily appropriate for proving a mine site. In or-

der to establish tonnage and grade to prove a mine

site, thousands of samples may be required. It isessential that the sampling device provide consist-

ently representative samples at a reasonable cost.

The ability to carry out commercial-scale sampling,

required to define an ore body, in water deeper than

about 60 feet is st ill very limited. Scientific sam-

pling can be done in deeper water, but as table 4-9indicates, sampling costs rapidly escalate with water

depth. The costs of sampling in deeper water prob-

ably will have to be reduced significantly before

commercial development in th ese areas can ta ke

place.

Only a few areas within the U.S. Exclusive Eco-nomic Zone have been systematically sampled in

three dimensions. Much of the data collected to date

have been from surface samples and hence are not

reliable for use in quantitative assessments. 79 Ade-

quate knowledge of the mineral resource potential

of the EEZ will require extensive three-dimensional

sampling in the most promising area s.

Several factors, as suggested a bove, are impor-

tan t in evaluat ing the performa nce of a placer sam -

pling system80

(in general, these factors are equally

79see, for ~xample,Clifton an d L u e p k e , ‘ ‘ H e a v y M i n e r a l ‘lacer

Depos i t s .80

B. Dimock, “An Assessment of Alluvial Sampling Systems for

Offshore Placer Operations, Report, Ocean Mining Division, Re-

source Evaluation Branch, Energy, Mines, and Resources Canada,

January 1986.



Ch. 4—Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone q 15 5

Table 4-9.—Vibracore Sampling Costsa

Shallow water Deep water

Water depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Type of coring equipment . . . . . . . . . . .

Number of cores in program . . . . . . . . .Depth of penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Type of vessel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Mobilization/demobilization cost . . . . . .Vessel cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Coring equipment and operating crew .Contingency funds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Total cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Cost per core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30-60 feetVibracorer

5 02 0 feet

100- to 150-foot open deck work boat,twin screw equipped with A-frameand double point mooring gear

$25,000$50,000 (10 days at $5,000 per day;

assumes 6 cores per day; 30°/0 downtime for weather)

$30,000 (10 days at $3,000 per day)$25,000

$ 1 3 0 , 0 0 0$ 2 . 6 0 0

200 to 300 feetVibracorer (equipped for deep water

operation)5020 feet

150- to 200-foot open deck work boat,twin screw, equipped with A-frameand double point mooring gear

$ 5 0 , 0 0 0

$ 1 6 0 , 0 0 0 ( 2 0 days at $8,000 per day;assumes 3 cores per day; 30%down time for weather)

$ 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 (20 days at $5,000 per day)$25,000$ 3 3 5 , 0 0 0$ 6 , 7 0 0

%osts do not include core analysis and program management.

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987.

applicable to technologies for sampling massive sul-fides and cobalt crusts). The representativeness of

the sample is very important . A sample is repre-

sentative if what it contains can be repeatedly ob-

tained at the same site. In this regard, the size of

the sample is important. For example, for minerals

that occur in low concentrations (e. g., precious me-

tals), a representative sample must be relatively

la rge . A representa t ive sample for concent ra ted

heavy minerals may be much smaller. The depth of

sediment that a sampling tool is capable of penetrat-

ing also affects the representativeness of the sample.

Undisturbed samples are particularly importantfor studying the engineering properties and deposi-tional history of a deposit. They are less important

for determining t he constitu ents of a deposit.

Other relevant factors affect ing sampling per-

formance include: the t ime required to obtain a

sample ; the ease of deploying, opera t ing, and

retrieving the sampling device in rough seas; the

support vessel requirements; and the core storage

capability. Sampling tools that can sample quickly,

can continue to operate under adverse conditions,

and can be deployed from small ships are preferred

when the cost of sampling is a significant factor.

More often, the solution is a compromise amongthese factors.

Grab and Drag Sampling.—Grab sampling is

a simple and relatively inexpensive way of obtain-

ing a sample of the top few inches of the seafloor.

With its mechanical jaws, a grab sampler can takea bite of sur ficial sedimen t. However, a sa mple of

surficial sediment is not likely to be representative

of the deposit as a whole. Buried minerals may be

different from surface minerals, or, even if thesame, their abundance may be different. Moreover,

the sediments r etrieved in a gra b sample are dis-

turbed. Some of the finer particles may even es-

cape a s th e sam ple is being ra ised, particularly if

stones or debris prohibit the jaws from closingproperly.

Notwithstanding their shortcomings, grab sam-

ples ha ve helped geologists gain some kn owledgeof possible heavy mineral concentrations along theEastern U.S. seaboard. However, grab samplesprovide limited information and are not appropri-

ate for detailed, quant itative sampling of a m ineral

occurrence. Drag sampling is similar to grab sam-

pling in that it is designed to retrieve only samples

from the surface. An additional limitation of this

type of sampling is that sample material is retrieved

all along th e drag t rack an d, therefore, sampling

is not r epresen ta tive of a sp ecific site.

Coring and Drilling Devices.—For more quan-

t i t a t ive sampl ing, numerous types of cor ing ordrilling technologies have been developed. Impact

corers use gravity or some type of explosive mech-

anism to drive a core barrel a short distance into

sediment. Percussion drilling devices penetrate sedi-

ment by repeated pi le driving act ion. Vibratory



156 qMarine Minerals: Exploring Our N ew Ocean Frontier

Photo credits: US. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Geological Survey

Chain bag dredge

Dredges Used for Sampling the Seafloor

corers use acoustical or mechanical vibrations to

penetrate m aterial .81

An example of an impact coring device is the boxcore. An advantage of this type of sampling sys-

tem is that it retrieves relatively undisturbed cores.

A disadvantage is that a box corer is capable of sam-

pling only the top few feet of an unconsolidated de-

posit. It is rarely used in sand because penetrationrequires additional vibratory or percussive action.

Well-known per cussion drilling devices include

the Becker Hammer Drill and the Amdril series of

drills. The Becker drill penetrates sediment using

a diesel-powered hammer that strikes a drill pipe91 times per minute. It also uses reverse circula-

tion, meaning that air and/or water is pumped

down the annulus between the inner and outer drill

pipes, continuously flushing sample cuttings to the

surface through the inner pipe.82

Among the advan-tages of the Becker drill are: its capability to re-

cover all types of deposits, including gravel, sand,boulders, and clay; its ability to drill in a combined

depth of water and sediments up t o about 150 feet;

and its capacity to recover representative samples.

However, open water use of the Becker drill is slow

and relatively expensive.

The Becker drill is rated by some83

as one thebest existing systems for offshore quantitative sam-

Barre Lee, Min ing of the Continent al

Legal, Technical and Environmental Considerations (Cambridge,

MA: Pu blish ing Co., 1978), p.

82“An Assessment of Alluvial Sampling Systems, p.

*31 bid., p. 55,




Photo credit: Bonnie McGregor, U.S. Geological Survey

The box core retrieves relatively undisturbed cores butonly of the first few feet of sediment.

pling of marine placers. It has been widely andreliably used in offshore programs around the

world. Other systems may work well but the Becker

drill has gained the confidence of investment

bankers, who must know the extent and tenor of a deposit with a high degree of accuracy before in-

vesting money in development. For developing

commercial deposits, it is particularly important

that the method used be one with a proven record.

The Amdril, available in several different sizes,

is an other type of percussion dr illing device. Un-like the Becker Hammer Drill, Amdrils are sub-

mersible and virtually independent of the supportship’s movement s. As a resu lt, th is drill can oper-

ate in much deeper water than the Becker drill.

Rather than using the reverse circulation method,

an independent pipe supplies air to the casing toraise the drill cuttings. Although the Amdril can-

not sample boulders or bedrock, it is capable of

sampling gravel (unlike vibratory corers) using an

airlift system. One type of Amdril has successfully

sampled marine sands and gravels off Great Brit-

a in .84

A somewhat similar system, the Vibralift, devel-

oped by the Mississippi Mineral Resources Insti-tut e, has proved successful in sampling a variety

of mineral deposits, including heavy minerals in

dense and semi-hard material. The Vibralift is ba-

sically a counterflush system. It utilizes a dual wall

drill pipe driven into the sediment by means of apneumatic vibrator. Water under pressure is in-

troduced to the annular space of the dual pipe via

a hose from a shipboard pump and is jetted into

the inner pipe just above the cutting bit. In this

way, the core rising in th e inner pipe dur ing thesample drive is broken up by the water jets and

transported up the pipe through a connecting hose

and finally to a shipboard sample processor. Ad-

ditional lift is obtained by routing exhaust air from

the vibrat or into the inn er pipe. Samples are col-lected in a dewa ter ing box to minimize th e loss of fine material .

85

Several t ypes of vibrat ory corers h ave been de-

veloped over th e years. Designs var y by length of

core obtained (6 to 12 meters), by core diameter

(5 to 15 centimeters), by water depth limits of oper-

at ion (25 to 1,000 meter s), by meth od of penetra -tion (electric, hydra ulic, an d pn eum at ic), by port-ability, etc. Vibratory corers have been widely used

for scientific and reconnaissance sampling. Thismethod is probably the best low-cost method for

coring sand and gravel deposits . Relatively un-

disturbed and representative cores can be retrieved

in unconsolidated sediments such as most sands,

clay, and gravel . However , the ef fect iveness of

vibratory corers decreases in dense, fine, relatively

consolidated sands and in stiff clays. Some progress

has been reported in sampling dense, fine-grained,

heavy mineral placers with a jet bit that does not

disturb the core.86

Vibratory corers will not pene-

trate boulders or shale. This type of sampling de-

vice is less expensive and more portable than the

Becker Hammer Drill and is , therefore, probably

** Ibid., p. 31.demonstrated at Underwater Mining Institute Con-

ference, MS, November 1986.




Photo source: P. Johnson, Office of Technology Assessment

Vibracore ready for deployment from side of ship.Vibracores can retrieve relatively undisturbed samples

in many types of unconsolidated sediment.

more suitable for reconnaissance work than the

Becker drill; however, given limitations in the typeof deposit that can be sampled, vibratory corers

would be less appropriate for proving certain mine

sites.

Vibracore systems, properly designed and oper-

ated, have successfully evaluated thin (i.e., less than

12 meters), surficial, unconsolidated deposits of

fine-to-coarse-grain material, such as sand and

gravel, shell, heavy minerals, and phosphorite.

Vibratory corers are inadequate for the more dis-

seminated precious mineral placers such as gold,

platinum, and diamonds, due to system limitationsin sampling host gravels typically containing cob-

bles and boulders. Vibratory corers are also use-

less for any deposit where the thickness of overbur-

den and/or zones of interest exceed the penetrationlimits of th e system.

The costs of offshore sampling vary widely, de-

pending on such factors as water depth, mobiliza-tion costs, weather, navigation requirements, and

vessel size and availability. One of the most im-

portant factors in terms of unit costs per core is the

scope of th e progra m. Costs per hole for a sm all-

scale program will be higher than costs per hole fora la rge-scale pr ogra m. Ta ble 4-9 shows typical costsof offshore vibracore programs in shallow and deepwater. Costs per core are seen to vary between

about $2,500 and $7,000.

An alternative or supplementary strategy to tak-ing the large numbers of samples that would be

needed t o prove a min e site is to employ a sma ll,easily transportable dredge in a pilot mining

project. Each situation is unique, but for some cases

the dredge may be less expensive and may be bet-

ter at reducing uncertainty than coring or drilling.

Such a program was recently completed with a pi-lot airlift dredge off the coast of west Africa. Four

tons of phosphorite concentrate were recovered for87

Dredging would causean economic evalua tion.

significantly more environmental disruption and

may, unlike other sam pling meth ods, require an

environment al impact statemen t.

Crus ts

Cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts were discov-

ered during the 1872-76 expedition of the HMS

Challenger, but detailed studies have only recentlybegun, In general, existing coring and other de-

vices developed to sample shallow-water placers arenot appropriate for sampling crusts in deep water;

th erefore, new sam pling technologies must be de-

veloped. An important consideration in develop-

ing new technology is th at crusts a nd u nderlying

substrate are usually consolidated and hard and

therefore not as easily penetrated by either dredges

or coring devices. Moreover, crusts are found at

much greater depths than most unconsolidated de-

posits. The most desirable crusts are believed to oc-

cur between 800 and 2,500 meters water depth;

thus, sampling equipment must at least be able to

operat e as deep as 2,500 meters. Crusts k nown to

date rarely exceed 12 centimeters (5 inches) in thick-ness; therefore, there is no requirement for long

samples.

and D. Bargeron, ‘‘ Explorat ion for Ph osphorite in

the Offshore Area of the Congo, “ Marine Mining, vol. 5, No. 3, 1986,

pp. 217-237.




A few small samples of crust have been retrieved

using standard deep-sea dredges. As these dredges

are pulled along th e bottom, they a re a ble to dis-lodge chunks of the outcrop or gather already dis-

lodged material; however, techniques and technol-

ogy for precise, controlled sampling have yet to be

developed .88 USGS has identified several needs in

quantitative crust sampling and, through its Small

Business Innovative Research program, has begunseveral feasibility studies to develop sampling tools.

As an aid in selecting sampling sites and in quan-

tifying the volume of crust in a given area, a de-

vice that can measure crust thickness is an impor-

tant need. Deepsea Ventures, Inc., has completed

a conceptual study for such a device for USGS.89

The goal is to develop a tool to measure crust thick-

ness continuously and in real-time. Conceptually,

a very-high-frequency acoustic-reflection profiler

able to detect the crust surface and th e interface

between crust and host rock would be mountedaboar d a sled an d, with a video camera , towed 20

to 25 centimeters off the seafloor. A continuous sig-

nal would be sent to the su rface ship via the t ow

cable. An important design consideration is the very

rough terrain in which some cobalt crusts are found.

Cur ren t design criter ia call for th e device to oper-ate over relatively smooth area s with less tha n a

20° slope. Alth ough it will not be a ble to operat e

on slopes steeper th an 200, it is assumed t hat , atleast initially, any crust mining that does occur will

be done in relatively flat areas.

For quantitative sampling, two types of coringdevices have been proposed and currently are beingdesigned. Deepsea Ventures has developed concepts

for a special sampling tool for taking an undisturbed

sample suitable for studying the engineering prop-

erties of crust and underlying rock.90

This corerwould be capa ble of cut ting a disc-sha ped core 56

centimeters (22 inches) in diameter by 23 centi-meters (9 inches) thick. The corer and a video cam-

era would be mounted on a tripod anchored to the

H. et al. , ‘‘Report of th e Working

Group Manganese Nodules and Crusts, Marine Minerals:

in Research and Assessment, et at. )

(Dordrecht, Holland: 11, Publishing Co,, 1987), NATO ASI

Series, p. 24,89

W. Siapno, Consulta nt, Workshop on Site-Specific

for th e Economic Zone, Wash

DC, 16, 1986.

‘“Ibid.

sea bottom while the core is being cut. This typeof corer would not be us eful for deta iled mapp ing

of a deposit because the tripod must be lowered,

positioned, an d ra ised for ea ch core cut , a pr ocess

that would take more than 2 hours in 1,500 meters

of wat er.

A second coring device more appropriate forreconnaissance sampling (and perhaps also for

proving a m ine site) has been designed an d built

by Analyt ical Services, Inc. (figur e 4-14).91

The de-vice is a percussion coring sampler that is designed

Toth, Services, Inc., OTA Workshop on Site-Specific

Technologies for “Exploring th e E xclusive Economic-Zone,

ton, DC, July 16, 1986.

Figure 4-14.—Prototype

Frame

Crust Sampler

Triggerassembly

/ / G i m b a l

Firingplate

Coring devices such as this, designed to be quick and inex-pensive, will be needed for quantitative sampling of crusts

SOURCE: Analytical Services, Inc., CA




Photo credit: Analytical Services, Inc., Cardiff, CA

Prototype crust sampler about to be deployed fromstern of ship.

to collect as many as 30 short cores during each

deployment. The speed at which samples can be

taken and the cost per sample are important de-sign features —especially for corers that are used

in proving a mine site— and this coring operationis designed to be both relatively quick and inex-

pensive. Sampling is initiated by a bottom-sensing

trigger that starts a firing sequence. To fire the

“gu n ,” an electric spark ignites the powder. As

many as four samples may be taken at any one site,

after which the system can be lifted from the seabed,

moved to another spot, and lowered again. Cores

ar e expected t o be 10 to 12 centimet ers long (long

enough to sample crust a nd some substrat e in most

cases) and 2 centimeters (1 inch) in diameter. The

system is designed to operat e in water depths of 5000 meters. Eventually, a video system, scanningsonar , and t hru ster will be incorporated int o the

system, enabling the sampler to be steered. A

second-generation prototype sampler has been built

and was tested in 1987.

Large, bulk samples are required for processing

and tonnage/grade st udies. To meet these n eeds,th e Burea u of Mines is developing a dredge capa-

ble of cutt ing into crust tha t m aybe similar in prin-

ciple to a comm ercial mining dr edge of the fut ur e.92

Current dredges are not designed to cut into crust

and su bstrat e. The experimental dredge would the-

oretically collect 500 p ounds of in situ ma ter ial in

each pass. Problems were en count ered in initial

of Mines, Worksh op on

Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone, Washing-

ton, DC, July 16, 1986.

testing of the dredge in rough terrain, but the

dredge may be redesigned to better cope with rough

seafloor features. The continuous bucket l ine

dredge, used in sam pling ma nganese n odules, is

also proposed to be adapted for bulk sampling of crusts.

Polymetallic Sulfides

Massive sulfides have a third dimension that

must be considered in sampling. At the moment,

very little is known about the vertical extent of sul-fide deposits, as drilling them has not been very

successful. The problem lies in the absence of suit-able drills .93 Without a sediment overburden of 100

met ers (328 feet) or so it is difficult t o confine t he

drill bit at the start of drilling. The state-of-the-artof massive sulfide sampling is demonstrated by thefact that one of the largest samples collected to date

was obtained by ra mming a r esearch submersible

into a sulfide chimney, knocking the chimney over,an d picking up th e pieces with th e submer sible’smanipulator arm.

94Clearly, current bulk and core

sampling methods leave something to be desired,

Recent advances ha ve been made in bar e-rock

drilling. For exam ple, one of the ma in pu rposes of

Leg 106 of th e Ocean Drilling P rogram (ODP) in

December 1985 was to test a nd evaluate new bare-

rock drilling techniques. Drilling from the ODP’s

143 meter (470 foot) drill ship JOIDES Resolution

took place in the Mid-Atlantic Ridge Rift Valleysome 2,200 kilometers (1 ,200 nautical miles) south-

east of Bermu da. The scientists and engineers of Leg 106 were pa rt ly successful in dr illing several

holes using such innovative techniques as a hard-

rock guide ba se to confine th e drill bit dur ing ini-tial ‘ ‘spud -in, a low-light television cam era for

imaging the seafloor and for monitoring drilling

operat ions, an d new downhole drilling an d coringmotors. The first hole took 25 days to penetrate 33.3

meters (1 10 feet) of rock below the seafloor, while

recovering about 23 percent of the core material .95

M. Edm ond, et al., “Report of the Working

Group on Marine Sulfides, ” Marine Minerals: Advances in Research

and Resource Assessment, et al. ) Hol-

land: D. Publish ing Co., 1987), NATO ASI Series, p. 36.Offshor e Minerals Section, Energy, Re -

sources Cana da, Workshop on Site-Specific Technologies for

Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone, Washington, DC, July 16,

1986.

S. “Mid-Atlan tic Bare-Rock Drilling and Hydroth er-

ma l Ven ts , Nature, vol. 321, May 1986, pp.




Although improvements in drilling ra tes a nd core

recovery are needed, the techniques demonstrated

during Leg 106 open up new possibilities for drilling

into massive sulfides.

In 1989, the JOIDES Resolution is tentatively

scheduled to visit th e Ju an de F uca Ridge, thus pro-

viding an opportunity to obtain a few cores frommassive sulfide deposits. However, the JOIDES

Resolution is a large, specially designed drill ship.

Its size is governed, in part, by requirements for

ha ndling and storing drilling pipe. Becau se oper-

ating the JOIDES Resolution is expensive, it is not

economically advantageous for inexpensive explo-

ration sampling of massive sulfides in extensive

areas.

An alternative and relatively less expensive ap-

proach to using a large and expensive drill ship for

hard-rock sampling is to use a remotely operated

subm ersible dr ill which is lowered by cable froma surface vessel to the seafloor. 96 In addition to

lower cost, the advantages to using this type of drill

ar e th e isolation of th e coring opera tion from sea-

state-induced ship motions and reduced station-keeping requirements. Mainta ining conta ct witha remotely operated drill while it is drilling remains

difficult; if the umbilical is jerked during the drilling

operation, the drill can easily jam. Several remotely

operated drills have been conceived and/or built,

as described below.

The drill developed by the Bedford Institution

of Ocean ograph y in Canada ha s probably had the

most experience coring sulfides, although the per-

formance of the drill to date has not met its design

specifications. The Bedford drill is electrically pow-

ered from t he sur face an d is designed t o operat e

in over 3,500 meters of water. The drill can be de-ployed in winds of 25 to 30 knots and in currents

up t o 3 knots. It is designed to cut a core 6 met ers

long (extendable another 2.5 meters) with a di-

ameter of 2.5 centimeters. A commercial version

of this drill, made by NORDCO of St. John’s,

Newfoundland, is now available and has been sold

to Austr alia, India, and Norway .97

WR , petters and M. Williamson, “Design for a Deep-Ocean Rock

Core Drill, ” Marine Mining, vol. 5, No. 3, 1986, p. 322.

‘7P.J.C. Ryd, “Remote Drilling Technology, Journal of Ma-

rine Mining, in press, 1986.

Nine cores drilled through basalt were obtained

with the Bedford drill in 1983 on the Juan de Fuca

Ridge, but th e total core length retrieved was only

0.7 meter .98

Obtaining long cores has been diffi-

cult. Drillers h ave found tha t competent , un frac-tured rocks, such as metamorphic or intrusive

types, yielded the longest cores, while young,glassy, highly fractur ed basa lts were difficult to sam -

ple.99 The ma ssive sulfides th emselves ar e easier

to drill than fractured basalts.

Since 1983, the performance of the Bedford drillhas improved. Recently, two cores, each about 1

meter long, were retrieved in gabbro. Drilling took

place at the Kane Fracture Zone. Several foot-long

cores containing sulfides also were taken from the

Endeavor Segment of the Juan de Fuca Ridge. Me-

chanically, the drill has n ot been changed much,but electronics and control systems are better. The

experience gained th us far su ggests th at it is essen-

tia l to do preliminar y reconn aissa nce work beforeemplacing th e drill. Dur ing emplacement , a video

camera attached to the drill frame also has proved

helpful, as it lets drillers locate a stable position for

the drill.

Several other remotely controlled drills have been

designed and/or built. In the early 1970s, Woods

Hole Oceanographic Institution built a rock drill

designed to recover a 1 meter long, 2 centimeter

diameter r ock core from water depths a s much a s4,000 meters. The dr ill was originally designed t o

be deployed from th e resear ch submer sible Alvin

but was later reconfigured to be deployed from asurface ship. It ha s not been u sed extensively.

100

A Japanese firm, Koken Boring & Machine Co.,

has built a remote battery-powered drill and usedit successfully in 500 meters of water. NORDCO

has recently developed a sampling system, tha t, de-

pending on its configuration, can be used to sam-

ple either sediment or rock. This system was used

in October 1985 to recover eight cores in 800 meters

of water off Baffin Island.101

Finally, design of a

gBH~e Offshore Miner& Section, Energy, Mines, and Resources

Canada, OTA Workshop on Site-Specific Technologies for Explor-ing the Exclusive Economic Zone, July 1986.

‘gRyaIl, “Remote Drilling Technology. ”10OR E D a \ ~ i s D, L. Wil]iams, and R. P. Von Herzen, ‘‘ ARpA

Rock Drill Report, ” Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Tech-

nical Report 75-28, June 1975.

‘o’ Ryan, ‘ ‘Remote Drilling Technology. ”




Figure 4=15.-Conceptual Design for Deep OceanRock Coring Drill

An alternative and less expensive approach to using a largeand expensive drill ship for hard rock sampling is to use-a

remotely operated submersible drill which is lowered by ca-ble from a surface vessel to the seafloor. (Not to scale).

SOURCES: Williamson & Associates, Inc., and Sound Ocean Systems, Inc.

rock corer was recently started by Sound Ocean

Systems & Williamson and Associates (figure 4-

15) .102

This corer has not been built , but in con-

cept it is similar to the Bedford drill. A major differ-

ence is that it is designed to core continuously to

a depth of 53 meters (175 feet) (by adding core bar-

rels from a storage magazine). Alternatively, it can

be configured to recover 40 1.5-meter cores in asingle deployment. A workable system for obtain-

ing cores longer than 1 meter would be a signifi-

cant advancement. Both ODP and Bedford drillers

have experienced jamming beyond the firs t few

meters and have not been able to obtain longer

cores.

Very little sampling of sediment-hosted sulfides

(e.g., in the Escanaba Trough off the coast of north-

ern California) has been attempted yet. Today’s

percussion and vibratory devices rated for d e e pwater use probably will be suitable for shallow sam-

pling of sediment hosted sulfides but not for deeperdrilling. Additional problems may occur if the water

tem pera tu re is a bove 250 ‘C. Hot water couldcause a good core to turn to homogenized muck

as a sa mple is retr ieved. Current technology also

is not capable of doing downhole sampling (e. g.,

using a tempera tur e probe) if the temper atu re is

above 250 ºC. If the water temperature is above

350 °C, embrittlement of the drill string could

occur.

and Williamson, “Design for Deep-Ocean Rock Core

Drill. ”

NAVIGATION CONCERNS

Technology for navigation and positioning is es-

sential in all marine charting and exploration work.

The accura cy required var ies somewhat depend-

ing on the purpose, but, for most purposes, presenttechnology for navigating and for positioning a ship

on the surface is considered adequate. Most seafloor

explora tion can be done quit e well with local sys-

tems with internal uncertainties on the order of 10

meters and uncertainties relative to global coordi-

nates of a kilometer or so. Use of a navigation sys-

tem t hat can position a ship within 1 kilometer of

a ta rget would enable a ship to retu rn t o the im-

mediat e vicinity of a su rvey ar ea or min e site, for

example. Use of a syst em t ha t could r eliably posi-tion one within 10 met ers r elative to local coordi-

na tes (established, for example, by tran sponders



Ch. 4—Technologies for Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone q 1 63

placed on the seafloor) would enable one to return

to within visual range to photograph or take sam-

ples.103

Gravity surveys and seismic reflection surveys

do present demanding navigational requirements.

For detailed gravity surveys, the velocity of the

measuring instrument must be known with uncer-tainties less than 0.05 meter/second. For seismic

work, the quality of the data is directly related to

the positioning accuracy of the sequence of shots

and the streamer hydrophores. Three-dimensional

seismic surveys for exploration geophysics require

positioning precision on the order of 10 centimeters

over a survey area of about 100 square ki lome-te rs .

104In some instances (e. g,, determining rela

-

tive motion of oceanic plates) accuracy on the or-

der of 1 centimeter is important, but exploration

technologies generally do not require this high de-

gree of precision.

Precise positioning and tracking of remote sys-

tems, such as towed ‘‘fish’ or ROVs, is also con-

sidered challenging. Positioning is usually done by

acoustic rather than electromagnetic systems. Long

baseline systems employ three or more fixed-bottom

or structure-mounted reference points (e. g., acous-

tic transponders), while short baseline systems em-

ploy three or more ship-mounted transducers that

receive an acoustic pulse from a subsea acoustic

source.105

Accurate marine charting requires precise navi-

gational control relative to global coordinates. Al-

though requirements are stringent, the state-of-the-art is sufficient for producing high-quality bathy-

metric charts. The National Ocean Survey (NOS)

has established a ‘ ‘circular error of position” stand-

ard of 50 meters ( 164 feet) or better (in compliance

with international standards for charting). This is

about the average for survey ships operat ing be-

yond the range at which navigat ion technologies

can be frequently calibrated. Accuracies of 5 to 10

meters are typical with cal ibrated equipment .106

101 ~atlona] R escarch Council, ,%door )?c’fc>rrnrd h$Jth?jn,g

,kreccfs and OpporfurIIfKs (Wrasllm,gton, 1X;: !Na[ional Acadcmv Press,

198:3), p. 6,

‘(J41bid. , pp 8-10,I (J5 Frank Busby., ~rn(jcrst,aL’chjclcs ~irmtor~,- f .98.? (.Ar] lngt O n ,

\’A: Rushy Associates, Inc., 1985), pp. 426-4~()

] ObPerry, ‘‘ Nlapping the Exclusi\,c Economic Zone.

NOS, for example, uses ARGO and Raydist sys-

tems for charting work within about 120 miles of

the coast, where these systems may achieve hori-

zontal position accuracies of 5 to 10 meters. They

are cumbersome to use, however, because they re-

quire special onshore stations to be set up and must

be calibrated by a more precise system, such as a

line-of-sight system like Mini-Ranger. 107 B e y o n dabout 120 miles of the coast, these systems are un-

able to reliably meet NOAA’s 50-meter standard.

Far offshore, only the Global Posi t ioning System

(GPS) is capable of meeting the desired accuracy

for charting.

LORAN-C is a commonly used ground-based

navigation system. LORAN-C coverage is avail-

able within most of the U .S. EEZ, and it is a ccura te

relative to global coordinates to within 460 meters.

Users who want to retu rn to a site wh ose coordi-

nates have been measured with LORAN-C can ex-

pect to return to within 18 to 90 meters (60 to 295feet) of the site using LORAN-C navigation; 18

to 90 meters is th us t he system’s repeata ble ac-

curacy. LORAN-C is expected to be phased out

once the GPS is fully operational. However, this

is not expected to occur before 2000. Once GPS

is fully operational, plans call for a 15-year transi-

tion period during which both LORAN-C and GPS

will be available. A satellite system available for ci-

vilian use is TRANSIT. This system is often us ed

to correct for certain types errors generated by

LORAN-C .

GPS is a satellite navigation system intended for

worldwide, continuous coverage. When fully de-

ployed, the system will consist of 18 satellites and

th ree orbiting spar es. Only six R&D sat ellites ar e

operating now, and, due to the interruption in the

space shut tle laun ch schedule, deployment of the

operational satellites has been delayed about 2

years. The system is now scheduled to be fully de-

ployed by 1991. Some of the current R&D satel-

lites may also be used in the operational system.

Costs to use the GPS are expected to be less than

costs to use current systems.

GPS is designed for two levels of accuracy. The

Precise Positioning Service, limited to the military

and to users with special permits (NOS, for in-

1071 bid., p, 1192




stan ce), is accura te t o 16 meters or better. GPS ac-

curacy to within 10 meters is considered routine.

The less precise Standard Positioning Service is pri-

marily for civilian use and is accurate to within

about 100 meters. (Use of GPS, as well as LORAN-

C an d other systems in t he differential m ode—in

which a ground receiver at a known location is used

to check signals and measure range errors, allowshigher accuracies to be achieved but takes much

longer). NOS uses GPS when it can to calibrate

the other systems it uses (Raydist and ARGO).

GPS is currently available about 4 hours a day;

however, it is impr actical to go to sea for just t he

short period in which the ‘ ‘window’ is open. Con-

sequently, in the near term, NOS is focusing itssur vey work on t he inner half of the EEZ where

Raydist and ARGO can be used.



M i n i n g

Chapter 5

and At-Sea

Processing Technologies



CONTENTSPage

I n t r o d u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 6 7

Dredging Unconsolidated Materials . ......169

Bucketline or Bucket Ladder Dredging.. .169

S u c t i o n D r e d g i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 7 2

Grab Dredges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177

New Directions and Trends in Dredging

T e c h n o l o g y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 7 9

Mining Consolidated Materials Offshore ...180Mass ive Polymeta llic Sulfides . . . . . . . . . . .181

Cobalt-Rich Ferromanganese Crusts ... ..182

Solution/Borehole Mining . . . . . . . . . . .. ....183

Offshore Mining Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . .185

At-Sea Processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185

Processing Unconsolidated Deposits of

Chemical ly Iner t Minerals . . . . . . . . . . .186

Processing Unconsolidated or Semi-

ConsolidatedDeposits of ChemicallyA c t i v e M i n e r a l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 9 0

Processing Consolidated and Complex

M i n e r a l O r e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 9 1

Offshore Mining Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192Offshore Titaniferous Sands Mining

Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193

Offshore Chromat e San ds Mining

Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............196

Offshore Placer Gold Mining Scenario. ..199

Offshore Phosphorite Mining Scenarios:Tybee Island, Georgia and OnslowBay, North Carolina . . . .

Bo x

Bo x

5-A. Sand and Gravel Mining

Figure5-1,

5-2.

5-3.

5-4.

5-5.

5-6.5-7.

5-8.5-9.

5-10.

5-11.

Figures

N o.

. . . . . . . . . . . . 204

Page

. . . . . . . . . . . . 19 9

P a g e

Bucket Ladder Mining Dredge .. ....170

Capital and Operating Costs forBucket Ladder Mining Dredges. .. ...171

Motion Compensation of Bucket

Ladder on Offshore Mining Dredge ..172

Components of a Suction Dredge ....172

Trailing Suction Hopper Dredge . . . . .174

Cutter Head Suction Dredge . . . . . . . .175

Bucket Wheel Suction Dredge . ......176

Airlift Suction Dredge Configuration .177

Grab Dredges . . . . . . . . .............178

Cutter Head Suction Dredge on Self-

Elevating Walking Platform . . . . . . . . .179

Conceptual Design for Suction Dredge

Mounted on Semi-Submersible

Platform . . . . . . . . . . . .........,.....180

Figure No. Page

5-12.

5-13.

5-14.

5-15.

5-16.

5-17.

5-18.

5-19.

5-20.5-21.

Conceptual System for MiningPolymetal l ic Sul f ides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182

Schematic of Solution Mining

Technology (Frasch Process) . .......184

Technologies for Processing Placer

M i n e r a l O r e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . 1 8 7

Operating Principles of Three Placer

Mineral Separation Techniques .. ....189Technologies for Processing Offshore

Mineral Ores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..+ ...191

Offshore Titaniferous Mineral

Province, Southeast United States ....194Values of TiO 2 Content of Common

Titanium Mineral Concentrates

an d In ter media tes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195

Offshore Chromate Sands, Oregon

Continental Shelf . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . 197Nome, Alaska Placer Gold District ...201

Offshore Phosphate District,Southeastern North Carolina

C o n t i n e n t a l S h e l f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 0 8

Ta b l e s

Table No. Page5-1.

5-2.

5-3.

5-4.

5-5 0

5-6.

5-7.

5-8.

5-9.

5-1o.

5-11.

5-12.

Offshore Mineral Mining Worldwide

Commercial Operations . . . . . . . ......168

Currently Available Offshore

Dredging Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170Ratio of Valuable Mineral to Ore. ...190

Offshore Titaniferous Sands MiningScenario: Capital and Operating Cost

Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196

Offshore Chr omate Sa nds Mining

Scenar io: Capital an d Opera ting CostEstimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198

Offshore Placer Gold MiningScenario: Capital and Operating Cost

Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203

Offshore Phosphorite Mining, TybeeIsland, Georgia: Capital and

Operat ing Cost Est imates . . . . . . . . . .206

Offshore Phosphorite Mining, OnslowBay, North Carolina: Capital and

Operating Cost Estimates . . . . . . . . . . .209

Scenario Comparisons: East Coast

Placer . . . . . . . . . . ..................210

Scenario Comparisons: West CoastPlacer . . . . . . . . . . . . ................211

Scenario Comparisons: Nome, Alaska

Gold Placer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211

Scenario Comparisons: Onslow Bay

and Tybee Island Phosphorite . . . . . . .212



C h a p t e r 5

Mining and At-Sea Processing Technologies

INTRODUCTION

Many factors influence whether a m ineral de-posit can be economically mined. Among the most

important are the extent and grade of a deposit;

the depth of water in which the deposit is located;

and ocean environment characteristics such as

wave, wind, current, tide, and storm conditions.

Offshore mineral deposits range from unconsoli-

dated sedimentary material (e. g., marine placers)

to consolidated material (e. g., cobalt-rich ferroman-

ganese crusts and massive sulfides). They may oc-cur in a variety of forms, including beds, crusts,

nodules, and pavements and at all water depths.

Deposits may either lie at the surface of the seabed

or be buried below overburden. Some deposits may

be attached solidly to nonvaluable material (as are

cobalt-rich crusts), while others (gold) may lie atop

bedrock or at the surface of the seabed (manganese

nodules). The amount and grade of ore can vary

significantly by location.

All of these variables affect the selection of a min-

ing system for a given deposit. Dredging is the most

widely used technology applicable to offshore min-ing. Dredging consist s of th e var ious processes bywhich large floating machines or dredges excavate

unconsolidated material from the ocean bottom,raise it to the surface, and discharge it into a hop-

per, pipeline, or barge. Waste material excavatedwith the ore may be returned to the water body af-

ter removal of valuable minerals. Dredging tech-niques have long been applied to clearing sand and

silt from rivers, harbors, and ship channels. Ap-

plicat ion of dredging to mining began over a cen-tury ago in rivers draining the southern New

Zeala nd gold fields. Offshore, no miner als of any

type have been commercially dredged in waters

deeper tha n 300 feet, and very little dredge min-

ing has occurred in water deeper than 150 feet. Off-

shore dredging technology is currently used to re-cover tin, diamonds, sea shells, and sand and gravel

at severa l locations ar ound t he world (ta ble 5- 1).

Some of the problems of marine mining are com-mon t o all offshore deposits. Wheth er one consid-

ers mining placers or cobalt-rich ferromanganese

crust s, for in sta nce, technology must be able to cope

with the effects of the ocean environment—storms,

waves, currents, tides, and winds. Other problems

are specific to a deposit or location (e. g., the pres-

ence of ice) and hence require technology specially

designed or a dapted for tha t location.

Just as many variables influence offshore mineral

processing. The processing scheme must be de-

signed to accommodate the composition and grade

of ore mined, the mineral product(s) to be recov-ered, and the feed size of the material. Mineral

processing t echnology has a long hist ory onsh ore.

Applications offshore differ in t ha t technology mus t

be able to cope with the effects of vessel motion and

the use of seawater for processing. Technologies

currently applied to processing minerals at sea are

all mechanical operations and include dewatering,

sizing, and gravity separation. Processing at sea is

curr ently limited to th e separa tion of the bulk of

the waste material from the useful minerals. This

may be all the processing required for such prod-ucts as sand and gravel, diamonds, and gold; how-

ever, many other products, including, for example,most heavy minerals, require further shore-based

processing. Chemical treatment, smelting, andrefining of metals have heretofore taken place on

shore, and, given the difficulty and expense of proc-essing beyond the bulk concentrate stage at sea, are

likely to continue to be done on land in most cases.

The degree to which processing at sea is under-

tak en depends on economics a s well as on th e ca-

pabilities of technology. As with minin g techn ol-

ogy, some processing technology is relatively welldeveloped (e. g., technology for extracting precious

metals or heavy minerals from a placer) while othertechnology is unlikely to be refined for commer-

cial use in the absence of economic incentives.

167



Table 5-1.—Offshore Mineral Mining Worldwide Commercial Operations

Water Number of

depth miningLocation Mineral (feet) M in ing method Processing units RemarksActive:Phuket, Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Billiton, Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . .Palau Tujuh, Indonesia . . . . . . . . .North Sea, UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Southwestern Africa (Namibia) . .Southwestern Africa . . . . . . . . . . .Norton Sound, Nome, Alaska . . .

Reykjavik, Iceland . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nationwide, Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . .Bahamas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Inactive or Terminated Philippines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

T i nT i nT i nSand & gravelD iamondsD i a m o n d sG o l d

Sea shellsSand & gravelCalcium carbonate

G o l dG o l dIron sandsT i nT i n

SOURCE ~ffice of Technology Assessment, 1987

1 0 035-180150

6 55 0 - 4 9 0

0 - 5 03 5 - 6 5

1 3 0

0 - 3 5

Bucket dredgingBucket dredgingBucket dredgingHopper dredgingWater jet suction airliftDiver-held suctionBucket dredging

Hopper dredgeAll techsSuction dredge

BucketB u c k e tG r a bSuc t ion d redgeSuc t ion d redge

Gravity/jigs 2Gravity/jigs 18Gravity/jigs 1

Dewatering only 12Gravity/jigs 5 Pilot plant miningGravity/jigs 10 Very small scaleGravity/jigs 1 Pilot mining in 1986 with Bima

Motion Compensation ofBucket Ladder

Dewatering onlyDewatering only Small units (1,000m3)Dewatering 1



Ch. 5—Mining and At-Sea Processing Technologies q 169


Dredge technology for offshore mining must be designed for rough water conditions.

DRE DGING UNCONSOLIDATED MATER IALS

The dredge is the standard technology for ex-

cavating unconsolidated materials from the seafloor.Compacted material or even hard bedrock also can

be removed by dredging, provided it has been bro-

ken in advance by explosives or by mechanical cut-

ting methods. Dredges are mounted on floating

platforms that support the excavating equipment.

Mining dredges may also have equipment on board

to handle and/or process ore.

Three principal dredging techniques are: buck-

etline, suction, and grab (table 5-2). For bucket-

line and suction dredging, the material is continu-

ously removed from the seabed and lifted to the sea

surface. Grab dredges also lift material to the sur-

face, but in discrete, discontinuous quantities .

Most existing mining dredges are designed to

operate in relatively protected waters. Dredge min-

ing offshore in open water occurs in only a few

countries (Southwest Africa, United Kingdom, In-

donesia, Thailand). The Bima, a m i n i n g d r e d g ebuilt for tin mining offshore Indonesia, is being

adapted at this time for gold mining offshore Nome,

Alaska. Little special equipment capable of min-

ing the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) has

yet been built, although some feasibility studies and

tests have been conducted.

B u cke t l in e o r B u cke t L a d d er D red g in g

The bucketline or bucket ladder dredge consists

of a series of heavy steel buckets connected in aclosed loop around a massive steel ladder (in the

manner of the chain on a chain saw) (figure 5-l).The ladder is suspended from a floating platform.

For mining, the ladder is lowered until the buckets

scrape against the dredging face, where each bucket

is filled with ore as it moves forward. The buckets




Table 5-2.-Currently Available Offshore Dredging Technology

Present maxType Description dredging depth Capacity

Bucketline and “Continuous” l ine of buckets loopedbucket ladder around digging ladder mechanically

digs out the seabed and carriesexcavated material to floatingplatform.

Suction Pump creates vacuum that drawsmixture of water and seabed materialup the suction line.

Cutter head Mechanical cutters or high pressureTrailing hopper water jets disaggregated the seabed

material; suction continuously lifts tofloating platform.

Airlifts Suction is created by injecting air inthe suction line.

Grab:Backhoe/dipper Mechanical digging action and lifting to

surface by a stiff arm.

Clamshell/ Mechanical digging action and lifting todragline surface on flexible cables.

164 feet

300 feet

50-300 feet

10,000 feet

100 feet

3,000 feet

Largest buckets currently made areabout 1.3 yd3 and lifting rates 25buckets per minute (1,950 yd3 /hourwith full buckets).

Restricted by the suction distanceunless the pump is submerged,

Many possible arrangements all basedon using a dredge pump; the largestdredge pumps currently made have48” diameter intakes and flow rates of130 to 260 yd3 /min of mixture (10 to20% solids).

Airlifts are not efficient in shallowwater. There may be limitations insuction line diameter when liftinglarge fragments.

Restricted by the duration of the cycleand by the size of the bucket;currently largest buckets made are27 yd3.

The largest dragline buckets made areabout 200 to 260 yd

3 /hr; power

requirements and cycle time increasewith depth.

SOURCE: Office of Assessment, 1987.

Figure 5-1 .—Bucket Ladder Mining Dredge

The bucket ladder dredge is a proven and widely used dredge for offshore mining; however, its use to date has been limitedto calm, shallow water.

SOURCE: U.S. Geological Survey.




traveling up the ladder lift the material to the plat-

form and discharge the ore into the processing

plant .

The bucket ladder dredge is the most proven and

widely used technology for minin g offshore tin plac-

ers in open water in Southeast Asia. Bucket ladder

dredges are widely used to mine onshore gold, plati-num , diamonds, tin, an d rut ile placers in Malaysia,

Thailand, Brazil, Colombia, Sierra Leone, Ghana,

New Zealand, an d Alaska . Bucket ladder dredge

technology is still the best method to ‘‘clean’ bed-

rock, which is particularly important for the recov-

ery from placer deposits of heavy, high-unit-value

minerals like gold and platinum. These dredges

have buckets ranging in size from 1 to 30 cubic feet.

The deepest digging bucket line dredges a re de-

signed to dig up to 164 feet below the surface.

Prices of bucket ladder dredges (including proc-

essing plants) for mining onshore vary with dredge

capacity (bucket size) an d with dr edging depth . A

small bucket dredge (with 3-cubic-foot buckets) may

sell for app roximat ely $1.5 million (free on board

plant). Such a dredge can mine 60,000 to 80,000

cubic yar ds of ore per m onth at depth s of 30 to 40feet below the hull. The cost of larger onshore min-

ing bucket dredges (with buckets as large as 30 cu-

bic feet) and capacities up to 1 million cubic yards

per month may reach $10 million to $20 million,

depending on digging depth a nd other variables.

The per-cubic-yard capital and operating costs

of larger dredges are lower than those of smaller

dredges (figure 5-2). Offshore bucket ladder dredgescost more than onshore dredges because they must

be more self-contained. They must be built to carry

a powerplant, fuel, supplies, and mined ore. The

hull also must be larger an d heavier to withsta nd

waves and to meet m arine insura nce specifications.

In 1979, the capital cost of the 30-cubic-foot B ima

was about $33 million. Approximately 10 bucket

dredges configured for offshore use are currently

mining tin in In donesia in wat er depth s of 100 to

165 feet at distances of 20 to 30 miles offshore.

Despite their versatility, offshore uses of bucket

ladder dredges are limited. Much of the EEZaround t he United Sta tes is subject to waves and

ocean swells that could make bucket ladder dredg-

ing difficult. To ensure that the lower end of the

ladder maintains constant thrust against the cut-

Figure 5.2.—Capital and Operating Costsfor Bucket Ladder Mining Dredges

Yearly volume excavated and treated million cubic yards

Dredges for use offshore would cost more to build andoperate than the estimates illustrated here, since they wouldhave to be self-contained and contain a power plant, fuel,supplies, and mined ore. They would also have to be capable

of wi thstanding waves and high winds.

SOURCE: Adapted from M J. Richardson and E.E. Horton, “Technologies forDredge Mining Minerals of the Exclusive Economic Zone,” contractorreport prepared for the Office of Technology Assessment, August 1986

ting face, motion compensation systems must be

installed. These systems are large hydraulic and air

cylinders that act like springs to allow the end of

th e ladder to rema in in the sam e place while the

hull pitches and heaves in swells (figure 5-3). Other

limitations of current dredges include the high wear

ra te of the excavating componen ts (e. g., buckets,

pins, rollers, and tumblers) and the lack of mobil-ity. Offshore bucket dredges are not self-propelled

and must be towed when changing locations. For

long tows across rough water, the ladder makes the

vessel unseaworthy and makes towing impractical.

The bucke t dredge Bima was actually carried on

a submersible lift barge from Indonesia to Alaska.

In des igning offshore dredges , espec ia l ly those

working in rough water, careful attention must be

given to seaworthiness of the hull.

Most bucket ladder dredges are n ow built out-

side the United States, although the capability and

know-how still exist in this country. Except for themotion compensation systems installed on offshore

dredges, bucket ladder dr edge techn ology has re-

mained essentially stat ic, and t here h ave been only

minor gains in dredging depth in the last 50 years.




Figure 5-3.–Motion Compensation of Bucket Ladder on Offshore Mining Dredge

Motion compensation systems might be necessary offshore to ensure that the lower end of the dredge ladder maintains constantthrust against the cutting face while the dredge hull pitches and heaves in swells.

SOURCE: Dredge Technology Corp.

With the availability of new mat erials and higher

strength steels, it is now possible to design bucket

ladder dredges capable of digging twice as deep (330

feet) as present dredges, but the capital and oper-ating costs would be greatly increased.

S u c t i o n D r e d g i n g

Suction dredging systems h ave th ree principal

component s: a su ction d evice, a su ction line, a nd

a movable platform or vessel (figure 5-4). The suc-

tion device can be either a mechanical pump or

an airlift. Pumps are most common on suction

dredges; airlifts have more specialized applications.

Pumps create a drop in pressure in t he suction line.

This pressure dr op dra ws or su cks in a mixture of

seawater and mat erial from t he vicinity of the suc-tion hea d and u p the su ction line into the pump.

After the slurry passes through the pump, it is

pushed by th e pump a long th e dischar ge pipe un-

til it reaches the delivery point.

Pump technology is considered relatively ad-

vanced. Dredge pumps are a specialized applica-

tion. The main features required of dredge pumps

are large capacity, resistance to abrasion, and effi-

ciency. To accommodat e t he large volumes of ma -

terial dredged, the largest dredging pumps have in-

takes of up to 48 inches in diameter and impellers

up t o 12 feet in diameter. These par ts r equire large

steel castings that are both costly and complicated

to make. The flow of solids (e. g., silicate sand orgravel) and water at speeds of 10 to 20 feet per sec-

ond through the pump and suction line causes abra-

sion a nd wear.

Figure 5-4.–Components of a Suction Dredge

The main types of suction dredges currently applicable tooffshore mining are hopper, cutter head, and bucket wheeldredges.

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 19S7.

Pum ps create suction by reducing the pressure

in suction lines below atmospheric pressure. Only80 percent of vacuum can be achieved using present

mechanical pumping technology. This constraint

means that dredge pumps cannot lift pure seawater

in th e suction line more th an about 25 feet above

th e ocean level. This dista nce would be less for a

mixture of seawater and solids and would vary with

the amount of entrained solids. Greater efficiency

can be achieved by placing the pump below thewater line of the vessel, usually as near as possible




to th e seabed. This placement is more costly, since

the pump is either a long distance from the power

source or the pump motors must be submerged.Such components are very heavy for large pump

capacities. An alternative applicable for deep dredg-

ing is to use several pumps in series and boost the

flow in the suction line by means of water jets. Thistechnique has been tested and proven but is notin widespread use because it is inefficient.

The configuration of the suction head plays animportant role by allowing the passage of the solids

and wat er mixture up th e suction line. In ha rder,more compact material, the action of the suction

head may be augmented by rotary mechanical cut-

ters, by bucket wheels, and/or by water jets, de-

pending on the specific applications. When the ma-

terial to be dredged is unhomogeneous, such as

sand and gravel, the en tra nce of the suction line

is rest ricted t o prevent foreign objects (e. g, lar geboulders) from entering the suction line. The main

technological constraints in suction and discharge

systems a re wear a nd r eliability due to corrosion,abra sion, and metal fatigue.

The platform or vessel that supports suction

dredging components must be able to lift and move

the suction head from one location to another. Since

most dredgeable underwater mineral deposits aremore broad than thick, the dredge must ha ve the

capability to sweep large areas of the seabed. Thisis achieved by moving the platform, generally a

floating vessel; although experimental, bottom-

supported suction dredges have been built and

tested.

The main types of suction dredges currently

applicable to offshore m ining in t he EE Z ar e hop-

per, cutter head, and bucket wheel dredges.

Hopper Dredges

Hopper dredges usually are self-propelled, sea-

going suction dredges equipped with a special hold

or hopper in which dredged material is stored (fig-

ure 5-5). Dredging is done using one or two dredge

pumps connected to trailing drag arms and suction

heads. As the dredge moves forward, material issucked from the seabed through the drag arms and

emptied into the hopper. Alternatively, the dredgemay be anchored and used to excavate a pit in the

deposit.

Hopper dredges are used mainly to clear and

maintain navigational channels and harbor en-

trances and to replenish sand-depleted beaches. Inthe United Kingdom and Japan, they are also used

to mine sand and gravel offshore. Hopper dredges

are configured to handle unconsolidated, free-

flowing sedimentary material. The suction headsare usually passive, although some ar e equipped

with high-pressure water jets to loosen seabed ma-

terial. The trailing drag arms are usually equipped

with motion compensation devices and gimbal

joints. These devices allow the drag arms to be

decoupled from vessel motion and enable the drag-heads to remain in constant contact with the

seafloor while dr edging.

The dredged material is dewatered for transport

after entering the hopper. Hopper dredges may dis-

charge material through bottom doors, conveyor

belts, or dischar ge pumps . Some models are emp -tied by swinging apart the two halves of an axially

hinged hu ll.

Capa cities of sea-going su ction h opper dr edges

currently range from 650 to 33,000 cubic yards.

Although the theoretically maximum-sized hopper

dredge has n ot been built, th e maximum capacityof present dredges is a compromise between the

higher capital investment required for greater hop-per capacity and the higher operating costs thatwould result from more trips with smaller hoppers.

Typical operating dept hs for hopper dr edges a re

Photo credit: J. Williams, U.S. Geological Survey

Trailing suction hopper dredge Sugar Island with dragarms stowed and hopper space visible.




Figure 5-5.—Trailing Suction Hopper Dredge

P

Hopper dredges have been used mainly to clear and maintain navigational channels and harbor entrances and to replenishsand-depleted beaches. A hopper dredge is currently being used to mine sand and gravel in the Ambrose Channel entranceto New York Harbor.


between 35 and 100 feet, and 260 feet is consid-

ered the maximum achievable depth with currently

available technology. For current specifications andcapacities, the capital costs of hopper dredges range

from $5 million to $50 million.

Except for sand and gravel mining in Japan and

the North Sea, hopper dredges have not been used

extensively to recover m inera ls. However, hopper

dredges adapted for preliminary concentration

(beneficiation) of heavy minerals at sea, with over-

board rejection of waste solids and water, are likely

candidates for mining any sizable, thin, and loosely

consolidated deposits of economic hea vy miner als

that might be found in water less than 165 feet deep.

A stationary suction dredge, similar in princi-ple to the anchored suction hopper dredge, has been

designed and extensively tested for mining the

metalliferous muds of the Red Sea. 1 Although the

‘‘Technology for the Exploration and Exploi-

tation of Marine Mineral Deposits, Non-Living Marine Resources

(New York, NY: United Nations, Oceans, Economics, and Technol-

ogy Branch), in press.

dredge has not been used commercially, it success-

fully retrieved muds in 7,200 feet of water.

Cutter Head Suction Dredges

Mechanically driven cutting devices may bemounted n ear the intak e of some suction dr edges

to break up compacted material such as clay, clayey

sands, or gravel. The two main types are cutter

heads a nd bucket wheels.

Cutter head dredges are equipped with a special

cutter (figure 5-6) mounted at the end of the suc-

tion pipe. The cutter rotates slowly into the bot-

tom ma terial as the dr edging platform sweeps side-ways, pulling against ‘‘swing lines’ anchored on

either side. Cutt er hea d dredges usua lly advanceby lifting and swinging about their spuds when in

shallow water.

Cutter head dredges are in widespread use on

inland waterways for civil engineering and mining

projects. Onshore, these dredges have been used

to mine heavy minerals, (e. g., ilmenite, rutile, andzircon) from an cient beaches and sa nd dun es in th e




Figure 5.6.—Cutter Head Suction Dredge

Dredges such as this have been used at inland mine sites to mine heavy minerals such as ilmenite, rutile, and zircon.

SOURCE: Dredge Technology Corp

United States (Florida), Australia (Queensland),and South Africa (Richards Bay). Ore disaggre-

gate by the cutter is pumped through a flexiblepipeline to a wet concentrating plant floating sev-

eral hundred feet behind the dredge. This config-

uration, while common on protected dredge ponds

inland, may not be suitable for mining in the openwater of the marine environment because of wave,

current, and wind conditions.

Large self-propelled cutter head suction dredges

have been built that are capable of steaming inrough water with the cutter suction ladder raised.

While not able to operate in heavy seas, this t ype

of dredge can disengage from the bottom and ‘‘ride

out’ storms. Adaptation of a sea-going cutter headdredge to mining may require a motion compen-sated ladder a nd installation of onboard pr ocess-ing facilities an d would requ ire ad dition of a h op-

per or the use of auxiliary barges.

The capital costs of cutter head suction dredgesvary widely with size and configura tion. For sea-

going, self-powered dredges the capital costs wouldbe similar to those of hopper dredges, i.e., up to$50 million. The capacities of cutter head dredges

vary with the size of the dredge pumps, which range

in diameter between 6 an d 48 inches. This range

of diameters corresponds to mining volumes of

solids between 100 and 4,000 cubic yards per hour.

Like suction hopper dredges, the operating

depths of available cutter head dredge designs are

limited by dredge pump technology to between 35

and 260 feet, although greater mining depths could

be achieved with incremental technical improve-ments. The cutter head su ction dr edge is not con-

sidered suitable for cleaning bedrock to recover gold

or other very dense minerals in placer deposits, due

to inefficiency in recovering the heavier minerals.




Figure 5-7.—Bucket Wheel Suction Dredge

Hoist I

dredges may have some potential for mining offshore placer deposits.


Bucket Wheel Suction Dredges

The bu cket wheel dr edge (figure 5-7) is a var i-

ant of a cutter head dr edge, differing mainly in t hat

the cutter is replaced by a rotating wheel equipped

with buckets tha t cut into the dr edging face in a

manner similar to a bucket ladder dredge. Thebuckets are bottomless and discharge directly into

the suction line.

Bucket wheel mining dredges are a relatively new

development and have been used primarily in calm

inland waters. Some applications include tin min-

ing in Brazil, sand a nd gravel mining in the Un ited

States, and heavy mineral mining in South Africa.The bucket wheel dredge has not been used in the

EEZ, but it may have potential for mining offshoreheavy minerals in specific applications. Motion

compensation, offshore hull design, and mobility

would need to be considered. These dredges areless effective when cutting clay-rich mat erials, which

may clog the buckets, and when dredging boulders,

which could block the opening into the suction lines.

However, bucket wheel dredges are more suitable

than cutter head suction dredges for mining heavy

miner als, since th e bucket wheel avoids the pr ob-

lem of loss of heavy minerals on the bottom.

Air Lift Suction Dredges

In airlift suction dredging, air under pressure isinjected in the suction line of the dredge, substi-

tuting for the mechanical action of a dredge pump(figure 5-8) and creating suction at the intake which

allows the upward transport of solids. Airlifts have

been used for many years in salvage operations and,

during t he past 25 years, for m ining diamond-bear-

ing gra vels off th e south western coast of Africa.

The technology of airlift dredges has not reached

the level of development and widespread use of the

other forms of suction dredging, but the configu-

rat ions a re similar. Much research ha s been done

on th e physics of th e flow of wat er, a ir, an d solidsmixtures in airlift suction dredging, because thismethod has been considered one of the most prom-

ising for dredging phosphorite or manganese nod-

ules from great ocean dept hs. In gener al, applica-




Figure 5-8.—Airlift Suction Dredge Configuration

Airlift dredges may be applicable for some seabed deposits300 feet or more below the ocean surface. Airlift dredginghas been used on a pilot scale to lift manganese nodules fromabout 15,000 feet.


tions of airlifts for m ining offshore miner als m aybe considered for dept hs bet ween 300 an d 16,000feet. Suction and air delivery lines can be handled

with techniques readily adapted from the petroleum

industry; the problem of platform motion in re-

sponse to long period waves can be overcome byadapting motion compensation systems used in thepetroleum industry; and seabed material can be dis-

aggregated at the suction intake by high-pressure

water jets or by hydraulically driven mechanical

cutters.

Grab Dredges

Grab dredging is the mechanical action of cut-

ting or scooping material from the seabed in finitequantities and lifting the filled ‘ ‘grab’ container

to the ocean surface. Grab dredging takes place in

a cycle: lower, fill, lift, discha rge, a nd aga in lower

the grab bucket. Clamshell, dragline, dipper, andbackhoe dredges are examples of this technology

(figure 5-9). Clamsh ells and d ra glines a re widely

used for dredging boulders or massive rock frag-

ments broken by explosives and for removing over-

burden from coal an d other st rat ified mineral de-

posits. The clamshell and dragline buckets arelowered and lifted with flexible steel cables. Vari-

ants of clamshell dredging have been used in Thai-land to mine t in in Phuket Har bor and in J apan

to mine iron sands in Ariake Bay. In the late 1960s,

Global Marine, Inc., used a clamshell dredge for

pilot m ining of gold-bear ing ma ter ial from depth s

of 1,000 feet near Juneau, Alaska. Variants of

dragline dredges have been used since the late 19th

century to recover material from the deep seafloor.

With appropriate winch configurations for han-

dling large amounts of cable and large buckets, grab

dredging is similar to th e tra ditional technologiesused to hoist material from deep underground

mines (e. g., in South Africa, where it is economi-

cally feasible to hoist gold ores from 12,000 feet be-

low the ground surface). Most aspects of clamshell

dredging t echn ology, includin g motion compen sa-

tion for working on a moving platform at sea, havebeen developed an d proven by either t he m ining

or petroleum industry and are readily available for

adaptation to offshore mining.

Dipper and backhoe dredges are designed for use

on lan d (figure 5-9). They m ay be placed on float -

ing pontoons for offshore dredging but are limited

to shallow-water applications. Backhoes especiallycan be easily adapted to mining in protected shal-

low water. Commercial off-the-shelf backhoes with

a m aximum r each of about 30 feet an d buckets with

capacities of up to 3 cubic yar ds ar e read ily avail-

able for gold or tin placer mining in protected envi-ronments. Backhoes mounted on walking platforms

are conceivable for excavation in shallow surf zones.

Backhoe mining is limited by depth of reach, small

capacity, and the inability of the operator to see

th e cuttin g action of the bucket below wat er. Dip-

per dredges are widely used to mine stratifiedminer al deposits (e. g., coal and bau xite) on la nd,

but their unique action (figure 5-9) restricts offshore

applications to shallow water. As dredged material

using grab, dipper, and backhoe dredges is raised

through the water column, the material is washed,

which may not be desirable in mining.




Figure 5-9.—Grab Dredges



Ch. 5—Mining and At-Sea Processing Technologies . 179

NEW DIRECTIONS AND TRENDS IN DREDGING TECHNOLOGY

Dredge technology for offshore mining falls into

two distinct categories: technology for mining near-

shore in sh allow, protected water ; an d techn ology

for further offshore in deeper water subject to

winds, currents, and ocean swell. Dredging systemsfor a shallow environment can be readily adapted

from the various types of dredges currently usedonshore. Dredges for mining in a deep-water envi-

ronment must be designed with special character-istics. They must be self-powered, seaworthy plat-forms equipped with motion compensation systems,

onboard processing plants, and mineral storage ca-

pabilities.

Design and construction of offshore dredge min-

ing systems for almost any kind of unconsolidated

mineral deposit or en vironment on the continen-

tal shelf are possible without major new technologi-cal developments. However, for some environ-ments, th ere may be operating limitations due t o

seasonal wave and storm conditions. No break-

thr oughs compar able to the chan ge from th e pis-

ton to th e jet engine in the aircraft industr y, forinst an ce, ar e needed . If deposits of sufficient size

and richness are found, incremental improvements

in dredging technology can be expected. Costs to

design, build, and operate dredging equipment foroffshore mining are the most significant constraints.

Several new design concepts have been developed

to help solve some of the pr oblems of dredging at

sea. The motion of platforms floating on the oceangenerally make dredging difficult, but there are

thr ee ways to alleviate th is movement other t han

those described previously. In one approach for

shallow water, one firm has designed and built an

eight-leg ‘‘walking and dredging self-elevating plat-form" (WADSEP) to support a cutter head suc-

tion dredging system (figure 5-10). By raising and

tra nslating one set of legs at a t ime the platform

creeps slowly across the seafloor. Since the platform

is firmly grounded, the problem of operating inrough, open water is reduced. The dredge ladder

and cutt er h ead sweep sideways by pulling against

anchors. This self-elevating platform could equallywell support a bucket ladder dr edging operation.

The pr actical limit for dredging usin g a WADSEP

is probably about 300 feet. Although the concept

and technology are sound, the WADSEP is not cur-

rently cost-effective to use.

Figure 5-10.—Cutter Head Suction Dredgeon Self-Elevating Walking Platform

Although the technology is proven, mining operations witha self-elevating walking ‘platform are currently very expensive.


A second technological approach to the problem

of dredge motion in offshore environments is to use

a semi-submersible platform, such as those in wide-spread u se in the pet roleum indust ry. This would

enable a dredge to continue mining or to stay on-

station rather than having to be demobilized dur-ing rough weather. A design for a suction dredge

that incorporates a seaworthy semi-submersible hull

is shown in figure 5-11. A disadvant age of th e semi-

submersible platform would be its sensitivity tolarge changes in deadweight if dredged material is

stored on board.A third approach to eliminating platform motion

in shallow water is to develop a submerged dredge.

This project has proved to be complex and diffi-

cult in systems tested t o date. Although a proto-

type of a submerged cutter head suction dredge was




Figure 5-il.–Conceptual Design for Suction DredgeMounted on Semi-Submersible Platform

Semi-submersible platforms have been developed foroffshore oil drilling. The semi-submersible platform offers a

stable platform from which to operate, but is very expensive.

successfully built and operated offshore for several

months, it was not an economic success and its de-

velopment was discontinued.

Greater dredging depths can be attained by sub-

merging pu mping syst ems or by employing airliftor water jet lift systems. While submerged pump

technology can be readily adapted from militarysubmarine technology or from deep-water petro-

leum t echnology, th e developmen t costs a re high.

No breakthroughs are foreseen that could vastly

increase the capacities of offshore dredging systemsand bring substantial cost reductions. However, ex-

isting technology is largely based on steel construc-

tion, and the use of new, lighter materials with

higher strength-to-weight ratios has not been widely

investigated.


MINING CONSOLIDATED MATERIALS OF FSH ORE

Two principal types of consolidated deposits that

are known to occur in the U.S. EEZ are massive

polymetallic sulfides and cobalt-rich ferroman-

ganese crusts. Alternatives for mining manganese

nodules, where present in t he EEZ, have much in

common with dredging techniques used in shallow

water, although t he deep water in which nodulesare found presents special problems. However,

techniques for mining polymetallic sulfides and co-balt crusts are likely to be very different tha n t he

dredging techniques used to mine placers and other

unconsolidated deposits. Unlike unconsolidated de-posits, these deposits must be broken up (using ei-

ther some type of mechanical device or blasting)

and possibly must be crushed prior to transport toth e sur face. Moreover, all kn own cobalt crus t a nd




offshore polymetallic sulfide deposits occur in deepwater, beyond the range of technologies used for

conventional placer mining.

Much of the technology needed to mine massive

polymetallic sulfide and cobalt crust deposits is yet

to be developed. EEZ hard-rock deposits and mas-

sive polymetallic sulfide deposits are, therefore,probably of more scientific than commercial interest

at this time. Research on the genesis, distribution,

extent , composition, an d oth er geological a spects

of these deposits has been underway for only a few

years, and more knowledge will likely be requiredbefore the private sector is likely to consider spend-

ing large sums of money to develop needed min-

ing technology. A more immediate need is to re-

fine the technology for sampling these hard-rock

deposits (see ch. 4). Before minin g equipmen t can

be designed, more technical and engineering dataon the deposits will be required.

2

In the deep ocean, technology must be designed

to cope with elevated hydrostatic pressure, the cor-

rosive saltwater environment, the barrier imposed

by the seawater column, and rugged terrain. Even

onshore, mining equipment r equires constant re-

pair and maintenance. Given deep ocean condi-

tions, it will be particularly important that mining

equipment be as simple as possible, reliable, and

sturdy.3

Mass ive Polymeta l l i c Su l f ides

Although technology for mining massive sulfidesha s not been developed, the st eps likely to be re-

quired are straightforward. To start, any overbur-

den covering the massive sulfides would have to be

removed, although it is likely that initial mining

targets would be selected without overburden.Then, the resource would then have to be frag-

men ted, collected, possibly reduced in size, tra ns-

ported t o a sur face vessel, optiona lly beneficiat ed

on t he vessel, an d finally tra nsported t o shore.

*R, Kaufman, ‘ ‘Conceptual Approaches for Mining Marine Poly -metallic Sulfide Deposits, Marine T~chnology S ocict)’J ournaI, \ o l.

1 9 , No. 4, 19&35, p, 5 6 .

ID . K, Denton, Jr, , ‘ ‘Review of Exi st ing, De\ ,eloping, and Required

Technology for Exploration, Delineation, and Mining of Seabed Mas-

sive Sulfide Deposits, U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Availability

Program, Technical Assistance Series, October 1985, p. 13,

A number of conceptual approaches have been

suggested to fragment and/or extract massive sul-fides. These include use of cutter head dredges;

drilling and blasting; high-pressure water jets;

dozers, rippers, or scrapers; high-intensity shock

waves; and in situ leaching.4All pr oposed ext ra c-

tion methods have some drawbacks, and none havebeen tested in the ocean environment. Crushing

or grinding, where required, is not technically dif-

ficult on land but has not yet been done in com-

mercial operations on the seafloor. Transport of

crushed ore to the surface would most likely be

accomplished by hydraulic pumping (using either

airlift or submerged centrifugal pumps). This tech-

nology has been studied for mining seabed manga-

nese nodule deposits, so it is perhaps the most

advanced submerged part of many proposed hard-

rock mining systems.

No major technical inn ovat ions a re expected to

be needed for surface ship operations, although thecost of equipm ent such a s dyna mically positioned

semi-submersible platforms will be expensive. On-

board storage and transport of massive sulfide ore

would have similar requirements as storage and

transport of most other ores. Flotation technology

for beneficiating massive sulfides has not yet been

adapt ed for use at sea; however, the U.S. Burea u

of Mines has initiated resear ch on t he su bject.

One conceptual approach5for deposits on or just

below the seafloor envisions the use of a bottom-mounted hydraulic dredge (figure 5-12). The dredge

would be equipped with a suction cutter-ripper headcapable of moving back and forth and also telescop-

ing as it cuts into the sulfide deposit and simultane-

ously fractur es and picks up the m ater ial by suc-

tion. The dredged material would be first pumped

from the seabed to a crusher and screen system,

then into a st orage an d injection h opper on th e sub-

merged dredge, and finally from the injection hop-

per to the surface. An airlift pump and segmented

steel riser would give vertical lift. The surface plat-

form would be a large, dynamically positioned,

semi-submersible platform. After dewatering, the

pumped material would be discharged into storage

holds on the platform. In concept, the ore would

be beneficiated on the platform, loaded on a barge,

‘Ibid,, pp. 16-175Kaufman, ‘ ‘Conceptual Approaches for Mining, ” pp. 55-56.




Figure 5-12.—Conceptual System for MiningPolymetallic Sulfides

A prototype system for mining massive sulfides will unlikelybe developed until the economics improve and more is knownabout the deposits (not to scale).

SOURCE: R. Kaufman, “Conceptual Approaches for Mining Marine PolymetallicSulfide Deposits,” Marine Technology Society Journal, VOI 19, No. 4,1985, p. 56.

and finally transported to shore using a tug-barge

system. While such approaches seem reasonable

given the current state of knowledge, a prototype

mining system may be very different. It will not

be possible to develop su ch a syst em u nt il more isknown about the nature of massive sulfides and un-

til there is a perceived economic incentive to minethem.

C o b a l t -R ich F erro m a n g a n ese C ru s t s

Cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts on Pacific sea-

mounts have been known for at least 20 years.However, knowledge that the crusts could some day

be an economically exploitable r esource is recent,

and technology for mining the crusts is no more

advanced than technology for mining massivesulfides.

Despite lack of technology and detailed informa-

tion about the resource, a consortium (consisting

of Brown & Root of the United States, Preussag

AG of West Germany, and Nippon Kokan of Ja-

pan) has expressed interest in mining cobalt-richcrusts in the U.S. EEZ surrounding the State of

Hawaii an d J ohnston Island. Most observers ex-

pect tha t crusts, if mined at all, are likely to be

mined before sulfides. With this in mind, Hawaiiand the U.S. Departm ent of the In terior have re-

cently prepared an E nvironment al Impact State-

ment (EIS) in which the resource potential and po-

tential environmental impacts of crust mining in

the Hawaiian and Johnston Island EEZs areassessed.

In addition, a relatively detailed mining devel-

opment scena rio has been pr epared as pa rt of the

EIS.6 The scenario describes and evaluates the vari-

ous subsystems required to mine crust s. A num -

ber of approaches are possible for each subsystem,

but the basic tasks are the same. Subsystems would

be required to fragment, collect, and crush crust

and probably to partially separate crust from sub-strate before conveying ore to the surface. The sur-

face support vessel and subsystem for pumping ore

S. Department of the Int erior, Minerals Mana gement Service,

and State of Hawaii, Department of Planning and Economic Devel-

opment, Proposed Marin e Mineral Lease S ale in the Hawaii an

Archipelago andJohnston Island Exclusive Economic Zones (Draft

Environmental Impact Statement), app. A: “Mining Development

Scenario Summary, ” January 1987.



Ch. 5—Mining and At-Sea Processing Technologies 183

to the surface probably would be similar to those

already designed for mining man ganese nodules.

Crusts form thin coatings on the surface of vari-

ous types of nonvaluable substrates. A principal

problem in designing a crust mining system will

be to separate crust from substrate in order to min-

imize dilution of the ore. The thickness and conti-nuity of the crust (which are often highly variable),

the nature of its bonding to substrate, and the effi-

ciency of the cutting device used will affect how

much substrate is collected. The more substrate col-

lected, the lower the ore grade and the greater the

costs of transportation, processing, and waste dis-

posal. The principal alternatives are to separate

crust from unwanted substrate on the seabed (and

thus avoid lifting substrate to the surface) or to sep-

arate crust and substrate on the mining vessel.

Complete separation on the seabed of ore from

waste material would be preferable (if at all feasi-

ble), but costs to do so may be p rohibitively high.

It is more likely tha t only a sma ll amount of the

necessary separation will take place on the seabed

and that most of the separation will take place on

the mining vessel or onshore.

The mining system assu med in the EIS miningscenar io employs a cont rollable, bott om-crawling

tracked vehicle attached to a mining ship by a hy-

draulic lift system and electrical umbilical cord.However, before mining concepts can be signifi-

cantly refined, more information will be required

about the physical characteristics of the crusts.

More da ta on th e microtopography of crust s a nd

substrate are an especially important requirement

for the design of the key element of the mining sys-

tem, a crust fragmenting device.

SOLUTION/BOREHOLE MINING

Solution or borehole mining has much in com-

mon with drilling for oil an d gas; in fact, mu ch of

the technology for this mining method is borrowed

from the oil and gas industr y. Both term s refer to

the mining of rock material from underground de-

posits by pumping water or a leaching solution

down wells into contact with the deposit and remov-

ing the slurry or brine thu s creat ed. Because t hemining process is accomplished through a drill hole,

this method is applicable for recovering some types

of ore without first removing overburden.

The Frasch process, used since 1960 to mine sul-

fur from salt dome deposits in the Gulf of Mexico,

is the only current application of solution mining

offshore (figure 5- 13). From an offshore drilling

platform, superheated water and compressed air are

pumped into the sulfur deposit. The hot water melts

the sulfur, and liquid sulfur, water, and air are

forced to the surface for collection.7

Borehole mining has been considered for recov-

ery of both onshore and offshore phosphates. The

U.S. Bureau of Mines has tested a prototype bore-

hole mining tool onshore. For mining, the tool is

71) ~; hlorsc, ‘‘Sulfur, ‘‘ .Iljncral Fa t (S ancl I’rnblcrns- 198.5 Edi -

tion, Bullet in 67.5 (W’ashingttln, DC L-. S Bu reau of’ Mines, 1 986),

p 78.5.

lowered into a predrilled, steel-cased borehole to

the ore. A rotating water jet on the tool disintegrates

the phosphate matrix while a jet pump at the lower

end of the t ool pumps t he resu lting slurry to the

surface. The slurry is then transported to a benefici-

ation plant by pipeline. The resulting cavity is back-

filled with sand to prevent subsidence.

Results of economic feasibility st udies of using

the borehole mining technique onshore show that,

where th e th ickness of the overburden is greaterthan 150 feet, borehole mining may be more eco-nomical t han conventional sur face mining systems.

8

An elabora te plat form would be requir ed for min-

ing offshore deposits, so capital costs are expected

to be higher than for onshore deposits. Boreholemining of phosphate appears to be less destructive

to the environment than conventional phosphate

mining techniques and, if used offshore, would

probably not require backfilling of cavities.

Solution m ining also has been men tioned a s a

possible technique for mining offshore massive sul-fides. Significant drawbacks include the application

of chemical reagents capable of leaching these sul-

8J , A. Hrablk and D <J Godcsky, ‘‘ E ( on(lmlc E \ a lu a l ion c)t B(]rt’-

hole and Con\ ’ en t ional hlining S~stcrns in Phosphate I lcposi ts , BL~-

rcau of’ Afines Information Cirrular 892?, 1983.




Figure 5-13.—Schematic of Solution MiningTechnology (Frasch Process)

r

air

in g

fides, possible contamination of seawater by the

chemical leach solutions required, and the prob-

able necessity of fracturing impermeable deposits

to allow the leach solution to percolate through thedeposit. Solut ion/boreh ole t echnology is u nt ested

on marine hard-rock deposits.9

Solution mining of sulfur is currently done in the Gulf of

Mexico. Borehole mining, which has been suggested formining phosphorite, is similar, using high pressure water todisintegrate ore below overburden. The resulting slurry is thenpumped to the surface.

SOURCES: Encyclopedia Americana, vol. 25 (Danbury j CT: Grolier, Inc., 1986),

868; J.W. Shelton, “’Sulfur,” Mineral Facts and Problems, 1980 ed. ‘Dent on, “Review of Existing, Developing, and Required Tech-(Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Mines), 864. n o l o g y .




O F F S H O R E M I N I N G

Unless concentrations of mineral deposits off-shore are likely to be much higher t han those on

land, or unless the values of minerals increase, it

is apparent that the mining industry will have less

incentive to develop new technology than an indus-

try like the pet roleum indu stry. For example, the

value of oil from a relatively small offshore fieldis likely to approach $1 billion. In comparison, a

reasonable target for an offshore placer gold deposit

might have a value of $100 million—an order of

magnitude less.

Massive sulfides and other primary mineral de-

posits of the EEZ may some day present economic

targets and offer incentives to development of min-

ing t echnologies. These techn ologies ar e likely to

depart significantly from dredging concepts and

may be more closely related to solution mining, off-

T E C H N O L O G I E S

shore petroleum recovery, or conventional tech-

niques of hard rock mining.

Many of the technological advances made by the

offshore petroleum industry would find applications

in offshore minin g, provided t he offshore m inera ldeposits were rich enough to sustain the capital and

operating costs of such developments. This tech-

nology transfer was demonstrated during the 1970s

when several groups of leading international com-

panies in th e mining indu stry sponsored develop-ment work on methods for mining manganese nod-

ules from depths of about 15,000 feet. These groups

have delayed their plans for dredging nodules, pri-

marily because prices for copper, nickel, cobalt, and

manganese continue to be low, but also because the

institutional regime imposed on the exploitation of

the international oceanfloor is still evolving,

AT-SEA P ROCE SSING

Mineral processing involves separating raw ma-

terial (ore) from worthless constituents and trans-

forming it into intermediate or final mineral prod-

ucts. The number and type of steps involved in a

particular process may vary considerably depend-

ing on the characteristics of the ore and the endproduct or products to be extracted. Mineral proc-essing encompasses a wide range of techniques from

relatively st ra ightforward mechanical operat ions

(beneficiation) to complex chemical procedures.

Processing may be needed for one or more of the

following tasks:

1.

2.

3.

To con tro l par t ic le s i ze : This step may be un-

dertaken either to make th e material moreconvenient to handle for subsequent process-

ing or, as in the case of sized aggregate, to

mak e a final product suita ble for sale.

T o expos e o r release constituents for further

processing: E x p o s u r e a n d l i b e r a t i o n a r e

achieved by size reduction. For cases in which

minerals must be separated by physical proc-

esses, an adequ ate a mount of freeing of thedifferent minerals from each other is a prereq-

uisite.T o control c o m p o s i t i o n : Const i tuents that

would make ore difficult to process chemically

or would result in an inadequa te fina l prod-

uct must be eliminated or part ially eliminat ed

(e. g., chr omite mu st be rem oved from ilme-

nite ore in order to meet specifications for pig-

ment). Often, a n importa nt need is to elimi-

nat e the bulk of th e waste minera ls from an

ore to produce a concentrate (beneficiation).10

Processing of marine m inerals ma y tak e place

either on land or at sea or partly on both land andsea, depending on economic and technological con-

siderations. Where processing is to be done wholly

or partly at sea, it is integrated closely with the min-

ing operat ion. However, since almost no mining

ha s ta ken place to dat e in t he E EZ, offshore proc-

essing experience is limited. Processing technology

for minerals found on land has developed overmany centuries and, in contrast to requirements

for offshore processing, has been designed to oper-

ate on stable, motionless foundations and, with few

exceptions, to use fresh water.

It is usually not desir able t o do all processing of marine minerals offshore. Final recovery may bedone onboard in the case of precious minerals, such

72-672 0 - 87 -- 7




as gold, plat inum, and diamonds, but a l l other

minerals would probably be tak en ash ore as bulk

concentrates to be further processed. Trade-offs

must be considered in evaluating whether to par-

tially process some minerals offshore. First, the cost

of tra nsporting un beneficiated ore to shore mu st

be weighed against the added costs and capital ex-

penses of putting a beneficiation plant offshore.Transportation to shore of a smaller amount of high

grade concentrate may be more economical than

transporting a larger amount of lower grade ore to

shore for beneficiation and subsequent processing.

(This is also a standard problem on land when eval-

uating trade-offs between, for example, building

a smelter or investing in tr ansporta tion to an ex-

isting smelt er. ) Second, it is genera lly th ought t o

be easier and more economical to discharge tailings(waste materials) at sea than on land, but tailings

discharge may result in unacceptable environmental

impacts. Third, while seawater is an unlimited

source of water for use in many phases of process-

ing, its higher salinity could make processing more

difficult and concentrates could require additionalwashing with fresh wat er.

Important considerations in evaluating whether

to process minera ls offshore m ay include th e cost

of space aboard mining vessels and the sensitivity

of some processing steps to vessel motion. Space

is an important factor in the economics of a project.

Since larger platforms cost more, engineers must

consider the trade-offs between using a hull or plat-

form large and stable enough to contain additional

processing equ ipment , power, fuel, storage spa ce,and personnel and transporting unbeneficiated ore

to shore. Although little experience is available, ves-

sel motion may m ak e some processing st eps diffi-

cult or impossible without motion compensation

equipment and may significantly reduce the effi-

ciency of recovering some minerals. Power require-ments are also of major concern because all power

must be generated onboard, thus requiring bothadditional space and costs. Personnel sa fety, the

availability of docking facilities, dista nce to r efiner -

ies, and production rates may also influence proc-

essing decisions.11

1 lM.J . Cruickshank, ‘ ‘Mar ine San d and Gr avel Mining and P roc-

essing Technologies, Marine Mining, in press.

Some basic developmen t options in clude limit -

ing the motion of the platform (e. g., by using a

semi-submersible); isolating the processing equip-

ment from pla tform motion (e. g., by mount ing it

on gimbals); redesigning the processing equipment

to mak e it more efficient a t sea ; or simp ly accept-

ing lower grade concentrate by using existing and,

hence, less costly equipment. In the case of mineralprocessing, an initial priority probably would be

to test existing processing equipment at sea to ob-

tain opera ting experience.

The costs a nd efficiency of opera tin g a process-

ing plant at sea are highly uncertain. For exam-

ple, motion compensation of specific sections of theonboard pla nt or of ma jor port ions of the vessel is

expensive. For most minerals, further development

of technology will be needed to optimize offshore

mineral processing equipment and procedures. In

general, one would probably attempt to perform

the easy and relatively inexpensive processing stepsoffshore, such as size separ ation an d r ough grav-

ity concentration, to reduce the bulk of material

to be transported, then complete the processing on

land.

There are three broad categories of mineral proc-

essing technology:

1.

2.

3.

technology for unconsolidated deposits of

chemically inert minerals,

technology for unconsolidated or semi-

consolidated deposits of chemically active

minerals, and

techn ology for consolidat ed d eposits of min-erals requiring crushing a nd size reduction.

Process ing Unconsol ida ted Depos i t s o f

Ch e mi c a l l y I n e r t Mi n e r a l s

Chemically inert minerals include gold; plati-

num; tin oxide (cassiterite); titanium oxides (il-menite, rutile, and leucoxene); zircon; monazite;

diamonds; and a few others. These occur in na-

tur e as minera l grains in placers (see ch. 2) and a re

often found mixed with clay, sand, and/or gravel

particles of various sizes. Since these minerals aregenerally heavier than the silicate and other min-

erals with which t hey may be mixed, the use of me-

chanical gravity separat ion m ethods is importa nt

in processing (figure 5-14), However, the initial step




Figure 5-14.—Technologies for Processing Placer Mineral Ores

Gravityseparation

Refining

v

Offshore screening, sizing, and gravity separation may be adopted to reduce the amount of mate-rial that must be brought to shore. Drying and magnetic and electrostatic separation steps willmost likely take place ashore.

SOURCE Off Ice of Technology Assessment, 1987.

in processing ores containing mineral grains of vari-

ous sizes is usually size separation.

Size separation may be needed to control the size

of material fed to other equipment in the process-ing str eam , to reduce th e volume of ore t o be con-

centrated to a minimum without losing the target

mineral(s), and/or to produce a product of equal

size particles. Separation is accomplished by use

of various types of screens and classifiers. Screens

—uniformly perforated (and sometimes vibrating)surfaces that allow only particles smaller than the

aperture size to pass—are used for coarser materi-

als.12 The size of screen holes varies with the ma-

‘‘Ibid




terial, production capacity of the dredge, and other

factors. For example, sand a nd gra vel alone ma y

constitute the valuable mineral fraction. To be sold

as commercial aggregate, sand and gravel are gen-

erally screened to remove the undesirable very fine

and very coarse fractions.

One type of size separation device in commonuse on dredges is the trommel. A trommel is sim-

ply a rotating cylindrical screen, large enough and

strong enough to withstand the shock and abrasion

of thousands of tons of sand and gravel sliding and

tum bling thr ough it each hour. If the ma terial is

mined by a bucket dredge, the m ater ial may be dis-aggregate by powerful water jets while it slides

downward through a rotating trommel. If the ma-

terial is mined by a suction dredge, it may already

be disaggregated but may need dewatering before

screening. In either case gravity plays an impor-

tant role, since the material must first be elevated

in order to slide downward t hrough t he screens.

Classifiers are used for separating particles

smaller than screens can handle. Classifiers sepa-

rat e part icles according to their set tling rate in a

fluid. One type in common use is the hydrocyclone.

In this type of classifier, a mixture of ore and wateris pumped u nder pressur e into an enclosed circu-

lar chamber, generating a centrifugal force. Sepa-

ration takes place as the heavier materials fall and

are dischar ged from th e bottom while th e light er

par ticles flow out t he t op. Hydrocyclones a re m e-

chanically simple, require little space, and are in-expensive. Most offshore tin, diamond, and gold

mining operations separate material by screening

and/or cycloning as a first step in mineral recovery.

Following size separation, gravity separation

techniques are used to concentrate most of the

minerals in this category. By gravity, the valuable

heavier m inerals are separ ated from the lighter, less

valuable or worthless constituents of the ore. Proc-

essing by gravity concentration takes advantage of

the differences in density a mong mat erials. Several

different technologies have been developed, includ-ing jigs, spira ls, sluices, cones, a nd s hak ing ta bles. 13

Jigging is the action of sorting heavier particlesin a pulsating water column. Using either air pres-

sure or a piston, the pulsations are imparted to an

‘ ‘Ibid

introduced ore-water slurry. This action causes the

heavier minerals to sink to the bottom, where they

are dr awn off. Lighter pa rticles are en tra ined inthe cross-flow and discharged as waste. Secondary

or tertiary jigs may be used for further concentra-

tion. Several different types of jig have been de-

veloped, including the circular jig, which has been

used extensively on offshore tin dredges in South-east Asia. Jigs also have been used successfully off-

shore to process alluvial gold and diamonds. For

example, they have proved effective in eliminat-

ing 85 to 90 percent of the waste material from tin

ore (cassiter ite) in In donesia a nd from gold ore in

tests n ear N ome, Alaska.

Some jigs may be sensitive to the rolling andpitching motion of a mining dredge at sea, depend-

ing in part on the severity of the motion a nd in par t

on th eir location a boar d th e dredge (usually high

above the deck to use gravity to advantage), This

ha s not been a major problem on In donesian off-shore bucket dredges, although sea conditions there

are not as rough as in other parts of the world. De-

sign of dredges for less rolling m otion a nd for r e-

duced sen sitivity to wind forces (e. g., by placing

the processing plant and machinery below the

waterline) would alleviate this problem, Lower pro-

file dredges could be designed without much diffi-

culty, provided economic incentives existed to do

so.

A simple gravity d evice for concent ra ting s ome

placer min era ls onshore is a riffle box for s luicing

material. Although neither well understood norvery efficient, sluicing is the one of the oldest types

of processing technology for concentrating alluvial

gold or tin . In a ddition to th eir simplicity, sluices

are rugged, passive, and inexpensive, Although

sluices have not been used offshore, they might be

utilized to beneficiate ore of low-value heavy

minerals su ch as ilmenite or chromite.

Man y oth er types of gravity sepa ra tion devicesare used onshore to separate inert heavy minerals

from mixtures of ore and water. The most com-

mon are spirals (e. g., Humphrey’s spirals) and cy-

clones. Spira ls (figure 5-1 5) ar e u sed exten sively

to concentrate ilmenite, rutile, zircon, monazite,chromite, and magnetite from silicate sands of

dunes and ancient shorelines. The effectiveness of

spirals mounted on platforms subject to wave mo-

tions is not well known, but spirals ha ve been u sed




Figure 5-15.—Operating Principles of ThreePlacer Mineral Separation Techniques

Spiral separator

b) Magnetic separator

Scraper

c) Electro-dynamic separator

‘ 0

Non-conductors Middlings Conductors

Gravity separation using spirals may be adapted for offshoreuse in some circumstances. Magnetic and electro-dynamicseparation will most likely be done on land.

SOURCE: E G KeHey and D J Introduction to Mineral Processing (New York John Wiley & Sons, 1982).

successfully for sample concentration on board ship.

In operat ion, an ore-water slurry is int roduced at

the top of the spiral. As the slurry spirals down-

ward, the lighter minerals ar e thr own to the out-

side by centrifugal force, while the heavy minerals

concentrate along the inner part of the spiral. The

heavy minerals are split from the slurry stream andsaved. Spirals have lower rates of throughput than

jigs. Moreover, more space would be required to

process an equal volume of minerals, and spirals

are unsuited for separating particles larger than

about one-quart er inch,

Anoth er form of heavy minera l processing th at

may have applications offshore is heavy media sep-ara tion. This gravity separation technique uses a

dense material in liquid suspension (the heavy

medium) to separat e heavy minera ls from lighter

materials. The ‘‘heavies’ sink to the bottom of the

heavy medium, while lighter m ater ials, such a s sili-

cates, float away. The heavy liquid is then recir-culated. This technique has been used effectively

offshore to recover diamonds. However, it is ex-pensive and its u se may conta minat e seawater.

Initial “wet” concentrat ion at sea results in a

primary concentrate. Much of the technology for

size classification and gravity separation of minerals

appear s to be adapta ble for use at sea for ma king

primary concentrates without major technological

problems. For further preparation for sale, concen-

trates of heavy minerals are usually dried and sep-ara ted on shore. For example, ilmenite an d ma gne-

tite ar e considered impurities in tin ore an d mustbe eliminated. Producing heavy mineral concen-

trates for final sale may also involve further grav-

ity separation, drying in kilns, and/or elaborate

magnetic an d electrostat ic separa tion operat ions.

Magnetic separation is possible for those minerals

with m agnet ic propert ies (figure 15-5). For exam-ple, magnetite may be separated from other heavy

minerals using a low-intensity m agnetic separation

technique. Ilmenite or other less strongly magnetic

minerals may be separated from nonmagnetic min-

erals using a high-intensity technique. Separation

at sea of strongly magnetic minerals is possible, butseparation of minerals with small differences inmagnetic susceptibility may have to be done on

land. Magnetite has the highest magnetic suscep-

tibility. In decreasing order of susceptibility are il-menite a nd chromite; epidote and xenotime; apa-

tite, monazite, and h ematite; and st aur olite.




Conducting minerals may be separated from

nonconductors using electrostatic separation. Only

a few minerals ar e concentrat ed using this m ethod,

but electrostatic separation is used very successfully

to separate heavy mineral beach sands, such as ru-

tile and ilmenite from zircon and monazite.14

Fig-

ure 5-15 illustrates how conducting and noncon-

ducting minerals and “middlings” are split fromeach other using an electro-dynamic separator.

During processing, the feed particles acquire an

electr ical cha rge from a n ionizing electrode. Con-

ducting minerals lose their charge to the groundedrotor an d ar e thr own from the r otor’s sur face. A

non-ionizing electrode is then used to attract con-

ducting minerals further away from t he rotor. Non-

conductors do not lose their charge as rapidly andso adhere t o the grounded rotor un til they do lose

their charge or are brushed off. Middlings may berun thr ough the electrostat ic separa tor again. 15

Electrostatic separation is usually combined with

gravity and magnetic separation methods when sep-

ara ting minerals from each other.

Many of these technologies require adjustments,

depending in par t on th e volume an d grade of orepassing thr ough the plant a nd on the ra tio of in-

put ore to output concentrate or final product. Theratios of valuable mineral to ore mined are shown

in ta ble 5-3 for some typical hea vy minera ls. The

amount of primary concentrate produced by jigs

on a dredge m ining 30,000 cubic yards of gold ore

per day would be on the order of a few tons (de-

pending on the other heavy minerals present); ini-

tial processing of 30,000 cubic yards per day of ilmenite ore would yield a few hundred tons of pri-

mar y concentr ate.

The amount of machinery, space, and power

needed for producing a final concentrate or prod-

uct varies widely for different minerals. Final sep-

aration and recovery of ilmenite, rutile, zircon, and

“Ibid.

151bid.

Table 5-3.—Ratio of Valuable Mineral to Ore

In ore mined In primary concentrateDiamonds . . . . . . . 1:5,000,000 1:1 ,000Gold, platinum . . . 1:2,000,000 1:1,000Tin . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1:1 ,000 1:100Ilmenite, etc. . . . . 1:100 1:10

SOURCE Office of Technology Assessment, 1987.

monazite require elaborat e plants tha t occupy large

spaces and consume large amounts of energy.

These heavy minerals are first dried in long kilns,

then passed through batteries of magnetic and elec-

trostatic separators. Experience using these tech-

nologies is mostly on land, and there do not ap-

pear t o be any economic advant ages to undert aking

final separation and recovery of these minerals off-shore. Conversely, technologies for final recovery

of diam onds, gold, and tin occupy little spa ce and

consume little power. Some techniques (e. g., shak-

ing tables) require flat, level platforms. Final re-

covery of gold by amalgamation with mercury can

be easily done a t sea if th e mercur y is safely con-

tained. Final separation of diamonds from concen-tra tes is done using X-rays.

Process ing Unconsol ida ted or Semi -

Consol ida ted Depos i t s o f Chemical l y

Ac t i v e Mi n e r a l s

Examples of unconsolidated or semi-consolidated

deposits of chemically active minerals include min-

erals found in such deposits as the Red Sea brines

an d sulfide-bearing sediments on th e Outer Con-

tinental Shelf. In general, the minerals of economic

interest in ore deposits of this type are complex sul-

fides of base m eta ls such as copper a nd zinc, and

minor quantities of precious metals (mainly silver).

This type of mineral is generally concentrated

on land using flotation technology (figure 5-16).

Flotation concentration is based on the surface

chemistr y of mineral particles in solution. Meth-

ods vary, but all employ chemical reagents t hat in-

teract with finely crushed sulfide particles to make

them selectively hydrophobic. The solution is aer-

ated, and t he hydrophobic minera ls adhere to the

air bubbles and float to the surface (other mineral

particles sink to the bottom), A froth containing thefloated minerals is formed at the surface of the so-

lution and is drawn off.16

Flotation concentrates are

collected on filters and dried prior to further pyro-

met allur gical pr ocessing (e. g., smeltin g) to sepa-

rate individual metals.

Experimental flotation of metalliferous muds ata pilot-scale plant in the Red Sea is the only ex-

perience using this process offshore. Since wind,

‘“Ibid.




Figure 5-16.—Technologies for Processing Offshore Mineral Ores

Consolidated deposits of nodules, crusts, and massive sulfides require crushing and grindingin addition to the screening required for brines and muds. Flotation is the primary techniquefor separating oxides and sulfides of metals from waste material. These processes have notyet been adapted for use offshore.

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987

wave, and current conditions in the Red Sea are

not as severe as in the open ocean, these tests are

not conclusive regarding the sensitivity of flotation

methods to ship motion. Disposal of flotation re-agents at sea ma y be a problem in some cases a nd

should be furt her investigated.

P ro cess in g C o n so l id a ted a n d

C o m p lex M in era l O res

Mineral deposits in this category include nod-ules, crusts, veins, pavements, and massive depos-

its, as of metalliferous sulfides or oxides. Process-




ing of these minerals is likely to require crushing

or grinding to reduce particle size, followed by

chemical separation methods. In some cases (i. e.,

for gold veins) fine grinding may liberate minerals

which then may be r ecovered using gra vity sepa-

ration alone. However, in most cases some flota-

tion and/or other chemical processing is likely to be

required. The Bureau of Mines has experimentedwith column flotation techniques for separation of

cobalt-rich manganese crust from substrate. Crust

separated in this manner, however, cannot simply

be concentrated by inexpensive mineral process-

ing techniques. Most of these processes have not

been adapt ed for use at sea. Crushing an d grind-

ing circuits could be mounted on floating platforms

or on th e seafloor, but u nless t he economic incen-

tive to mine this type of seafloor deposit improves,

these techniques will not likely be used offshore inthe near future. The same comment applies to flo-

tation and other chemical processing technologies.

O F F S H O R E M I N I N G S C E N A R I O S

To illustr at e th e feasibility of offshore m ining,

OTA constructed five scenarios, each depicting a

prospective mining operation in an area where ele-vated concentrations of potentially valuable min-erals are known to occur. The scenarios illustrate

factors affecting the feasibility of offshore mining,

including th e ph ysical a nd environment al condi-

tions that may be encountered offshore, the capa-

bilities of the available mining and processing tech-

nologies, and estimated costs to mine and process

offshore miner als. The scena rios selected in clude

mining of:

q

q

q

q

q

titanium-rich sands off the Georgia coast,

chromite sands off the Oregon coast,

gold off the Alaska coast near Nome,

phosphorite off the Georgia coast near Tybee

Island, an d

phosphorite in Onslow Bay off the North

Carolina coast.

These shallow-water mineral deposits were selected

because they are judged to be potentially mineable

in the near term, unlike, for example, deposits of

cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts or massive sul-fides, both of which would require considerable

engineering research an d development .

For each scenar io, the ocean environment s ar e

considered to be acceptable for dredging operations,

dredging technologies are judged to be availablewith little modification, and existing processing

technologies are considered adaptable for shipboard

use, although some development will be needed.

The greatest uncertaint ies arise from lack of data

on the nature of the placer deposits (except for

Nome, reserves have not been proven by drilling)

and from the lack of operating experience under

conditions encountered in the U.S. EEZ (i. e.,waves a nd long-period swells).

OTA did not att empt deta iled engineering andcost analyses. Too little information is currently

available to accurately assess the profitability of off-shore mining. For example, the grade of ore may

vary considerably thr oughout a deposit, but little

information about grade variability has been com-piled yet at any site. Est imates of mining and pr oc-

essing costs can vary considerably depending on

the amount of information on which they are based.

Given th at est imates cann ot now be based on de-

tailed information, OTA has a ttem pted simply to

estimate the range within which costs are most likely

to fall. Rough estimates do not satisfy the need for

detailed feasibility studies based on comprehensive

data; however, they do provide criteria with which

to judge if recovery of large quantities of high grade,

valuable minerals on the seabed is likely to be

profitable or at least competitive with land-based

sources of miner als.

Similar scenarios for titanium, chromite, and

gold placers a lso have been d eveloped r ecently by

th e U.S. Bur eau of Mines.17

The scenarios are not

directly comparable, but, after allowing for differ-

ent assumptions and uncertainty, the general con-

clusions reached ar e roughly the same. Tables 5-

9, 5-10, and 5-11 at the end of the chapter com-

pare OTA and Bureau of Mines scenarios.

t ?,4n ~Tc.onomlc Rec.onIJalssanc(. [)f’.$c.]e(.tt,~ Hcai,}. .kfineral ~’iarer

Deposits in the U.S. Exc lu s i \ e EC onomir Zone. Open File Report

4-87 (Washington. D. C.: U.S. I lu rcau 01 hlincs, January 1987),




Of f s h o r e T i t a n i f e r o u s S a n d s

Mi n i n g S c e n a r i o

Location. —Concentrations of titaniferous sands

are known to occur on the sea bed adjacent to the

coast of Georgia (figure 5-17). These sands consti-

tute a resource of titanium oxide minerals (primar-

ily ilmenite, but a lso lesser a mounts of rut ile and

leucoxene, (figure 5-18)) and associated light heavy

minerals. However, little detailed exploration has

been done in th e area , so the extent and gra de of

the resource is not precisely known.

Two mineral companies that mine onshore titan-

iferous sands in nearby northeastern Florida have

expressed interest in the area. In fact, in 1986, the

Minerals Management Service issued geological

and geophysical exploration permits to Associated

Minerals U. S. A., Ltd., and E.I. du Pont de Nem ours

& Co. The companies have undertaken shallow cor-

ing, sub-bottom profiling, and radiometric surveysin th e area . The area of interest extends from Ty-

bee Island in t he north t o Jekyll Island in the south,

a distance of about 85 nautical miles, and from State

waters to about 30 nautical miles offshore. The

proximity of onshore titanium mineral processing

facilities in n ortheast ern Florida is a particular rea-

son this scenario site was selected over other po-

tential sites on the Atlantic Ocean continental shelf.

Operational and Geological Characteristics.—Within this a rea, a typical mine site was selectedapproximately 30 nautical miles offshore. Water

depths at this site average 100 feet. Northeasterlywinds tend to prevail from October to March. The

site is in the path of occasional ‘‘northeasters’ and

hurricanes, but wind, wave, tide, and current con-

ditions are other wise moderat e. Wave heights of 6 feet are common during winter months, but

waves of 1 to 4 feet are more typical the rest of the

year. Infrequent severe storms may produce waves

in excess of 20 feet, typically from the southeast or

northeast. It is assumed that operations can be con-

ducted 300 days per year.

The geological feat ur es of th e site were iden ti-

fied primarily by sub-bottom profiling and includeburied stream channels and submerged shorelines.

A similar ancient shoreline target onshore in north-

eastern Florida would be 12 miles long, 1 mile wide,

an d 20 feet th ick. Little is known about a ny over-

burden a t th is time, so it is assumed tha t th e de-

posit, like similar deposits onshore at Trail Ridge,

Florida, consists of unconsolidated heavy mineral

sands without significant overlying sediments.

The average concentration of total heavy min-

erals in the ore is assumed to be between 5 and 15

percent by weight, about half of which are economicheavy minerals. This ran ge includes the a verage

grade of the heavy mineral concentrations detected

in the few samples from the site that have been an a-

lyzed to date.

Mining Technology. —The most appropriate

technology for mining titaniferous minerals at the

selected sit e is considered t o be a t ra iling su ction

hopper dredge. This dredge is capable of operat-

ing in the open ocean at the mining site and of

shut tling to and from its sh ore base dur ing the nor-

ma l seas expected in th is region. Tra iling su ction

hopper dredges have been widely used for sand andgravel mining and for removing unconsolidated

material from harbors and channels. It is assumed

that the titaniferous sand is at most only mildly

compacted. The unconsolidated mineral sands are

sucked up the drag arms, which can adjust to ves-

sel heave and pitch to maint ain th e suction hea d

on t he seabed. A booster p ump is installed in the

suction line, enabling the dredge to reach minerals

at the assumed bottom of the mineralized zone,

about 120 feet below sea level. If cut ting force is

needed to loosen the compacted sand and clay,high-pressur e water jets and cutting teeth can be

added to th e suction h ead. A dredge with a h op-per capacity of 5,000 cubic yards is used. The

dredge is assumed to be of U.S. registry, built and

operated according to Coast Guard regulations, and

more expensive than a similar dredge built a broad.All equipment is assumed to be purchased new at

1987 market prices.

At-Sea Processing. —The dredge is outfitted

with a wet primary concentration plant capable of

producing 450,000 tons per year of heavy mineral

concentrate for delivery to a dry mill on shore. The

efficiency of economic heavy mineral recovery is

assumed to be 70 percent for the wet plant and 87.5percent for the dry plant. The final product con-

centr ate su pplies the ra w mater ial for a pigment

plant. It is assumed that no major technical prob-lems are encountered in designing the pr imary con-




Figure 5-18.—Values of TiO2 Content of Common Titanium MineralConcentrates and Intermediates

Iand Brown, “Offshore Mineral Placers: Processing and Related Considerations.”

contractor report prepared for the Office of Technology Assessment, November




4. steams to the shore base, and

5. it discharges the preconcentrate from the

hopper.

Each of these cycles takes 4 days: 3 days for dredg-

ing and processing and 1 day for transit and offload-

ing. Seventy-five such cycles per year can be made

using a trailing suction hopper dredge with a 5,000 -cubic-yard hopper capacity. This allows 60 daysper year for drydocking, maintenance, and down-

time du e to weath er or oth er contingencies. Theaverage distance from offshore deposits to the shore-

side discha rge point is estima ted t o be 100 miles.

The requirement to stop dredging and return to

port could be eliminated by loading shuttle barges

instead of filling the dredge hoppers. Other alter-

natives to the scenario probably would be evalu-ated by prospective miners who, for example, might

process to a higher concentrate grade offshore.

Capital and Operating Costs.—Total capitalrequirements are estimated to range from $55 mil-

lion to $86 million, depending on average ore grade

(ran ging from 15 t o 5 percent r espectively). Capi-

ta l costs include costs of th e dredge, onboard wet

mill, onshore unloading installation, dry mill, andwork ing capita l (table 5-4). Capita l costs for both

the dr edge and onboard wet m ill decrease a s the

ore grade increases because less mining (pumping)

capacity is required. Total operating costs are

higher for lower gra de ore becau se more ore must

be mined by a larger dredge to produce the sam e

amount of concentrate. Annual costs to operate the

dredge, wet mill, and dry mill, and for general and

Table 5-4.—Offshore Titaniferous Sands MiningScenario: Capital and Operating Cost Estimates

Ore grade

50/0 10 ”/0 15%0

Capital costs (million $): Dredge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... .. .$40 $36 $32Offshore processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 18 14Onshore processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 4 4Working capital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 6 5

Total capital costs , ... ... ... ... .$86 $64 $55

Annual operating costs (million $): Dredge and offshore processing ... .$17 $14 $12Onshore processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 2General and administrative . . . . . . . . . 2 1 1

Depreciation expense. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 11 10

Total operating costs ... ... ... .. .$37 $28 $25


administrative expenses and depreciation are esti-

mated to be from $25 million to $37 million, de-

pending on the heavy mineral content(15 to 5 per-

cent) . Given these est imates for capital and

operat ing costs, breakeven r evenue requirement s

have been calculated to range from $170 to $250per ton of marketable product.

Given the risks inherent in developing an offshore

deposit, the developers would expect higher returns

than for a conventional land-based mineral sands

operation and require a more rapid payback on in-

vestment. For example, under the 1986 tax law,

a 3-year payback would require revenues of be-

tween $420 and $280 per ton of product for ore

grades ranging from 5 to 15 percent. Since the cur-

rent U.S. east coast price of ilmenite concentrate

is $45 to $50 per short ton, it is clear th at the de-

posit would require appreciable concentrations of other valuable minerals (e, g., rutile, zircon, and/or

monazite with values ranging from $180 to $500per ton) to be profitable.

Of f s h o r e Ch r o mi t e S a n d s

Mi n i n g S c e n a r i o

Location. —Concentrations of heavy mineralsands containing primarily chromite, lesser amounts

of ilmenite, rutile, and zircon, and traces of gold

and other minerals occur in surface and near-sur-

face deposits on the continental shelf off southern

Oregon (figure 5-19). Many reconnaissance sur-veys conducted by academic researchers have been

completed in the area, but no detailed mineral ex-ploration has taken place. The largest heavy

mineral sand area appears to extend westward from

the mouth of the Rogue River and northward

toward Cape Blanco. A second area of chromite-rich black san ds is located seaward of the mouth

of the Sixes River. Additional small deposits oc-

cur on th e continen tal sh elf and on uplifted ma -

rine t erra ces between Coos Bay an d Bandon. The

Rogue River deposits are approximately 75 miles

south of Coos Bay, th e near est deep-wat er indu s-

trial port, an d 100 miles north of the port of Eu-

reka, California.

No State or Federal exploration permits have

been issued in the area to the private sector. How-

ever, one compan y, Oregon Coast al Ser vices, ha s

expressed interest in obtaining a permit to explore

for minera ls in Sta te waters.




Figure 5-19.— Offshore Chromite Sands,Oregon Continental Shelf

PacificOcean

SOURCE: Adapted from T Parmenter and R Bailey, The Oregon Ocean Book (Salem, OR: Oregon Department of Land Conservation and Develop.ment, 1985), p. 21

Operational and Geological Characteristics.—

The site selected for this scenario lies seaward of

the Rogue River, from 2 to 4 miles offshore. Water

depths in the vicinity of the mine site are between

150 and 300 feet. The ma in deposit is a ssumed t obe roughly 22 miles long by 6 miles wide and strad-

dles the boundary between State and Federalwaters.

Summer waves, generally from th e northwest,

ar e driven by str ong onshore winds a nd r an ge in

height from 2 to 10 feet. In winter, waves are

characteristically from th e west or southwest a nd

average 3 to 20 feet. The most severe storms, which

occur from November through March, may occa-

sionally produce wave heights in excess of 60 feet.

The severity of the wave regime off the coast of Ore-

gon h as been compar ed to that of th e North Sea.In addition to weather, a seasonal factor that may

affect mining activity is prior use of the area by sea

lions a s a breeding ground and by salmon fisher-

men for sport and commercial fishing.

Coastal terrace deposits between Coos Bay and

Bandon, north of the scena rio site, are likely ana -

logs of potent ial cont inent al sh elf placers (see ch.

2). Most samples t aken from t hese deposits h ave

contained from 6 percent to as much as 13 percent

chromite, usua lly concentrat ed in t he bottom 3 t o

15 feet of the stratigraphic section, although sam-

ples containing as much as 25 percent chromitehave been ta ken in some places .

18

This scenario assumes that offshore placers con-

tain similar grades of chromite and t hat the a ver-

age grade is closer to 6 percent. Magnetic anomaly

studies associated with surface concentrations in the

scenario area suggest that the potential placer bodies

lie beneath a sediment overburden that ranges from

less than 3 feet t o more t han 100 feet th ick. The

ore body thickness a t t he mining site is assu med

to be less th an 25 feet.

Mining Technology. —This scenario assumes

that the chromite placers are largely unconsolidated

deposits and that a trailing suction hopper dredge

similar t o the one used in th e titan ium san ds sce-nario is applicable for mining. The dredge is

equipped with twin 3,400-horsepower suction

pumps, giving it a great er suction capacity than the

dredge used to mine titanium sands.

Dredging in rough seas a t depth s ra nging from

150 to 300 feet will requ ire a special design; how-

ever, it is assumed this need will not present greater

technical problems or costs than, for example,building dredges or pipe-laying vessels for the North

Sea. The dredge is similar in its other characteris-tics to the hopper dredge described in the titanium

sands scenario.

At-Sea Processing. —High volumes of ore can

be brought to the surface at relatively low cost, but

transporting the material to shore is costly. There-

fore, there is an incentive to enrich the ore as much

as economically and technically feasible prior to

tra nsporting it to shore. This scenario assumes pri-

mary beneficiation at sea by a simple, low-cost proc-

ess of screening and gravity separation. The sys-

tem might incorpora te devices such as cones, jigs,

spirals, or a very large sluice box. As in the titanium

I HI ,a\Tcrnc D , KUI1 l l , CO1]C,K[. 01 ’ occano Kra l )h \ . . O r e g o n s[~~tt’

L’ni\ crsity, OTA t$’orkshop on Pacific Nlinera l s , Ncwporr. Oregon,

No\ . 20, 1986.




sand mining scenar io, th e effect of vessel motion

on these devices needs to be evaluated. It is assumed

that 30 to 50 percent of the dredged ore will be kept

on the vessel and that the tailings will be continu-

ously discharged by pipe back to the seafloor.

There are no at-sea processing plants of this type

in operation. Additional investigation is needed toevaluate the feasibility and to determine the capi-

tal and operating costs of this system, but it is as-sumed that the development engineering required

will not entail major costs.

Mining and At-Sea Processing Cycle.—In-creased suction capacity plus a shorter distance to

dockside an d less elabora te pr ocessing at sea en-

able the dredge to deliver 5,000 tons of enriched

ore to shore per day (rath er tha n every third dayas in the case of the titanium sands scenario). Un-

der normal operating conditions, the dredge is as-sumed to take about 3 hours to fill to capacity. The

vessel th en st eams an average distance of 75 milesfor offloading at a shore facility. Transit time is esti-

mat ed to a verage about 8 hours, offloading time

less th an 5 hours ; hen ce, th e vessel would be able

to make one r ound tr ip per day. At dockside the

dredge would be offloaded using either a dry scraper

or its own pu mps. Pum ped tr an sfer decreases off-

loading t ime. If this method is used, the ore is

pumped into a dewatering bin and from there trans-

ported by conveyor belt to a s tockpile. It is a ssum edtha t t he mining an d processing system can be de-signed so that mining and processing at sea can take

place 300 days a year. This would leave 65 days

for downtime due to bad weather or sea conditions,

for drydocking and maintenance, and for other un-

foreseen events. Un der t hese assu mptions, 1.5 mil-

lion tons of chromite-rich concentrate are deliveredyearly to the offloading plant onshore.

Capital and Operating Costs.—Capital and

operating costs (table 5-5) were estimated for min-ing, at-sea processing, transportation, and offload-

ing at a shoreside facility, but not for subsequent

processing on land. Capital costs amount to approx-

imately $57 million for an opera tion t ha t u ses all

new equipment developed for the project and built

in the United States. These include a dredge ($40

million), shipboard primary beneficiation plant ($5

million), shoreside facility (about $5 million), and

design, engineering, and management ($7 million).Annual operating costs a re estima ted to be approx-imately $20 million; this figure includes costs to

operat e the dr edge and sh ore facility an d general

and administrative expenses.

Based on the a bove figures and a ssumpt ions, the

cost of delivering enriched chromite sand to a shore-

based facility was calculated. In terms of dollars per

ton of beneficiated ore, the range is between $12.50

an d $22. The lower cost assu mes t he u se of a sec-

ondhand dredge. The higher cost includes a 20 per-cent internal rate of return which is assumed to be

a r ealistic goal in view of the un certa inties (espe-

cially operating time) that surround the project. (If

the yearly operating time were reduced to 150 days,

th e costs of delivering concent ra tes would double

to between $25 and $44 per ton).

Table 5-5.—Offshore Chromite Sands Mining Scenario:Capital and Operating Cost Estimates

Millions of dollarsC a p i ta l C os ts :

Suction hopper dredge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $40.0Shipboard primary beneficiation plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.0Shoreside facility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.0Engineering procurement and management (15%) . . . . 7.5

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $57.5

New equipment Used equipment(excluding profit (excluding profit

and risk) and risk)

Annual operating costs: Dredge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $17 $15Shore facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2General and administrative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2

Annual total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $22 $19SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987,




Box 5-A.—Sand and Gravel Mining

Mining offshore sand and gravel is likely to be profitable at selected sites well before mining of mostother offshore minerals. Sand and gravel occurs in enormous quantities on the U.S. continental shelf. How-ever, due to onsh ore sources of supply in ma ny par ts of the count ry, the low unit value of the resource, andsignificant costs to transport sand and gravel long distances, profitable offshore sand and gravel mining islikely to be restricted to areas near major metropolitan centers thathave depleted nearby onshore sourcesand/or have encountered conflicting land use problems.

Sand and gravel are currently being dredged in State waters in the Ambrose Channel between New Yorkand N ew Jer sey. This operat ion, begun 2 years ago, is th e only offshore sand and gravel mining currentlyta king place in U.S. waters. The Gr eat Lakes Dredge& Dock Co., the dredge operator, mines appr oximat ely1.5 million cubic yards per year of high-quality fine aggregate from the channel. This aggregate is sold tothe concrete ready-mix industry in the New York/New Jersey area at an average delivered price of $11.50per cubic yard. The Federa l Governmen t benefits from th is opera tion becaus e it ena bles the Ambrose Chan-nel, which is a major navigation channel into New York Harbor, to be maintained at significant savings tothe government. In addition, both New York and New Jersey receive royalties of 25 cents per cubic yardof aggregate mined.

Great Lakes Dredge & Dock uses one tra iling suction hopper dredge in its operat ion. The dredge is au-thorized to mine to a depth of 53 feet below the mean low water mark. When full, the dredge proceeds to

a mooring point about one-half mile offshore South Amboy, New Jersey. The aggregate is then pumped toshore via a pipeline. The compan y estimates that there is enough sand an d gravel in th e chann el to operatefor 10 to 15 more years (longer if the channel is widened and/or deepened).

Sand and gravel mining has not yet occurred in the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone, but the Bureau of Mines has tentatively identified two metropolitan areas, New York and Boston, where significant potentialexists for t he n ear-term development of offshore sa nd and gravel deposits. * Local onshore su pplies are fastbecoming depleted in these areas. The Bureau estimates that, for both areas, dredge and plant capital costswould range from a low of about $21 million for a 1.3-million cubic-yard-per-year operation 10 nautical milesfrom a n onsh ore plant to a high of $145 million for a 6.7-million cubic-yard-per-year operation 80 nauticalmiles from shore. Operating costs for a product that has been screened (i.e., sorted) are estimated to rangefrom about $3.30 per cubic yard for the smaller nearshore operation to $4.00 for the larger, more distantoperation. Estimates are based on 250 operating days per year for the dredge and 323 for the plant. Other

cities where offshore sand and gravel eventuality could be competitive include Los Angeles, San Juan, andHonolulu.

qAn Econozm”c Rcxonnai saance of Sehx t cd Sand and Gavei Ikpoa’ts in the U.S. Exdu u”w E eanom i c Zone, Open File Report 3-87 (Wash in g to n ,~ : U.S. Bureau of Mines, J a nua r y 1987).

There are no active facilities for processing chro-

mite in the Pacific Northwest. Ferrochromiumplants and chromium chemicals an d refractories

producers a re concentra ted in th e eastern half of

the country. However, one company, Sherwood

Pa cific Ltd., was r ecently form ed for t he pu rpose

of constructing and operating a chromium smelter

in Coos Bay, Oregon. Coos Bay has a deep draft

ship channel, rail access, land, and a work force.Initial ra w mat erial for the sm elter is expected to

come from onshore deposits in southern Oregon

and northern California.

The costs per ton of concentrate projected in this

scenario allow only small margins to make and dis-

tribut e a finished product, current ly worth a bout

$40 per ton. Hence, it is clear t ha t chromite a lone

would not be worth recovering. Unless the price

of chromite were to increase or byproducts such as

gold or zircon could be economically recovered, the

costs projected in t his scena rio do not just ify eco-nomic chromite mining in the near future.

Offshore Placer Gold Mining Scenar io

Location.—Gold-bearing beach sands were dis-

covered and mined at Nome, Alaska, in 1906. Min-

ing gradually extended inland from the current

shoreline to old shorelines now above sea level. By




1906, about 4.5 million ounces of alluvial gold had

been mined from a 55-square-mile area. Early

miners recognized that the Nome gold placers were

formed by wave action a nd tha t a dditional depos-

its, form ed when sea levels were lower, should be

foun d in t he a djacent offshore a rea (figure 5-20).

Two U.S. companies, ASARCO and Shell OilCo., sampled offshore deposits near Nome in 1964

and recovered alluvial gold. By 1969, proven re-

serves offshore of approximately 100 million cubic

yards of ore had been established. The rights to

these r eserves were acquired in 1985 by Inspira-

tion Resources, which then began a pilot mining

and testing program. This program was followed

by mining tests with a bucket ladder dredge in 1986.

All operat ions t o date ha ve taken place within 3

miles of shore in waters under the jurisdiction of

the Stat e of Alaska, a lthough gold r esources ha vebeen identified out t o about 10 miles. The futu re

offshore gold mining operation is examined in thisscenario, based on a number of assumptions.

Operational and Geological Characteristics.—

Nome is a small town near the Arctic Circle on Nor-

ton Sound, a large sha llow bay open to the west.

Water depths in th e bay do not exceed 100 feet.

Ten miles offshore water is only 60 feet deep. Gold-

bearing sediments are a maximum of 30 feet thick

and consist of bedded sands, gravels, and clays

alternating with occasional beds of cobbles and

boulders. These sediments were sampled from theice out t o about 1½ miles from t he coast , Gold has

been found further offshore, but reserves have notyet been fully delineated. Current mining sites are

located less than 1 ½ miles offshore in water depths

averaging 30 feet and in formations 6 to 30 feet

thick.

Only between June and October is Norton

Sound ice-free a nd accessible to float ing vessels.

During the winter, thick pack ice forms over the

Sound. Waves r eportedly do not exceed periods of

7 seconds, but occasional sea-swells with longer

periods may come from the west or southwest. Pre-dominant winds are from the north and northeast.

Currents and longshore drift are westward. Maxi-

mum tides are 6 feet.

Mining Technology.--The B i m a , a bucket lad-

der dredge built in 1979 for mining tin offshore In-

donesia, was selected to mine the offshore gold

placers. The B im a was brought to Nome in July

1986 for preliminary tests. It was modified in Seattle

an d is scheduled to begin operation in J uly 1987.

Th e B i m a was designed and built abroad as a sea-

going mining vessel. Its hull is 361 feet long, 98

feet wide, an d 21 feet deep. The ent ire vessel is of

steel construction and weighs about 15,000 short

tons, including the dr edging ladder a nd m achin-ery. Freeboard is 10 feet and draft 15 feet with the

ladder retracted.

Th e B i m a is not self-propelled. It must be moved

to and from t he mining site by a t ugboat. On site,

the dredge is kept in position by five mooring lines

att ached to 7-ton Danforth anchors. This anchor-

ing arrangement allows the dredge to swing 600 feet

from side to side and to advance while digging. The

anchors are positioned and moved by a special aux-

iliary vessel.

A 15,000-horsepower diesel-electric powerplant

is used t o operat e th e bucketline, th e ore process-ing plant, the anchor winches, and the auxiliary

systems. There is fuel storage on board for 2½

months of operation.

Th e Bim a’s dredge ladder an d bucketline were

originally designed to operate in 150 feet of water.

This scenario assumes that the dredge ladder has

been shortened, so that the dr edge is able to mine

from 25 to 100 feet below the wa ter line at the r ate

of 33 cubic yards per minute or approximately

2,000 cubic yards per hour. The B i m a was designed

to enable the mass of the ladder and bucketline to

be decoupled from the motions of the hull by anaut omat ed system of hydrau lic and a ir cylinders

that act like very large springs. This feature keeps

the buckets digging against the dredging face on

the seabed while the hull may be heaving or pitch-ing due to the motions of passing waves. During

the t rials of the B im a in Norton Soun d from J uly

to October 1986, it was not necessary to activate

the system.

At-Sea Pr ocessing. —The B i m a is equipped with

a gra vity processing plan t t o ma ke a gold concen-tra te at t he mining site. The throughput capacity

of the plant is 2,000 cubic yards per hour, The plantconsists of two parallel inclined rotary trommels 18

feet in diameter and 60 feet long. After removal

of any large boulders, ore brought up by the dredge

bucket slides down th e trommels under t he spra y




Figure 5-20.— Nome, Alaska Placer Gold District

.

X Mined gold 30 water o 5 miles

placers depth I 1 I

Pliocenebeach

‘/

0 2 miles

Explanation

u Alluvium Glacial drift u Beach sediments u Marine silt and clay

u Stratified rocks of unknown type u Bedrock

Generalized geologic profile of Nome beaches.

SOURCE Adapted from E H U S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1374




BIMA Bucketline DredgePhoto credit:

of powerful jets of seawater. The water jets are used Material retained by the trommel is distributed

to break up the clay and force sand and gravel in a sea water mixtur e to thr ee circuits of jigs, be-smaller than three-eighths inch to pass through the ginning with six primary circular jigs 24 feet in di-

trommel. Material coarser than three-eighths inch ameter. The concentrates from the circular jigs are

is dischar ged over th e stern . th en fed to crossflow seconda ry an d ter tiar y jigs.




The jig concentr ates a re furth er r efined on shak-

ing tables before transport to shore for final gold

separation and smelting into bullion. It is expected

that about 22 pounds of gold concentrate will be

produced by mining and processing approximately

50,000 tons of ore per day, The actu al am ount s of

concentrate produced will depend on the quantity

of heavy minerals associated with the gold at eachlocation.

Environmental Effects.— The ore processing

plant on the B i m a returns 99.9 percent of the proc-

essed material to the seabed as tailings. Since the

tailings do not undergo chemical treatment, local

tur bidity caused by particles that may rema in in

suspension is likely to be the most significant envi-

ronmenta l impact. During pilot plant t ests in 1985,

Inspirat ion Resources foun d t ha t tur bidity could

be minimized by discharging fine tailings through

a flexible pipe near the seabed. Other potential

environmental impacts could occur if diesel fuel isspilled, either as it is being tran sferred t o the B i m a

or as a result of accidental piercing of the hull.

Operating Condit ions.—The Bima opera t es

only between J un e an d October (five month s per

year) because ice on Norton Sound prohibits oper-

ations during the winter months. Thus, without

breakdowns or downtime due to weather and other

causes, a theoretical yearly production of about 7.5

million cubic yards of ore is possible. During tests

in 1986, B i m a operated only a small fraction of the

time available. This was due more to the nature

of the trials than to downtime related to winds and

waves. Assuming a mining efficiency (bucket fill-

ing) of 75 percent and an operating efficiency of

80 percent (allowing for time to move and down-

time due to weather), yearly production is limited

to 4.5 million cubic yards. If gold grades of 0.012

to 0.016 ounces per cubic yard of ore are assumed,

the yearly gold production would be between 1.75

and 2.20 short tons (before any losses due to proc-

essing and refining).

Th e B i m a will have a crew averaging 12 persons

per watch, 3 watches per day. Personnel are trans-

ported t o and from Nome daily by helicopter. Theoperation also requires extensive maintenance, sup-

ply, and administrative facilities onshore. These fa-

cilities will be manned by an additional 46 persons

during the operating season. During the winter

months, the B i m a will be laid up in Nome harbor,

and most of the operating personnel will be on

leave.

Capital and Operating Costs.—Capital andoperating cost estimates (table 5-6) are based on

a number of assumptions and, like the other

scenarios in this report, must be considered first

order approximat ions. The estimat es rely in part

on published information that the B i m a gold min-

ing project will ha ve a life of 16 years a nd will re-

cover about 48,000 troy ounces of gold per year

at operating costs of less than $200 per ounce.

Th e B im a was constr ucted a t a cost of $33 mil-

lion in 1979. It is assumed that its purchase in 1986

as used equipment (sold because of the fall in the

Table 5-6.—Offshore Placer Gold Mining Scenario:Capital and Operating Cost Estimates

Millions of dollars

Capital costs:Exploration and pilot plant mining tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ 3Used dredge (BIMA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3Dredge transport and insurance from Indonesia to Nome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2Shipyard modifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Onshore facilities and infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2Auxiliary vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Total capital costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $17

Annual operating costs: Fuel and lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $1.5Personnel and overhead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.0Maintenance and spares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0

Annual operating costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $7.0

SOURCE” Office of Technology Assessment, 1987




price of tin) is on the order of $5 million. Also as-

sumed is that other capital costs, including ancil-

lary facilities onshore; pilot-plan t m ining test s in

1985 and trials in 1986; auxiliary vessels for

prospecting and for tending anchors; shipyard

modifications and alterations to the processing

plant; an d th e cost of shipment of th e B im a from

Indonesia to Nome an d to and from the sh ipyar d

near Seattle will amount to another $10 million to

$15 million. Total capital costs are thus assumed

to be between $15 million and $20 million.

Annual operating costs for fuel, maintenance, in-

surance and administration, and personnel andoverhead are estimated (to an accura cy of 25 per-

cent) to be $7 million. At a production rate of 48,000 ounces per year, a cash operating cost on

th e order of$150 to $175 per ounce is implied. Ata mining rate of approximately 4.5 million cubic

yards per year, direct costs would amount to $1.55

per cubic yard.

Assumin g th e price of gold to be $400 per t roy

ounce, the projected pre-tax cash flow on a pro-

duction of 48,000 troy ounces per year would beapproximately $12 million (after subtracting oper-

ating costs) on an investment of $17 million. Al-

though this figure does not include debt service,

it nevertheless indicates that the B ima offshore gold

mining project at Nome shows good promise of

profitability if the operat ors are able to maint ain

production. This scenario illustrates that offshore

gold mining is economically viable and technically

feasible using a bucketline dredge under the con-ditions assumed.

Offshore Phosphor i t e Min ing Scenar ios :

Tybee I s land , Georgia and Ons low Bay ,

Nor th Carol ina

Two different phosphorite mining scenarios were

considered by OTA. The first, located off Tybee

I s land , Georg ia , w as deve loped by Ze ll a r s -Williams, Inc., in 1979 for the U.S. Geological Sur-

vey. The second was developed by OTA in the

course of this study. Although the two scenarios dif-fer in location an d in the assum ptions concerning

onboard and onshore processing of the phosphorite

minerals, breakeven price estimates of the two cases

are well within overlapping margins of error.

Both scenarios should be considered little more

than rough estimates of costs based on hypotheti-

cal mining conditions and technology. In some

cases—particularly with the OTA scenario—

assum ptions are made a bout t he adapt ability of on-

shore flotation and separation techniques to at-sea

condit ions. Not only would a dditional techn ologi-

cal development and testing be needed to adapt ex-

isting technology for onboard use, but even the fea-

sibility of secondary separation and flotation

processing at sea would also probably need further

assessment and testing.

The actual costs of capitalizing and operating an

offshore mining operation can vary significantly

from OTA’s estimates. However, in both scenarios,

the results suggest that further evaluation—par-

ticularly t o better define th e potential r esourcesand to consider processing technology-might be

worthwhile.

While further assessment of the potential for min-

ing phosphorite minerals offshore may be war-

ranted, the overall condition of the domestic on-

shore phosphate industry cannot be ignored whenevaluating the feasibility of offshore operations. The

future of the U.S. phosphate mining industry seems

bleak in the face of increased low-cost foreign pro-

duction. Some fully depreciated mines are currently

finding it difficult t o meet foreign competition. New

phosphate mines, either onshore or offshore, willlikely find it difficult to compete with foreign oper-

ations.

If exceptionally rich phosphate resources are dis-

covered offshore, or if offshore mining and proc-

essing systems can reduce costs through increased

productivity or offsetting land use and environ-

mental costs, the commercial prospects for offshore

development might improve. However, higher

phosphate prices would also be needed to make the

economic picture viable, and most commodity

an alysts do not think higher prices are likely. Ta-

ble 5-12 compares Tybee Island and Onslow Bayscenarios.

Tybee Island, GeorgiaLocat ion. —Onshore and offshore phosphorite

deposits ar e known t o occur from Nort h Car olina

to Florida. The potential for offshore mining of phosphorite in EE Z waters a djacent t o the north-



Ch. 5—Mining and At-Sea Processing Technologies . 205

ern coast of Georgia was examin ed in some deta ilin a 1979 stu dy by Zellars-Williams, In c. , for t he

Department of the Interior. To illustrate the tech-

nical and economic feasibility of offshore phos-

phorite m ining, OTA ha s dra wn h eavily from Zel-

lars -Williams work.

The Zellars-Williams study considers a 30-square-mile area located about 12 miles offshore

Tybee Island, Georgia, not far from the South

Carolina border and in the same general area con-

sidered in the titanium scenario (figure 5-17). Onlyscattered, widely spaced samples have been taken

in th e vicinity, and none within t he scenario area

itself. These samples and some seismic data sug-

gest the occurrence of a shallow phosphorite deposit

in the a rea, but m uch more sampling is required

to fully evaluat e th e deposit. The mine site is a t-

tra ctive for several reasons:

q

q

q

q

water depths are uniform over the entire block,with a mean depth of 42 feet;

th e ar ea is free of shipwr ecks, art ificial fish-

ing reefs, natural reefs, rock, and hard bottom;

the ar ea is close to the Savan nah Har bor en-

trance but not within shipping lanes for traf-

fic entering the harbor; and

an onshore plant site is available with an ade-

quate supply of river water for process use, in-

cluding washing of sea salts.

Operational and Geological Characteristics.—Average windspeed dur ing the year a t t he site is

about 7 miles per hour with peaks each month u pto 38 miles per hour. Winter surface winds are

chiefly out of the west, while in summer north and

east winds alternate with those from the west. Se-

vere tropical storms affect the area about once every

10 years and usually occur between June and mid-

October. The most severe wave conditions result

from st rong fall and winter winds from the n orth

and west, but t he proposed mining site is sheltered

by land from t hese directions. Waves of 12 feet or

more occur a bout 2.5 percent of th e year wh ile 4-

foot waves occur 57 per cent of the year . The ma x-

imum spr ing tidal range is about 8 feet. Current

speeds a re low, about 3 to 4 miles per da y. Hea vyfog is common along the coast, and Savannah ex-

periences an average of 44 foggy days a year.

Phosphorite ore occur ring as pebbles an d san dat the mine site is part of what is known as the

Savann ah Deposit. The site str addles the crest of

the north-south tren ding Beaufort Arch, which sug-

gests that the top of the phosphatic matrix will be

closest to sea level in t his a rea . The ore body lies

beneath 4 feet of overburden. It is assumed that

the ore body is of constant thickness over a reason-

ably large area and that the mine site contains 150million short tons of phosphorite. The average

grade of the ore is assumed to be 11.2 percent phos-

phorous pentoxide (P 2O 5).

Minin g Techn ology. —An ocean -going cutt ersuction dredge with an onboard beneficiation plant

is selected for mining. The dredge is equipped with

a 125-foot cutter ladder, enabling it to dredge to

a maximum depth of 100 feet below the water sur-

face, more than enough to reach all of the mine site

deposit. The dredge first r emoves the san dy over-burden in a mine cut and places it away from the

cut or in a mined-out area. Phosphate matrix then

is loosened by the rotating cutter, sucked through

the suction pipe, and brought onboard the dredge.

The dredge is designed to mine approximately

2,500 cubic yards of phosphate matrix per hour.It is estimated that approximately 450 acres of phos-

phate matrix are mined each year. Mining cuts are1 mile long and 800 feet wide.

Processing Technology.—Onboard processing

consists of simple mechanical disaggregation of the

ma tr ix followed by size redu ction. Oversize ma te-rial is screened with trommels and rejected. Under-

size material (mainly clays) is removed using

cyclones. The undersize material is flocculated(thickened to a consistency suitable for disposal) and

pumped to the sea bottom.

On shore, the san d size material is subjected tofurther washing and sizing. Tailings and clays are

returned to the mine site for placement over the

flocculated clays. Phosph at e is concent ra ted t o 66

percent bone phosphate of lime (BPL) by a con-

ventional flotation sequence. The wet flotation con-

centrate is then blended and calcined to 68 percent

BPL (approximately 30 percent P 2O 5).

It is assumed that, initially, 2.5 million short tons

per year of phosphat e rock a re pr oduced. Event u-

ally, the a mount produced would increase to th e

optimum rate of 3.5 million tons. It is also assumed

that only 4 cubic yards of ore would need to bedredged per ton of final product.




Mining and At-Sea Processing Cycle.—Min-

ing is assumed to take place 80 percent of the avail-

able time—292 days or a bout 7,000 hours per year.The beneficiated ore is loaded continually on 5,500 -

ton capacity barges for transport to the onshoreprocessing plant. Barge tr an sport is deemed nec-

essary for both economic and pollution control rea-

sons. A tug picks up one barge at a t ime, taking

it to a mooring point just outside the chan nel at

the Savannah River entrance. A push boat then

takes a four-barge group about 20 miles upstream

to the processing facility. After the ore is discharged,

the barges are reloaded with tailings sand and

returned to the mooring point. The tug then returns

the barge to the mining area, initially to discharge

tailings and then to be taken to the dredge and left

to be filled with feed.

Capital and Operating Costs.—Capital and

operating cost estimates for the Zellars-Williams

scenario (table 5-7) have been updated to reflectchan ges in plant, equipment, wa ges, and other cost

factors. The revised figures are expressed in 1986

dollars. Capital and operating costs include costsfor dredging and primary concentration, transpor-

tation of beneficiated ore to port, onshore process-ing to 66 percent BPL, calcining to 68 percent BPL,

contingency, and working capital.

The Zellars-Williams scenario and associated

costs are regarded as a ‘‘best-case’ situation. 19 In

I gMore information about the Zellars - Williams and other phos -

Table 5-7.—Offshore Phosphorite

1986 dollars, the operating costs to mine and wash

the ore and to transport the primary concentrate

to an onshore processing plant amount to about

$4.60 per short ton. Onshore processing would cost

about $10 per short ton, and a depreciation expense

of almost $10 per ton must be added to this figure.Hen ce, a ‘‘break even’ price for calcined concen-

trate would be close to $25 per short ton. Calcined

concent ra te, however, is curr ent ly selling for only

$19 to $25 per sh ort ton, depending on gra de an d

whether the product is sold domestically or ex-

ported. Furth ermore, given un certa inties such ascosts for mitigating environmental impacts, the

acceptability of at-sea disposal of flocculated clays,

and the uncertain effectiveness of both dredging and

processing technology in the offshore environment,investors would probably require a discounted cash

flow return larger than the 16.5 percent return in-

dicated in the Zellars-Williams study. The break-

even price does not include additional requirementsfor profit and risk,

The lar gest componen t of tota l capit al cost a nd

of tota l operat ing cost is for ons hore pr ocessing of

the primary concentrate to 66 percent BPL, andth e second largest cost component is for calcining

to 68 percent BPL. Savings might be possible if an

existing onshore processing plant could be used for

flotat ion a nd/or calcining or if flotat ion a t sea be-

phoritc studies may be found in t he OT A contr actor report ‘ ‘Offshore

Phosphorite Deposits: Processing and Related Considerations, by

William Harvey. November 1986.

Mining, Tybee Island, Georgia:Capital and Operating Cost Estimates

Millions of dollars

Capi tal cos t s :Dredging and primary concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $17Transport to port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26Processing to 66 percent BPL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80Calcining to 68 percent BPL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33Contingency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Working capital. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $185

(million $/year) ($/ton product)Operating costs: Dredging and primary concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ 9 $2.50Transport to port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2.10Processing to 66 percent BPL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 6.20Calcining to 68 percent BPL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 3.50Contingency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 0.70

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $52 $15.00

SOURCE: Zellars-Williams, Inc., “Outer Continental Shelf Hard Minerals Leasing: Phosphates Offshore Georgia and South Caro-lina,” report prepared for U.S. Geological Survey, May, 1979 Figures updated by OTA contractor, William Harvey




comes technically and economically feasible. While

there is no existing facility within a reasonable dis-

tance of the Savannah Deposit, phosphorite ore lo-

cated off the coast of North Carolina (Onslow Bay)

potentially could be processed at the existing on-

shore facility near Moorhead City.

The following scenario, developed by OTA, ex-amines the feasibility of mining the Onslow Bay

deposits, of using onboard flotation to upgrade the

ore to 66 percent BPL, and of using the existing

facility at Moorhea d City for calcining t o 68 per-

cent BPL.

Onslow Bay, North Carolina

Location.—A high-grade offshore phosphorite

resour ce is described by Riggs20

and others on th e

continent al sh elf adjacent to North Carolina. The

resource is located at the south ern end of Onslow

Bay 20 to 30 miles south east of Cape Fea r (figure5-21). A Federal/State task force was establishedin 1986 to investigate the future of marine mining

offshore North Carolina. The task force has hired

Development Planning & Research Associates to

stu dy th e feasibility of minin g Onslow Bay phos-

phorite; however, no private companies have ex-

pressed an immediate inter est in m ining offshore

phosphorite in this ar ea.

The Miocene Pungo Formation is a major sedi-

mentary phosphorite unit underlying the north-centr al coasta l plain of North Carolina. It is mined

extensively onshore. The seaward extension of the

Pungo Formation under Onslow Bay has been stud-

ied using seismic profiling and vibracore sampling

methods. The site selected for this scenario is where

the Fr ying Pan Phosphat e Unit of the Pu ngo For-ma tion outcrops offshore in a ba nd 1 t o 2½ miles

wide and about 18 miles long.

Operat ional and G eo log ica l C harac te r i s -tics.—The site is characterized by open ocean con-

ditions consisting of wind waves from the north-

east and long period swell. Winds gusting above

30 knots occur less than 15 percent of the time. Cur-

rents are less than 1 knot and tidal influence is neg-

ligible. Hurricanes and associated wave conditionsoccur on an average of 10 days per year.

The phosphorite formation consists of fine,

muddy sands covering an area of 45 square miles.

Overburden consists of loose, fine, sandy sedimentvarying in thickness from O to 8 feet. Underneath,

the phosphorite sand has a thickness between 1 and

10 feet. Water depth averages about 80 feet; hence,

the total mining depth is not expected to exceed98 feet. The overburden contains an average of 6.3

percent P 2O 5. The phosphorite unit contains be-

tween 4.8 and 22.9 percent P205, with an average

of 12.4 percent by weight .21

Laboratory analysis

of phosphate concentrates indicates the presence of no other valuable minerals.

Mining Technology. —A trailing suction dredge

with a n onboard beneficiation plant is selected a s

the most appropriate technology for the water depth

an d geological char acter istics of the deposit. It is

assumed that the phosphorite unit and overburden

are sufficiently unconsolidated to be mined by suc-

tion dredging methods without the need for a cut-

ter h ead. Only water jets a nd pa ssive mechanical

teeth ar e used. The dredge and plant are h ousedin a specially designed ship-configured hull. Thevessel is n ot a self-un loading h opper dredge an d

has only a small storage capacity on board. The

beneficiated ore is discharged onto barges or small

ore carr iers which are continuously in att endan ce

behind th e mining vessel and which sh utt le back

and forth to the unloading point near the shoreprocessing plant. Dredging capacity is about 2,000cubic yar ds per hour; 75 per cent dredging efficiency

is assumed. The suction head is kept on the seabed

by a suction a rm tha t compensat es for t he motion

of the vessel in ocean swell. The vessel is self-

propelled, dredges underway, and is equipped with

precision position-keeping instrumentation.

The above configuration is preferred to hopper

dredging because either a very large single hopper

dredge or several smaller hopper dredges would beneeded to m ee t t he m in ing p roduc t ion r e -

quirements.

Processing Technology.—At-sea processing is

assumed to consist of:

q conventional mechanical disintegration andscreening to eliminate oversize material,

“ Ibid.




Figure 5-21.— Offshore Phosphate District, Southeastern North Carolina Continental Shelf

p. H Snyder, M.D. and “Geologic Framework of Phosphate Resources in

Bay, North Carolina Continental Shelf, ” Economic Geology, VOI 80, 1985, p, 720.




q cycloning to redu ce under size mat erial (e. g.,

clays), andq flotation to reject silicates.

Rejected material is returned to the sea floor. The

assu mption tha t flotation can be adapted t o ship-

board operation requires verification by develop-

ment and testing studies, the costs of which are pro-vided for under the capital cost estimates below.

The use of an existing (and, therefore, already

capitalized) onshore calcining plant near Moorhead

City, North Carolina, some 80 miles north of the

mine site, is also assumed.

Assuming that P 2O5 mak es up 12.4 percent (by

weight) of the Fr ying Pa n u nit a nd 6.3 percent of

the overburden (both of which are mined), the

mined feed to the at-sea processing plant contains11.2 percent P 2O 5 by weight. A total of 6.9 mil-

lion short tons of ore ar e mined each year at the

dredging rate of 2,000 cubic yards per hour, yield-ing a shipboard concentrate of about 1.7 milliontons for feed to the calcining plant onshore. This

yield assumes that shipboard ore flotation upgrades

the P 2O 5 content to 30 percent.

Mining and At-Sea Processing Cycle.—It is

estimated t hat six barges, each with a capacity to

carry 6,550 cubic yards of beneficiated ore, and two

tugs will be required to conduct efficient and nearly

continuous loading while the mining vessel is on

station. The time required to load three barges,

tra nsit to shore, unload, and retu rn t o the miningvessel is expected to be 3 days. The min ing vessel

is assum ed to operat e 82 percent of th e time, or

300 days per year.

Capital and Operating Costs.—The capital and

operating cost estimates (table 5-8) are based on

the assumption that new equipment is provided to

supply beneficiated ore to an existing shore-based

calcining plant. The capital costs of this shore-based

plant are not included in th e following estimates

that may vary by as much as a factor of 2 or more.

Estimated annual operating costs are $20 per

short ton. The estima ted costs do not include cap-

ital recovery or the profit and risk components that

would be required to attract commercial investors

to an untried venture. Capital recovery alone over

20 years for a $71 million loan a t a 9 percent in-terest rate would add an additional $8 per short ton

of product, The current market price of compara-

ble phosphate rock is about $21 per short ton.

Hence, the potential for mining phosphorite in

Onslow Bay would not be immediately attractive

to comm ercial investors.

Table 5-8.—Offshore Phosphorite Mining, Onslow Bay, North Carolina:Capital and Operating Cost Estimates

Millions of dollarsCapital costs: Detailed exploration, metallurgical testing and feasibility studies . . . . . . . $ 4Mining and beneficiation vessel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41Transportation to shore (tugs and barges with capacity to deliver 20,000

cubic yards every 3 days) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16Loading, unloading, and storage installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Total capital costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $71

(million $/year) ($/ton product)Operating costs: Mining $ 9 $ 5 .00

Processing to 66°A bone phosphate of lime(BPL) offshore. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 7.00

Transport and handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 3.00Calcining to 68 percent BPL (31 percent phosphorous

pentoxide) onshore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 5.00

Total operating costs $34 $20.00SOURCE Off Ice of Technology Assessment, 1987




Table 5-9.—Scenario Comparisons: East Coast Placer

Bureau of Mines (January 1987) OTA

Deposit kind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ilmenite, rutile, zircon, etc. in old shorelines

Grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Approx. 5% economic heavy minerals byweight

Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .100 million short tons

Distance to shore unloadingpoint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 nautical miles

Maximum dredging depth .. ..150 feet

Annual mining capacity—tonnage dredged. . . . . . . . ..2.5 to 5.0 million short tons

Mining system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Domestic built new hopper dredge with anonboard new beneficiation plant

Mining system operatingd a y s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 5 0

Shore processing plant . . . . . . New, to produce saleable heavy mineralproducts

Capital costs (million $):Dredge . .................25.9 to 49.7Plant and other . ..........16.3 to 24.5To ta l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42 .2 to 74 .2

Direct cash operatingcosts $U.S. per short tondredged . . . . . . . . . . . . .....4.55 to 3.79

Comments (OTA’s) q Technically feasible but economicallymarginal for heavy mineral gradesassumed

q No estimate of accuracy of scenarioq Costs most sensitive to distance from

shore

Ilmenite, rutile, zircon, etc. in old shorelines

5 to 15% total heavy minerals (economic %heavy mineral not specified)

Not specified

100 nautical miles

120 feet

3.2 to 9.5 million short tons

Domestic built new hopper dredge withan onboard beneficiation plant

300

New, to produce saleable heavy mineralproducts

55 to 86

4.72 to 2.2

Q Accuracy of scenario not estimatedq Costs most sensitive to heavy mineral

gradeSOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987.




Table 5-10.—Scenario Comparisons: West Coast Placer


Deposit kind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chromite with minor titanium, zircon, andgold

Grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . >6% Cr2O 3 + .0048 oz. Au per short ton


Distance to shore unloadingpoint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 nautical miles


Annual mining capacity—tonnage dredged. . ........5,000,000 short tons

Mining system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Domestic built new hopper dredge

Mining system operatingdays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..250

Shore processing plant . . . . . . New, to produce saleable mineral products

Capital costs (million $):D r e d g e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1 . 4Plant and other . ..........44.3Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85.7

Direct cash operatingcosts $U.S. per short ton

dredged . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.42Comments (OTA’s) q Technically feasible but economically

marginal for heavy mineral grades andprices assumed

q No operating experienceq No estimate of accuracy

Chromite with insignificant amounts ofilmenite, rutile, and gold

6°/0 Cr2O3

Not specified

75 nautical miles

300 feet

4,500,000 short tons

Domestic built new hopper dredge

300

New, to produce saleable mineral products

40.017.057,0

4.00q Technically feasible but economically

marginal for heavy mineral grades andprices assumed

Ž No operating experience• No estimate of accuracy

SOURCE Off Ice of Technology Assessment, 1987

Table 5-11 .-Scenario Comparisons: Nome, Alaska Gold Placer


Deposit kind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Gold Placer

Grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..0.6 gram per yard3

Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35,000,000 yard3

Distance to shore unloadingpo in t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0 .5 to 5 mi les


Annual mining capacity—tonnage dredged. . ........1,632,000 yd 3

Mining system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Used seagoing bucket line dredge with fullgravity processing

Mining system operatingdays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

Shore processing plant . . . . . . Minimal for final cleaning of goldconcentrates

Capital costs (million $)Dredge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Plant and other . . . . . . . . . . .Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $9.1

Direct cash operating costs$U.S. per yard3 mined .. ...2.00

Comments (OTA’s) q Technically feasible and appearseconomically profitable

Gold Placer

0.35 to 0.45 gram per yard3

80,000,000 yard3

0.5 to 10 miles

90 feet

4,500,000 yd3

Used seagoing bucket line dredge with fullgravity processing

150

Minimal for final cleaning of goldconcentrates

510-1515-20

1.55

. Technically feasible and appearseconomically profitable

SOURCE” Off Ice of Technology Assessment, 1987




Table 5-12.—Scenario Comparisons: Onslow Bay and Tybee Island Phosphorite

Zellars-Williams (Tybee Island) (updated 1986) OTA (Onslow Bay)

Deposit kind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pebbles and sand

Grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11.1 percent P205


Distance to shore unloading

point . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......30 milesMaximum dredging depth .. ..100 feet

Annual mining capacity—tonnage dredged. . . . . . . . ..2.5-3.5 million short tons

Mining system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ocean-going cutter suction dredge withonboard screening and cycloning

Mining system operatingdays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 days

Shore processing plant . . . . . . Washing and sizing, flotation, calcining

Capital costs (million $)Dredge & offshore

processing ... ... ... ... .$ 17Transportation to shore . . . . 26Onshore processing . . . . . . . 113Other. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29Total ... ... ... ... ... ... ..$185

Cash operating costs $U.S.per short ton ... ... ... ... .$ 25

Comments (OTA’s) q Cash operating cost is break-even; Doesnot include profit and risk.

q Estimate considered “bestcase. ”

q Estimate may be off byfactor of two or more.

Sands

11.2 percent P2O5

Not specified

80 miles98 feet

6.9 million short tons

Trailing suction hopper dredge; onboardscreening, sizing, and flotation

300 days

Calcining only

$

$

$q

q

q

4116

—

1471

28

Cash operating cost is break-even; Doesnot include profit and risk.Does not include capital costs of existingonshore calcining plant.Estimate may be off by factor of twoor more




Chapter 6

Environmental Considerat ions



C O N T E N T S

Page

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...........215

Similar Effects in S ha llow an d Deep Wat er . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...222Surface Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .........................222

Water Column Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................222

Benthic Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................223

Alteration of Wave Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......224

Seasonal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................224Different Effects in Sh allow an d Deep Wat er . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..226

Surface Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......................,.226

Water Column Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................226

Benthic Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......................,,226

Shallow Water Mining Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........,.227

Deep Water Mining Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...............236

DOMES: The Deep Ocean Mining Environmental Study . . . . . . . . . . . ......,.236

Follow-Up to DOMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................239

Environmental Effects From Mining Cobalt Crusts . . . . . . . . . . ...............240

Gorda Ridge Task Force Efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..244

Boxes

Box Page

6-A. ICES—International Council for Exploration of the Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . ......228

6-B. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....,,..229

6-C. Project NOMES.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................230

6-D. New York Sea Grant Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...231

6-E . EPA/COE Cri ter ia for Dredged and F i l l Mater ia l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232

6-F . Deep Ocean Mining Environmental S tudy (DOMES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , .237

6-G. Cobalt Crust Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............243

6-H. Gorda Ridge Study Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...........245

Figures

Figure No. Page

6-1. The Vertical Distribution of Life in the Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . .................2166-2. Impacts of Offshore Mining on the Marine Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , .217

6-3. Spawning Areas for Selected Benthic Invertebrates and Demersal Fishes. ....220

6-4. Composite of Areas of Abundance for Selected Invertebrates Superimposed

Wi th K now n A reas o f H igh M inera l P o ten t i a l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . 221

6-5. The Effect of Discharge Angle and Water Current on the Shape and Depth

of Redeposited Sediments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . , . . .2356-6. Silt Curtain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ..,236

Ta b l e s

Table No. Page

6-1. Environmental Perturbations from Various Mining Systems . . . . , . . . , . . . . . .234

6-2. Summary of Environmental Concerns and Potential Significant Impacts of Deep-Sea Mining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................238



C h a p t e r 6

Envi ronmenta l Cons idera t ions

INTRODUCTION

Mineral deposits are found in many differentenvironment s ra nging from sha llow water (sand,

gravel, phosphorites, and placers) to deep water (co-

balt crusts, polymetallic sulfides, and manganese

nodules). These environments include both the

most biologically productive areas of the coastal

ocean as well as th e almost deser t-like conditions

of th e abyssa l plains . (See figur e 6-1. )

Given th is broad spectrum , it is har d to gener-

alize about the effects of offshore mining on the ma-

rine en vironment . However, a few gener ic prin ci-

ples can be stated.1As long as areas of importance

for fish spawning a nd n ursery grounds a re a voided,

s u r f a c e and m i d -w a t e r effects from either shallow

or deep water offshore mining should be minimal

and tra nsient. Benth ic effects (i. e., those at the

seafloor) will be the most pronounced for any min-ing activity in either shallow or deep water. Ani-

mals within the path of the mining equipment will

be destroyed; those nearby ma y be smothered by

the ‘‘rain of sediment’ returning to the seafloor.

Mining equipment can be designed to minimize

th ese effects. Bar ring very extens ive minin g sites

tha t ma y eliminate ent ire populations of benth icorganisms or cause extinctions of rare animals, neg-

ative impacts to the seafloor are reversible. Most

scientists believe that shallow water communities

would recover ra pidly from distu rban ce but th atrecolonization of deep sea areas would be very slow.

Becau se litt le offshore min ing is going on now,

the degree of environmental disturbance that any

particular commercial operation might create is dif-

ficult to characterize. Even areas that are dredged

frequently do not have the same level of disturbance

as a cont inuous mining operation. Neverth eless,

U.S. dredging experience is a u seful gauge of th e

potential for environmental impacts. In shallow

nearshore waters, a few sand, gravel, and shell min-

ing operations in the United States and Europe in-

dicat e possible impacts. In add ition, results of re-search in the United States and abroad offer insights

on th e effects of offshore minin g. These r esear ch

efforts include:

q

q

q

q

q

Th e

the Inter na tional Council for Explora tion of

the Sea (ICES) Report of the Working Group

on Effects on Fisheries of Marine Sand and

Gravel Extraction—box 6-A,

the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Dredge Ma-

terial Research Program (DMRP)—box 6-B,

th e New En gland Offshore Mining Environ-

mental Study (NOMES)—box 6-C,

Sea Grant Studies of Sand and Gravel in New

York Harbor—box 6-D, and

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin-

istration’s (NOAA) Deep Ocean Mining Envi-

ronmental Study (DOMES)—box 6-F.

Gorda Ridge Draft Environmental Impact

Statement, and the Cobalt Crust Draft Environ-

mental Impact Statement (see box 6-G) summarize

related research as well.

Similarities among the mining systems used for

deep water (2,500- 16,000 feet) and shallow water(less than 300 feet) suggest that the same general

types of impa cts will occur in both environmen ts.Any mining operat ion will alter t he sh ape of the

seafloor during the excavation process, destroy

organisms directly in th e pat h of operat ions, an d

produce a sediment plume over the seafloor from

the operation of the equipment.When the mined

material is sorted and separated at the ship, some

percentage will be discarded—very little in the case

of sand and gravel, a great deal for many other

seabed m inera ls—resu lting in a sur face ‘‘plume’

th at will slowly settle to th e bottom (see figure 6-

2). The duration and severity of plume effects on

the surface and water column depend on the grain-

size of the rejected material. Sand (i. e., particle sizes0.06 mm-1.0 mm. ) settles quickly; silts (.001-.06

‘These conclusions are for minin g alone. If an y at-sea pr ocessing

occurs, with subsequent chemical dum ping, guidelines ma y be totally

different

‘These sediment p lumes are the cqu ivalent of the dust clouds

produced by similar operations on land.

215



Ch. 6—Environmental Considerations . 217

Figure 6-2.—impacts of Offshore Mining on the Marine Environment

1

s .

. .

‘ . . . . . . - . , . , . . ., . . . . . . . . . .


72-672 0 - 87 -- 8




mm. ) and clays (finer t han .06 mm. ) remain in th ewater column for a much longer time.

It is not scientifically or economically possible to

develop very deta iled baseline informat ion on th eecology of all offshore environments in the near fu-

tu re; th e consequ ences of a va riety of mining sce-

narios cannot be precisely predicted. However, pre-

sumably environmental impact sta tements (EIS)

will be prepared to identify site-specific problems

prior to th e commencement of mining opera tions.Environmental impacts should also be monitoredduring a n a ctual mining operat ion. Areas where

offshore m ining is m ost likely to pose a n en viron-mental risk can be identified now or in the near

future using existing data. (e. g., see figure 6-4

showing ar eas of high biological p roductivity su-perimposed on a map, produced by the StrategicAssessment Branch of NOAA, depicting areas of

high mining potential. ) For shallow water environ-

ments, areas considered sensitive because of uniqueplant or a nimal species, spawning or n ursery ar eas,migration pathways, fragile coastline, etc., shouldbe prohibited from mining activities (see figure 6-

3); this appr oach is being pursued in the United

Kingdom and Canada and is one of the prime rec-

ommendations of the International Council for Ex-

ploration of the Seas (ICES) Working Group.

Analogues in nat ura l environments th at simu-late disturbances on the scale of a mining effort

should be investigated. For example, insight intothe response of the deep-sea to a mining operationcan be gained from studying deep-sea areas exposed

to natural periodic perturbations such as theHEBBLE

3(High En ergy Benthic Boun dar y Layer

Experiment) area.

In addition, when mining does proceed in either

shallow or deep water, at least two reference areas

should be maintained for sampling during the oper-

ation: one sufficiently removed from the impact

area to serve as a control, and one adjacent to themining area.

3D. Thistle 1981, ‘‘Nat ura l Physical Disturba nces and Commun i-

ties of Marine Soft Bottoms, ” Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 6: 223-228, and

B. Hecker, “Possible Benthic Fauna and Slope Instability Relation-

ships, ” Marine Slides and Other Mass Movements, S. Saxov and

J. K. Nieuwenhu is (eds. ), Plenum Publishing Corp., 1982.

Shallow water effects are better understood thandeep water effects because nearsh ore areas havebeen studied in detail for a longer time. A great

deal is known about the environment and plant and

animal communities in shallow water areas. Butthere has been no commercial mining and much

less is known about ecology in deep-sea areas where

manganese-cobalt crusts, manganese nodules, andpolymetallic sulfides occur. H owever, th ere a ppearsto be remarkable uniformity in the mechanisms that

control deep-sea environments, so that informationgleaned from one area in the deep-sea can be usedto make predictions about others; shallow waterenvironments on the other hand, differ significantly

from site to site.

One area of shallow water research tha t r equiresattention is coastline alteration. Sand, gravel, and

placer mining in nearshore areas may aggravate

shore erosion by alter ing waves and t ides. A site-

specific study would have to be done for each shal-low water mining operation to ensure wave climates

ar e not cha nged. New theories about wave action

suggest t ha t, cont ra ry to previous scient ific opin-ion, water depth may be a poor indicator of subse-

quent erosion. The relative importance of differ-

ent kinds of seafloor alterations on coastline

evolution needs to be clarified. For example, what

is the effect of a one-time, very large-scale sediment

removal (e. g., at Gran d Isle, Louisian a, for beachreplenishment over a several mile area) versus

cumulative scraping of a small amount over a verylong per iod (such as decades).

The information most needed to advance under-standing of the deep-sea is even more basic. The

research commun ity needs more a nd better sub-

mersibles to adequately study the deepsea benthos.

Currently, there is a 2-year time-lag between re-

search gran t a pproval an d available time on oneof the two U.S.-owned deepsea submersibles avail-

able to the scientific community. Deep-sea biotaneed to be identified and scientifically classified. Up

to 80 percent of the animals obtained from the few

samples recovered have never been seen before.4

It will be impossible to monitor change in a nima l

communities without systematic survey of these

populations. Research funding is needed to develop

‘B. Hecker, Lament-Doherty Geological Observato~, OTA Work-

shop on Environmental Concerns, Washington, D. C., Oct. 29, 1986,



the taxonomy of deepsea creatures. Improvements

in navigational capabilities are needed; in order to

conduct ‘ ‘before and after’ studies, it is important

to return to the exact area sampled.

A compendium of available studies and the data

produced on both shallow and deep water environ-

ments is sorely needed. Unfortu nat ely, a great deal

of resea rch on environm ent al impa cts to offshore

areas, performed for particular agencies and insti-

tutions, has never appeared in peer-reviewed liter-

ature. These studies may be quite useful in de-scribing both the una ltered an d alter ed offshore

environment and may be directly applicable to pro-

posed mining scenar ios. An annotated bibliogra-phy summarizing all the information that went into

th e compilat ions of MMS Task Forces (see boxes

6-G and 6-H), DMRP, DOMES —see box 6-F,

NOMES—see box 6-C, and Informat ion from t he

Offshore En vironmenta l Studies P rogram of theDepartment of Interior developed in conjunction

with developing EISS for Oil and Gas Planning

Areas would be invaluable. The combined research

budgets represented by these efforts is hundreds of millions of dollars. Such data collection could not

be duplicated by the private and academic sectorsin this century. New research efforts—which tend

to be quite modest in compa rison—would ben efit

from easy access to this wealth of information.

An important effort to collect available biologi-

cal and chemical data and screen them for quality

control is underway in the Strategic AssessmentBranch of NOAA. Since 1979, NOAA has been




Figure 6-3.—Spawning Areas (June-September) for Selected Benthic invertebrates and Demersal Fishes

Number of species

This computer-generated map of the Bering, Chukchi, Beaufort Seas area of Alaska shows how information about various speciescan be combined to develop pictures of offshore areas (in this case, spawning areas) where mining activities may be detrimental.

SOURCE: Strategic Assessment Branch, NOAA,

Small crangonid shrimps (Crangon communis, C. dalli,C. septemspinosa)

Northern Pink Shrimp (Panda/us borealis)Sidestripe Shrimp (Pandalopsis dispar)Humpy Shrimp (Pandalus goniuris)Pandalid shrimp (Pandalus tridens)Opossum shrimp (Mysis relicta)Korean Hair Crab (Erimacrus isenbeckii)Red King Crab (Paralithodes camtschatica)

Golden King Crab (Lithodes aequispina)Blue King Crab (Paralithodes platypus)Bairdi Tanner Crab (Chionoecetes bairdi)

Pacific Cod (Gadus macrocephalus)Walleye Pollock (Theragra chalcogramma)Yellowfin Sole (Limanda aspera)Alaska Plaice (Pleuronectes quadrituberculatus)Greenland Turbot (Reinhardtius hippoglossoides)Rock Sole (Lepidopsetta bilineata)Arrowtooth Flounder (Atheresthes stomias)Flathead Sole (Hippoglossoides elassodon)Pacific Halibut (Hippoglossus stenolepis)



Ch. 6—Environmental Considerations . 221

Figure 6-4.–Composite of Areas of Abundance for Selected Invertebrates Superimposed WithKnown Areas of High Mineral Potential

Known Potent ial

2

3

Composite of Areas of Abundance for Selected Benthic Invertebrates

Number of Species

s -1; u - 2,3; q -4,5; s -6,7,8

NOTES: Map constructed by areas of abundance (i.e., major adult areas and major adult concentrations) frOm maps of species indicated Boundaries havebeen smoothed Areas depict the number of Individual species with high abundance; they do not necessarily reflect the distribution of total biomass

Species included: Small Crangonid Shrimp (Crangon communis, C. dalli), Large crangonid shrimp (Argis dentata, Sclerocrangon boreas), Northern Pink Shrimp, Korean Hair Crab, Red King Crab, Golden King Crab, Blue King Crab, Bairdi Tanner Crab, OpilioTanner Crab, Chalky Macoma, Greenland Cockle, Iceland Cockle.

SOURCE: Strategic Assessment Branch, NOAA

compiling dat abases on coasta l areas and the Ex- used to identify potential conflicts among the mul-

clusive Economic Zone (EEZ) (see Ch. 7 for more tiple uses of resources with given offshore areas (see

information on this pr ogram). These data are be- figures 6-3 and 6-4).ing used to develop a series of atlases and can be




SIMILAR E FF ECTS IN SHALLOW AND DEE P WATER

S u r fa ce E f f ec t s might lead to changes in productivity or changes

The surface plume created by the rejection orin species composition.

loss of some of the min ed ma ter ial or th e disposal

of unused material could cause a number of effectson the phytoplankton (minute plant life) commu-

nity and on primary production.5In the short term,

reduction of available light in and beneath the

plume may decrease photosynthesis. Nutrients

originally contained in the bottom sediments but

introduced to the surface waters may stimulate

phytoplankton productivity. Long-term plume ef-

fects from long-ter m cont inua l mining operat ions

5A. T. Chan and G. C. Anderson, “Environmental Investigation

of the Effects of Deep-Sea Mining on Marin e and Pri-

mar y Productivity in t he Tropical Ea stern North P acific Ocean, Ma-

rine Mining, vol 3. ( 1981), No. 1/2, pp. 121-150.

W a ter C o lu m n E f f ec t s

High particulate concentrations in the water

column can adversely affect the physiology of both

swimming and st ationary animals,6altering their

growth rate and reproductive success. Such stresses

may lead to a decrease in the number of species,7

a decrease in biomass (weight/unit area), and/or

‘D. C. Rhoads, and D. K. Young, “The Influence on Sediment Sta-

bility and Commun ity Structur e, ” of Marine Re-

search, No. 28 (1970), pp. 150-178.7R. W. Grigg and “Some Ecological Effects of Dis-

charged Wastes on Marine Life, California Fish and Game, No.

56 (1970), 145-155.


A surface plume of turbidity is produced when a dredge discharges material overboard. The extent, duration, and negativeimpacts of such a plume depend on the size and composition of the rejected material. Larger particles will settle out

quickly and the plume will rapidly disperse. Very fine sediments may remain suspended for several days.




Photo credit” A Crosby Longwell, National Marine Fisheries Service

by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers su ggests t hatconcern with wat er dept h a lone m ay n ot be suffi-

cient to avoid beach erosion21 22

and that detailedon-site modeling should be considered in pre-plan-

ning analysis. For example, the U.S. Army Corps

of Engineers of the New Orleans District built a

beach a nd du ne on Gra nd Isle, Louisiana for ero-

sion cont rol in 1983. The pr oject requ ired 2.8 mil-lion cubic yards of sand obtained by digging two

large borrow holes one-half mile offshore (about

twice this amount was actually dredged to achieve

th e design section). Shortly after completion, cus-

pate sa nd bar s began to form on the leeward side

of the dredged holes and the beach began to erode

adjacent t o the newly formed ba rs. During th e win-

ter and spring of 1985, heavy storms exacerbated

the a reas of beach loss adjacent to the cuspate bar s

(e.g., see opposite page) .23

This unexpected re-

sponse of beach form at ion a nd er osion a s a resu ltof altered wave patterns around the borrow areasillustrates the importance of site-specific assessment

before mining large volumes of sediment from theseafloor.

Atlantic mackerel eggs sorted out of plankton fromsurface waters of the New York Bight.

S e a s o n a l

A l t era t ion o f Wave Pat terns

Mining in sh allow water may chan ge the formand physiography of th e seafloor. Wave pat tern smay be altered as a result of removing offshore bars

or shoals or digging deep pits. When changes in

wave patterns and wave forces affect the shoreline,coastal beaches can erode and structures can be

dama ged. The best example of these da ngers oc-

curr ed in th e United Kingdom in t he ear ly 1900s

when the town of Hallsands in Devon was severely

damaged by wave action following large scaleremoval of offshore sandbars to build the Plymouth

breakwater (see photograph). Coastal erosion is

now the first consideration in the United Kingdom

before mining takes place; dredging is limited to

area s deeper th an 60 feet. This criterion is based

on studies that imply sediment transport is unlikely

at depths greater than 45 feet; the additional 15 feetwere added as an extra precaution .20 Current work

ZIJR, w, Dr l n n an an d D.C, Bliss, The U.K. Experience on the Ef-

fects of Offshore Sand and Grave] Extraction on Coastal Erosion and

the Fishing Industry j Nova Scotia Department of Mines and Energy,

Open File Report 86-054.

During certain times of the year, e.g., when eggs

and larvae are abundant, the effects of offshore min-

ing may have a more negative impact on the ocean

community than at other times. Juvenile stages of fish and shellfish are transported by water currents

and therefore are less able to actively avoid adverse

conditions. They are generally more susceptible to

high concentra tions of suspended sediments t han

swimming organisms that can avoid such conditions.

For example, striped bass larvae in the Chesapeake

Bay develop more slowly when par ticulat e levels

are high.24

Therefore, restricting offshore mining

J1 ~a n pope, u, S. Army Corps of E n g i n e e r s T OTA Workshop on

Environmental Concerns, Washington, D. C., Oct. 29, 1986.

22R.J . Hallermeier, A Profile Zonation for Seasonal Sand Beaches

from Wave Climate, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Reprint 81-3

(Fort Belvoir, VA: Coastal Engineering Research Center, April 1981).23A.J. Combe and C. W. Soileau, “Behavior of Man-made Beach

and Dune, Grand Isle, Louisiana, ” Coasrzd Sedim ent ’87, 1987, p.

1232.z4.4, H , Au]d an d J. R. Schubel , ‘‘ Effects of Suspen ded Sed iment

on Fish Eggs and Larvae: A Laboratory Assessment, Estuar ine an d

Coastal Ma rine S cience, No. 6 (1978), pp. 153-164.



Ch. 6—Environmental Considerations q 225

Photo credit’ Jay US. Army Corps of Engineer

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers of the New Orleans District built a beach and dune on Grand Isle, Louisiana for beacherosion control, recreation, and hurricane wave damage protection (Aug. 14, 1984).

The two offshore borrow areas from which the sand was obtained, were of sufficient width, depth, and proximity to theshore to modify wave climate. Over the next 3 years, cuspate sand bars formed in the lee of the borrow pits while erosion

occurred adjacent to these bars (Aug. 9, 1985).

s

A series of hurricanes between 1984-85 severely eroded areas immediately adjacent to and between the cuspate barsdestroying total beach and dune fill over one-seventh of the project length (Oct. 28, 1985). Plans to restore and modify

the project to improve its resistance to damage in future hurricanes are essentially complete.



226 qMarine Minerals: E x p l o r i n g O u r N e w O c e a n F r o n t i e r

seasonally as environmental concerns warrant may marine species dependent on a par t icular substra teprotect biota during sensitive stages of devel- type (e. g., salmon and herring).

25

opment.

Permanently changing the topography of the25S,J. de Groot, “The Potential Environmental Impact of Marine

Gravel Extraction in the North Sea, ” Ocean Management, No. 5

seafloor may disrupt the spawning patterns of some (1979), pp. 233-249.

DIFFERENT EFFECTS IN SHALLOW AND DEEP WATER

While the potential environmental impacts of

mining operat ions in sh allow water a re similar to

those in deep water, the effects may be more obvi-

ous in shallow areas an d ma y have a m ore direct

effect on human activities. Many of the organisms

on t he continen ta l shelf and in coast al waters a re

linked to humans through the food chain; decreased

anima l productivity may h ave an adverse economiceffect as well as an undesirable environmental ef-

fect in these nearshore areas (see figure 6-2).

Sur face Ef fec t s

Surface plumes are of more concern in nearshore

shallow water areas than they are in deeper areas.

In the open ocean, plankton productivity is lower

and populations extend over huge geographic

scales. The effects of a localized mining operation

on th e sur face biota , ther efore, will be less in th e

offshore situation. Visual and aesthetic effects frommining operations an d wast e plumes a lso will be

less appa rent far offshore.

Wa t e r Co l u mn E f f e c t s

High metal concentra tions can redu ce the ra te

of primar y production by phytoplank ton a nd can

alter species composit ion and succession of

phytoplankton communities26

Several factors actsimultaneously to reduce the likelihood of adverse

effects from metals released during mining opera-

tions in shallow water. Water over the continental

shelf contains higher concentrations of particulate

matter (and organic chelating agents) which con-

vert the dissolved (ionic) metals into insoluble forms

that are unavailable to plankton27

While no studies

have yet identified metal contamination of the water

column to be a serious consequence of seabed min-

26Thomas a n d Siebert, ‘‘Effect of Copper. ‘‘

27 Huntsman and Sunda, “The Role of Trace Metals. ”

ing, the potential for metal persistence is greater

in th e deep-sea.

Benth ic Ef fec t s

Coastal waters are subject to continual wave ac-

tion and seasonal changes, and t he species foundhere are adapted to such conditions. The fine par-

ticulates stirred by mining operations may be sim-ilar to sediment resuspended by strong wave action

in shallow water. In coastal areas, surface-livingforms have been found to tolerate 2 inches of sedi-

ment deposition, sediment-dwelling animals (infauna)10 to 12 inches, and deeper burrowing bivalves 4

to 20 inches.28

On the other ha nd, animals accus-

tomed to the relatively quiescent deep ocean envi-ronment may be less resilient to disruption of their

habitat or blanketing by particulates. Since deep-sea animals live in an environment where natural

sedimenta tion rat es are on t he order of millimeters

per thousand years, they are assumed to have onlyvery limited burrowing abilities. Thus, even a thin

layer of sedimen t ma y kill th ese organ isms. *g In

general, if the r esident fauna on a n a rea of the shal-low seafloor are buried, the communit y will gen-

erally recover more quickly than in the deep-sea.

Populations of animals directly within the min-ing path will be destroyed. Dredged areas in shal-

low seafloor are buried, the community will recover

more quickly tha n in the deep-sea.

Zsconsoljdated Gold Fields Australia Ltd. and ARC Marine Ltd.,

Marine Aggregate Project, Environmental Impact Statement, vol. 1,

February 1980.zgP . A. Jumars and E.D. Gallagh er, ‘‘Deep-Sea Commun ity Str uc-

ture: Three Plays on the Benth ic Proscenium, The Environment

of the Deep Sea, Rubey Volume 11 , W.G. Ernst and J.G. Morin (eds. )

(Englewood Cliffs, NJ: 1982); and P.A, Jumars , “Limits in Predict-

ing and Detecting Benth ic Community Responses to Manganese N od-

ule Mining, ” Marine Mining, vol 3. (1981), No. 1/2, pp. 213-229.



CH. 6—Environmental Considerations . 227

Photo credit: Paul Rodhouse, British Antarctic Survey

Mussels, like many benthic marine organisms, filtertheir food. Sediments discharged from dredging

vessels or stirred up by mining activities may clogfeeding and respiratory surfaces of these animals orcompletely bury populations.

cies.30 31

Animal populat ions i n f i n e -g r a i n e d s e d i -

ments appear to recover m ore r apidly than those in

coarse-grained sediments, which may require up to

3 years for recovery. 3 2 R e co l o n i z a t i o n r a t e s i n t h e

deep sea are not known with any certainty, but they

appear to be long —on the order of years—in areas

not subject to periodic disturbance.

33-36

Deep-seabenthic communities are areas of high species diver-

sity, few individuals, slow recolonization rates, and

questionable resilience. Shallow water benthic com-

munities may have either high or low diversity, usu-

ally with large numbers of individuals, fast recoloni-

zation, and resilience to physical disturbance.

T Derailed . .

Technical Report prepa red for Army Corps of Engin eers Of-

fice, Chief of Engineers, Washington, D. C., December 1978.3*D. Thistle, “Natu ral Physical Disturbances and Commun ities of

Marine Soft Bottoms, Marin e Program No.

(1981), 223-228.32

Saucier et al., p. 75.et a]. , of Deep S ea Dredging,

Report to National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, No-

vember 1986.34C. R. Smith, ‘ ‘Food for t he Deep Sea : Utilizat ion, Dispersal, a nd

Flux of Nekton Falls at the San ta Cat alina Basin Floor, ” Deep-Sea

Research, vol. 32, No.F, ‘ ‘Slow Recolonization of Deep-Sea Sedimen t, Na-

ture, No. 265 ( 1977), pp. 618-619.“J . F. “Diversity an d Populat ion Dynam ics of

O r g a n i s m s , No. 21 (1978), pp. 42-45.

SHALLOW WATER MINING EXP ER IENCE

Since little mining has taken place offshore of the

United States 37, any discussion of the environ-

mental impacts must rely heavily on the European

experience. This experience is sum ma rized in the

documents of the International Council for the Ex-

ploration of the Seas (ICES—see box 6-A). Addi-

tionally, the very extensive experience of U.S.Arm y Corps of Engineers in lifting, redepositing,

37 gravel mining in the Ambrose Chan-

nel of New York Harbor and a gold mining operation off Nome,

Alaska, (see 5).

and monitoring sediments from dredging opera-

tions pr ovides insight s int o the effects of sha llow

water mining. In particular, the 5-year Dredged

Material Research Program (DMRP) (see box 6-

B) attempted to cover all types of environmentalsettings offshore, The information gathered is rele-

vant to the activities involved in mining sand andgravel or placer deposits. Finally, there are two

regional efforts—The New England Offshore Min-

ing Environmental Study (NOMES) (see box 6-

C), and Sea Grant studies in New York Harbor




( s e e b o x 6 - D ) t h a t e x a m i n e d n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g

p o p u l a t i o n s o f o r g a n i s m s o n t h e s e a f l o o r i n t h e

n o r t h e a s t e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s w h e r e s h a l l o w w a t e r

m in ing opera t ions a re l i ke ly to t ake p l ace . G uide -l ines have been es tabl ished by EPA and the Corps

of Engineers (see box 6-E) for tes t ing the impacts

o f dum ping d redged m ate r i a l w h ich m ay , i n tu rn ,p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t e f f e c t s o f c o n c e r n f r o m

r e j e c t e d m i n i n g m a t e r i a l .

T he U .S . A rm y C orps o f E ng inee r s r epor t s sug-

ges t t ha t conce rns abou t w a te r qua l i ty degrada t ion

f rom the r e suspens ion o f d redged m ate r i a l a r e , fo r

t h e m o s t p a r t , u n f o u n d e d . G e n e r a l l y , o n l y m i n i -

mal chemical and biological impacts f rom dredg-

ing and disposal have been observed over the short-

t e r m

38

. M os t o rgan i sm s s tud ied w ere r e l a t ive ly in -sens i t i ve to the e f f ec t s o f sed im ent suspens ions o r

t u r b i d i t y . R e l e a s e o f h e a v y m e t a l s a n d t h e i r u p -

M R , A. Geyer (cd.), Marjne Environmental Pollution, D u m p i n g

and Mining, Elsevier Oceanography Series 27B (Amster dam-Oxford,

New York: Elsevier Science Publishing Co., 1981).

take in to organism t i ssues have been rare . Th

c lus ion o f t he D redged M ate r i a l R esea rch P r(DMRP) is that b io log ica l cond i t ions o f m os t s ha l -

low wa ter a r eas — ar eas o f h igh wave ac t ion—appear to be in f luenced to a m uch gr ea ter ex ten t

b y n a t u r a l v a r i a t i o n i n t h e p h y s i c a l a n d c h e m i c a l

e n v i r o n m e n t t h a n t h e y a r e b y d r e d g i n g o r d r i l l i n g .

T h e N O M E S a n d S e a G r a n t s t u d i e s c o r r o b

t h e C or p s o f E n g i n e e r ’s f in d i n g , t h a t i n s h

w a t e r , t h e r e i s m u c h n a t u r a l v a r i a t i o n i n b o

d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d a b u n d a n c e o f s p e c i e s o n t

a l t e r ed sea f loor ; t hese l a t t e r s tud ies conc lu

i t i s imposs ib le to general ize about the e f fects o f

m i n i n g o n a l l s h a l l o w w a t e r e n v i r on m e n t s g iv en t h e

t r em endous var iab i l i t y f r om s i t e to s i t e . This con-

clusion suggests that , i f a mined area is com

w i t h a n u n m i n e d a r e a , c h a n g e s d u e t o t h e i n g m i g h t n o t b e s t a t i s t i c a l l y d e t e c t a b l e b e

e i t h e r :

q t h e m i n i n g r e a l l y h a d a m i n i m a l i m p a c t

q the t remendous var iabi l i ty between s i tes m

t h e c h a n g e s t h a t o c c u r r e d a t t h e m i n i n g



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Ch. 6—Environmental Considerations 231

column appears to cause only local and minor re-

ductions in plankton productivity. The abundance

and types of species found on the bottom alsochange.41 When the substr at e type is chan ged due

to th e dredging a ctivities (e. g., removal of gravel-.or a sa nd la yer on top of ‘bed-rock) then adver seeffects may be persistent .42 The benthic commu-

‘lS.J . de Groot, Bibliography of Literature Dealing with the E f-

fm t s of Mm”ne Sand and Gravel Extraction on Fisheries (The Nether-

lands: International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, Marine

Environmental Quality Committee, 1981); de Groot, “The Poten-

tial Environmenta l Impact of Marine Gravel Extraction in the North

Sea. ”4zIn temat ion~ Council for the Exploration of the Sea, S econd R e-

port of the ICES Working Group on Effects on Fisheries of Marine

Sand and Grave] Extraction, Cooperative Research Report No. 64,

nities that are established in the area after remov-

ing the top layers may differ significantly from the

prior communities.43

Of great concern t o the Eur opean commu nity

is the potential detrimental effects of mining on

commercial fisheries. Removal of gravel in herring

(Charlottenlund, Denmark: ICES, April 1977); International Coun-

cil for the Exploration of the h , Marine Environmental Quality Com-

mittee, Report of the ZCES Working Group on Effmts on Fishen’es

of Marine Sand and Gravel Extraction, (Charlotterdund, Denmark:

ICES, 1979).43A. p. Cressard ~d C. P. Augris, ‘‘French Shelf Sand a nd Gravel

Regulat i~s , Proceedings of the Offshore Technology Conference,

OTC 4292, 1982.




spawning areas or on sandban ks where sand eelshide at night adversely affects these fisheries 44.

While direct nega tive effects of dredgin g on adu lt

fish stocks has not been clearly demonstrated, these

concerns remain. To protect fishing interests, ICES

proposed a “Code of Practice. ’45

Elements of this

code have been adopted by France and the United

Kingdom. The code requires that the exact bound-

aries of the mining area and the amount and thick-ness of the sediment layer to be removed be speci-

fied. In addition, the expected condition of the

seabed after completion of dredging operations

must be described, including the amount of gravel

remaining to enable herring to spawn.

441t i5 st~ not ICIIOWI why herring select a specific spawning ground

or what the selection criteria are for sand eel (Ammodytes) in their

choice of a specific bank in which to dig.451n temat ion~ Councti for the Exploration of the Sea .

From the U.S. and European work discussed

above, it appears that there are three ways to min-

imize the environmental effect of mining operationsin near -shore areas, na mely:

1.

2.

3.

identify and avoid environmentally sensitive

ar eas with regard to biota , spawning area s,migration, currents, coastline erosion, etc.;

where mining does occur, use dredging equip-

ment th at minimizes destru ction of the bot-

tom as well as production of both surface and

bottom pa rticulate benth ic plumes; and

effectively restore the site to its original pre-

minin g condition —mine and ‘‘reclaim’ the

area by smoothing seafloor gouges and replac-ing removed sediment with a similar type and

grain-size. (Note: While this option may be

feasible in certain cases, it is expensive and

ener gy-int ensive. Becau se little inform at ion




Table 6-1.—Environmental Perturbations from Various Mining Systems

Mining method Seabed Water column

Mining Mining Fragmentation/ Turbidity Suspended Dissolved

approaches systems collection Excavation plume Resedimentation Subsidence particulate substances

Scraping Drag line dredge q q q q q

Trailing cuttersuction dredge q q * q * q * q

Rock cutter section

dredge

q q q q q

Crust-miner q q * q q

Continuous linebucket

q q q q q

Clams shell bucketq q * q q

Bucket ladderdredge

q q q q q

Bucket wheeldredge q q * q * q * q

Excavating Anchored suctiondredge

q q * q * q * q

Cutterhead suctiondredge

q q q q q

Drilling and blasting q *

Tunneling Shore entryq

beneath Artificial island entryq

seafloorFluidizing Slurrying

q

(sub-seafloor) Leaching

“ Applicable or potentially applicable.“ qRelative major perturbation.

SOURCE: Errvirorrrnental Effects Llocumerrt prepared by U.S. Department of the Interior Regulatory Task Force for Leasing of Minerals Other than Oil, Gas, and SulphurIn the Outer Continental Shelf, unpublished draft, October 1986.

out overflow. The bucket dredge and the hopper

dredge with overflow, however, produce suspended

sediments throughout the water column. The mod-

ified dustpan dredge appears to suspend more solids

than a conventional butterhead dredge .53

A typical bucket dredge operation produces a

plume of particulate extending about 1,000 feetdowncurrent at the surface and about 1,600 feet

near the bottom .54

In the immediate vicinity of theoperation, the maximum concentration of sediment

suspended at the su rface should be less tha n 500

mg/l an d sh ould rapidly decrease with dista nce.

Water colum n concent ra tions genera lly should be

less than 100 mg/l.55

When mining stops, the tur-

bidity plume will settle rapidly.

The dispersion of a turbidity plume can be ef-

fectively alter ed by th e configura tion of th e pipe-

5sFor more information on dredge designs, see Ch . 4.

WW, D, Barnard, P&jctjon and Control of Dredged Material Dis-

persion Around Dredging and Open Water Pipeline DisposaJ Oper-

ations, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicks-

burg, MS, Technical Report DS-78-13, August 1978.55 Sediment suspended b y a dredge is similar to the amount of dis-

turbance produced by a small-scale storm.

line at the point of discharge (see figure 6-5).56

Pipe-

line an gles tha t minimize water column tur bidity

(e.g., with a 90-degree angle) produce mud mounds

that are thick but cover a minimum area. Con-

versely, those that generate the greatest turbidity

in th e water column disperse widely and producerelatively thin mud mounds of maximum areal ex-

tent .57

Many parameters, such as particle settling rates,dischar ge rat e, water depth, current velocities, and

th e diffusion velocity, all int era ct to cont rol th e size

and shape of the turbidity plume. As water cur-ren t speed increa ses, the plum e will grow longer.

As the dredge size increases or particle settling rates

decrease, the plume size will tend to increase58. Fi-

nally, with lower rates of dispersion or particle set-

M J . R. Schubel et al. , Field Znvescigations of the Nature, Degree,

and Extent of Turbidity Generated by Open Water Pipeline Disposal

Operations , U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station,

Technical Report, Vicksburg, MS, D-78-30, July 1978.57 A gener~ ~]e of thum b is that, as t he height of the redeposited

mound decreases by a factor of two, the a r e a l coverage increases by

a factor of two. But as the mound height decreases, the amount of

wave-induced resuspension of the surface mat erial will also decrease.5gIn addjtjon, as the diffusion ve]ocity increases fOr a given current

velocity, the plume becomes longer and wider, while the solids con-

centrations in the plume decrease.




Figure 6-5.—The Effect of Discharge Angle and Water Current on the Shape and Depth of Redeposited Sediments

Vertical discharge Horizontal discharge

If mining ships discharge unwanted sediments through a vertical pipe (left portion of diagram) seafloor deposits will covera smaller area but to a greater depth than if a horizontal discharge pipe is used (right side of diagram) which results in a largebut thin “footprint” of sediments. The movement of water current (bottom of diagram) will similarly expand the area of theseafloor blanketed by sediment but decrease the depth of the deposit overall.

SOURCE: Modified from W. Barnard, “Prediction and Control of Dredged Material Dispersion Around Dredging and Open Water Pipeline Disposal Operations,” U.S.Army Corps Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, Technical Report DS 7S-13, August 1979.

tling or a n increase in water depth, the length of extends vertically from the water surface to a speci-

time required for t he plume to dissipate a fter t he fied depth around the area of discharge. At present,

disposal opera tion ha s ceased will increa se. silt curt ains h ave limited u sefulness; they ar e notrecommen ded for ( ‘operat ions in th e open ocean ,

One method for physically controlling the dis- in currents exceeding one knot, in areas frequently

persion of turbid water is a ‘‘silt curtain. ” (see fig- exposed to high winds and large breaking waves,

ure 6-6). A silt curt ain is a tur bidity barr ier tha t or around hopper or butterhead dredges where fre-




Figure 6-6.—Silt Curtain

, PIPELINE

BOTTOM SEDIMENT

SOURCE: Modified from US. Army Corps of Engineers, ‘(Executive Overview and

Detailed Summary, ” Synthesis of Research Results, DMRP Program,U.S. Army Corps Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg,MS, Technical Report DS 78-22, December 1978.

quent curtain movement would be necessary. ’59

Once environmental effects are better defined, engi-

neering techniques can be developed to address

them. For example, J apan ese indu stry ha s devel-

oped a system that may reduce turbidity in the

surface layers of the water column when sediment

is discarded. Air bubbles entrained in the water

dur ing dredge filling and overflow exacerbate t he

surface turbidity plume associated with hydraulic

hopper dredging. A system, called the “Anti-

Turbidity Overflow System” employed by the

Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Industries Company,

Ltd., (IHI) reportedly separates air from the waterprior to overflow. According to IHI data, the re-

sult is a clear water column and, presumably, a

smaller area of fine sediment at the dredge site

caused by particles tha t sett le rapidly.

SgBarnard, PmdiC[;on a nd Control of Dredged Material Dispersion,

p. 87.

DEE P WATER MINING STUDIES

In t he deep-sea, t he a bundan ce of animal life de-

creases with increasing depth an d distan ce from

land. Deep-sea animals are predominantly re-

stricted to th e sur face of the seafloor and the up-

per few inches of the bottom. Species, especially

smaller-sized organisms, are incompletely cata-

logued at present, a nd little informa tion is avail-

able on t heir life cycles. The den sity of anima ls is

low but diversity may be high. In these regions,

the low total n umber of anima ls is thought t o re-

flect the restricted food supply, which comes fromeither residues raining into the deep sea from above

or from in s i tu production.60

All estimates of the environmental impacts of

deepsea mining draw heavily on information from

the Deep Ocean Mining Environmental Study(DOMES), the only systematic long-term research

program conducted in very deep water. Justifica-

tion for extrapolating from these deep-sea sites to

others rests on the hypothesis that, in general, the

abyssa l ocean is a mu ch more homogeneous envi-

ronment than shallow water environments.

DOMES : De e p Oc e a n Mi n i n g

E n v i r o n m e n t a l S t u d y

DOMES was a comprehensive 5-year (1975-80)

research program funded by NOAA. The goal was

to develop an environmental database to satisfy the

National Environmental Policy Act requirements

to assess the potential environmental impacts of

man ganese n odule recovery operations.G* During

the first phase of DOMES, the environmental con-

ditions in th e designat ed mangan ese nodule areaof th e Pa cific Ocean (i. e., the DOMES a rea ) were

characterized to provide a background against

which mining-produced perturbations could be later

compared. These baseline studies were carried out

at three sites that covered the range of environ-

mental parameters expected to be encountered dur-

ing mining (see box 6-F).

The minin g scena rio presum ed removal of nod-

ules from t he deep seabed by mean s of a collector

(up to 65 feet wide) pulled or driven along the

seabed at about 2 miles per hour. Animals on th e

60 Deep . Wa biomass often correlates with p r ima Iy productivity above;

areas beneath low productivity subtropical waters may be an order

of magnitude lower in biomass per unit area than at high latitudes.

G IU . S. Depar tment of Commerce, NOAA OffIce of Ocean Minerals

and Energy, Deep Seabed Mining, Final Programmatic Environmental

Impact Statement , vol . 1, (Washington, D. C. : Department of

Commerce, September 1981).



Table 6-2.—Summary of Environmental Concerns and Potential Significant impacts of Deep-Sea Mining

Potential significance of biological impact

Disturbance Potential biological impacts Probability of OverallInitial conditions Physico-chemical effects (remaining concerns in italics) occurrence Recovery rate Consequence significance

collector q

q

q

Scour and compact Destroy benthic fauna in amount

sediments near collector track

Light and sound Attraction to new food supply

Certain Unknownc Adverse Unavoidable*

(uncertainsignificance)

None

Unknown”

Unknown

Unknown*

None

None

None

Unlikely Unknown(probably rapid)

Uncertain

Benthic plume Increased sedimentation q

rate and increased sus-pended matter (“rain offines”)

Effect on Benthos —Covering of food supply

—Clogging of respiratory sur-faces of filter feeders

—Blanketing

Increased food supply forbenthosTrace metals uptake byzooplanktonLower dissolved oxygenfor organisms to utilize;mortality from anaerobicconditions

Likely

Likely

Unknownc

(probably slow)Unknown

c

(probably slow)

Adverse

Adverse

Certain

Unlikely

Unlikely

Unlikely

Unknownc

(probably slow)

Rapidd

Adverse

Possibly beneficial

No detectable

No detectableeffect

q

qNutrient/trace metalincrease

9 Oxygen demand

Rapid

Rapid

Surface discharge Particulate q Increased suspended q

particulate matterEffect on zooplankton —Mortality Unlikely Rapid

d No detectableeffect

bNone

No detectable Noneeffect b

Locally adverse Low*Possibly beneficial None

—Change in abundance and/orspecies composition

—Trace metal uptake —Increased food supply due to

introduction of benthic bioticdebris and elevated microbialactivity due to increased sub-strate

Effect on adult fish

Effect on fish larvae

Unlikely Rapidd

Rapidd

Rapidd

UnlikelyUnlikely

Unlikely

Uncertain (low)

Unlikely

Unlikely

Certain

Very low

Very low

Very low

Very low

q

q

q

q

q

q

q

q

q

Rapidd No detectable

effectb

Uncertain

None

Low*

None

Low

Low

None

None

None

None

Uncertain(probably rapid)RapidOxygen demand Low dissolved oxygen for

organisms to useEffect on primary productivity

No detectableeffect

Unknown (probablyundetectable)Locally adverse

s

q

q

Surface discharge q

Dissolved substances

q

q

Pynocline accumulation Uncertain(probably rapid)RapiddDecreased light due to

increased turbidityIncreased nutrients

Decrease in primary productivity

Rapidd

Increase in primary productivity

Change in phytoplanktonspecies compositionInhibition of primaryproductivityEmbolism

No detectableeffect

b

No detectableeffect

b

No detectableeffect

b

No detectable

Rapidd

Increase in dissolvedtrace metalsSupersaturation indissolved gas content

Rapideffect

b

qnciudes characteristics of the discharge and the mining system.bBas~ on experiment~meuurements conducted under DOMES.Cyears t . tens Of years or 10n9er.

‘Days to weeks.Uncertain =Some knowledge exists; however the validity of extrapolations is tenuous.Unknown =Very little or no knowledge exists on the subjects; predictions mostly based on conjecture.q Areas of future research.SPM =Suspended Particulate Matter.

SOURCE: Adapted from U.S. Department of Commerce, Office of Ocean Minerals and Energy, Deep Seabed Mining, Final Programmatic Envlronmenta/ /mpact Statement, vol. 1

(Washington, DC: September 1963), p. 126.




th ic biota in about 1 per cent of the DOMES area,

or 38,000 square nautical miles, may be killed due

to impacts from first gener at ion min ing activities.

Although recolonization is likely to occur after min-ing, the t ime period requir ed is not kn own. No ef-

fect on the water-column food chain is expected.

The second imp orta nt type of impa ct identifiedis due to a benthic plume or ‘‘rain of fines’ away

from the collector which may affect seabed animals

outside the a ctua l mining tra ct through smother-

ing and interference with feeding. Suspended sedi-

ment concentrations decrease rapidly, but the

plum e can extend t ens of kilometers from th e col-lector and last several weeks after mining stops. Noeffect on the food chain in the water column is ex-

pected due to the rapid dilution of the plume. How-ever, mining may interfere with the food supply

for the bottom-feeding animals and clog the respi-

ratory surfaces of filter feeders (such as clams and

mussels). Such effects will involve biota in an esti-mated 0.5 percent or 19,000 square nautical miles

of the DOMES area.

The third impact identified as significant is due

to the surface plume. Under the scenario, a 5,500 -

ton-per-day mining ship will discharge about 2,200

tons of solids (mainly seafloor sediment) and 3 mil-lion cubic feet of water per day. The resulting sur-

face discharge plume may extend about 40 to 60

miles with a width of 12-20 miles and will continue

to be detectable for three to four days following dis-charge. As the mining operation is supposedly con-

tinuous (300 days per year), the plume will be vis-ible virtually all the time. Surface plumes may

adversely affect the larvae of fish, such as tuna,

which spawn in the open ocean. The turbidity in

th e water column will decrease light a vailable for

photosynthesis but will not severely affect the

phytoplankton populations. The effect will be wellwithin the realm of normal light level fluctuations

and will resemble the light reduction on a cloudy

day.

Fo l l o w- Up t o DOMES :

Research by the Nat ional Mar ine Fisheries Serv-ice, under NOAA’s five-year plan, concluded that

the surface plume was not really a problem due to

ra pid dilut ion a nd dissipation. This study identi-

fied another potential adverse effect that previously

had not been considered—that of thermal shock to

plankton and fish larvae from discharge at the sur-face of cold deep water.

63However, except for mor-

tality of some tuna and billfish larvae (the two com-

mercially important fish) in the immediate vicinity

of th e cold wat er (4-100 C) dischar ge, adverse ef-

fects appear to be minimal.

Continu ed stu dy of surface plumes su ggests t hat

discharged particulate will not accumulate on the

pycnocline. 64 Because new m e a s u r e m e n t s s h ow

much of the material discharged settled more slowly

than previously thought, the plumes will cover more

area.

In June 1983, Expedition ECHO I collected 15quant itative samples of the bent hic faun a in t he vi-

cinity of DOMES site C (150 N, 1250 W). These

samples were collected for a study of potential im-

pacts on the benthic community of a pilot-scale test

mining by Ocean Mining Associates, carried out

5 years earlier. Fauna from the immediate test min-

ing area were compar ed with faun a from an a rea

63W. M . Ma t s um o t o , Potential Impact of Deep Seabed Mining on

the Larvae of Tun a and BiWishes , SWFC Honolulu Laboratory, Na-

tional Marine Fisheries Service/NOAA, prepared for NOAA Divi-

sion of Ocean Minerals and Energy, NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-44,

Washington, D. C., 1984.

“J .W. Lavelle and E. Ozturgut, “Dispersion of Deep-Sea Min-

ing Particulate and Their Effect on Light in Ocean Surface Layers,

Marine Mining, VO I 3. (1982), No. 1/ 2, pp. 185-212.

Photo credit: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admlnlstration

The box core sampler is a standard tool for studyingocean bottoms. This particular sample, containingmanganese nodules, is from the DOMES area. Boxcores provide a relatively intact picture of the sediment

and animals in the top layers of the seafloor.




far enough away to ha ve been u ndistur bed. Dis-

tur bance to the sea floor was either not extensive

enough to produce a statistically detectable differ-

ence in community structure from unaltered areas,

or recovery had taken place within 5 years.65

Con-

clusions were that the test mining was not indica-

tive of an a ctua l mining operat ion. Fu tur e research

will include some short-ter m (30-day) sediment a-tion studies to try t o char acterize the r esponse time

of benthic animals to plume effects.66

Recommendations for future research include:

q

q

q

studying a much larger mining effort or other

similar impact on the benthos,

sampling at the sa me sites previously sampled

to develop trends over t ime, and

evaluating data to detect differences at a com-munity level, not at individual or species

levels.

Env i ronmenta l Ef f ec t s From

Mining Cobal t Crus t s

The environmenta l baseline data t hat DOMES

collected and the conclusions it drew about poten-

tial impacts of nodule mining are somewhat appli-

cable to mining cobalt crusts. The environmental

setting described from the DOMES area has much

in common with proposed crust sites. DOMES sta-

tions span the central and north Pacific basins andare in areas meteorologically similar to the Hawai-ian an d J ohnston Island EEZs. The environment

studied was typical of the tropical and subtropicalPacific in terms of water masses, major currents,

and vertical thermal structure. Species recorded in

the water column of the DOMES area are all char-

acterized as having broad oceanic distributions. The

settings differ primarily with respect to topography

and bottom type. The crusts occur on the slopes

of seam ount s with litt le loose sediment , while th e

nodule mine sites occur on plains carpeted with

thick sediments. The two areas consequently dif-fer in their potential for resuspension of sediments.

Baseline benthic biological data collected in the

DOMES study area are less analogous to the crust

sites than are the water column pelagic data. The

—‘3 Spiess et al., Environmental Effects of Deep Sea Dredging.66)7d M y e r s , NOAA, Pe r s , C o m m . , OTA Workshop on Envi ronme-

n t a l Concerns, October 1986.

chief depth range of interest for crust mining is

2,500 to 8,000 feet. Bottom stations sampled in theDOMES area varied in depth from 14,000 to

17,000 feet. Communities would be different be-

cause of the substrate as well as the depth. The

DOMES sites consist of soft sediments interspersed

with hard manganese nodules; the crusts are hard

rock surfaces with little sediment cover. The com-munities actually living on the manganese nodulehard surfaces may resemble the fauna on the crust

pavement because the substrate composition is very

similar.

Plume Effects

As part of the Manganese Crust EIS Project,

mathematical models were constructed to simulate

the behavior of surface and benthic discharges. 67

This effort wa s based u pon exten sive modeling of

dredged ma terial discha rge dispersion condu cted

for t he Arm y Corps of En gineers’ Dredged Ma te-rial Research Program.

68 69

Surface Plume.—The DOMES data indicate

that a mining plume will increase suspended par-

ticulate matter in the water by a factor often. This

would effectively halt photosynthesis about 65 feet

closer to th e surface of the water tha n n orma l.

The results of field measurements made during

the DOMES program were extrapolated to com-mercial-scale discharges and it was estimated that

the surface plume could reduce daily primary pro-

duction by 50 percent in an area 11 miles by 1 mile

and by 10 percent over an area as lar ge as 34 milesby 3 miles. The shading effect will only persist un-

til the bulk of the m ining particulate settle, usu-ally within a period of less than a day. Since it takes

phytoplankton 2 to 3 days to adapt to a new lightregime, the short-term shading effect of particu-

lates is not likely to affect the light-adaptation char-

67E. K. Noda & Associates an d R.C .Y. Koh, ‘‘Fat es an d Tra ns-

port Modeling of Dischar ges from Ocean Manganese Cru st Mining, ’

prepared for the Manganese Crust E IS Project, Research Corpora-

tion the University of Hawaii, Hono]u]u, HI , 1985.G8B. H, J o h n s o n , 1 ’74*

‘ ‘Invest igation of Math emat ical Models for

the Physical Fate Prediction of Dredged Material, U.S. Army Engi-

neer Water ways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, Hydraulics Lab-

oratory, Technical Report D-74- 1, March 1974.WM, G. Brand sma and D. J . Divoky, 1976, “Development of Models

for P rediction of Short-term Fate of Dredged Materia l Discharged in

the Es t u a r i n e Environment, ” Tetra Tech, Inc., Pasadena, CA, Con-

tract Report D-76-5, May 1976.




Photo credit: Barbara Lament-Doherty Observatory

Brittle stars and corals, shown here at 2,000-foot water depth, are two common kinds of animals living on hard substratesin the deep sea.

acteristics of the phytoplankton. No other poten- The crust mining surface plume will contain more

tia l effects (including increased pr oduction du e to solids in less wat er t han the nodule mining sur face

nutrient enrichment or heavy metal toxicity) could plume, but the crust particles are larger and settle

be demonstrated.70 out faster. Thus, th e area of reduced primary pr od-

Application of the DOMES conclusions to theuctivity probably would be ap proximat ely 50 per-

cent sm aller tha n t hat predicted for t he nodule sce-crust mining scenario requires some modifications.

nario, a very short-term localized impact.71

Bottom Plume. —A bottom plume would be

Department of Commerce, Seabed generated from the movement of the mining equip-Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement. Minerals Manage-

ment Service, Statement: Proposed Marine

Mineral Lease Sale in the Hawaiian Archipelago and Johnston

land Exclusive Economic Zone, Honolulu, HI, (1987), 208. D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e I n t e r i o r ,. .




ment on the bottom and, in an emergency, from

releas e of ma ter ials in th e lift pipe. Ten hour s af-

ter suspension, most mat erial will be redeposited

within 65 feet of the miner track, but only 1 per-

cent of the sma llest par ticles will be redeposited a fter

100 hours. From the test mining data, the research-

ers calculated t hat about 90 percent of the r esus-

pended material would be redeposited within 230

feet of the miner track, and the maximum redepo-

sition t hickness would be a little more than half an

inch t hick nea r t he centerline of the tr ack. 7*

The crust scenario envisions recovery of about

two-thirds of the ore volume of the nodule scenario

but assumes a much thinner range of overburden.

Peak base-case crust miner redeposition thicknesses

were about one-thousandth of an inch. 73 There is

a highly significant difference between the two min-

ing s cena rios. The ‘‘worst case’ scena rio for cr us t

mining,74

would result in less than 1 percent of the

maximum deposition in the nodule mining scenario.

From t he DOMES baseline data (average of 16

macrofaunal individuals/ft2) and an assumed nod-

ule mining scenario, Jumars75

calculated that a nod-ule m iner would dir ectly destroy 100 billion in di-

viduals. In comparison, data from a case study done

at Cross Seamount (see box 6-G) indicate tha t pa s-

sage of the crust miner over 11 mi2per year would

directly destroy from 100,000 to 10,000 macro-

fauna l organisms at 2,600 an d 7,800 feet respec-tively. The DOMES and Cross Seamount data-

bases differ in that infaunal organisms (those

actually living within the sediments) were not sam-pled in the Cross Seamount reconnaissance. How-

ever, the crusts provide little sediment for organ-

isms to inhabit. Neverth eless, it appear s tha t th e

num ber of macrofaun al organisms destr oyed in the

crust mining scenario is orders of magnitude less

(one-millionth to one ten-millionth) than in the nod-

ule scenar io.76

72J .W. Lavelle et al. “Dispersal and Resedimentation of the Ben-

thic Plume from Deep-Sea Mining Operations: A Model with Calibra-

t i o n s , Marine Mining, vol. 3 (1982), No. 1/ 2, pp. 185-212.T3 U S Depanment of the Interior, Minerals Management Serv-. .

ice, p. 197.T4M in i ng at th e sh~]owest depth and superimposition of sUrfaCe

and bottom plume footprints.

75Jumars , “Limits in Predicting and Detecting Benth ic Commu-

nity Responses.T6 U S Depa~ment of the Interior, Minerals Management Serv-. .

ice, p. 240.

The severity of the impacts on populations in

area s adjacent t o th e miner tr ack would be deter-mined by the intensity of the disturbance, i.e.,

proximity to the track, and the type of feeding be-

havior characteristic of the population. As in the

case with sh allow water minin g, highly motile or-

ganisms such as fish, amphipods, and shrimp would

be most able to avoid localized areas of high redepo-

sition and turbidity. Once conditions become toler-

able, these organisms could ventur e into th e mined

area to feed on the dead and damaged organisms.

The area mined may be invaded by opportunis-

tic species with dispersal capabilities greater thanthose of the original resident species. Reestablish-ment of the original commu nity ha s been postu-

lated to take a very long time, perhaps decades or

longer.

T em pera tu re

Comparing the ambient surface water tempera-ture in t he lease areas with a t emperature of 4 to

10 degrees C for the bottom water released at the

surface, there is reason to believe that eggs and lar-

vae coming into direct contact with the cold dis-

charge water could be affected adversely; such ef-

fects should be limited to the area immediately

benea th t he ship’s out fall.77

To estimate t he an nua l loss of tun a larvae an d

the impact of this loss on adult fish biomass, it was

assumed that all tuna eggs and larvae coming intodirect contact with the cold water discharge could

die. At least 46,000 skipjack tu na an d 15,000 yel-lowfin tu na could be lost a nn ually due to therm al

mortality. These values would be about four times

larger if the mining ship acts as a fish aggregating

device by concentrating tuna schools in the imme-

diat e vicinity.

The loss of adult fish biomass due to death of larva e would be a very sma ll fra ction (less tha n 1

percent) of the total an nu al ha rvest of th ese spe-

cies in the centra l and eastern North P acific. The

crust m ining scenario assum es a su rface plume vol-

ume about 60 percent that of the nodule mining

scenario, and the effects of thermal mortality of lar-val fish would be reduced proportionately.

77Matsumoto, “Potential Impact of Deep Seabed Mining. ” Con-

tact of larvae with cold water could cause the development of deformed

larvae.




Th r ea ten ed an d En d an g e r ed Sp ec ie s

The Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA)78

prohibits ‘‘at tempt s’ to ha ra ss, pur sue, hu nt , etc.,

listed species. The ESA also prohibits significant

environment al modificat ion or degrada tion to thehabitat used by threatened and endangered species,

as well as any act that significantly disrupts natu-ral behavior patterns.

7816 U.S.C. 1531

Living within the general proposed lease area of the cobalt crusts are the endangered Hawaiian

monk seal (Monachus s chau ins land i ) , the endan-

gered humpback whale Megaptera n ovaea g l iae) ,

the threatened green sea turtle ( C h e l o n i a m y d a s ) ,

a n occasional endangered hawksbill (Ere tmoche ly s

im br ica ta ) , the threatened loggerhead (Caret ta

c a r e t t a ) , t h e endangered leatherback (Dermochelysc o r i a c e a ) and the threatened Pacific r idley(Lepidochelys o l ivacea) sea turtles. However, in




Photo credit: U. S. Geological Survey

Deep-sea Hydrothermal vent communities consist of exotic life forms such as these giant tube worms and crabsfrom the East Pacific Rise.

recognition of th ese sp ecies’ presen ce, the more

densely populated areas have been excluded fromleasing.

G o rd a R id g e T a sk F o rce E f fo r t s

In 1983, a draft Environmental Impact State-

ment was circulated by the Minerals Management

Service in preparation for a polymetallic sulfide

minerals lease offering in the Gorda Ridge area.

Much of the discussions of potential environmentalimpacts drew from t he DOMES work because t here

was litt le site-specific inform at ion t o summ ar ize.In response to concerns that there was too little in-

formation to adequately characterize the effects of

any prospecting or mining operation, the Gorda

Ridge Task Force was set up to augment the draft

EIS.

The major research efforts focused on charac-

terization of the minera l resources and led to the

discovery of large deposits in t he sout her n GordaRidge. However, a series of reports wa s a lso pre-pared by the State of Oregon under the Task

Force’s oversight su mma rizing th e sta te of scien-

tific inform at ion relat ing t o th e biology an d ecol-

ogy of the Gorda Ridge Study Area. The reports

included information on the benthos,79

nekton,80

B oud r i as and G. L. Taghon, The of Scientific

Relating t o Biological an d E cological Processes in t he R egion

of the Rid ge, N ortheast Pacific Ocean: State of Ore-

gon, Department of Geology and Mineral Industries, Portland, OR,Open File Report O-86-6, February 1986.

and D. L. Stein, The of Scientific Information

Relating to the Biology and Ecology of the Rid ge S tud y Area,

Northeast Pacific Ocean: State of Oregon, Department of

Geology and Mineral Industries, Portland, OR, Open File Report

O-86-7, February 1986.



Ch. 6–Environmental Considerations q 245

Box 6-H.-Gorda Ridge Study Results

Plankton

Most work on t he st udy a rea is now 10-20 year s old. No informat ion exists on feeding ecology, secondar y

production, and reproduction. The phytoplankton community is dominated by diatoms. Many estimates of

phytoplankton abun dance were made in th e 1960's;1they indicate productivity in this region is low (e.g., chlo-

rophylla concentration ranges from 0.1-0.8 mg/m3

throughout the year).

Nekton

Only one species-albacore ( T h u n n u s a l a l u n g a ) i s comm ercially fished in the Gorda Ridge Lease area.Larvae and juvenile form of other commercially important species (the Dover and Rex sole) occur within

the a rea. These larvae are far west of the sh elf and slope areas where th e adult populations live, and their

survival and input to the commercial fishery population is unknown. While occurrences of species of fish,ammals with the Gorda Ridge area are fairly well-known,shrimps, swimming mollusks (cephalopods), and m

their a bundances, reproduction, growth rat es, food ha bits, and vertical and h orizonta l migratory patter ns a re n ot.

Benthos

Little is known about the benthos of the Gorda Ridge area. Until recently, these rocky environments were

avoided by benthic ecologists becaus e of th e difficulty in sam pling th em. Ph otogra phic sur veys from t he su b-

mers ibles Alvin (1984) and Sea Cliff (1986) as well as from a towed-camera vehicle behind the S..P. Lee (1985)

provide most of the benth ic inform ation for t his ar ea. The Gorda Ridge rift valley anima ls appear to be primar ilyfilter feeders an d detr itus feeders. Soft s ediment a nd r ocky epifaun al commu nities appea r t o differ in speciescomposition; however, quantitative data from controlled photographic transects across the Ridge and taken

close to the substrate (3-6 ft. off the bottom) are needed to permit identification of smaller organisms. Non-

vent ar eas may r epresent several types of environment with some areas of high pa rticulate organic material

concentrated by topographic features juxtaposed with off-axis rocky surfaces.

IS.G. Ellis, and J.H. Garbcr , T& c State of Scientific hdbmia t ion Relating to th e IWogy an d Ecology of the Goxia Ridge Stud y Area , iVomhcast

Pa&c Oceao: PIan4ton, Open-File Report 0-S6-S, Sta te of Orcgon, Dqwtmcn t of Geology m id Mineral 1ndus t r i - (Portland, OR: February 19S6).

plankton,81

seabirds,82

and epifaunal and infaunal

community structure.83 The information contained

in these reports was collected h-em a variety of

sources such as peer-reviewed journals, government

81 S G Ellis an d J. H . c a rb~ r , T he State of Scientific Information. ,

Relating to the Biology and Ecology of the Gorda Ridge Study Area,

Northeast Pacific Ocean: Plankton, State of Oregon, Department of

Geology and Mineral Industries, Portland, OR, Open-File Report

O-86-8, February 1986.WILD, Krasnow, The S t a t e of Scientific Information Relating to

th e Biology and Ecology of the Gorda Ridge Study Area, Northeast

Pacific Ocean: S eabirds, State of Oregon, Department of Geology

and Mineral Indu stries, Portland, OR, Open File Report O-86-9, Feb-

ruary 1986.UA , C, Carey, Jr,, D . L. Stein, and G. L. T’aghon, An~ySis of Ben-

thic Epi f aumd an d Znfaunal Community Structure at the Gonia Ridge,State of Oregon, Department of Geology and Mineral Industries, Port-

land, OR, Open File Report 0-86-11, July 1986.

investigators, and active researchers, as well as less

traditional sources such as fishing records, etc. Thereports are useful compendia identifying what base-

line information exists for biota at and near the pro-posed lease area and what missing information

needs to be developed before th e effects of a m in-

ing operation can be fully characterized (see box

6-H).

While active vent sites such as the Gorda Ridgearea often contain lush communities of unique spe-

cies, the MMS has decided it will not lease sucharea s for mining should th ey be encoun tered .8A

Thus, their discussion is not included here.

B4T h u S far, none have been found on the Gorda Ridge sites.



Chapte r 7

Federal Programs for

Collecting and Managing

Oceanographic Data



C O N T E N T S

Page

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............................249

Management of Data Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............250

Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....251

Conceptual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .........................251

Organization.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............................252

Funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..................253

Survey and Charting Efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...............254

USGS: The GLORIA Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............254N O A A : T h e B a t h y m e t r i c M a p p i n g P r o g r a m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 5 5

Other Data Collection Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ....256

N a t i o n a l O c e a n i c a n d A t m o s p h e r i c A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 5 6

U.S. Department of the Interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...263

Na tiona l Aeronau tics an d Spa ce Admin istr at ion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..265

U.S. Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..266State and Local Governments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............267Academic and Private Laboratories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................267Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267

Classif icat ion of Bathymetr ic and Geophysical Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268

Earlier Reviews of Data Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ....271

OTA Classification Workshop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .273

Observations and Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , ........276

Box

Box Page

7-A. Major Producers and Users of EEZ Data. . . . . . . . . . . . ...................250

Figures

Figure No. Page

7-1, Regional Atlases of the EEZ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .........258

7-2. MMS Seismic Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....264

7-3. Sea Beam Bathymetry of Surveyor Seamount. . . . . . . .....................269

T a b l e

Table No. Page

7-1. Funding for EEZ Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............254

.



C h a p t e r 7

Federal Programs for Collecting and

Managing Oceanographic Data

INTRODUCTIONSeveral Federal agencies have responsibility to

survey and collect data on the ocean. They are:

q

q

q

q

q

q

q

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), l

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin-istration (NOAA),

2

U.S. Coast Guard (USCG),3

U .S . E nv i ronm enta l P ro tec t ion A gency

(EPA),4

U.S. Department of Energy (DOE),5

Minerals Management Service (MMS),6

the Bureau of Mines (BOM),7a n d

] 43 U.S. C, 31 (a) and (b), The Organic Act of 1879, as amended;

16 U.S. C. 1451-1456, Public Law 94-370, The Coastal Zone Ma nage-

ment Act Amendments of 1976; 43 U. S.C. 1865, Public Law 95-372,

The Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act Amendments of 1978; 30

LT. S.C. ]419 et seq., Public Law 96-283, The Deep Seabed Hard

Mineral Resources Act of 1980; 43 U.S.C. 1301, Public Law 92-532,

The Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972; and

Proclamation #5030, 48 Fed. Reg. 10605, Mar. 10, 1983.233 U. S.C. 883 et seq. , The Act of Aug. 6, 1947, as amended; 84

Stat 2090, Presidential Reorganization Plan No. 4 of 1970—

Establishment of NOAA; 33 U. S,C. The National Ocean Pollution

Planning Act of 1978; 16 U.S. C. 1451-1456, Public Law 94-370, The

Coastal Zone Management Act Amendments of 1976; 43 U.S.C. 1847,

Public Law 95-372, The Outer Continent al Shelf Lands Act Amend-

men ts of 1978; 30 U. S.C. 1419, Public Law 96-283, The Deep Seabed

Hard Mineral Resources Act of 1980; 16 U. SC. 1432, 33 U.S. C.1441, Public Law 92-532, The Marine Protection, Research and Sanc-

tuaries Act of 1972; 16 U .S .C. 1801 et seq., Fishery Conservation

and Management Act of 1976, and Proclamation No. 5030, 48 Fed.

Reg. 10605, Mar. 10, 1983.343 U. S, C, 1865, Public Law 95-372, The Outer Continental Shelf

I . ands Act Amendments of 1978.433 U .S . C. 1251 et seq. , Public Law 95-217, The Clean Wat er Act,

as amended; 33 U. S.C. 1401, et seq., Public Law 92-532, The Ma-

rine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972.54, Public Law 93-577, Federaf N on-Nuclear En ergy Research an d

Development Act of 1974; 301, Public Law 95-91, Ene rLgy Organiza-

tion Act

C4 3 U.S. C. 1131-1356, Public Law 83-212, Public Law 93-627 and

Public Law 95-372, The Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act of 1953

as am ended; 43 U . S.C. 1301-1315, Public Law 83-31, The Su bmerged

Lands Act; 33 U.S. C. 1101-1108, Public Law 89-454, The Coastal

Zone Management Act of 1972; 43 U.S.C. 4321 ,4331-4335,4341-4347,Public Law 91-190, The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969;

Proclamation No. 5030, 48 Fed. Reg. 10605, Mar. 10, 1983, Exclu-

sive F,conom ic Zone of the United States of America.730 U.S. C. 21 (a), Public Law 91-631, The Mining and Minerals

Policy Act of 1970; 30 U.S. C. 1602, 1603, Public Law 96-479, The

National Mat erials, and Minerals Policy, Research, and Development

Act of 1980.

q the U.S. Navy.a

Some of the designated agencies do not ma intain

active research programs in the Exclusive Economic

Zone (EEZ). Of those collecting data, some are in-

volved in survey activities while others conduct

more localized resea rch. The a gencies conducting

broad-sca le exploration of the EEZ are NOAA (the

Department of Commerce) and USGS (the Depart-

men t of th e Int erior). Several agen cies and pu blic

and private laboratories collect EEZ information

ranging from site-specific mineral analyses to assess-

ments of biological resources and various physicaland chemical parameters of the oceans; these data

collectors include NOAA (four groups),9MMS,

BOM, USGS, the National Aeronautics and Space

Administration (NASA), the U.S. Navy, private

industry, and academic and private laboratories

(see box 7-A). All of their data must be archived

and accessed.

Exploration and development of the U.S. Exclu-sive Economic Zone is not proceeding economically

or efficient ly un der curr ent pr ogra ms. There is no

systematic mechanism for data collection, with the

exception of plans to ‘ ‘map’ the EEZ (by USGSusin g the GLORIA side-looking sonar system a nd

NOAA using multi-beam systems). The NOAA

and USGS efforts will provide the first survey of

the vast territory contained in the EEZ; these

projects, however, are plagued by budget problems,

and completion is uncertain. The many other stages

of resea rch n ecessary before d evelopmen t of U.S.

seabed resources can take place (e. g., comprehen-

sive three-dimensional mineral assessment, devel-

opment of rapid sampling technologies, etc. ) are

largely either unplanned or proceeding in a piece-meal fashion.

810 ~’.s,c, 7203 and 10 USC . 5 ~ 51 .‘Na tionaf Ocean Service, including the Strategic Assessment Branch

and Cha rting an d Geodetic Services; National Marine Fisheries Sen-

ice; the National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Sem.-

ice, including the National Geophysical Data Center and the National

Oceanographic Data Center; and the Office of Oceanic and Atmos-

pheric Research.

249

7 2 - 6 7 2 0 - 8 7 - - 9




MANAGEMENT OF DATA RESOUR CES

Effective data man agement is a critical par t of

any systematic survey or research effort,10

but man-agement of EEZ data has been elusive. There a re

several aspects to the problem. Many different

groups (Federal laboratories and agencies, State ge-

ologists, academic research laboratories, and indus-

try) collect, use, and/or archive many kinds of datafrom the EEZ. Data of many kinds and differentqua nt ities are collected. Consist ent r eporting for-

mats are not necessarily used. These problems willworsen as sensors (e. g., satellites, multi-beam echo-

management is defined as the process of planning, collect-

ing, processing, and analyzing for primary use (e. g., for research);

and storing, archiving, and distributing the acquired data for secondaryusers.

sounders, and multi-channel seismic reflectionrecorders) produce data at faster rates. Realization

of the scope of this data management problem is

g r o w i n g .ll 12 13

‘There are pr oblems with t he way data are curren tly mana ged.

The distribution, storage, and communication of data currently limit

the efficient extraction of scientific results . . .‘ National Research

Council, Data Management and Computation, Volume Issues and

Recommendations (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1982).‘

z’’ Given the lack of long-term interest in managing the national

environmental da ta archive in academia and the private sector, theFederal government must be responsible for maintaining this national

asset . . . “ National Advisory Committee on Oceans and Atmosphere, An Assessment of the Roles and Missions of the Oceanic

and Atmospheric Administration, unpublished report, 1987, p. 71;“ . . . Current NOAA data m anagement systems a nd policies needto be carefully reexamined. . . . If urgent steps are not taken, . . . theutility of the data centers, a nat ional asset, will contin ue to



Ch. 7—Federal Programs for Collecting and Managing Oceanographic Data q 251

There a re several possible constr aint s to an ef-

fective EEZ data management program. They are:

q t e c h n o l o g y — hardware/software,

q concep tua l —how should the data be mana ged,q organization —capa city for collectin g an d a r-

chiving data, andq

economic—adequate funding.

T e c h n o l o g y

Computer, software, and recording technologies

have advanced dramatically during the past few

years an d ar e expected t o continu e to advance rap-idly. Technologies for collecting, aggregating,

transmitting, and accessing data are not limiting.

None of the key data man agers queried by OTA14

thought the rat e of EE Z data acquisition would ex-

ceed t he capa city of, or t ax, existing high-dens ity

magnetic tape storage. The promise of optical la-

ser disks a few years hence could make digital datastorage easily man ageable. Storage of analog data,

or actual physical and chemical samples (e. g., sedi-

ment cores), remains a substantial problem. How-

ever, these are physical space problems as opposed

to data management problems per se. If all data

could be converted to digital form, technology op-

decline. ” Ibid., p. 63; “ . There are three principal requirements

that are integral to this issue: ( 1 ) steadily upgraded computer systems

are needed to manage the expanding rate of data acquisition; (2) com-

plicated data management decisions must be made regarding (a)

amount and t ype of data t o archive and (b) optimal format for future

use; and (3) a m ore responsive and efficient mechanism for t he con-

tinued delivery of valuable and timely data products . . . must be

found . Ib id .

‘3’ ‘The qua ntit y of geophysical data obta ined with p ublic fun ding

has increased dramatically in the past few decades. These data are

used not only by the scientific commu nity, but a re also importan t t o

the genera l public for use by engineers, lawyers, and insur ance actu-

aries a s examples. Collected often at enormous expense, they repre-

sent a national resource that must be managed carefut ly to ensure they

are presemed and available when needed. Because of a substantial

increase in the amount and complexity of geophysical data being col-

lected and in the demands for them, the management policies and

procedures that have been developed are no longer adequate. ” Na-

tional Research Council, Policy Issues Concerning Geophysical Data,

A Draft Report prepar ed by the Geophysics Study Committ ee for t he

Geophysics Research Forum, February 1986.

I’Roy L. Jenne, Head Data Support Section, National Center for

Atmospheric Research; Michael Chinnery, Director, National Geo-

physical Data Center (NGDC); Michael Loughridge, Chief, NGDCMarine Geology and Geophysics Division; Gregory Withee, Direc-

tor, National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC); Robert Locher-

man, Information Services Division, NODC; Edward Escowitz, Of-

fice of Marine Geology, USGS; D. James Baker, Director of JOI ,

Inc.; Ross Heath, Oregon State University.

tions for st orage, maint enan ce, and dispersal a re

not limiting.

Co n c e p t u a l

Data management has been the subject of manyexhaustive studies.

15While the volume of informa-

tion collected from the EEZ does not nearly ap-proach the volume of space data collected by satel-

lites, many of the principles and recommendations

for handling space data are applicable to the EEZ

as well. These principles include:

. involvement of scientists in data collection pro-

grams from inception to completion,

q peer-review of data man agement activities by

the user community,

q proper documentation of all data sets that have

been validated, and. adequate financial resources allocated early in

each project for database management andcomputation activities.16

There are also important differences in data ob-

tained in the EEZ and data taken from space. Un-

like satellite information, much of the EEZ data has

not been collected in digital form and cannot be

easily archived or m anipulat ed. EEZ data also varyin geographic scales and degree of detail (a 60-km-

wide GLORIA swath v. a 200-m-wide SeaMARC

CL swath) and may consist of different measures,e.g., water current measurements, sediment depth,and bedrock type. Researchers would like to be able

:sFour studies ~~aining to data management have been produced

by the National Research Council of the National Academy of Sci-

ences alone (Wash ington, DC: Na tional Academ y Pr ess): ‘ ‘Geophysi-

cal Data Interchange Assessment, 1978; “Solar-Terrestrial Data Ac-

cess, Distribution, and Archiving, 1984; ‘ ‘Geophysical Data Centers:

Impact of Data-Intensive Programs, ” 1976; and “Policy Issues Con-

cerning Geophysical Data, (in review). From other groups: “Re-

search Dat a Man agement in t he Ecological Sciences, Proceedings of

the 1983 Integrated Data Users Workshop, Nov. 1-2, 1983, USGS,

Reston, VA (Oak Ridge National Laboratory, TN); “Frontiers in

Data Storage, Retrieval and Display, ” Proceedings of a Marine Ge-

ology an d Geophysics Data Workshop, Nov. 5-7, 1980 (Boulder, CO:

National Geophysical an d Solar-Terrestr ial Data Center, 1980); and

Proceedin gs of Marin e Geologp”caf Data Man agement Workshop, Ma y

22-24, 1978 (Boulder, CO: NOAA, 1978). Several papers by Roy

L. Jenne, Head, Data Support Section, National Center for Atmos-

pheric Research, include: “Strategies to Develop and Access LargeSets of Scientific Data, ” 1980 and “Data Archiving and Manage-

m e n t , 1 9 8 6 .1 cNation~ Research Council, Space Sciences Board, Data ~a n -

agement and Compu tation, Volume 1: Issues and Recomm endations

(Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1982).




Banks of disk-drive units retrieve and store information at USGS headquarters in Reston, Virginia.

to superimpose many kinds of features, e.g., site-

specific mineral samples on bat hymetric maps tha tinclude information about the physical and chem-

ical properties of an area. Aggregation of such dis-parate data sets makes EEZ data management par-

ticularly difficult.

Missing components in the current EEZ data

program s a re inter agency/intergovernmenta l ap-

proaches, regional databases/datacenters, and pri-

vate-public cooperatives. Activities that require at-

tention include acquisition of wider ranges of data

sets, preparation of comprehensive inventories of

public domain data sets, quality control of exist-ing data sets, and reformat ting data sets so that they

can be integrated for interdisciplinary research. Aninven tor -y of available data is needed along with an

assessment of its adequacy.

O rg a n i za t io n

The nucleus for a comprehensive data manage-ment system exists. A joint USGS/NOAA Officefor Research and Mapping in the Exclusive Eco-

nomic Zone17

is being created to coordinate theplans and activities of these two major governmentagencies concerned with the EEZ and to provide

a focus for activities of other government agencies

and private academic and industrial institutions. 18

Many intera gency agreements exist th at providefor and/or encourage the transfer of geophysical and

to be released in 1987.

th e functions of this office will be to ‘‘develop a

National EEZ plan to include goals, priorities, resources, andshort/long term stra tegies. An annu al report will be made to Con-

gress outlining yearly a ctivities, significant results, a nd recommen-

dations.




oceanographic data from the collecting agencies

such as USGS, MMS, and t he Depart ment of De-

fense (DoD) to the two major NOAA national data

centers— the National Oceanographic Data Cen-

ter (NODC) in Washington, D. C.,19

and the Na-

tional Geophysical Data Cen ter (NGDC) in Boul-der, Colorado .

20

Data collected by the academic community under

the auspices of the National Science Foundation

(NSF), Division of Ocean Sciences, should be ulti-

mat ely submitted to the n ational center s. The Di-

vision’s Ocean Data policy specifies that lists of all

data collected under its sponsorship (primarily ma-rin e geology an d geophysics dat a) ‘ ‘be su bmitt ed

to the appropriate NOAA/NESDIS [National Envi-

ronmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service]

national data center within 30 days of the comple-

tion of each cruise, that surface and mixed-layertempera tu re and sa linity data ‘‘be submitted in real

time” (i.e., within 48 hours of the observation),and t hat longer term dat a be submitted within 2

years. This policy seeks to ensur e an appropriate

balance between the needs of NSF researchers and

secondar y users. Producers, m ana gers, and second-ary users of oceanographic data have responded

well to this policy; unfortunately, there is no mech-

an ism for mandating t ran sfer of the actual data at

the completion of a grant period. Incentives to sup-

pliers, such as reimbursement for the cost of copy-

ing data, forma tting it in a sta ndar d way, and otherhardware/software expenses would greatly facilitate

ar chiving of dat a. The deta ils of th e NSF requ ire-

ments are now under review, and a revised datapolicy is expected in ea rly 1988. At t he r equest of

U.S. academic research scientists,21

NSF agreed to

explore with oth er Federa l agencies whether the

NSF ocean data policy could serve as the basis for

19FOr ~xamp ]e , an i n f o rm~ working agreement specifies that the

Bureau of Land Management require its contract researchers to pro-

\ ’ide all data for ar chival in NESDIS centers ( 1978) and th at t he Na-

tional Science Foundation require th at a ppropriate dat a collected by

researchers working under NSF Ocean Sciences sponsorship be pro-

vided to ,NESDIS centers as part of contract fulfillment (1 982).‘20 F or Cxamp]e, Marine Geological and Geophysical Da ta Manage-

ment Agreement, NOAA and USGS, April 1985; and Geological and

Geophysical Dat a Disseminat ion Agreement, MMS and NOAA, May

1985. Other int eragency understandings (with NSF, NOS, and DOD)

are r ooted in policy, precedent, and u nilateral inst ruction but ar e not

spelled out in formal interagency agreements.ZIAs par t of p]anning for dat a management actiirities in support of

the Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere Stu dy (TOGA) and th e World

Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE).

development of a government wide ocean data pol-

icy. NSF has convened two meetings of agency ex-

perts to consider this question, This effort could

result in a draft ocean data policy presented to each

of the interested agencies for their review and adop-

tion by the beginning of the 1988 fiscal year.22

F u n d i n g

Since fiscal year 1980, the base funding for

NODC23

and NGDC24

has diminished in real dol-

lars. At the same time, the workloads of bothcenters have increased, Estimates indicate that the

digital dat a st orage requirements for NODC will

triple in the next 5 years and will double for NGDC.

Based on general operating budgets for some na-

tional data centers and funds spent for data collec-

tion operations by the Federal agencies, it is esti-mated that funds for storage are less than 1 percent

of the funds spent on data collection. Some esti-mate that this proportion should be in the range

of 5 to 10 percent. In contrast , the geophysical

prospecting data industry commonly invests 10 to

200 percent of th e costs of collecting m ar ine da tain processing and archival ;

25the actual percentage

varies depending on the cost of data acquisition—

about 200 percent in th e Gulf of Mexico where costs

are low and 10 percent in less accessible regions

such as the Beaufort Sea. As a result of chronically

low funding, national data centers have been ableto preserve only a small fraction of the collecteddata, an d man y importan t dat a sets have been lost.

Some fraction of this loss is likely due to the datacollector and primary user not planning for or con-

sidering secondary use. But funding agencies must

also bear some r esponsibility for en suring t hat data

are properly preserved and maintained. An appro-

priate amount of data management money should

be included in gran ts— and n ot a t t he expense of

funding for the research that collects the data.

ZZL Brown, Nat iona] Science Foundation, pers. com. to Richard

Vetter, OTA contractor, Apr. 13, 1987.Z 3 N O D C funding: Fiscal year 1982 ($4.5 million), Fiscal year 1983

($4.6 million), Fiscal year 1984 ($4. 1 million), Fiscal year 1985 ($4.1million), Fiscal year 1986 ($3.8 million), Fiscal year 1987 ($3.6 million.

24 N ’ C , D C funding: Fisc~ Vear 1980 ($3.1 million), Fiscal ye m j 981

($3. 1 million), Fisca l year 1982 ($3.1 million), Fiscal year 1983 ($3.0

million), Fiscal year 1984 ($2.8 million), Fiscal year 1985 ($2. 7 mil-

lion), Fiscal year 1986 ($2.6 million).zjCar] SaY, i t , western Geophysical Compan}r, pem . com. t o R i c h a r d

\ ’e t t c r , OTA contractor, Nov. 25, 1986,




According to NGDC, “If funding agencies abdi-

cate their responsibility for the processing of datato a stage usable by others and the long-term pres-

ervation of the data, they have in fact created a bur-

den for the scientific community and create the pos-

sibility of non-productive and redundant collections

of data. "26 When secondary usa ge is not plann ed

Z6M . S. Loughridge, “Frontiers in Data Storage, Retrieval, andDisplay, Proceedings of the Marine Geology and Geophysics DataWorkshop, Nov. 5-7, 1980 (Boulder, CO: Na tional Geophysical andSolar-Terrestrial Data Center, 1980), p. 145.

for, it either takes large expenditures to “reconsti-

tu te’ the da ta, or th e dat a n ever become available

to the secondary user.27

Z7A s imp l e I i b r a v f unc t i on can preven t data duplication. NGDC

has a data base called GEODAS (Geophysical DAta System) which

identifies where data have been collected and by whom. The new user

is then faced with copying and converting the data.

SURVEY AND CHARTING EF FOR TS

NOAA’s National Ocean Service (NOS) and the

USGS Office of Energy and Marine Geology arethe civilian organ izations with primar y responsi-

bilities related to acquisition and processing of

bathymetric and geologic data within the U.S.

EEZ. While source data should be archived in anational database (NGDC), the evaluation of dataquality and pr ocessing of the data into maps an d

char ts, digital or an alog, is a r esponsibility which

must continu e as a par t of th e NOS and USGS mis-

sions. Effectively, NOS and USGS produce the

Federal a ssessment of the best geographic depic-

tion of th ese data. It is importan t th at both agen-cies acquire the capa bility to establish an d ma in-

tain these da ta sets in digital form. Without such

efforts each individual user would have to judge

data quality and process a myriad of data sets which

would be a costly endeavor.

In 1984, USGS and NOAA signed a Memoran-

dum of Understanding28

to conduct joint m appin g

and survey efforts in the EEZ. Funds appropriated

to USGS and NOAA have been increasingly re-programmed to support this research over the last

3 years. Total E EZ explorat ion funds in th e Fed-

eral agencies were $9 million in 1984, $12 million

in 1985, and about $16 million in 1986 (table 7-l).

Eight y percent of th e money for E EZ explora tionis within U SGS and NOAA budgets ; the GLORIA

and multi-beam su rvey programs consum e virtu -

ally all of th is fundin g.

ZeCooperat ive p rog r am for bathymetric survey by NOAA and

USGS, signed by both J. Byrne and D. Peck, April 1984.

Table 7=1.-Funding for EEZ Programs

Fiscal year(million dollars)

Agency 1984 1985 1986Department of Commerce:

National Oceanic and AtmosphericAdministration . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 4.4 a 5.0

Department of the Interior;U.S. Geological Survey . . . . . . . . . . 4.7 5.1 8.4Minerals Management Service . . . 2.7 1.8 1.6Bureau of Mines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3 0.2 1.2

Total funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.7 11.5 16.2aA seaBearn s y s t em w ss purch~ed for an addhlonal $2 mllliOn.


U S G S : T h e G L O R I A P r o g r a m

The USGS GLORIA mapping program is in-

tended to provide a complete and broad overview

of the U.S. EEZ (see ch. 4). Currently, about 30

percent of the EEZ29

has been surveyed wi thGLORIA. At the present rate, the entire U.S. EEZwill be covered by the end of 1996, The time lag

between surveying and publication of maps is about

1 ½ years . 30USGS in tends to d i s t r i b u t e G L O R I A

data to the public through NGDC; however, none

has yet been archived. All of the swath data are dig-

ital and stored on magnetic tape. These data must

be combined with navigational information to be

of full value.

29 About one mill ion square nau t ica i I I l i h .

30T0 date , th e EEZ off the west coast (California, Oregon, Wash -ington), in the Gulf of Mexico, and off Puerto Rico/U. S. Virgin Is-lands has been mapped. The West Coast Atlas w as published in March1985 on the second anniversary of the E EZ declaration, The Gulf of

Mexico Atlas w ill be published in August 1987.




Photo credit: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

The NOAA ship Surveyor is equipped with the Sea Beam system for detailed bathymetric mapping of the EEZ.

USGS considers the GLORIA program a ‘ ‘show-case ’ success and is committed to its completion.

However, recent bu dget cuts will at least delay if not per ma nen tly inhibit t he pr oject. The Office of

Energy and Marine Geology had a budget of $24

million for ma rine geology in 1986. This is th e t o-

tal EEZ expenditure within USGS, which includes

$18 million for salaries and overhead. The entire

operating expenses budget of this office is spent on

th e GLORIA survey (see ta ble 7-l). Only modest

funds are expended on other activities, e.g., analyz-

ing mineral contents of vibracores.31 All Geologi-

cal Framework studies were discontinued in 1982,

also because of budget constraints. USGS has a con-

tract through 1991 with the British Institute of

spend percentanalyzing mineral core samples. At this rate, the backlog of 1,000 coreswill take 10 to 15 years to complete; plans to procure more cores fromarea s identified as economically promising based on this screen-ing have been discontinued due to lack of funds.

Ocean ogra phic Sciences (IOS) which operat es th eGLORIA equipment. If USGS cannot meet the

terms of the contract, a significant financial pen-alty will be imposed and USGS could lose the

GLORIA system. Although the United States isdeveloping similar technologies, no system with the

swath width of GLORIA will be available in the

foreseeable future if the current system is retu rned

to IOS.

N O A A : T h e B a th ym et r i c M a p p in g P ro g ra m

The National Ocean Service of NOAA is pro-ducing very detailed bathymetric maps of the EEZ

using multi-beam or swath echo-sounders in con-

junction with precise navigational positioning (seech. 4). A bathymetric map can be constructed

within 6 m onths of collecting mu lti-beam d at a, in

striking contr ast to the years needed to producemaps a nd chart s man ually. Individual field surveys




are typically processed in 3 weeks or less, provided

no major system problems are encountered. Two

mapping systems developed by the General Instru-

ment Corp. are the Sea Beam system and theBathymetric Swath Survey System (BS

3) used

aboard ships of the NOAA fleet. A more modernversion of BS 3 called Hydrochart II is now avail-

able from General Instrument. Japan has deployedthe first system. NOAA intends to use Hydrochart

11 or its equivalent on th e U.S. east coast and to

upgrade BS3to the same system. Swath data are

now classified (see the last section in this chapter).

NOAA has operated multi-beam survey ships

since th e mid to late 1970s. The EEZ swath map-

ping program began in 1984 and covered about 150

square nautical miles. During 1985, about 1 ½ ship-

years were logged covering about 6,400 square nau-

tical miles. In 1986, approximately 2 ship-years

completed another 14,000 square miles. By the end

of 1986, NOS had 3 ships in operation acquiringswath data , and a bout 1 percent of the t otal U.S.

EEZ had been mapped. NOS staff estimate that

it will take about 143 ship-years to survey the en-

tire EEZ and that about 150,000 reels of magnetic

tape will be required to store the entire set of origi-

nal data. To date, about 6,000 magnetic tape reels

of swath data have been recorded and stored. The

storage problem is significant though not insur-

mounta ble. NOS is curr ently evaluating th e pos-sibility of using optical disk technology for long-

ter m st orage of EE Z bat hymet ric data . NOAA in-

tends to archive all original data as a source data-

base for use by other r esear chers. NOS will proc-ess the dat a into two gridded data sets:

1.

2.

Both

Metric data in the UTM (Universal Trans-

verse Mercator) projection to construct bathy-

metric maps, andEnglish (feet or fathom) data in th e Merca-

tor projection to construct nautical charts.

gridded data sets will be processed into digital

graphics for use in electr onic char t systems an d t heconstruction of map and chart hard copy graphics.

In conjunction with the swath data, other ancil-

lary data are collected by ships. These data include

3.5 and 12 kilohertz underway bottom-profiling sys-

tems an d surface weath er observations .32

Since 1980, the budgets for mapping, charting,

and geodesy program s in NOAA have sh run k 10

to 20 percent (una djusted dollars). Ship support

funds also have been reduced over this period. Cur-

rently, EEZ multi-beam efforts represent about 10

percent of the NOAA surveying and mapping activ-

ities. Bath ymetric surveys ar e not a line item in t heNOAA budget ; the level of effort in creases a t t he

expense of traditional mapping and charting activ-ities.

33NOAA is increa sing mu lti-beam sur vey ef-

forts in 1987 to 418 sea-days at a cost of about $6.1

million .34 35

Event ua lly, NOAA plan s to apply sim-ilar technologies within nearshore regions using ex-

perience gained with the offshore systems.

gtMore detai] on the NOS bathymetric mapping program may befound in the r eport of the December 1984 EEZ Bathymet ric and Geo-

physical Survey Workshop, NOAA, March 1985.jjThree ships fo rmerly assigned to charting now do mu]t i-beam

surveys.g+ Estimated from cost of ship-days in 1984-86.35

Appropriated $1, 1 m illion for a n a dditional m ulti-beam system.

OTHER DATA COLLECTION P ROGR AMS

Th e Na t i o n a l Oc e a n i c a n d The Na t i ona l Oc e a n Se rv i c e A t mo s p h e r i c Ad mi n i s t r a t i o n

Ge ne ra l Phys i c a l Oc e a nogra phy P rogra ms . —

In a ddition t o the extensive program of bath y- NOS is the major NOAA group systematically col-metric mapping using multi-beam systems (de- lecting physical and geological data from the EEZ.

scribed above), NOAA collects In addition to the relatively recent swath mappingNo AI”@+C@,C

9

‘P~\

*V 70and synthes izes biological , program, NOS collects and maintains tidal data

$ ,.. ~~ chemical, and physical charac-

W

along the U.S. coastline. NOS has funded the de-<~ ~ teristics of the ocean environment. velopment of a st at e-of-the-ar t da taba se man age-4z $ Through NESDIS, NOAA con- ment system for mu ch of these data as pa rt of itsc‘o C+*

Cfitrols the ma jor da ta centers for ‘ ‘next-genera tion wat er level mea sur ement sys-

4 ’ WN T @

c o + +

EEZ data (NGDC and NODC). tern. ” Insufficient funds have been provided to put



25 8 q Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Figure 7-1.— Regional Atlases of the EEZ

our atlases prepared by the Strategic Assessment Branch of NOAA depict environmental, economic, and jurisdictional infor-mation useful for regional assessment of EEZ resources.

SOURCE: National Oceanic and Atmospherlc Administration.




Underway Geophysics Collected in the EEZ

As the concentration of these ship tracks shows, a significant amount of geophysical information has been collectedin the EEZ; however, much more mapping, sampling, and resource assessment remains to be done.

Source: National Geophysical Data Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

tors, and a dministra tive mat ters. N MFS biological-environmental data (i. e., oceanographic data) aremainly of regional inter est an d ar e shar ed within

a r egion by more conventional mea ns, such a s di-

rect exchan ge of “har d” or paper copy.

The National Geophysical Data Center

The mission of the National Geophysical Data

Center (NGDC) is “to acquire, process, archive,

analyze and disseminate solid earth and marinegeophysical dat a . . .; to develop ana lytical, . . .

an d descriptive pr oducts; and t o provide facilities

for World Data Center A. ’40

Its Marine Geologyand Geophysics Division (one of four divisions) cov-

Data System A was established as part of the Interna-

tional Geophysical Year 1956-57 to foster data exchange between coun-tries. World Data System A coordinates information from ‘‘free’ worldcountries; World Data System B, from Soviet bloc countries.

ers most of the work of interest to the EEZ. Thearchives of this Division include some 10 million

track miles of marine geophysical data, about 25

percent of which is in the U.S. EEZ. About half

of the requests for data come from private indus-

try. The next largest requesting groups are acade-

mia and the Federal Government.

Funding for NGDC activities has declined

slightly from fiscal year 1981 th rough fiscal year

1987 while its archives and responsibilities have

steadily increased. Future projections suggest anincrease in data storage requirements of 600 per-

cent (presuming only high-density magnetic tapesare used for storage) from fiscal years 1986 to 1992.

NGDC data are pr ocessed and m ade available

to a worldwide community of clients through series

of ‘Data Announcements’ on topics ranging from




common depth point seismic reflection data for spe-cific regions of the U.S. continental shelf, to core

descriptions for special areas, to high-resolutionseismic reflection data, to magnetic and gravity

data, to the latest data sets from the deep sea drilling

project, to ice-gouge data. These announcements

provide users with detailed information on the char-

acteristics of the particular data set being offered,including related data sets, costs, and available

formats.

The Marine Geology and Geophysics Division

has two interactive systems for accessing worldwide

mar ine geophysical dat a and geological data in t he

sample holdings of the major U.S. core repositories.

Using software d eveloped by th e Division, a usercan specify geographic area, type of geophysical

measurement, sediment/rock type, geologic age,

etc., and receive inventory information at a com-

puter t erminal. First operat ional in J une 1978, these

two systems are used primarily by Division person-nel, but there has been experimental use at remote

terminals by the staffs of Scripps Institution of

Oceanography a nd other core r epositories un der

data exchan ge agreements with NGDC and other

Federal agencies. NGDC hopes to make three other

dat a sets similar ly accessible for users:

1. multi-beam echo-sounder data from NOS and

other collecting inst itut ions,

2. side-looking sonar data, and3. digital m ulti-cha nn el seismic reflection dat a

if demand and funding warrant.

NGDC staff states that most users of Division datado not need “on-line”

41 access; NGDC typically

satisfies most inquiries by performing tailored

searches of the da ta for the r equestor.

Types of EEZ dat a h eld by NGDC ar e Marine

Geological Data Bases, Bathymetry and Marine

Bounda ry Data Bases, and Un derway Geophysi-

cal Data. In terms of numbers of reels of data stored

and in rates of acquisition in bytes42

per year, the

Underway Geophysical Data sets dominate the

NGDC inventory (97 percent). Most of the data

sets are collected in digital form and stored on mag-

netic tape.

+1 Intera ctive access to the dat a.

4ZOne byte is th e amount of computer memory used to store one

character of text.

Marine Geological Databases.—There are four

ma jor cat egories in t he geological da ta bases: Ma-rine Core Cu ra tor’s (MCC), Mar ine Miner als

(MM), Digital Gra in Size (DGS), and Miscellane-

ous

q

q

q

q

Geology Files (MGF).

All of the data sets are digital, aggregated, and

stored on ma gnetic tape except for the MGF.The am ount of MGF dat a st ored is on 20 reelsof magnetic tape. The sum of the other cate-

gories is about 14x106bytes, half of which are

DGS dat a. All sets combined ar e on 23 reels

of magnetic tape.

The average delay between sampling and re-

porting is 10 years for DGS and MGF data

an d 2 a nd 5 year s respectively for MCC an d

MM data. All four categories are provided onrequest.

All data are acquired from academic or gov-

ernment laboratories ranging from 90 percent

academ ic for MCC to 90 percent governm entfor DGS. The sum of the acquisition rates for

MCC, MM, and DGS is about 140 kilobytes

per year (100 kilobytes per year for GDS) with

MGF acquiring about 1,000 stations per year.

Future uses are expected to increase by about

1 percent per year for MCC an d GDS, 2 per-

cent per year for MM, and 5 percent per year

for MGF.

Problems Handling Geological Data.—Marine

sediment and hard-rock analyses present unique

data management challenges. Unlike bathymetry,

for example, data volume pr esents n o real obsta-cle to geological data storage and retrieval. The

problem lies in the descriptive, free-form, non-

standard nature of the data. There are nearly limit-

less varieties of analyses performed on sediment and

har d-rock sa mples, each a nalysis requiring suita ble

documentation to make the data usable. Decisions

must be made as to which types of analyses merit

creat ion of a dat abase and, for ea ch type of data

selected, which analyses or measurements should

be stored. These decisions require input from the

marine geological scientific community to be com-

bined with data management practices to produce

databases that satisfy user requirements. The non-standard form of marine geological data also makes

compilat ion of data very labor-intens ive. Much of the data must be hand encoded from descriptive

data reports and other sources and entered into the




Photo credit: W. Westermeyer

Marine analysts examine instrumentation aboard

the dredge Mermentau.

its formation in 1961 and probably now has the

world’s largest unclassified collection of oceano-

graphic data.

About 95 percent of the E EZ data obtained a re

in digital form, the rest is in analog form. All of

the data are stored on magnetic tape and comprise

about 650,000 stations, equivalent to about 135

reels of magnetic tape or about 4 gigabytes. The

time-lag from sampling to reporting ranges from1 to 5 years. The rate at which dat a ar e acquired

is about 650 megabytes per year, due mainly to in-puts from a few high dat a-rate devices such as cur-

rent meters.

NODC has been pivotal in t he development of

several data management activities that involve data

that is entirely, or a t least ma inly, taken in the EEZ:

Outer Continental Shelf Environmental As-

sessment Program (OCSEAP).—OCSEAP is a

comprehensive multi-disciplinary environmental

studies program initiated by BLM to provide envi-

ronmental information useful in formulatingAlaskan oil and gas leasing decisions. Starting from

a modest $100,000 data collection program in 1975,OCSEAP had assembled by the end of 1984 over

2,500 data sets covering more than 100,000 stations

and consisting of more th an 4 megabytes. During

the early stages of this program, a great deal of ef-fort was devoted to the development of data for-

mats and codes that would support the needs of in-

vestigators and be compatible for preprocessing and

converting to digital form prior to submission to

NODC.

National Marine Pollution Information Sys-tem (NMPIS).— NMPIS is essentially an annu-

ally updated catalog of thousands of marine

pollution-related projects carried out or supportedby dozens of Federal agencies. The catalog includes

types of projects, types of data and/or information

covered, geographic distr ibution, quanti ty of

data/information, means of access, costs, and prin-

cipal contacts.

Marine Ecosystems Analysis (MESA) Proj-

ect. —MESA is a cooperative program between

NOAA and the Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA) to conduct baseline marine environmental

measur ements pr imarily in t he New York Bight,New York; an d Pu get Sound, Wash ington, ar eas.This program, which began in 1978 and completed

its data collection phase by 1983, resulted in more

than 2,000 marine environmental data sets consist-

ing of over 200,000 stations. NODC now holds

these data in appropriate files in the National

database.

Strategic Petroleum Reserve/Brine Disposal

Pr ogra m. —This NOAA program began in 1977

to provide assessment information to the Depar t-ment of Energy (DOE) on environmental effects

of brine dischar ge int o th e Gulf of Mexico. Base-line marine environmental measurements from

monitoring efforts a t discha rge sites consist ing of

over 87,000 stations have been archived by NODC.

California Cooperative Fisheries Investiga-

tions (CALCOFI). —The CALCOFI program,

largely supported by the State of California, makes

oceanographic observations in conjunction with

fisheries studies at a grid of stations in the Califor-

nia Current region off the California coast. Begun

in 1949, this program has produced physical/chem-

ical oceanographic data consisting of more than 370

data sets of over 16,500 stations which are now heldby NODC.

New Efforts Underway at NODC Involving

EEZ Data. —A cooperative agreement has been



Ch. 7—Federal Programs for Collecting and Managing Oceanographic Data 263

signed bet ween N OAA’s Na tional Ocean Service

(NOS) and NODC to develop an Alaska regionalmarine database in Anchorage, Alaska, at the Of-

fice of Marine Assessmen t Ocean Assessm ent Di-

vision. NODC and NOS are both providing co-

pies of their data holdings in the Alaska EEZ region

and will provide routine updates every six months.

Database maintenance will be done in Anchorage,an d a full data base copy will be available at th e

Ocean Assessment Division ther e an d a t N ODC.

Consideration is being given to creating Level

II sat ellite dat a sets for t he EE Z at NODC. While

massive global sat ellite dat a archives ar e available

from the Satellite Data Services Division of the Na-

tional Climatic Data Center, investigators require

easier da ta access tha n is now possible. NODC ispresently archiving and distributing data from the

U.S. Navy Geodetic Satellite which provide fullEEZ coverage as part of the satellite Exact Repeat

Mission.

Prototype Coastal Information System Using

a Per sonal Compu ter . —In 1986, NOAA devel-

oped a prototype coastal information system for the

Hudson-Rarita n Est uar y. The system is designed

for use by regional planners, environmental

specialists and managers, and citizen groups withaccess to an IBM compatible personal computer.Information is accessed by file directory, menu, and

glossary and provides output as map sections and

vertical profiles with a wide variety of propert ies

ranging from temperature through water depth.

Problems with NODC Data. —Data quality isa continuing concern for both NODC and research-

ers using NODC data. To address this issue, a ser-

ies of ‘J oint Inst itut es’ between NODC and vari-

ous research laboratories has been initiated. These

institut es are locat ed on-site at the laborat ories.

Data are collected, pre-processed, and checked for

qua lity by th e program ’s prin cipal invest igator(s)

or their staff(s) before being provided to NODCfor archival. One such “Joint Institute” for sub-

surface thermal data from the Tropical Ocean

Global Atmosphere Study (TOGA) program is now

operating at the Scripps Institution of Oceanogra-phy, and others are planned, depending on re-

sources, for other programs at the University of Ha-

waii and the University of Delaware.

Another problem is the large number of organi-

zations collecting ma rine en vironmenta l dat a in

varying formats, employing various levels of quality

control. This situation makes it both expensive and

difficult to man age resulting da ta to the satisfac-

tion of an equally large user community. NODC

does not have financial or staff resources to rou-

tinely reformat and uniformly quality control every

data set received for archival.

U.S. Depar tment o f the In ter ior

Mi ne ra l s Ma na ge me nt Se rv i c e

The Minera ls Mana gement Service (MMS) car-

ries out programs to implement the EEZ proclama-tion through its Office of Strate-

gic and International Minerals.

The programs include: formulat-

ing a mineral leasing programfor non-energy minerals; estab-

lishing joint Federal-Stat e ta sk

forces in support of preparation

of lease sale EISs through cooperative agreements;

providing support for data-gathering activities of

other Federal and State agencies and universities;and developing regulations for prospecting, leas-

in g, a n d op er a t ion s for Ou t er Con t in en t a l

Shelf/EEZ minerals.

The MMS administers the provisions of the

Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA)

through regulations codified in Title 30 of the Codeof Federal Regulations. The regulations govern per-

mitting, data collection and release, leasing, and

postlease operations in the outer continental shelf.

The regulations prescribe:

q

q

when a permit or the filing of a notice requires

geological and geophysical explorations to be

conducted on the outer continental shelf; and

operating procedures for conducting explora-

tion, requirements for disclosing data and in-formation, and conditions for reimbursing in-

dustry for certain costs.

Pr ior t o 1976, comm on depth point (CDP) seis-mic data were primar ily acquired by the govern-

ment thr ough nonexclusive contr acts or as a cost-

sharing participant in group shoots. As the cost of




acquirin g these da ta increased , the concept of ob-

taining t he dat a a s a condition of permit wa s de-veloped. Starting in 1967, the MMS has reim-

bursed indu stry per mitters for reproduction costs

of acquired CDP seismic data. Recent costs for such

data have averaged about $600 per mile. The MMS

now holds about 1 million miles of such data, of

which about 260,000 miles was acquired before fis-

cal year 1976 and could continue to be held as pro-prietary indefinitely. Data acquired after 1976 areheld as pr oprietar y by the petroleum industr y for

a period of time. MMS is about to propose a rule

increasing the hold on such geological data from10 to 20 years. Additionally, the agency is consid-

ering prohibiting the release of any geophysical data

until the new rule goes into effect .43

The effect of

this new policy would be to shut off most industry-

collected data from reaching the public for another

decade. Approximate amounts of CDP data re-

maining in MMS archives for the years 1977through 1985 are shown in figure 7-2.

Ninety-five percent of the CDP data are collected

in digital form, with the remainder analog. Of the

WT . Holcomb, NOAA/NGDC, Apr. 24, 1987, a n d D. zinger,MMS Reston, Apr. 27, 1987, personal communications to OTA.

Figure 7-2.—MMS Seismic Data

1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985Year

portion stored by MMS, 95 percent are stored on

Mylar film with the r emainder on ma gnetic tape.

Except as noted above, none of the data are avail-

able to the genera l public. Indust ry is th e source

of all of the data and MMS expects future acquisi-

tion rates to continue at about the same rate as the

past few years. These data a re acquired as a con-

dition of offshore geological and geophysical per-

mits issued under the terms of the OCSLA. There

are no problems obtaining the data, so long asMMS has the funds to reimburse the permittee for

th e du plicat ion costs. MMS also collects physical

oceanographic data, which accounts for about 25

percent of the MMS Environmenta l Studies pro-

gram. These dat a a re obtained by MMS cont rac-

tors; MMS contracts now specify that data obtainedunder contract are to be provided in digital form

to the NODC.

U.S. Geological SurveyThe U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) is the dom-

inant civilian Federal agency that collects marine

ogeological and geophysical data.

++~~; **P+. USGS conducts regional-scaleQv+&*

2*’*A investigations aimed at un der-

4 ’\ $’

*S3*

standing and describing the gen-+~“

G@* qA era l geologic fra mework of th e&

‘(%};A~ Sq ()+ continental margins and evalu-

ating energy and mineral re-

sources. About 60 percent of the EEZ data collectedar e in digita l form . The ‘ ‘ra w’ field dat a a re u su-

ally stored for some lengthy period for possible di-

rect access. About two-thirds of the data must be

merged (aggregated) with other data (usua lly navi-

gation data) in order to be of value. The total

am ount of EE Z dat a collected t o dat e is stored on

about 50,000 reels of magnetic tape and is being

accumulated now at about 200 reels per year. The

time lag from collection to reporting is about three

years for publication in a scientific journal and

about one year for a seminar or an abstract at a

meeting.

Future acquisition of EEZ data is expected to in-

crease approximately 10 percent per year, mainly

because new equipment allows more informationto be collected per ship mile. In the past, all USGS

data were copied and sent to NGDC. This policy

continues except for digital seismic data; only sum-

maries of these data are sent. NGDC then an-



Ch. 7—Federal Programs for Collecting and Managing Oceanographic Data . 265

nounces the availability of such data sets and, if demand warrants, the data are then sent to NGDC.

B u r eau o f Min es

While the Bur eau of Mines (BOM) does not a c-

tively collect and archive EEZ data, BOM is aprime user of information col-lected by other groups. Programs

related t o the EE Z include de-

velopment of technologies thatwill perm it r ecovery of miner al

deposits from the ocean floor,

studies of beneficiation and proc-

essing system s, economic ana lyses of miner al ex-

traction, and assessment of worldwide availabilityof miner als essent ial to th e economy an d security

of the Un ited States.

N a t io n a l A ero n a u t i c s a n d S p a c e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n

The National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-

tr at ion (NASA) flies a n um ber of satellites carr y-

elevation. From these measurements, a-number of important properties of the ocean can be estimated,

including biological productivity, surface wind ve-

locity, bottom topography, and ocean currents. All

of these satellites obtain some small but significantpercenta ge of their da ta while over t he EE Z. Thebulk of the ocean program data archived by NASA

is located at the National Space Science Data Cen-

ter at the Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt,

Maryland, and a t t he NASA Ocean Data Systemcentered at the J et Pr opulsion Laboratory, Pasadena,

California. Scientific analysis of the data is per-formed by researchers at the two laboratories and

at u niversities around the count ry.

Both laborat ories are curr ent ly collecting EE Z-

related da ta . About 80 to 100 percent of the da ta

are digital with spatial scales of hundreds to thou-sands of yards and temporal scales of hours to days.

Most of the data are stored in raw form on 27,000reels of high-density magnetic tape. The time lag

between data sampling and r eporting is between

one and two years; these data are available to

other s. NASA acquires dat a a t t he ra te of about10

12to 10

13bytes per yea r, which is expected t o in-

crease significantly in the future.

NASA has developed pilot data management sys-

tems that have successfully demonstrated conceptssuch as interactive access to data previewing and

ordering. These programs allow users to actually

view the data available; the programs will not be

fully operat iona l before th e ear ly 1990s.

The “NASA Science Internet” (NSI) program

was created in 1986 to coordinate and consolidatethe various discipline-oriented computer networks

used by NASA to provide its scientists with easier

access to data and computational resources and toassist their inter-disciplinary collaboration and com-

mun ication. NSI is man aged by the Informa tion



26 6 q Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

Systems Office within NASA’s Office of Scienceand Applications. The Ames Research Center in

Sunnyvale, California, is responsible for technicalimplement at ion of NSI. NSI services include con-

solidating circuit requests across NASA disciplines,maint aining a data base of science requirement s,

disseminating information on network status and

relevant technology, and supporting t he a cquisi-

tion of network har dware a nd softwar e.

Science networks with the NSI system include

the Space Physics Analysis Network, the Astron-

omy Network (Astronet), the network for the Pi-

lot Land Data System, and the network planned

for t he eart h science program. Curr ently, these net-

works support approximately 150 sites accom-

modating 2,000 scientists. Growth in use has been

20 to 40 percent each year across all science dis-ciplines. NSI will coordinate links between NASA

networks a nd networks of other agencies as well,

such as NOAA, USGS, and NSF.

The West Coast Time Series project converts raw

satellite data to ocean chlorophyll concentrations

and sea surface temperatures (useful for studies of

biological productivity and ocean circulation) in for-

mats agreed to by the scientific user community,

and provision has been made for efficient data dis-

tribution.

Problems Handling NASA Data.—Users say it

is difficult to obtain complete and timely responses

to requests for satellite data.

44

This problem appearsto be due to lack of funds to develop and operate

efficient data archival and distribution facilities for

secondary users.

It is curr ently impossible to get satellite data ar-

chives to copy very large data sets—thousands of tapes— so the ‘ ‘archive’ is basically a warehouse

of inform at ion with limited d istribu tion capacity.

U . S . N a v y

The U.S. Navy has a global ma rine da ta collec-

tion program that is among the largest in the world.Dat a collection by t he N avy is n ot necessar ily fo-

ttThis problem Wa s mentioned by many other agencies an d educa-

t i onal i ns t i t u t i ons and is outlined in the 1982 NRC report Data Man-agement and Computation, Vol. 1.

cused in the U.S. EEZ; therefore it is difficult to

estimate how much of the Na vy’s dat a r elate to the

EE Z. The Na vy’s ma rine dat a collection includes

bathymetry, subsurface currents, seismic profiles,

bottom samples, visibility, some water chemistryand biology, vertical profiles of physical properties

(such as temperature, conductivity, and sound ve-

locity), acoustic character, magnetics, gravity, and

some side-scan sonar and bottom photography.

Most of the data are either classified or under con-

trolled distribut ion to th e Depart ment of Defenseor its contractors.

Some dat a a re collected, corr ected, and filtered

before being archived at the Naval Oceanographic

Office; in most cases, the original/raw data are also

reta ined. Analog data a re stored in th eir original

form. Most of the data are stored on magnetic tape,

some on floppy disks, an d some on paper records.

Some unclassified oceanographic data are forwarded

to NODC, principally through the Master Oceano-graphic Observation Data Sets, and some un clas-

sified geological/geophysical data, including unclas-

sified bathymetric data, sediment thicknesses, andmagnetics are forwarded to NGDC. The Navy is

a significant user of unclassified data obtained prin-

cipally from NODC and from academic labora-

tories working under Office of Naval Research con-

tracts. Future use of data is expected to remain at

about the present level with no particular focus onthe EE Z.

Currently, the U.S. Geological Survey’s GLORIAdata are not subject to classification. NOAA multi-

beam depth data, however, are sufficiently detailed

that they are now classified as confidential by agree-

ment of the National Security Council, and theNavy has recommended that this classification be

upgraded to secret. Although the NOS is cont inu-ing to collect m ulti-beam da ta, t he NOS dat a a re

being treated as classified (see next section). No Sea

Beam dat a a re current ly being forwar ded to NGDC

from any source, and thus no such data are released

in response to requests from foreign countries.

The Navy’s Office of Naval Resear ch su pportsa set of unclassified basic research contracts (mainly

with academic institutions) that obtain data in the

EEZ. Some of these are: Coastal Dynamics (to im-

prove prediction of coastal ocean environmental




conditions), Coastal Transition Zone Oceanogra-

phy (to advance understanding of upper ocean dy-

namics in regions influenced by the proximity of

a coastal boundary), and Sediment Transport

Events on Shelves and Slopes (to underst and t he

underlying physics of and develop a new predic-

tive capability for sediment erosion). Small amounts

of unclassified Navy EEZ data are provided to the

NOAA national data centers.

S t a t e a n d Lo c a l Go v e r n me n t s

Most, if not all, coastal States are collecting and/

or managing EEZ data. Though a major share of

their needs is being met by national centers, most

must obtain some data from other sources (indus-

try, academic laboratories, and their own facilities).

To determine the amount and characteristics of EEZ data being collected and/or managed by

coastal States, OTA sent questionnaires to the Stategeologists (members of the Association of Amer-

ican

teen

q

q

q

State Geologists) of the 23 coastal States. Six-

replied. Analysis of the responses revealed that:

Roughly 75 percent of State data exist in ana-

log form. Only one (the Oregon Department

of Geology and Mineral Industries) collectsmost of their data in digital form. Approxi-

mately 80 percent of the data are stored on pa-

per only.

The most usual time lag between sampling andreporting was 1 year, ra nging from 1 month

to 3 years.Without exception, th ose who have dat a m ake

it ava ilable to oth ers. Most of th is activity is

in response to individua l requests.

Problems Handling State Data.—Even where

State digital data sets exist, transfer to other usershas been difficult because of lack of a standard for-

mat. The greatest need expressed by the States is

for the establishment of a system to insure a regu-

lar exchange of informa tion an d t o encourage th e

coordination of activities on local, regional, and na-

tional levels.

Academic and Pr iva te Laborator ies

The academic laboratories vary widely in size,

scope, and sophistication. They range from the 10

major oceanographic institutions which are mem-

bers of the Joint Oceanographic Institutions45

t othe hundreds of smaller coastal and estuarine lab-

orat ories. Many of them maint ain t heir own da ta

archives. Those undertaking research sponsored by

the NSF Division of Ocean Sciences and and/or

located near the five NODC liaison offices (atWoods Hole, Massachusetts; Miami, Florida; La

Jolla, California; Seattle, Washington; and Anchor-

age, Alaska) routinely provide their data to NODC

an d/or NGDC. About 20 percent of NODC's pres-

ent archive has come from t he a cademic and pr i-

vate laboratories and recently the annual percent-

age acquired from them is even greater—42 percent

in 1985 and 35 percent in 1986. NODC staff credit

th e Na tional Science Founda tion’s Ocean S ciences

Division’s ocean data policy as a contributing cause

to this increase.

Academic and private laboratories respond to the

‘ ‘market place ‘‘ in their handling of unclassified

ocean ographic da ta. Thus, the solution to datamanagement problems lies with those who control

the market, mainly the Federal agency sponsors of

academic research. Effective processing of data col-

lected on academic ships may depend on inclusion

of funds in the research project specifically for the

purpose of data reduction. In NSF, the Division

of Ocean Sciences budgets for this activity, but the

Division of Polar Programs does not.

Some of th e smaller laboratories have minima l

involvement in either using or producing EEZ data.Networks for regional data exchange would help

to alleviate this barrier.

I n d u s t r y

Private industry has been a relatively minor

source of data for the nat ional a rchives, amount-ing to only 4 percent of the total NODC data. How-

ever the present annual percentage for NODC in-

creased abrupt ly to 6 percent in 1985 and th en to14 percent in 1986. NODC staff attributes this in-

crease to recent practices by some government

agencies contracting for oceanographic survey work

(e.g., MMS) to specify that unclassified data be

provided to data cent ers.4 ~ S C r i p p S institu tion of Oceanograp hy, Woods Ho l e OCeanOgrwh lC

institution, University of Washington, University of Miami , Lamon t -Doherty Geological Observatory, Texas A&M University, Univer-sity of Rhode island, Oregon State University, Hawaii Institute of

Geophysics, and the University of Texas.




OTA sur veyed 10 indust rial organ izations (pri-

marily geophysical firms) actively collecting and/or

utilizing EEZ data, with th ese results:

q

q

q

About 75 percent of th e compan ies conta cted

collect a ll or pa rt of the EEZ data tha t t hey

use, and almost all of the data are digital.

Predominately, the stored data are unalteredand on magnetic tape.

One ma jor geophysical prospecting compa nyfar outst ripped th e combined total of stored

data by all other companies—1014

bytes—

amounting to a total of about 2 million reels

of magnetic tape. The other companies ranged

from a few reporting hundreds of reels of mag-

netic tape to the remainder utilizing only a few

ten s of reels.

Most of the companies make their data avail-

able only through purchase. A few reported

providing data to national data centers, espe-

cially those collecting data for a Federal agencyunder contr act.

q Estimates of future increase or decrease of use

were highly variable and were indicated as be-

ing sensitive to future economic conditions,

par ticular ly in term s of var iability of costs of

EEZ resources (e. g., oil).

Problems Handling Industry Data.—Govern-

ment agencies frequently replicate data that privatecompanies have ‘‘in-house. Such duplication of

efforts is ext rem ely costly. Some in dust ry spokes-

persons believe that Federal survey programs are

unfairly competitive with industry surveys. On the

other han d, private industr y often retains detailsrelated to th eir surveys as proprietary informa tion.

Federal access to details creates a n awkwar d situa-

tion in that once survey data are in Federal hands,

they can be accessed by other s th rough th e Free-

dom of Information Act. A centralized index of in-

dustry surveys similar to the NGDC GEODAS

(Geophysical DAta System) system is needed so

researchers will know what private sector data ex-ist, thereby avoiding potential duplication.

CLASSIFICATION OF BATHYMETRIC AND GEOPHYSICAL DATA

Multi-beam mapping systems, e.g., Sea Beamand the Bathymetric Swath Survey System—BS

3,

can produce bathymetric maps of the seabed many

times more detailed than single beam echo sound-

ing system s (figure 7-3, for examp le). This n ew gen-

erat ion of seabed contour maps appr oaches—an d

sometimes exceeds—the accuracy and detail of land

maps and provides oceanographers a picture of the

deep ocean floor not available a scant decade ago.

Prior to 1979, before the first NOAA research vessel

Surveyor was equipped with Sea Beam, the U.S.

oceanographic community only had available low-

resolution bathymetric maps that were suitable for

navigation a nd general pur poses but lacked the de-

tail and precision needed for science.

Some ma rine geologists a nd geophysicists con-sider the development of multi-beam mapping sys-

tem s to be th eir profession’s equivalen t of th e in-vention of the particle accelerator to a physicist or

the electron microscope to a biologist. Now that thetechnological threshold for sensing the intricate de-

tails of the landforms beneath thousands of feet of

ocean water has been overcome, oceanographers

believe that tremendous strides can be made in ex-

ploring the seabed and understanding the processes

occurring at great ocean depths.

The convergence of two advanced technologies—

multi-beam echo sounders and very accurate

navigational systems —provides the basis for ex-

tremely detailed maps of the seabed that are spa-

tially accurate in longitudinal and latitudinal posi-tion on the earth’s surface as well as precise in de-termining the depth and landforms of the undersea

terrain. Multi-beam systems, when used in con-

junction with the satellite-based Global Position-

ing System, can produce charts from which either

surface craft equipped with t he sam e shipboard in-

struments or submarines with inertial navigation

and sonar systems can navigate and accurately po-

sition themselves. 46 If geophysical information, e.g.,

gravity and magnetic data , is superimposed over

the mapped region, its value for positioning and

na vigation is furt her en ha nced. A 1987 work shop

of Federal, private, and academic representatives

+bR. Tyce, J , M il]er, R. Edwards , and A. Silver, ‘‘Deep OCean

Pathfinding-High Resolution Mapping and Navigation, ” Proceed-

ings of the Oceans ’86 Conference (Washington, DC: Marine Tech-

nology Society, 1986), pp. 163-168.



Ch. 7–Federal Programs for Collecting and Managing Oceanographic Data 269

Figure 7-3.—Map of the Surveyor Seamount Straddling the Juan de Fuca Ridge ProducedWith Sea Beam Bathymetry

Two halves ofSurveyor Seamount

The contours depict water depth in meters. The split in the mountain was caused by seafloor spreading. This map showsonly 2 percent of the data (about 400,000 data points) obtained by Sea Beam. The detailed features obtained with SeaBeam encouraged scientists to study this area more closely; evidence of recent volcanism has unexpectedly been found.

Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration



concluded t ha t N OAA should acquire geophysical

data tha t would not h inder th e timely acquisitionof the bathymetric data.47 Classification stymied

NOAA’s effort to form a cooperat ive ar ra ngemen twith industry and academia. Thus, to date, NOAA

has not acquired gravity or magnetic data.

While the capability to identify subsu rface ter-

rain features and accurately determine their posi-

tion is a boon to scientists seeking to locate and ex-

plore geological feat ur es on t he s eafloor, it pr esents

a potentially serious security risk if used by hostile

forces. Because of the security implications, the

U.S. Navy, with the concurrence of the NationalSecurity Council’s Na tional Opera tions Security

Advisory Committ ee, initiat ed a ctions to classify

multi-beam data and restrict its use and distri-

bution.

OTA Worksh op on Dat a Classification was h eld Ja n. 27,1987, at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute, under the auspices of the Marine Policy and Ocean Management Center.

Modern undersea warfare requires that sub-

marines, once submerged, remain submerged toavoid detection. When submarines operate globally,

this long-term submergence presents significantnavigational problems. Inertial guidance systemsand other navigational gear m ust be occasiona lly

updated with precise locational information if thesubmarine’s position is to be determined accurately.

One mea ns for doing th is is by fixing terr ain fea-

tures on tie ocean bottom and triangulating within

th em t o determin e th e vessel’s position. With

deta iled’ bat hymet ric maps a nd pr ecise geodesy,modern acoustical detectors and onboard computers

are capable of precisely fixing a submarine’s posi-

tion without having to surface and risk detection.Little imagination is needed to understand the secu-

rity implications of high-resolution bathymetry.Bathymetric data may also affect other aspects of

undersea warfare, including acoustical propagation

and mine warfare count ermeasu res.

In 1984, NOAA centered its bathymetric data

collection in th e NOAA ships Su rveyor (equipped




o m m e n d e d t h a t o n l y ‘‘c on t r o l l e d s e l e c t i v e d i s s e m -

i n a t i o n ’ o f N O A A ’ s m u l t i - b e a m d a t a b e a l l o w e d .

A n a l y z i n g t h e t w o p u b l i c r e p o r t s o f t h e N a v a l

S t u d i e s B o a r d a n d N A C O A , O T A f o u n d t h a t n e i -

the r g roup , i n r each ing i t s conc lus ions , appea r s to

have fully weighed the r isks, costs, and implications

of w i thho ld ing m os t h igh-qua l i ty ba thym et r i c m apsf rom the academ ic com m uni ty and the p r iva te sec -

to r . F ur the rm ore , ne i the r r epor t s eem s to acknow l -

e d g e t h e e x t e n t t h a t m u l t i - b e a m t e c h n o l o g y h a s

p r o l i f e r a t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d a m o n g t h e a c a -

d e m i c , c o m m e r c i a l , a n d g o v e r n m e n t e n t i t i e s o f

b o t h f r i e n d l y a n d p o t e n t i a l l y h o s t i l e n a t i o n s . A s

multi-beam survey data becomes more widely avail-

ab le , s ecure nav iga t ion i s poss ib l e w i thou t N O A A

data . M any fo re ign coun t r i e s , i nc lud ing the S ov ie tU nion , a r e now opera t ing m ul t i -beam survey sys -

t e m s . A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e r e h a s b e e n n o r e s t r i c t i o n

placed on data produced by U.S. academic research

vesse l s ope ra t ing S ea B eam sys t em s . F ina l ly , ne i -the r r epor t d i scusses the poss ib l e incons i s t ency be -

t w e e n t h e r e s t r i c t e d u s e o f b r o a d - c o v e r a g e , h i g h -r e s o l u t i o n b a t h y m e t r y b y U . S . s c i e n t i s t s a n d t h e

pr iva te sec to r and the U .S . pos i t i on r ega rd ing in -

ternat ional pr inciples of f reedom of access for sc i -

en t i fi c purposes in o th e r n a t ions ’ E E Z s an d fore ign

s c i e n t i s t s ’ a c c e s s t o t h e U . S . E E Z .

N O A A’s S u r v e y P l a n s — N a v y ’s R e s p o n s e

After the re lease of the Naval S tudies Board and

NACOA reports in March 1986 and June 1986 re-

s p e c t i v e l y , t h e p o s i t i o n s o f N O A A a n d t h e N a v yon m ul t i -beam c las s i f i ca t ion d ive rged r a the r t hanc o n v e r g e d t o w a r d a s o l u t i o n . I n r e s p o n s e t o t h eN avy’s oppos i t ion to a l low ing N O A A to p roceed

w i t h c o m p r e h e n s i v e u n c l a s s i f i e d m u l t i - b e a m c o v -

e r a g e o f t h e E E Z t h a t m i g h t s e r v e a s a n a t l a s o f

t h e s e a b e d , N O A A p r o p o s e d t o a b a n d o n i t s c o m -

p r e h e n s i v e l o n g - r a n g e p l a n a n d s u b s t i t u t e a s e r i e s

o f s m a l l e r - s c a l e t a r g e t s f o r m u l t i - b e a m s u r v e y s .T h e s e s m a l l e r - s c a l e t a r g e t s i n c l u d e d :

q

q

q

speci f ic s i tes in water depths greater than 200

m e t e r s ;

con t inuous coverage su rveys in l im i t ed a reas

o f c o n c e r n , e . g . ,i n e s t u a r i n e a r e a s a n d f o r

navigational safety in depths of 200 meters orless ;

widely-spaced r econna issan ce swath s over th e

e xt e n t of a s e a b e d f e a t u r e ;

q de ta i l ed inves t iga t ion o f a reas up to 2 0 n a

ca l m i l e s square ; and. i n t e rna t iona l w a te r s ou t s ide the U .S . E E Z

s is tent with in ter nat ional law in a ma nn er

i la r t o m u l t i -beam sur veys m ade by t he d

m es t i c and fo re ign academ ic fleets .51

T h e N a v y f or m e d a w o r k i n g g r o u p to a d d r eN O A A ’s p roposa l . T he w ork ing g roup conc l

t h a t :

1,

2.

3.

4.

5.

Surveys in waters shal lower than 200 me

along the U.S . coas t l ine are par t icular ly se

sit ive an d sh ould be restr icted a nd classif i

Bathymetric data on survey sheets that al lo

p o s i t i o n s to be fixed to l e s s t h a n o n e - q u a r t

nautical mile should be classified secret; therfore, based on tests showing t hat a sign ifican

p r o p o r t i o n o f N O A A ’ s m u l t i - b e a m s u r v

fall into this category, the Navy proposed

a l l m u l t i - b e a m d a t a b e c o l l e c t e d , p r o c e s

and he ld at t he sec re t c l a s s i f i ca t ion .

N a v i g a t i o n a n d b a t h y m e t r i c d a t a e i t h e r m

b e s h i p p e d s e p a r a t e l y to secure onshore fa

i t i e s , or i f com bin ed (w h ich N O A A does

m a in ta in qua l i ty con t ro l ), it m us t be h an d

under secre t c lass i f ica t ion.

A reas ou t s ide the U .S . E E Z tha t N O A A

poses to sur vey ma y still be sen sitive since thc ou l d p o s e a t h r e a t to a l l i e s a n d t h e r e f

should come wi thin the c lass i f ica t ion sche

S m a l l “ p o s t a g e s t a m p ” ( 2 0 b y 2 0 n a u t i c

miles) surveys also should be considered classi

fied. The Navy did allow that accurate and l i ab le unc las s i f i ed nau t i ca l cha r t s w i th appr i a t e con tour spac ing can be p roduced f ro

t h e c l a s s i f i e d d a t a b a s e to s u p p o r t N O A A

nautical chart ing mission. 52

The Navy is continuing to work on f il ter ing te

niques that would dis tor t (degrade) the shape

t h e l o c a t i o n o f s e a b e d f e a t u r e s . D i s t o r t i o n wredu ce the u se fu lness o f a su r vey shee t for v

p o s i t i o n i n g b u t w o u l d a l l o w N O A A to d i s t r i

sur vey sheets in u nclassified form to al l user s.

for ts to d a t e h a v e n o t p r o d u c e d a fi lt e r t h a t c

s I Letter from Anthony J. Calio, Administrator, National Oceanic

and Atmospheric Administra tion, to Rear Admiral J ohn R. Seesholtz,

Oceanographer of the Navy, Feb. 3, 1986.sZLetter from Rear Admiral John R. Seesholtz, Oceanographer of

the Navy, to Anthony J. Calio, Administra tor, National Oceanic and

Atmospheric Administration, Oct. 6, 1986.




satisfy both the security demands and positional cri-

teria established by the Navy while still providing

oceanographers and the private sector with suffi-ciently detailed information to be useful. Theprospects of developing a mu tu ally accepta ble fil-

t e r s e e m r e m o t e .

OTA Class i f i ca t ion Workshop

In collaboration with the Marine Policy and

Ocean Management Center of the Woods HoleOceanographic Institution, OTA convened a work-shop in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, in January1987. Academic and governmen t ocean ogra pher s

and industry representatives who attended delvedfurther into the impacts and dislocations that data

classification might impose on user groups. Work-

s h o p p a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e a s k e d t o :

q focus on the costs and risks of classification tos c i e n t i f i c a n d c o m m e r c i a l i n t e r e s t s ,

q relate the loss o f i n f o r m a t i o n a n d / o r c o m m e r -

cial opportunities in the EEZ to the economicand scientific position of the United States,

. consider the consequences of data classifica-

tion on U.S. foreign policy related to the needfor a ccess t o oth er N at ions’ EE Zs for ocean o-

graphic research, an dq identify factors that could affect the operational

integrit y of a Navy classification system.

Costs and Risks to Scientif ic and

C o mmer c ia l I n t e r e s t s

Marine geologists and geophysicists believe thatit is impossible to evaluate what the loss might be

to the U.S. oceanographic community as a result

of classifying mu lti-beam dat a u nt il a su fficiently

large area is surveyed and mapped to discover what

scientifically interesting features might be detectedas a result of high-resolution bathymetry. The rela-tively small sampling that has been ma de availableto date receives high praise from the academiccommunity and government oceanographers who

anticipate significant breakthroughs in understand-

ing the conformation of the seabed if general-cov-

erage multi-beam dat a a re ma de available from t he

EEZ.

To advance oceanographic science, some scien-

tists believe that they must be able to detect a nd

characterize individual geological seafloor features

with dimensions as small as 100 meters. Only multi-

beam m appin g systems pr ovide sufficient r esolu-tion to achieve tha t goal in wat ers exceeding 200

meters in depth, although optical systems and side-scanning sonar can provide useful information

about such features. Should broad-coverage, high-resolution bathymetric surveys and geophysical data

be either aba ndoned or excessively restr icted, ge-ologists and geophysicists are concerned that they

would be denied fun dam ent al inform at ion impor-

tant to their professions, according to those attend-ing the OTA workshop.

Both NOAA’s a nd th e Na tional Science Foun -

dation’s (NSF) char ters r equire them t o share an dpublicly disseminate scientific data among non-governmental users. Oceanographic data collected

under the aegis of NSF’s Division of Ocean Sci-

ences is required to be made public after two years

th rough a ‘‘na tional r epository, e.g., the Nat iona l

Geophysical Data Center (NGDC). As a conse-quence of classificat ion of multi-beam da ta , th ereis a possibility that neither NOAA nor NSF would

support or un dertak e large-scale seabed mapping

efforts. NOAA has reserved the option of terminat-ing all multi-beam surveys if it is not permitted to

condu ct unclassified sur veys in t he U.S. EEZ and

elsewhere. 53 Should NOAA forsake broad cover-

age multi-beam surveys worldwide, the Navy it-self would likely lose a valuable source of strategic

and tactical bath ymetric data from both the U.S.EEZ and elsewhere that could strengthen the U.S.fleets’ operational position.

One anticipated indirect long-term impact thatcould result from restrictions on the collection, proc-

essing, and dissemination of multi-beam bathymet-

ric data is a move away from a cademic empha sis

on ma rine geology and a slowdown in p rogress in

understanding the seafloor and geological processes.

Ocean m ining interest s foresee setbacks in exten -sive mineral surveying within the U.S. EEZ if NOAA is restricted in its unclassified mapping pro-gram. Some industry representatives believe that

seabed mining holds a special position of national

importance, and, therefore, even if classificationprocedures were imposed, ocean miners should be

given access to the classified, “undegraded,” high-resolution bathymetric data. Yet, while Federal

53 Ibid.




agencies with properly cleared personnel will have

access to the multi-beam data, it is uncertain

whether or n ot pr ivate firms can h ave similar ac-

cess. Some firms can handle classified data, but

others cannot. Firms that can access such data

would have a significant advantage in the bid proc-

ess. It remains t o be seen as t o wheth er or not in-

dustr y will tolerate su ch a dispar ity.

Since th e NOAA mapping program is current lythe only one affected by the threat of classification,

it remains possible for individuals to contract with

domestic and foreign firms to conduct multi-beam

surveys in t he U.S. EEZ. Interna tional law does

not preclude the conduct of such surveys within the

EEZ. Permission is required only when surveys fallwithin the Territorial Sea. A West German sur-

vey ship has already conducted surveys within the

U.S. EEZ in cooperation with U.S. industry.Broad-coverage bathymetric surveys would be ex-

pensive, and, given th e man y other un certa intiesfacing the domestic ocean mining industry, e.g.,

unstable minerals markets, high cost of capital, and

regulatory uncertainties, it is unlikely that mining

ventures would commit the necessary funds to con-

tract for such reconnaissance multi-beam surveys,

thus reducing the likelihood that mine sites wouldbe developed successfully. Security restrictions onmulti-beam data will affect a number of other

undersea activities as well, e.g., submersible oper-

ations, modelling, identification of geological haz-

ards, cable and pipe routing, fishing, etc.

Thr ough J uly of 1987, ther e were no classifica-tion restrictions placed on multi-beam bathymetrycollected and processed by the academic fleet. How-

ever, the Na vy has given no assur ances tha t aca-

demic data will not be classified in the future. With

the exception of surveys made of the Aleutian

Trench in the Pacific Ocean and Baltimore/Wil-

mington Canyons in the Atlantic Ocean, seldom

do academic vessels undertake broad bathymetric

coverage; rather, they tend to concentrate on

sma ller specific units of th e seafloor. Most of the

surveys made by the academic fleet have been made

outside the U.S. EEZ. On the other han d, if funds

were ma de available, it may be possible to mounta cooperative broad-scale mapping effort among at

least three world-class oceanographic research ves-

sels in t he U.S. academic fleet tha t a re equipped

with multi-beam systems to provide high-quality

data with atlas coverage.54

Impacts on U.S. Economic and

Scient ific Posi t ion

Commercial interests represented at the OT A

workshop in Woods Hole suggested that restrictiveclassification procedures could chill the development

of new echo soundin g t echnology, since domesticcivilian markets for such instruments would prob-

ably disappear. Should this situation arise, foreign

instrument manufacturers are likely to displace

U.S. firms in intern ational mark ets, and th e pre-

dominance established by the United States in the1950s and 1960s would give way, with the leading

edge of acoustical sounding technology (much of which was sponsored by the Department of De-

fense) being transferred overseas. To some extent,

this ha s already happened. There is also a risk t hat

as other nations allow unclassified multi-beambathymetric maps to be produced within their EEZ,

U.S. ocean mining firms, most of which are multi-

nat ional, might find it advant ageous t o locate min-

ing ventu res in foreign economic zones a nd a ban -

don efforts in the U.S. EEZ. At a minimum,

classification may drive U.S. firms into multina-

tional agreements in order to acquire needed datawithin the U.S. EEZ.

International scientific competition is fierce. This

fact is seldom fully appreciated by those unfamiliar

with the science establishment. Oceanographers at-

tending the OTA Woods Hole workshop were uni-form in their belief that U.S. marine geologists and

geophysicists would be put at a disadvantage with

their foreign colleagues who may not be limited by

data classification. This might tend to lure U.S.

researchers to focus their efforts elsewhere in the

world where there are fewer constraints on the use

and exchange of multi-beam and geophysical data,

thu s depriving the United Stat es of the benefit of

research within its own E EZ.

There was general a greement at the OTA Woods

Hole worksh op that , if faced with the altern ative

s+ The research vessel Thom as Washin~on operated by Scripps In-stitution of Oceanography and the research vessels Robert Conrad

and Atlantis 11 operated by Lamen t-Doherty Geological Observatory

and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution respectively.



Ch. 7—Federal Programs for Collecting and Managing Oceanographic Data 275

of having high-resolution multi-beam data that has

been “degraded” or “distort ed” by filters an d a l-

gorithms, the oceanographic community would pre-

fer to continue using the best “undoctored, ” un-

classified data available even if it were of lower

resolution. If th e choice of having h igh-resolut ion

multi-beam bathymetric data over a small area is

weighed against broad coverage with filtered data,most oceanographers prefer limited coverage and

high-resolution.

Foreign Policy Implications of

Data Classification

In pr oclaiming the est ablishment of the U.S. Ex-clusive Economic Zone (EEZ) in 1983, President

Ronald Reagan carefully specified that the newly

established ocean zone would be available to all for

the purpose of conducting marine scientific re-

search.55

The Pr esident’s sta tement reaffirms a

long-held principle of the United States that it main-tained t hroughout t he n egotiations of the La w of

the Sea Convention (LOSC): notwithstanding other

jur idical consider at ions, na tions sh ould be free to

pursu e scientific inquiry thr oughout the ocean.

Although signatories to the LOSC grant ed the

coastal states the exclusive right to regulate, author-

ize, and conduct marine research in their exclusive

economic zones, the United States—a non-signa-

tory to the LOSC—cont inues t o support and ad-

vocate freedom of scientific access. 56 Thus, although

other na tions may impose consent requirement s on

scientists entering their EEZs if they view such sur-veys as counter to their national interest, the United

Stat es has n o such rest rictions.

While oceanographers are generally pleased with

the U.S. open door policy for scientific research in

the EEZ, those attending the OTA Woods Hole

workshop see potential problems if the Navy estab-lishes precedence for classifying high-resolution

bathymetric maps for national security reasons. If

the Navy continues to prevail in its position on the

sensitivity of multi-beam data, then the United

States might find it necessary to prohibit or con-

trol the acquisition and processing of similar databy foreign s cient ists. Su ch action would, for p ra c-

ssst~t~~c~t by th e president accompanying the proclamat ion est ab-

lishing the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone, Mar. 10, 1983, p. 2.Scun i ted Nations Law of the Sea, Part XIII, Sec. 3, Art. 246.

tical purposes, repudiat e th e Pr esident’s a nnounced

policy of free access to the EEZ for scientific re-

search.

Should multi-beam bathymetry in the U.S. EEZ

be classified, many oceanographers believe thatother countries would follow suit or retaliate against

U.S. scientists by placing similar restrictions on thecollection and processing of data within their EEZs.

To date, no foreign multi-beam data has been sub-

mitted t o NGDC. Other count ries are waiting to

see how the security issue is resolved within t he

U.S. The consequ ences for ma rine geological a nd

geophysical research on a global scale could be se-

vere as a result of removing a significant portion

of the world’s sea floor from investigat ion. Th e with -

drawn area s would include mu ch of the continen -

tal ma rgins tha t a re scientifically inter esting andmay also contain significant mineral resources.

Will Classification Achieve Security?

Although the National Security Council and the

Navy may effectively derail NOAA’s plans for com-

prehensive coverage of the U.S. EEZ by high-resolution mu lti-beam mapping systems, the action

in no way assures that such data can not be ob-

tained by a potential hostile through other means.Broad-coverage multi-beam data could be collected

and processed by non-government sources, and ac-

curate, unclassified bathymetry could be acquired

for strategic and tactical purposes. It is also possi-

ble that foreign interests could gather such data and

information either covertly under the guise of ma-rine science or st raightforwar dly in t he E EZ un-

der th e U.S. policies r elated to freedom of access

for peaceful purposes —although the latter approach

might prove politically difficult.

The Navy, on the other hand, considers that any

action it may take to gather bathymetric informa-

tion using its own ships is by definition n ot con-

ducting marine scientific research, but conducting

‘‘military surveys for operational purposes’ which

are therefore not subject to coastal State jurisdic-

tion as are civilian scientific vessels gathering the

same kind of information.57

Because the Navy con-

57(’Navy Oceanography: Priorities, Activities and Challenges, ”

speech presented by Rear Admiral John R. Seeshohz, Oceanogra-

pher of the Navy, Center for Oceans Law and Policy, University of

Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, Oct. 24, 1986.




siders its operat ions u sing multi-beam bat hymet-ric systems to be “hydrographic surveying” rather

than scientific research, it remains possible for other

foreign na vies to ma ke th e same claim to gain ac-

cess to the U.S. EEZ for similar purposes.

Over 15 vessels ar e known to be equipped with

multi-beam mapping systems worldwide, not in-cluding those of NOAA and the Navy. Multi-beam

mapping systems, while expensive to pur chase andoperate, are not a technology unique or controlled

by the United States. Multi-beam technology is

shared by France, Japan, United Kingdom, Aus-

tralia, Federal Republic of Germany, Finland, Aus-

tra lia, Norway and t he Soviet Union. (Canada is

now in the process of purchasing a system. ) While

several multi-beam systems were purchased from

U.S. ma nu factu rer s, oth er coun tr ies, e.g., Federal

Republic of Germany (two companies), Finland,

and Norway, developed their own systems.

Multi-beam technology is not new. The first Sea

Beam u nit outside a U.S. Navy vessel was installedon an Australian naval vessel the HMS Cook, in

1976 and the second on the French vessel J e a n

Char co t in 1977. The t echnology is over 20 year s

old. While oceanographers are reluctant to consider

Sea Beam as “obsolete” or “outmoded, ” they

note, however, that better technology has been de-veloped an d is available in t he world mark et.

Export licenses have been denied to U.S. man-

ufacturers of multi-beam systems for sale to Braziland Korea for security reasons, but comparable

echo sounding equipment is available from foreignsources. U.S. restrictions on the export of multi-

beam systems put U.S. equipment ma nufacturers

at a disadvantage. Since foreign multi-beam man-

ufacturers exist, current U.S. policy on technology

tr an sfer does not effectively limit t he a vailability

of these systems to foreign purchasers. Foreignfirms have interpreted U.S. policy to mean that

they are not restricted from collecting multi-beam

data in the U.S. EEZ. Moreover, operating only

within th e domestic market, U.S. manufacturers

find it difficult to remain competitive.

Private commercial firms have recently an-nounced their intent to enter the multi-beam serv-

ice market, offering contract arrangements for ac-

quiring, logging and processing high-resolution

bathymetric data; and perhaps to recover geophysi-

cal data as well. It is apparent that restricting and

controlling the acquisition and dissemination of

high-quality bathymetric data will become more dif-

ficult in the future as its commercial value increases.

Just as geophysical surveying firms have been

formed to respond to the offshore petroleum indus-

tr y’s n eed for s eismic survey dat a, so too may

bathymetric survey firms respond to an increaseddemand for multi-beam data. New survey systems

that combine wide swath bathymetric measure-

ments with side-scan sonar imagery, e, g. ,

SeaMARC, are also available in the commercial

fleet.

Some oceanographers believe that a large amount

of unclassified bathymetric data and charts of suffi-

cient precision a nd a ccur acy to be used for st ra te-

gic and tactical purposes are already in the public

domain and that much of it may have to be classi-fied if subjected to t he Navy’s positioning test s. F or

example, many of NOAA’s single-beam surveysthat are run with precise electronic control and closeline spa cing for char ting coasta l area s an d ha rbor

approaches ha ve resolution compar able to mu lti-

beam sur veys an d ar e curr ently in the pu blic do-

main. A considerable amount of similar commer-

cial data has also been collected and is available for

sale. A potential adversary would only need selected

data sets to complicat e a war fare situat ion.

The current move to classify bathymetric data

is not the first time data restrictions have been im-

posed on t he ocean ogra phic commun ity. From th e

end of World War II in 1945 to well into the 1960s,some bathymetric data collected in deep ocean areas

by the single-beam systems were also classified. One

difference between now and then is that earlier sur-

veys were either made by Navy vessels or procured

by Navy contract; there was no drain on civilian

research and survey budgets, hence little proprie-

ta ry claim for access to the da ta could be made bycivilian interests.

Ob s e r v a t i o n s a n d A l t e r n a t i v e s

Dealing from its position of power regarding

security ma tter s, the Depart ment of Defense ap-pears not to have opened the doors of inquiry wide

enough to allow adequate involvement of the sci-

entific and commercial communities. Even in its

dealings with NOAA, the Navy leaves an impres-




sion among civilian officials that it can maintain

its contr ol by not sh aring importa nt informa tion

germane to the issue, such as technical limits of itsrequirements. At the same time, the Navy appears

to be skeptical about th e scope of claims m ade by

civilians on their need to access multi-beam data.

Whether facts or perceptions, the curr ent debat e

is rife with concerns that must be overcome if amut ua l solution is t o be reached.

While much of the curr ent debat e has centered

on Sea Beam data because of NOAA’s plans to ex-

tensively map t he EE Z, the Na vy has pr oposed to

restrict other multi-beam surveys and geophysical

monitoring a s well, e.g., ma gnetic and gra vity data .

Proposals have been made that NOAA collect geo-

physical data concurrently with bathymetric data.58

Such multiple sensing could enhance the scientific

usefulness of bathymetric surveys, and it also couldincrease the usefulness of data for positioning sub-

marines.

Thus far, scientific and commercial interests have

resisted th e proposed use of mathema tical filters to

distort the shape and location of subterranean fea-

tures. One option they have discussed is the estab-

lishment of secure processing centers to archive

bath ymetric and geophysical da ta. Appropriately

—.-—sBNat ion~ oceanic and Atmospheric Administrat ion, ~cporf of the

NOAA Exc lu s i \ e Economic .Zme Bath,wnetrir an d Geoph>’sicai SunqVtt’orkshop, Dec. 11-12, 1984, p . 2 .

cleared researchers could then have access to clas-

sified data and secure processing equipment to meet

scient ific and comm ercial needs. A similar option

would be to a llow secure facilities to be locat ed a t

user inst allat ions. A significant am ount of classi-

fied material is handled by civilian contractors un-

der supervision of DOD. Similar arrangements

may be possible with appropriately cleared usersof bathymetric/geophysical data. However, a ma-

jor problem exists in that we are now in a ‘ ‘digital

w o r l d , and secure processing of digital data is both

expensive (site security) and restrictive (no network-

ing of computers). Universities and firms typically

have linked computers and may have to submit to

the added expense of additional systems to handle

these data. Other innovative means to manage the

difficult problems of balancing national security

with data access may be possible.

Acceptable resolution of the debate over classify-

ing multi-beam bathymetric data will require morecandor and a better exchange of information on all

sides of the issue. The Navy appears to have done

an insufficient job of communicating its needs and

reasons for classification. On the other hand, the

scient ific comm un ity also has ha d difficulty in ar -

ticulating its reasons for needing high-resolutionbathymetry and in backing them with solid exam-

ples. Sat isfactory solutions will only come by in-

cluding in th e classificat ion debat e those with a sta ke

in th e academic and commer cial use of bat hymet -ric and geophysical data.



Appendixes



A p p e n d i x A

State Management of Seabed Minerals

S t a t e M i n i n g L a w s

All States bordering the territorial sea have statutes

governing exploration and mining on Sta te lands, in-cluding offshore areas under State jurisdiction. The stat-

utes range from single-paragraph general authoriza-

tions, equally applicable on land or water, to detailedrules specifically aimed at marine exploration and min-

ing. Some States provide separate rules for petroleum

and har d minera ls. These laws are outlined in ta ble A-1,

which only includes laws a ffecting mining a ctivities. The

States also have water quality, wildlife, coastal zone

management, administrative procedure, and other laws

that might affect seabed resource development.

There ar e large differences among the Sta te mining

laws, mak ing a t ypical or model mining law d ifficult to

describe. A review of the coastal Sta tes’ mining laws

does reveal some common characteristics that suggestdifferent ways to achieve each objective.

Scope:

Many States do not separate onshore from offshore

development, thus providing a single administrative

process for all mineral resources. At least four States

(California, Oregon, Texas, and Washington) distin-

guish oil and gas from h ard minerals.

E x p l o r a t i o n :

Most St ates h ave general research programs, carried

out by geological survey offices or academic institutions.

Some States provide for more detailed state prospect-

ing in areas proposed for leasing. Private exploration

generally requires a permit.

Area limits are unspecified in most statutes. Land-

oriented stat utes t end to require sma ller tr acts, Alaska

limits perm its to 2,560 acres but a llows a per son to hold

multiple permits totalling up to 300,000 acres.

Prospecting permits may be general or for designated

tracts. Alaska, California, Texas, and Washington grant

exclusive permits while Delaware, Florida, and Oregon

do not. Permits may also specify the type of mineral be-

ing sought.

California and Washington grant a preference-right

lease to prospectors ma king a discovery. Delawar e and

Oregon do not. Oth er Sta tes, including Alaska, Maine,New Hampshire, and Texas, allow all or part of the ex-

plored area t o be convert ed to a mining lease upon dis-

covery of commercial deposits.

Explorat ion r esults must be reported t o the Stat e but

th eir confidentiality is protected for the du ra tion of th e

prospecting permit a nd a ny subsequent lease. Massa-

chusetts requires survey results to be made public priorto the hearing concerning the granting of a lease.

The duration of prospecting permits is generally 1 or

2 years with renewal term s ran ging from 1 year to in-

definite. Alaska provides a 10-year prospecting term.Annual rents ran ge from $0.25 per acre in Texas an d

Washin gton, to $2.00 per a cre in California, an d $3.00

per acre in Alaska. Maine has a sliding scale, increas-

ing from $0.25 per acre in the first year to $5.00 per

acre in the fifth.

Mi n i ng Le a se o r Pe rmi t :

Some States grant preference-right leases or allow

conversion. Competitive bidding is th e gener al ba sis for

awarding leases with a cash bonus, or royalty, or both

being the bid variable. California also allows bidding

on ‘‘net profit or other single biddable factor. Some

States grant leases noncompetitively, conducting an

adm inistr at ive review of individual lease app licat ions.

Public hearings ar e usua lly required un der all of these

systems.

Most States do not specify area limits for mineral

leases. Where conversion is a llowed, a pr ospector m ay

only convert as much land as is shown to contain work-

able mineral deposits or as mu ch a s he can sh ow him-

self capable of developing. Where limits are specified,th ey ran ge from 640 acres (Washingt on) to 6,000 acres

(Mississippi). States limiting the acreage covered by

each lease generally do not limit the number of leases

that a single person may hold.

Lease terms range from 5 years (Virginia) to 10 years

(Delaware, Georgia, North Carolina, Oregon) to 20

years (Alaska, California, Texas, Washington). Renewalis available, usually for as long as minera ls are pr oduced

in paying quantities. Leases are generally assignable in

whole or in part, subject to State approval.

Most Sta tes require a m inimum rent , credited toward

a r oyalty based on pr oduction. Minimum an nua l rents

range from $0.25 per acre in Delaware to $3.00 per acre

in Alaska. Minimum royalties vary from 1/16 of pro-

duction in Texas t o 3/16 in Mississippi. Louisian a pr o-

vides different r oyalties for different m inera ls, rangingfrom 1/20 to 1/6 of production. Some Sta tes provide for

payment in kind.

The use of leasing income varies

other purposes, it may be allocated togreatly. Among

the general fund,

281

7 2 - 6 7 2 0 - 8 7 - - 1 0



Table A-1.—State Mining Laws

Environmental Current or Statutes andState Agency Exploration Mining permit protection Conflicting uses

—

past activity Comments regulations

Alabama . . . . . . . . . . Department of Not specified. Competitive bid- Bids must be Not specified. Oil and gas Ala. Code f9-l5-Ieases. No hard 18 (1980).Conservation &

Land Resources,State Lands Di-vision

Alaska. . . . . . . . . . . . Department ofNatural Re-sources, LandsDivision

California . . . . . . . . . State LandsCommission

Exclusive permitup to 5,200acres, 10-yearterm. $3.00 per

acre for first twoyears, $3.00 peracre each suc-cessive year.300,000-acrelimit on permitsheld by oneperson.

Exclusive permiton unexploredland, two-yearterm, renewablefor one year. An-nual rental of$2.00 per acre.

ding, tracts upto 5,200 acres.

May be grantednon-competitively toholder of pros-

pecting permitfor as muchland as is shownto contain work-able deposits,not to exceed100,000 acres.Known minerallands offered bycompetitivebid/cash bonus,annual rent$3.00 per acrewith credit forexpendituresbenefiting prop-erty. 20-yearterm, renewable.

Holder of pros-pecting permitentitled topreference in ob-taining a lease.Known minerallands leased bycompetitive bidon cash bonus,royalty rate,profit share orother singlebiddable factor.Minimum annualrent $1.00 peracre. Twenty-year term,renewable for10-year terms.No size limit.

made in the pub-lic interest.

Approval fromFish and GameDept. required

All leases mustcomply withenvironmentalimpact report re-quirements.

When not other-wise limited bylaw, nonexclu-sive use of

unoccupied sub-merged landsshall not be de-nied to any citi-zen or resident.

Leases may not“substantiallyimpair the publicrights to naviga-tion and fishingor interfere withthe trust uponwhich the landsare held. ”

minerals.

Pilot mining forgold in marineplacers offNome took

place in 1985and 1986. Full-scale mining isplanned for1987. Formerlyextensive dredg-ing of shell de-posits for ce-ment, nowexhausted. Nocurrent commer-cial activityother than oiland gas.

A few prospect-ing permits havebeen issued, butno discoverieshave been re-ported. Some in-terest in sandand gravel, butno activemining.

Alaska Stat.$38.05.250(1984). AlaskaAdmin. Code tit.

11 ch. 62 (Jan.1981).

Cal. Pub. Res.Code $$6371 and6890 to 6900(West 1977)(supp. 1985). Cal.Admin. Code tit.2552200 to2205.



Table A-1.—State Mining Laws-Continued

Environmental Current or

State Agency Explo ration Min in g permit protection Conflicting uses past activity

Connecticut . . . . . . . Department of

Environmental

Protection,

Water Resource

Unit

Delaware. . . . . . . . . . Department ofNatural Re-sources andEnvironmentalControl

Florida . . . . . . . . . . . Department ofNatural Re-sources, StateLands Divisionand Bureau ofGeology

Not specified.

Non-exclusivepermit, two yearterm, renewable.No preferentialright to lease.

Nonexclusiveuse agreementand geophysicaltesting permitrequired. One-year term,renewable forsecond year.

Permit requiredfor taking mate-rial from tidal orcoastal waters.Payment re-quired if mate-rial used forcommercial pur-pose. Hearingrequired unless

environmentalimpact not sig-nificant. Bondfor damage.

Feasibility ofleasing deter-mined after apublic hearing.Competitivebid/cash bonus.Primary term of10 years, con-tinued for aslong as produc-tion takes place.Maximum areasix square miles.Minimum royalty12.5%, withcredit for rentpaid. Minimumrent $.25 peracre. Productionmust beginwithin three

years of discov-ery of payingquantity ofminerals.

Lease requiredfor explorationand develop-ment, competi-tive bid/cashbonus.

“due regard forthe preventionand alleviationof shore ero-sion, the protec-tion of neces-sary shellfishgrounds and finfish habitats, thepreservation ofnecessary wild-life habitats.”

Prior to invitingbids, state mustconsiderwhether leasingwould create air,water, or otherpollution.

Coastal watersmanaged primar-ily for naturalconditions andpropagation offish and wildlife.Adverse activi-ties allowed onlyif there is noreasonable alter-native and ade-quate mitigationis proposed.

Must consider

development of

adjoining up-

lands, rights of

riparian owners,

navigation fa-

cilities.

State must con-sider any detri-ment to peopleowning propertyor working inthe area, inter-ference withresidential orrecreational use,esthetic andscenic values ofcoast, interfer-ence with com-merce and navi-gation. Statemay allow rea-sonable, non-conflicting usesof lease area.

Recreation, fish-ing, and boatingare primaryuses. Compati-ble secondaryuses may be al-lowed if they donot detract fromor interfere withprimary uses.

None at presenttime.

Some oil andgas explorationis starting.Some inquiriesbut no activitywith hardminerals.

Sand and shellextraction on asmall scale. Amineral surveyof Gulf waters isunderway.

Statutes andComments regulations

Corm. Gen. Stat.Ann. $$22a-383to 22a-390 (West1985).

Very detai led Del . Code Ann.statute. Re- tit. 7 ch. 61quires consider- (1983).ation andbalancing ofconflicting in-terest.

Recent applica- Fla. Stat. Ann.tions for oil, 5253.45 (West,gas, and mineral 1975). Fla. Ad-exploration per- min. Code ch.mits prompted a 16C-26, 16Q-21,adoption of ma- & 18-21.rine prospectingrules in early1987.



Table A-1.—State Mining Laws—Continued

Environmental Current or Statutes and

State Agency Exploration Mining permit protection Conflicting uses past activity Comments regulations

Georgia. . . . . . . . . . . State PropertiesCommission

Hawaii. . . . . . . . . . . . Land Manage-ment Division,Board of Landand Natural Re-sources

Louisiana . . . . . . . . . Department ofNatural Re-sources, MineralResourcesOffice

State may enterinto contract forexploration with-out competitivebidding. Stateinspects or sur-veys land itdesires to lease.

Permit required.No minerals maybe removed be-yond quantityneeded for test-ing and analysis.Logs and assaysturned over toState but keptconfidential. In-formation maybe released ifpermitee doesnot apply for alease within sixmonths.

State undertakesinspection, in-cluding geo-physical andgeological sur-veys in areasproposed forleasing,

Competitive bid,minimum royaltyis 1/8 of produc-tion, Minimumannual rent risesfrom $.10 peracre in the firstyear to $1.00 peracre in thefourth and sub-sequent years.Primary lease

term is 10 years.

Granted at pub-lic auction fol-lowing publichearing. Term of65 years or lessat Board’s dis-cretion. Miningto commencewithin threeyears of signinglease, but leasemay allow for anadditional periodduring whichlessee is re-quired to spendmoney on re-search and de-velopment toestablish eco-nomical miningand processingmethods for the

deposit. Notmore than foursquare miles perlease, but nolimit on numberof leases heldby one person.

Offered by com-petitive bid.

As far as prac-ticable, preventpollution ofwater, destruc-tion of fish, oys-ters, and marinelife.

Leases must“comply with allwater and airpollution controllaws”

Not specified.

As far as prac-ticable, preventobstruction ofnavigation.

Applications formining leasesshall be disap-proved if theState determinesthat the existingor reasonablyforeseeable fu-ture use wouldbe of greaterbenefit to theState than pro-posed mining.

Not specified.

Some extractionon inland water-ways but noneoffshore.

No presentocean miningwithin Statejurisdiction. Thedraft EIS for aproposed marinemineral leasesale was issuedby a State-Federal Man-ganese CrustWork Group inearly 1987.

Sand for beachnourishment, so-liciting sulphurleases. Interestin salt domes,mainly forsulphur-bearingcap rocks. Somecommercial in-terest in placerdeposits of east-ern delta.

Ga . Code Ann.$50-16-43 (1965).

Hawaii Rev. Stat.ch. 182 (1968)1986 HawaiiSess. Law 91(Ocean and Sub-merged LandsLeasing).

La. Rev. Stat.Ann. $$30:121 to30: 179.14 (West1975) (supp.1966).




Environmental

State

Current or Statutes and

Agency Exploration Mining permit protection Conflicting uses past act ivity Comments regulations

Maine . . . . . . . . . . . . Maine Geologi-cal Survey

Maryland. . . . . . . . . . Maryland Geo-logical Survey,Coastal and Es-tuarine Branch

Massachusetts . . . . Department ofEnvironmentalQuality Engi-neering

One-year term,renewable forfive years. An-nual rent risesfrom $.25 peracre in the firstyear to $5.00 peracre in the fifth.Annual report ofexploration re-sults required,kept confidential

for term ofpermit.

Not specified.

License andpublic hearingrequired. Dura-tion and costnot specified.

Explorationclaim may beconverted tolease after pub-lic hearing. Roy-alty set case bycase, “reason-ably related toapplicableroyalty ratesgenerally pre-vailing. ”

Permit requiredfor removal andsale of material

Lease required,reviewed at pub-lic hearing. Athorough andreliable surveyof the resourcesand environ-mental risks isrequired. Surveyto be made pub-lic at least 30days beforehearing.

Post bond to re-claim area andto protectagainst damageto property out-side lease area.

Must follow re-quirements ofState wetlandsact.

Mining pro-hibited in shell-fish areas or inshellfish and fin-fish spawning,nursery, or feed-ing grounds.Mining pro-hibited wherehazardouswastes havebeen dumped.

Not specified

Not specified.

May not un-reasonably inter-fere with naviga-tion, fishing, orconservation ofnatural re-sources.

No present min-ing. A coppermine extendinginto the seastopped produc-tion about 10years ago.Coastal watersbeing surveyedto 100 meter iso-bath. Detailedmineral studies

may begin nextyear after gen-eral survey iscomplete.

Shell removal inChesapeakeBay. Past dredg-ing in Baltimoreharbor resultedin sale of sandand gravel. Cur-rently mappingsediment distri-bution on con-tinental shelf.May look atheavy minerals ifinitial findingswarrant. Somespot checkingfor sand andgravel in Bay,anticipatingneed to replaceon-land sourcessupplanted bydevelopment.

No mining atpresent, somebeach nourish-ment projects.Nearly allcoastal watersare protected asocean sanctu-aries. Area po-tentially avail-able for miningis around Bos-ton harborwhere a 1972-1973 survey indi-cated a highconcentration ofsand and gravel.

Coastal zone re-strictions maymake seabedmining difficult.

No statute di-rectly regulates.State uses wet-lands andcoastal zonestatutes to setterms for permit.

Me. Rev. Stat.tit. 12, $$549 to558A (1985).

Mass. Gen.Laws Ann. ch.12 $j54 to 56(West 1981).Mass. Admin.Code tit. 310 ch.29 (1983).




Environmental Current or Statutes andState Agency Exploration Mining permit protection Conflicting uses past activity Comments regulations

Mississippi. . . . . . . . Department ofNatural Re-sources, Bureauof Geology,Mineral LeaseDivision

New Hampshire. . . . Department ofResources andEconomic Devel-opment

New Jersey . . . . . . . Tidelands Re-source Council

Permit required.Data must beprovided toState but re-mains confiden-tial for tenyears.

Prospecting per-mit required.One-year term,re-newable.

Not specified.

Territorial watersare surveyedand divided into96 lease blocksup to 6,000acres in size.Competitive

bid/cash bonus.Minimum royaltyof 3/16 of miner-als extracted.Duration notspecified instatute.

Prospector whodiscovers a de-posit may mineupon filing aclaim and ob-taining a permit.Lease terms (du-ration, royalty,special condi-tions) to be de-termined uponapplication forlease.

License requiredto remove sandor other materialfrom statewaters. Councildetermines dura-tion and com-pensation.Leases arerenewable.Riparian ownershave priority forleases adjacentto shore.

Exploration in Not specifiedwildlife manage-ment areas orMississippiSound or tide-lands subject toreview by Wild-

life ConservationDepartment. 2percent of royal-ties are dedic-ated to manage-ment of waters,land, and wild-life and to clean-up of pollutionfrom explorationor extraction.

Permit may be Not specified.denied if area isunsuitable formining for envi-ronmental rea-sons or thereclamationplans or pollu-tion preventionmeasures are in-sufficient.

Not specif ied. Not specif ied.

Oil and gasleases, no hardmineral activity

No commercialactivity. Surveywork is beingdone in Stateand Federalcoastal waters.

Sand and gravelbeing dredged atedge of Am-brose Channel.

Mining statutedirected at on-shore activity.

Payments go toschool trustfund

Miss. Code Ann.Ij$29-7-l to 29-7-17 (1965).

N.H. Rev. Stat.Ann. ch. 12-E(1961).

N.J. Stat. Ann.f\12:3-12, 12:3-21to 12:3-25.




Environmental Current or Statutes andState Agency Explora tion Mining permit protection Conflicting uses past act ivity Comments regulations

New York . . . . . . . . . Land ResourcesDivision, Officeof GeneralServices

North Carolina. . . . . Department ofNatural Re-sources andcommunity de-velopment

Oregon . . . . . . . . . . . Division of StateLands

Not specified. License re-quired, royaltypaid to Statebased on pro-duction

Not specified. Not specified. Sand and gravelremoval in lowerNew York harborhas been inabeyance since1984. The Stateis in the finalstages of prepar-ing a 10- yearprogram for re-newed sand andgravel dredg-ing.

The

environmental

impact state-

ment for a blan-

ket water quality

certificate is

nearly complete.

This would allow

the State to

lease under a

long-term man-

agement pro-

gram rather than

react to applica-

tions case by

case.

N.Y. Pub. Lands

Law j22 (McKin-

ney 1986).

Not specified.

Non-exclusivepermit, no pref-erential right todiscoveredminerals. Two-year term, re-newable. Drillingrecords must befiled with state.Full explorationrecord may haveto be filed as acondition ofgranting a lease.

‘Within desig-nated bound-aries for definiteperiods of time. . . upon termsand conditionsas may bedeemed wiseand expedientby the State . . .“Ten-year term,renewable. Hear-ing required ifsignificant pub-lic interest is af-fected.

Public hearingto determine ifinviting bidswould be in thepublic interest.Competitivebid/cash bonus.Minimum royalty1/8 of gross pro-duction. Mini-mum annual rentof $.50 per acre,credited towardany royalty due.Ten-year term,renewed for aslong as produc-tion takes place.Drilling must be-gin within fiveyears and pro-duction must be-gin within threeyears of dis-covery.

A permit may bedenied if it willhave “unduly ad-verse effects onwildlife or freshwater, estuarine,or marine fish-eries,” or if itwill violate air orwater qualitystandards.

Fish and Wild-life Departmentmust be con-sulted prior topermit or lease.State must con-sider scenicvalues, air orwater pollution,danger to ma-rine life orwildlife.

All leases orsales made sub-ject to rights ofnavigation.

State must con-sider any detri-ment to peopleworking, living,or owning prop-erty in the area,interference withresidential orrecreational use,or interferencewith commerceor navigation.

Moratorium onmining in Statewaters since1979. Recent re-quest to explorefor sand andgravel denieddue to waterquality con-cerns. Taskforce beingformed to studyfeasibility ofphosphatemining.

Survey of oceanresources re-cently com-pleted. Intensivesurvey of GordaRidge (Federalwaters) summerof 1986. No min-ing activity.

Proceeds fromsales go toDept. of NaturalResources foradministrativecosts and fordevelopmentand conserva-tion of State’snatural re-sources.

Administrativerules for com-mercial offshoreoil, gas & sul-phur surveysadopted June1986. Rules forhard minerals &academic re-search are beingprepared.

N.C. Gen. Stat.5$74-50 to 74-68,143 B-389, 146-8(1985).

Or. Rev. Stat.$273.551 and274.705 to274.860 (1981).




Environmental Current or Statutes andState Agency Exploration Mining permit protection Conflicting uses past activity Comments regulations

Rhode Island . . . . . . Coastal Re- Not specified.sources Man-agementCouncil

South Carolina . . . . Land Resources Not specified.and Conserva-tion Commission

Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . General Land Of- Exclusive permitfice, Petroleum up to 640 acres.and Mineral De- One-year term,velopment renewable for up

to four addi-tional years.Minimum annualrent of $.25 peracre. Quarterlyreport required,

information re-mains confiden-tial for as longas prospectingor mining permitis held.

Permit fromCouncil re-quired.

Lease required.Minimum royaltyof 1/8 of pro-duction.

Proposed leasemust evidencediscovery of acommercial de-posit and offerterms compara-ble to the bestlease in thearea. Primaryterm of 20 yearsand for as longthereafter asminerals are pro-duced in payingquantities. Firstyear rental atleast $2.00 peracre. Subse-quent years,$1.00 per acreagainst a mini-mum royalty of1/16 of value ofminerals pro-duced. Monthlyroyalty report re-quired.

The Rhode ls-Iand Coastal Re-sources Manage-ment Programclassifies Statewaters andcoastal areas,establishing per-mitted uses anddevelopmentprocedures foreach type of

area.

All leases aresubject to con-servation laws.

Lease may in-clude any provi-sions consid-ered “necessaryfor protection ofthe interests ofthe State.”

See Environ-mental Pro-tection.

Not specified.

Not specified.

No present ac-tivity.

No mining or ex-ploration atpresent time.There are knownphosphate de-posits in shal-low water, butno commercialinterest atpresent.

No hard mineralactivity. Noknown resourcesother than oiland gas in statewaters.

The Council hasauthority over alldevelopment inState waters andover land devel-opment whichrelates to ormay conflictwith or damagethe coastal envi-ronment. Miningis prohibited on

beaches anddunes and intidal waters andin salt ponds.

R.I. Gen. Lawstit. 46, ch. 23(1985).

S.C. Code Ann.tit. 10, ch. 9 (LawCo-Op. 1976).

Tex. Nat. Res.Code ch. 53(1986). Tex. Ad-min. Code tit. 31$$13.31 to 13.36(1979).



Table A-1 .—State Mining Laws—Continued

Environmental Current or Statutes and

State Agency Exploration Mining permit protection Conflicting uses past activity Comments regulations

Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . Marine Re- N ot sp ec if ie d. P er mi t r equi red

sources Com- for removal of

mission material. Lease

term five years,

renewable.

Royalty not less

than $.20 nor

more than $.60

per cubic yard

of material

removed.

Washington . . . . . . . Department of Lease required, Twenty-year

Natural Re- two year term, term, renewable.

sources renewable. An- First four years

nual rent of $.25 are prospecting

per acre. Con- or exploration

vertible to period.

mining contract.

Holder of

prospecting

lease has prefer-

ence to mining

contract. Lease

no less than 40

acres nor morethan 640 acres,no limit on num-

ber of leases perperson.

SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987,

Not specified. No lease may in-

terfere with pub-

lic rights to fish-

ing, fowling, or

taking of shell-

fish. Seasonal

dredging limita-

tions may be im-

posed to lessen

adverse effects

on fisheries.

W or k m us t b e I f l and t o be

“cons is tent with mined has a l-

g en er al c on se r- ready beenvation prin- Ieased forciples. ” another purpose,

lessee is to becompensated forany damagecaused by min-ing orprospecting.

No current min-

ing. Ongoing re-

search reveals

good possibility

of commercial

titanium-bearing

minerals in State

and Federal

waters.

Some prospect-

ing in black

sands area at

mouth of the

Columbia River.

The State is pre-paring a suba-queous mineralsmanagementplan and is com-bining field re-search with alegislative pro-gram to meet fu-ture develop-ment needs.

Va. Code $j62.1-3 and 62.1-4(1986). Suba-quaeous Guide-lines, Va. MarineResourcesComm. (1986).

Wash. Rev. CodeAnn. ff79.01.616to 79.01.650(1985) Wash. Ad-min. Code ch.332-16 (1977).




to education, to administration of the mining program,

to resource conservation, to management and research

programs, to the agency having management responsi-

bility for the leased property, and to local governments.

Many Stat es require work t o proceed at a minimum

rate. Some simply require ‘‘diligence’ or a ‘‘good faith

effort ’ or ma y specify a time limit for sta rt ing pr oduc-

tion (3 years in Delaware and Hawaii, 4 years in Wash-ington). Other States require minimum expenditures

for development or improvements ($2.50 per acre an-

nua lly in Washington). In Hawaii, the lease may pr o-

vide for an initial research period during which the les-

see is required to undertake research and development

to establish economic mining and processing methods

for the mineral deposit.

E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n :

Environmental regulations may require preparation

of an environmental impact analysis for each project.

Some Sta tes prepare a blanket a nalysis as pa rt of a com-

prehensive management program, anticipating individ-

ual applications. Many sta tutes identify special areas

to be protected or avoided. These include shellfish beds

and spawning, nursery, or feeding grounds (Connecti-

cut, Georgia, Massachusetts, and Virginia), areas that

are pa rt of the beach san d circulation system, and a reas

where hazar dous wastes ha ve been dumped (Massachu-

setts). Environmental review also requires coordination

with other agencies and statutes. Among these are fishand wildlife depart ments, air and water qu ality laws,

and coastal zone m ana gement a gencies.

Confl ic t ing Uses :

Some States identify certa in uses as pr imar y or pr o-

tected, and conflicting uses are prohibited or restricted.Fishing and navigation rights are most commonly men-

tioned as protected. Virginia may impose seasonal

dredging limitat ions t o protect commercially or recrea-

tionally important fisheries. Florida gives priority to

maintaining natural conditions and propagation of fish

and wildlife. Recreation, fishing, and boating are pri-

mar y uses, Rhode Island St ate wat ers ar e classified by

use (from conservation areas to industrial waterfronts)

with permitted activities and development spelled out

for ea ch class. Connecticut, Delaware, an d Oregon r e-

quire that impacts on upland pr operty owners or users

be considered. Hawaii would not allow mining if the

existing or reasonably foreseeable use of the property

would be of great er benefit to the Sta te. Delaware an d

Oregon require scenic values to be considered. Pipe-

lines, cables, and aids to navigation are protected by

minimum setbacks. Setbacks from shore are specified

in some cases, Florida requ ires oil an d gas leases t o be

at lea st 1 mile offshore. Other leases ar e prohibited from

the 3-foot low water depth landward t o the near est paved

road. Massachusetts prohibits mining in nearshore ar eas

that supply beach sediments, generally to the 80-foot

depth contour.

P u b l i c P a r t i c i p a t i o n :

About half the States require published notice of a

proposed lease, either in a statewide newspaper or in

the affected county or both. About one-quarter of the

Stat es require a public hearing before granting a lease.

Two require a hearing pr ior t o granting a prospecting

permit. Massachusetts requires an applicant to disclose

‘‘reliable information as to the quantities, quality and

location of the resource available . . .“

Re gu l a t i on a nd Enforc e me nt :

All States reserve the right to inspect the work site

and th e prospecting or mining r ecords. Explora tion re-

sults, development work, and materials mined and sold

must be reported. Reporting periods vary from monthlyto annual .

The States generally require bonds or insurance to

cover faithful p erform an ce of the cont ra ct, reclam ation

of th e site, an d clean up of pollut ion r esulting from ex-

ploration or mining and to indemnify the State against

claims arising from the project.

Per mits or leases m ay be revoked for failure t o dili-

gently pursue exploration or mining, for failure to meet

reporting requirements, or for failure to pay rents or

royalties. Revocation is generally an administrative act

by the man aging State agency and is subject to admin-

istra tive or judicial appeal. Revocation m ay be par tial,

allowing the operator to keep production sites not in

default.

Current Ac t i v i t i es

There is little offshore mining in Sta te waters at the

present time. Sand, gravel, and shell are the only ma-

terials currently with significant commercial markets.

Existing operations include sa nd and gravel dredging

on the New York and New Jersey sides of Ambrose

Chan nel in lower New York har bor, sand and shell ex-

traction in Florida, shell extraction in Chesapeake Bay,

an d a pilot gold dredging p roject off Nome, Alaska. In

addition, there are non-commercial beach nourishment

programs using offshore sand. The absence of other

activity is variously attr ibuted by St ate officials t o a lack

of mineral resources, a lack of information about any

resources th at m ay exist, or t o the higher cost of ocean

mining compar ed to onshore mining of the sam e ma-

terial.



App. A—State Management of Seabed Minerals q 291

The general lack of mining activity means that few

of the statutes have been actually tested. But there are

several Sta tes where recent exploration h as spu rred a

review of existing laws. The Virginia legislature estab-

lished a Subaqueous Minerals and Materials Study

Commission. Now in its third year, the Commission’s

mandate is ‘ ‘to determine if the subaqueous minerals

and materials of the commonwealth exist in commer-cial quantities and if the removal, extraction, use, dis-

position, or sale of these materials can be adequately

managed to ensure the public interest. The commis-sion is preparing recommendations for systematic ex-

plora tion of seabed resources (supplemen ting th e present

cooperative effort by the Minerals Management Serv-

ice, Virginia Division of Mineral Resources, and the

Virginia Institute of Marine Science), a subaqueous

minerals management plan, and statutory changes

(some already adopted) to guide future development.Pu blic debat e over a 1984 permit for seismic stud ies

in the Columbia River prompted Oregon to review its

laws. In particular, there was concern with protecting

established fishing and navigation interests, maintain-ing the quality of the marine environment, and provid-

ing adequate public input into what had been an in-

house agency review process. The Division of StateLands adopted administrative rules for commercial off-

shore oil, gas, and sulphur surveys in J une 1986. It is

now preparing administrative rules covering geologic

and geophysical surveys by commercial hard mineral

prospectors and for academic research. A recent change

in Oregon State law permits the Division of State Lands

to enter into exploration contracts whereby a prospec-

tor would have a preference right to develop an d recover

minerals should the State move to actually permit ocean

mineral development.

Florida adopted mar ine prospecting rules in J anua ry1987 to cope with a growing nu mber of applicat ions t o

explore for oil, gas, and other minerals in State waters.The North Carolina Office of Marine Affairs is be-

ginning a long range project to develop a marine re-

sources management program.

Conclus ion

While the St ates a re for t he most par t inexperienced

in man aging seabed minerals, they have the a bility to

develop effective pr ogra ms. Kn owledge an d r esources

from established coastal zone m ana gement, water qual-

ity, and hydrocarbon development can be readily

ta pped. Expert ise is also available from academic ma-

rine science programs and State geological survey

offices. As projects continue, the States have used them

as a basis for reviewing their existing management pro-grams and for making improvements.

Since 1983, the Minerals Management Service has

been funding State marine minerals research under an

ann ual cooperat ive agreement with the Texas Bureauof Economic Geology of the University of Texas at Aus-

tin. All of th e coastal Sta tes an d Pu erto Rico have par -

ticipated in this program at various times since it be-

gan. Sta te resea rch projects focus on both petr oleum a nd

hard minerals and range from general surveys of a

State’s seabed to detailed geologic studies and economic

evaluat ions of specific miner al occur rences. Some of th e

research extends into Federal waters. The agreement

for the fifth year of this program (fiscal year 1987) is

now being prepar ed. Funding ha s been approximately$550,000 ann ually, with about 18 States pa rticipating

each year.

While a St at e’s r ole in th e Exclusive Economic Zone

has yet to be defined, State-Federal task forces have beenformed for areas where promising deposits have been

foun d. The ta sk forces’ mission is to appr aise th e com-

mer cial potentia l of the deposits and t o oversee the pr ep-

ara tion of environment al impact st atement s for leasing

proposals. Such task forces have been form ed with Ha -

waii (cobalt-rich manganese crusts), Oregon and Cali-

fornia (polymetallic sulfides in the Gorda Ridge), North

Carolina (phosphorites), Georgia (heavy minerals), and

the Gulf States (sand, gravel, and heavy minerals off

Alabama, Mississippi, Texas, and Louisiana). The

functioning of these task forces may provide a needed

test of Federal-State cooperation.

If sand and gra vel and other n earshore deposits are

likely to be the first to be developed, it is a lso likely tha toperations will overlap State and Federal jurisdiction.

Even activities entirely in Federal waters may concern

the States because of environmental effects extendingbeyond the mining site, economic and social effects of

onshore support facilities, or effects on local fishing,

navigation, and recreational interests. Proposed min-

ing operations would benefit from a system of compati-

ble Federal and St ate r equirements. Federal support for

work by th e States can ta ke two paths: continued sup-

port for field resear ch to gain better kn owledge of ma-rine r esources, and su pport for legislative efforts t o de-

velop consistent systems for environmentally sound and

economically feasible seabed minin g.



A p p e n d i x B

The Exclusive Economic Zone and

U.S. Insular Terr i tor ies

U.S. Terr i tor ia l Law

In addition to the waters off the 50 States, the Exclu-

sive Economic Zone (EEZ) includes th e wat ers cont ig-

uous to the insular territories and possessions of the

United States.:This inclusion is significant in that the

islands include only 1.5 percent of the population and

0.13 percent of the land area of the United States*, but

30 percent of the area of the EEZ.3This appendix dis-

cusses the legal relationship between the United Stat es

and these islands, with attention to the power of the U.S.

to proclaim and manage the EEZ around them.

The general principle of Federal authority has been

th at, “In th e Territories of th e United Sta tes, Congress

has the ent ire dominion a nd sovereignty, national and

local, Federa l and S tat e, and h as full legislative power

over all subjects upon which the legislature of a State

might legislate within the State . . "4This claim of

complete power h as been modified for s ome islands by

statu tes an d compacts grant ing varying degrees of au-

tonomy to the local population. The discussion below

classifies the islands into three categories distinguished

by th e degree of Federa l cont rol an d local self-govern -

ment . The first group (A) includes eight sm all islands,

originally uninhabited, which a re u nder t he direct man -

agement jurisdiction of Federal agencies. The second

group (B) includes American Samoa, Guam, and theVirgin Islands. These islands are largely self-governing

but subject to supervision by the Department of the In-

terior. The third group (C) includes Puerto Rico andthe Northern Marianas whose commonwealth status

gives th em th e full measu re of inter na l self-ru le wher e

Federal supervisory power is greatly reduced.

G r o u p A

Palmyra Atoll. —Claimed by both Hawaii and the

United Stat es early in th e 19th centu ry, Palmyra was

ann exed to the U .S. with H awaii in 1898. The Hawaii

Statehood Bill excluded Palmyra (as well as Midway,

J ohnston Island, and Kingman Reef) from the territory

‘Proclamation No . 5030, 3 C. F.R. 22 ( 1984), mprintecf in 16 U. S.C. A. 1453

(1985). /

‘U. S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1986,

6 (1985).

‘C. Eh l e r and D. Ba s t a , “Strategic Assessment of Multiple Resource-UseConflicts in the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone, ” O C E A N S ’84 Conference

Proceeding, 2 (NOAA Reprint, 1984).

4Simms v. Simms, 175 U.S. 162, 168 ( 1899).

of the new State.5The island is privately owned and

uninha bited. By executive order it is under the Depart -

ment of th e In terior’s jur isdiction.6

Johnston Island. —Claimed by the United States a nd

Hawaii in 1858, Johnston Island was annexed to the

U.S. in 1898. In the late 1950s and early 1960s the is-

land was the launch site for atmospheric nuclear tests.

A careta ker force mainta ins the site a nd operations cen-

ter for the Defense Nuclear Agency (DNA), which is

responsible for the island. About 500 U.S. Army per-sonnel are on Johnston, preparing a disposal system for

obsolete chemical weapons stored there. Entry is con-

trolled by DNA.7

Kingm an Reef. —This island was annexed by the

Unit ed Stat es in 1922. Most of it is awash dur ing highwater. The island is under the U.S. Navy’s jurisdiction,

8

but no personnel or facilities are maintained on it.Midway Islands. —Annexed in 1867, Midway has

been managed by the U.S. Navy since 1903.9The Mid-

way Nava l Stat ion was closed in 1981, leaving a na val

air facility as the only active military installation.

Wake Island. —Wake has been claimed by the

United States since 1899. Initially assigned to the U.S.

Navy, Wake was tr ansferred to the Department of theInterior (DOI) in 1962

10and is now administered by

the Air Force under special agreement with DOI.11

Howland, Baker, and Jarvis Islands.—Originally

claimed under the Guano Act of 1856,12 these islands

were forma lly ann exed by th e United St ates in 1934.

They were assigned to DOI 2 years later.13

Briefly col-

onized during the 1930s by settlers from Hawaii, the

islands have been uninhabited since World War II.

Comment.–Johnston, Midway, and Wake Islands

and Kingman Reef have been declared Naval defense

areas a nd Na val airspace reservations. They are sub-

ject to special access rest rictions, some of which a re sus-

pended but which may be reinstated without notice.

5Pub1 ic Law 86-3 $2, 73 Stat. 4 ( 1959).

bExecutive Order No, 10967, 26 Fed. Reg. 9667 (1961).7

32 C.F. R. 761 .4(c)(1985).

‘Executive Order No. 6935, Dec. 29, 1934,

‘Executive Order No. 11048, 27 Fed, Reg. 8851 ( 1962), superseding Ex-ecutive Order No. 199-4, Jan. 20, 1903.

IOExecutjve Order No. 11048, 27 Fed. Reg 8851 ( 1962).

1137 Fed. Reg. 12255 (1972).)248 IJ. S,C. 1411 to 1419 (1982).IJExecutive order No. 7368, 1 Fed. Reg. 405 ( 1936).

I*32 C.F, R. 761 (1985).

292



App. B—The Exclusive Economic Zone and U.S. Insular Territories q 295

give th e island full control and sovereignty. Un der t he

present system, th e island’s local power does not include

rights in the EEZ. The Popular Democratic Party’s pro-

posed modificat ions to th e compa ct include local a uth or-

ity over the use of natural resources and the sea.52

The Northern Mariana Islands.—These islands

were colonized by Spain in the 16th century a nd t ran s-

ferred to Germany in 1899. Japan seized Germany’s Pa-cific possessions in 1914 and was given a mandate over

them by t he League of Nations in 1920. The Marian as

were taken by the United Stat es during World War II.

In 1947, the United States was granted a trusteeshipover the former Japanese mandated islands .

53As per-

mitted by the charter of the United Nations, the

Trusteeship Agreement recognized both the strategic in-

terests of the United States and the political, economic,

and social advancement of the inha bitants .54

Status ne-

gotiations with th e North ern Marian as resulted in th e

esta blishmen t of a comm onwealth ‘‘in p olitical un ion

with the United Stat es. "55 The other th ree island groups

of the Trust Territory became free associated states.56

When the U.S. EEZ was proclaimed, the Marianaswere included in the zone ‘ ‘to th e extent consisten t with

the Covenant and the United Nations TrusteeshipAgreement. ’

57 Article 6(2) of the Trusteeship Agree-

ment requ ires th e United St ates t o ‘‘promote th e eco-

nomic advan cement an d self-sufficiency of th e inh abi-

tants” by regulating the use of natural resources,

encour aging th e development of fisheries, agricultur e,

and indu stries, and protecting the inhabitan ts against

the loss of their lands and resources. The Covenant is

silent as to management of ocean resources but provides

for a constitution to be adopted by the people of the

Northern Mariana Islands and submitted to the UnitedStates for approval on the basis of consistency with the

Covenant, the U.S. Constitution, and applicable lawsand treat ies.58

The constitution was adopted locally on

52pucrto R ,=0 po]iticaJ Future, supra n 48, 45

“’trusteeship Agreement for the Former Japanese N4andated Islands, July

18, 1947, 61 Stat. 3301, T. I A S, No 1665 [here inaf te r ‘ ‘ T r u s t e e s h i p

A g r e e m e n t

MU N C h a r t e r , c h a p t e r X I I , T r u s t e e s h i p A g r e e m e n t , a r t s . 1, 5, 6.

5 5 c o n V c n a n t t . Es t a b l i s h a Com r n c s n w e a f t h of the Northern Mariana Is lands

m Po] it ical Union with the United States, Feb. 15, 1975, 90 Stat. 263 [here-

inafter “ C o v e n a n t ” ]5eAs such, they are Independent countries in which U. S interest is mostiy

llm]ted to security matters The Compacts provide that the states conduct for-

etgn affairs in their own names, including ‘ ‘the conduct of foreign affairs relat-

ing to law of the sea and marme resource matters, including the harvesting,

conservation, exploratmn or exploitation of lwing and n on-11 ~.ing resources from

the sea, seabed, or sub-soil to the full extent recognized under international

law. ” Compact of Free Association Federated States of Micronesia and Repub-

lic of the Marshall Is lands and Palau, Jan. 14, 1986, 99 Stat, 1770, art. II,

$121 [hereinafter ‘ ‘Compact’ This provision puts the three states outside the

scope of the U. S Exclusive Economic Zone Proclamation No 5564, note 60,

below, effectuated the Compact with the Federated States of Micronesia and

with the Republlc of the Marshall Islands. The Compact with The Republic

of Palau is undergoing the local rat ificatlon process$Tproc]amation No. 5030, supra note 1.58

Covenant, art. 1 I.

March 6, 1977, and pr oclaimed effective on J an ua ry 9,

1978 by President Car ter.59

Unlike the Covenant, the

const itut ion cont ains t wo provisions relevant to the EE Z.

Article XI (Public Lan ds) declar es su bmerged lands off the coast to which the Commonwealth may claim title

under U.S. law to be public lands to be man aged and

disposed of as provided by law. Article XIV (Natural

Resources) provides, in Section 1, that “[t]he marineresour ces in wat ers off th e coast of th e Commonwealth

over which the Commonwealth n ow or h ereafter may

have jurisdiction under Un ited States law sha ll be man -aged, contr olled, protected a nd p reserved by t he legis-

lature for the benefit of the people.

U.S. interest in the Northern Marianas under theTrusteeship Agreement was a dministrative, not sover-

eign. The change to U.S. sovereignty required United

Nations approval to be implemented. On May 28, 1986,

the United Nations Trusteeship Council concluded that

U.S. obligations had been satisfactorily discharged, that

the people of the Norther n Mar ianas h ad freely exer-

cised their right to self-determination, and that it was

appropriate for the Trusteeship Agreement t o be ter-mina ted.

60On November 3, 1986, President Reagan

issued a proclamation ending the trusteeship, fully estab-

lishing the Commonwealth, and granting American

citizenship to its residents. 61 As a U.S. territory, the

Northern Marianas a re now subject to U.S. law in t he

man ner an d to the extent provided by the Convenant .

T h e E x c l u s i v e E c o n o m i c Z o n e a n d

U . S . T e r r i t o r i a l L a w

Under our system, the authority of Congress over the

territories is both clear and absolute. This authorityoriginates in the constitutional grant to Congress of the

“Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules andRegulations respecting the Territory or other Property

belonging to the United States. ” Any restriction on this

power would come from the term s un der which a ter ri-

tory was initially acquired by the United States or from

a subsequent grant of authority from Congress to the

territory. As shown above, the present territories have

no explicitly reserved or granted power to manage the

EEZ. It has a lso been shown t hat Congress may t reat

the t erritories differently from t he Sta tes as long as there

is a rational basis for its action.

The territorial clause has two purposes: to bring civil

authority to undeveloped frontier areas and to promote

their political and economic development. Its goal is the

achievement, th rough stat ehood or some other a rra nge-ment, of a clear an d stable relationship between the t er-

Sgprocjamatlon No 4534, 42 Fed. Reg. 56593 ( 1977).

W T. C . Res. 2183 (LIII)( 1986)

~1 proclamation No 5564, 51 Fed. Reg 40399 ( 1986)




ritory and the rest of the Union. In the past, Federal

control over territorial affairs was tolerable becauseeventu al sta tehood would bring equality of treatment

and constitutional limitations on Federal power. There

are grounds for suggesting that the pr esent territories

do not fit th e pattern of earlier ones and th at t hey are

“poorly served by a constitutional approach based on

evolutionary progress toward statehood. "

62

Rather tha nbeing frontier areas settled by Americans who later peti-tioned th eir government for statehood, the pr esent ter-

ritories joined the U.S. with developed cultures of their

own a nd m ay wish to preserve their uniqueness by re-

maining apar t from the Union of States. Proposals to

develop the EEZ, like other Congressional action un-

der the territorial clause, should recognize their special

position.

I n t e r n a t i o n a l La w Co n s i d e r a t i o n s

The EE Z is based on int ern ationa l law’s recognition

of a coastal state’s right to manage resources beyond

the Territorial Sea. President Reagan based the pr ocla-mation on th is intern ational principle and sta ted tha t

the ‘ ‘United States will exercise these sovereign rightsand jurisdiction in accordance with the rules of inter-

national law. "63

This section examines how intern a-

t ional law ma y bear on the E EZ around U.S. territories.

The primar y sources of international law are treat ies

and int ernat ional custom.64

The former is explicit a nd

docum ented while the lat ter is deduced from actua l prac-

tice. This review will focus on three areas relevant to

territories: the United Nations Charter and resolutions

pertaining to non-self-governing territories, the United

Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, and the

practice of other countries with respect to their over-

seas territories.

The Uni t e d Na t i ons Cha r t e r a nd Re so l u t i ons

Article 73 of the United Nations Charter calls on

member sta tes to recognize tha t th e interests of the in-

habitants of non-self-governing territories are para-

moun t. Members a re to ensu re th e political, economic,

social, and educational advancement of the territories

and to promote constructive measures for their devel-

opment. In addition, members accept a responsibility

‘‘to develop self-government, to take due account of the

political aspirat ions of the peoples, an d to assist t hem

in the progressive development of their free political in-

stitutions, according to the particular circumstances of

b l L~ i bOWi tZ uni t ed .$ta(es Feder~ iS rn ; The S ta tes and the Terr i to r ies , 28

A m . U.L, Re’v, 449, 451 (1979),

sJproclamation No, 5030, supra n. 1.

s+ Restatement (revised) of Foreign Relations Law of the United States 102

(Tent. Draft No. 6, 1985).

each territory and its peoples an d th eir varying stages

of advancement. "65

Two General Assembly resolutions amplify the

United Nations’ view of territories. Resolution 1514

calls for immediate steps to transfer all powers to thepeople of trust and non-self-governing territories “in

accorda nce with th eir freely expressed will and desire. "66

Resolution 1541, passed a day later, establishes princi-ples for determining when a territory reaches “a full

measure of self government. "67

Three options are rec-

ognized: independence, free association with an inde-

pendent state , and integrat ion with an independent

state. The United Nations has formally recognized the

free association status of Puerto Rico68

and of the North-ern Marianas.

69The United States provides annual

reports to the United Nations concerning American

Samoa, Guam, and the U.S. Virgin Islands, and theyhave been the subject of occasional visiting missionsfrom the U nited Nat ions. Their stat us, along with other

non-self-governing territories has been reviewed annu-

ally by th e General Assembly. The most r ecent r esolu-

t ions ar e typical in calling on t he United St ates a nd th eterritories to safeguard the right of the territorial peo-

ple to the enjoyment of their n atu ral resources and to

develop those resources under local control.70

Signifi-

cantly, the resolution concerning Guam urges the

United Stat es ‘‘to safeguard and guara ntee th e right of the people of Guam to the natural resources of the Ter-

ritory, including marine resources within its exclusive

economic zone . . "

These document s do not, of th eir own force, require

action on the part of the United States. The Charter

and the r esolutions provide the int ernat ional norms un-

der which the United States and the territories may

mutually decide the terms of their relationship. There

is an obligation on the part of the United States to pro-mote the development of the territories while protect-

ing t heir free choice of political sta tu s. This obligation

is not inconsistent with the view of the territorial clause

as promoting the political and economic development

of th e terr itories.

T h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s C o n v e n t i o n o nt h e L a w o f t h e S e a

The United Stat es has not signed the United Nations

Convention on the Law of the Sea because of objections

to its deep seabed mining provisions. Nevertheless, the

6SU.N, Charter, art. 73(b).

WG . A, Res 1514, 15 U.N. GAOR Supp. 16, at 66 (1960).STG.A. Res. 1541, 15 U.N. GAOR SUpp . 16, at 29 (1960).

WG , A, Res. 748 (VIII)( 1953).

‘WC . Res. 2183 (LIII)(1986).

70G .A, Res, 41/23 (Question of American Samoa), G.A. Res. 41/24 (Ques-

tion of the United States Virgin Islands), G.A. Res 41/25 (Question of Guam),

41 GAOR .%lpp. 53 (1986).



App. B—The Exclusive Economic Zone and U.S. Insular Territories 297

United States “will continue to exercise its rights and

fulfill its duties in a manner consistent with international

law, including those aspects of the Convention which

either codify customary international law or refine andelaborate concepts which repr esent a n a ccommodation

of the interests of all States an d form a pa rt of interna-

t i o n a l l a w . The presidential statement accompany-

ing the EEZ proclamation contains similar language. 72The body of the Convention contains only one refer-

ence to territories. Article 305(1) provides that self-gov-

erning associated states and internally self-governing ter-

ritories ‘ ‘which ha ve competen ce over t he m at ters

govern ed by this Convent ion including t he compet ence

to enter treaties in respect of those matters’ may sign

th e convent ion. Accompan ying Resolution III declar es

tha t in t he case of territories tha t h ave not achieved a

self-governing status recognized by the United Nations,

the Convention’s provisions ‘‘shall be implemented forth e benefit of the people of the ter ritory with a view to

promoting their well-being and development. The

former provision recognizes that territories may achieve

a degree of autonomy allowing them to participate ininternational matters. The Cook Islands and Niue,

states associated with New Zealand, have signed the

Law of the Sea Treaty under Article 305( 1). 73 Resolu-

tion III restates the commitments of Article 73 of the

Charter and of Resolutions 1514 and 1541. Article

305(1) and Resolution III both reiterate int ernat ional

norms compatible with U.S. territorial management.

P r a c t i c e s o f O t h e r C o u n t r i e s

Where th ere is no trea ty or other explicit source, in-

tern ational law m ay be ascerta ined from ‘‘th e customsand usages of civilized nations. "

74A 1978 study re-

viewed th e law and pra ctice of six nat ions with respect

to their overseas territories.75 The study found as a gen-

eral ru le that metropolitan powers with overseas terri-

tories or associated states: 1) have either given the pop-ulat ion of the overseas terri tory ful l and equal

representat ion in th e national parliament an d govern-

ment or 2) have given the local government of the over-

seas territory jurisdiction over the resources of the EEZ.

The first category includes Denmark (Faroe Islands and

Greenland), Fra nce (overseas depart ments and territo-

ries), an d Spain (Can ar y Islands). The second category

T] D~C l~ ~ ~ t ,O ~~ M ~ & upon s igna tu r e of the Final Act at Montego Bay,

Jama]ca, on Dec. 10, 1982–United States of America. (Quoted in Theuten-

berg, The Evo lu t ion o f the Law o f th e Sea, 223 [Dublin: Tycooly International

Publishing, 1984]).7ZScarement On U n i t e d S t a t e s oceans Pol icy , 19 Weekly Cornp . pr’es. DOC

383 (1983).73s ta [u~ Repfl, u N c o n v e n t i o n o n the Law of the Sea, ST/LEG/SER E 14

at 701 (1985).

“The Pa q u e t e H a b a n a , 17 5 U S 677, 700 (1900),75 T F r a n c k , Con ( r o ] o f Sea R esources by Semi-Au tonomous S t a t e s (Wash-

ington, DC Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1978)

includes the United Kingdom (Caribbean Associated

States), New Zealand (Cook Islands and Niue), and the

Netherlands (Netherlands Antilles). While small, this

study includes all instances of overseas territories hav-

ing no, or token, representation in the metropolitan gov-

ernment. The study concludes that the United States

represents the sole significant exception to the rule.

American territories have neither full representa tion n orlocal control of the EEZ.

While some informa tion in t he 1978 st udy is no longer

current (for example, the Caribbean Associated States

ar e now fully independen t n ations), its conclusion st ill

seems correct. British practice, as exemplified by therecent declaration of an exclusive fisheries zone around

the Falkland Islands, is for the national government to

establish policy and for the territorial government to im-

plement it . Thus, the Fa lkland ’s governm ent will de-

cide on the optimum level of fishing, issue licenses, and

establish and collect fees and taxes. London will pro-

vide advice and technical assistance. 76

The practice of the Netherlands is similar. Matters

of broad policy ar e decided in t he H ague, with consid-eration given to the preference of the Antilles. Explo-

rat ion an d man agement a re in the ha nds of the Antilles,

and the benefits from production would go to the is-

lands. 77

T h e T e r r i t o r i e s U n d e r I n t e r n a t i o n a l L a w

Though relatively recent, the EEZ is a generally ac-

cepted concept of inter na tional law. The United Sta tes

based its proclamation on international law and declared

its intent to follow that law in man aging the zone. The

declar at ions of th e United Na tions, the Law of th e SeaConvention, and the practice of other nations are not,

of themselves, man datory upon the United Sta tes. Taken

as a whole, however, th ey outline intern ational norms

for t he tr eatment of territories. These norms suggest t hat

if territories are not fully integrated (and represented)

in the national government, their natural resources

should be managed for the benefit of the local popu-

lation.

Te r r i t o r i a l La ws A f f e c t i n g t h e EEZ

Geography, history, and culture bind the territories

to the sea. All of th em ha ve adopted laws pertain ing to

activities in the ocean. These range from coastal zone

management and water quality laws akin to those

adopted by the States to broad claims of jurisdictionamounting to local EEZs.

TsCon \ r e r s a t io n with Robert Embleton, Second Secretary, British Embassy,

Washington, D C , Dec. 10, 19867TConI,erSatlon with Harold Henriquez, Netherlands Antilles Attache, Em-

bassy of the Netherlands, Washington, D C., Dec. 10, 1986




American Samoa’s water quality standards providefor pr otection of bays an d open coast al wa ters to the 100fathom depth contour. A permit is required for anyactivity affecting water quality in these areas. 78

The U.S. Virgin Islands coastal zone managementprogram extends ‘‘to the outer limit of the TerritorialSea” (3 nautical miles). Its environmental policies call

for accommodating ‘‘offshore sa nd a nd gra vel miningneeds in ar eas a nd in wa ys tha t will not adversely affectmarine resources and navigation. ’79 A permit to removemater ial is required and may not be granted unless suchmaterial is not otherwise available at reasonable cost.

Removal may not significan tly alter th e physical char-

acteristics of the area on an immediate or long-term ba-

sis. The Virgin Islands government collects a permit fee

and a royalty on material sold.

The U.S. Virgin Islands and American Samoa do not

assert their jurisdiction beyond the 3 nautical miles of

Territorial Sea grant ed to them .80

The other three self-

governing territories have taken st eps to assure t hem-

selves greater control of their marine resources.

By a law adopted in 1980, Guam defines its territoryas running 200 geographical miles seaward from the low

water mar k. Within t his ter ritory, Guam claims ‘ ‘ex-

clusive rights to determine the conditions and terms of

all scientific research, management, exploration and ex-

ploitat ion of all ocean resources a nd a ll sour ces of energy

an d pr evention of pollution within th e economic zone,

including pollut ion from out side th e zone wh ich p oses

a th reat within t he zone. "81

In a letter accompanying

th e bill, the govern or sta ted t ha t, ‘‘[a]s a m att er of pol-icy, the t erritory of Gua m is claiming exclusive rightsto contr ol the ut ilizat ion of all ocean resour ces in a 200-mile zone surrounding the island. "

82Possible conflicts

with Federa l law were recognized, but th e law was ap-

proved ‘‘as a declaration of Territorial policies andgoals. Section 1001(b) of the proposed Guam Com-monwealth Act includes a similar claim to an EEZ.

83

Puerto Rico claims “[o]wnership of the commercialminera ls foun d in t he soil and subsoil of Puert o Rico,i ts adjacent is lands and in surrounding waters and sub-merged lands next to th eir coasts u p to where th e depthof the wa ters allows their exploitat ion a nd u tilization,in an extension of not less th an 3 mar ine leagues . . "

84

This continental shelf claim extends beyond PuertoRico’s Territorial Sea. It combines the principles of ad-

jacency and exploitability codified in the 1958 Conven-

tion on th e Continental Sh elf.85

A statem ent of motives

7 BAm , S a m o a A d m i n . Code $$24.0201 to 24.0208 ( 1984).

WV . I, Code Ann. tit. 12, $906(b)(7) (1982).80

See note 24, above.

81Guam Code A n n . $402 ( 1980).

Ezxd, , Compfler’s C o m m e n t .

%3ee note 29, above.a~p , R. Laws Ann. tit. 28, $111 ( 1985).

8$15 U, fj, T, 471, T. I.A, S, No. 5578, 499 U. N.T . S. 311.

accompanying the 1979 amendments to Puerto Rico’s

mining law explains the Roman and Spanish law ante-

cedent s for govern ment t ru steeship of miner als. It also

points out that Section 8 of the Organic Act of 1917

placed submerged lands under the control of the gov-

ernment of Puerto Rico and gave the island’s legisla-

ture the authority to make needed laws in this field ‘‘as

it deems convenient. The legislatu re concluded tha t‘‘after 1917, t he F edera l Governm ent ha s no tit le or

jurisdiction over the submerged lands of Puerto Rico.

The title is vested fully in Puerto Rico. It is up to the

Legislature to determine the extent of said jurisdic-

tion. "86

The most comprehensive ter ritorial m ana gement pro-

gram is that of the Northern Mariana Islands. The

Commonwealth ’s Ma rine Sovereignt y Act of 1980 es-

ta blishes ar chipelagic baselines, claims a 12-mile Ter-ritorial Sea, and declares a 200-mile EEZ.

87The Sub-

mer ged Lands Act applies from th e line of ordina ry high

tide to the outer limit line of the EEZ. It requ ires licenses

and leases for the exploration, development, and extrac-

tion of petroleum and all other minerals in submergedlands .88

The latter statute has been implemented by

detailed ru les and r egulations.These claims are based on t he sta tut ory law of the

Trus t Terr itory of the Pa cific Islands wh ich confirmed

the earlier Japanese law ‘‘that all marine areas below

the ordinary high watermark belong to the govern-

ment."89 A subsequent order of the Department of the

Interior transferred public lands, among them sub-

merged lands, to the constituent districts of the Trust

Territory, including the Northern Mariana Islands.go

In addition, Section 801 of the Covenant provides for

tra nsfer of the Tru st Territory’s real property interest sto the Northern Marianas no later t han the termina-

tion of the trusteeship.There is some question as to whether the conditional

inclusion of the Northern Marianas in the U.S. EEZ

Pr oclama tion (’‘to th e extent consisten t with th e Cove-

nant and the United Nations Trusteeship Agreement’

implies recognition of local claims. There is also a ques-

tion as to whether U.S. territorial law would permit this

local claim t o survive the t ra nsition to U.S. sovereignty.

The Supreme Court has held that ownership of sub-

merged lands is vested in th e Federal Government as

‘‘a function of national external sovereignty, essen-

tial to nat iona l defense an d foreign affairs.91

When th e

trusteeship over the Northern Marianas ended, the

United States extended its sovereignty over the islands

861979 p,R, Laws 279, 281.

aTCommonwe~th of the Marianas Code, tit. 2, $1101-1143 ( 1984).

sscommonwe~th of the Marianas Code, tit. 2, $1211-1231 (1984).

agTrust Territory Code, tit. 67, $2 (1970).

goDepafiment of th e In te r io r Order 2969 (Dec . 28 , 1974)

91 United Stafes V, C a l i f o r n i a , 3 3 2 U.S. 19, 34 (1947).



App. B—The Exclusive Economic Zone and U.S. Insular Territories 299

and became responsible for their foreign affairs and de-

fense. The situation of the Northern Mariana Islands

may be compa ra ble to th at of Texas, which was a dmit-

ted to the U nion a fter having been an independent coun-

try. When it joined the United States, Texas relin-

quished its sovereignty and, with it, her proprietary

claims to submerged lands in the Gulf of Mexico.92

In 1985, the Northern Mariana Islands Commission

on Federal Laws suggested that Congress convey to the

Marianas submerged lands to an extent of 3 nautical

miles ‘‘without prejudice to any claims t he Nort hern

Mariana Islands may have to submerged lands seaward

of those conveyed by the legislation. ’93

The Commis-

sion r ecognized that t here a re str ong ar guments for a nd

against t he Norther n Mar ianas’ continued ownership

of submerged lands after termination of the trusteeship,

but it pointed out that it “makes little sense” for the

United States to transfer title to the islands, only to have

that t i t le revert to the United States under the doctrine

gz~nlre~ sra~es v, T e x a s , 339 U.S. 707 ( 1950).

g$second Interim Report tO th e Congress of the United States, 172. The Com-

mission is appointed by the President under Section 504 of the Covenant tomake recommendations to Congress as to which laws of the United States should

aPPIY to the Commonwealth and which should not,

of United S tates v. Texas .94 The Commonwealth is still

negotiating with the Executive Branch over the accept-

ance or modification of its marine claims.

T e r r i t o r i a l O c e a n L a w s

The history and culture of the territories are intert-

wined with the ocean. Some of them have acted to as-

sert their own claims to manage ocean resources beyondthe t erritorial sea, although th eir aut hority to do so is

uncertain un der U.S. territorial law. The present situ-

ation is one of latent conflict which could become ac-

tive when marine prospecting or development is pro-

posed. Should the United States decide that Federal

jurisdiction is exclusive, an explorer or miner may be

greatly delayed while Federal a nd t erritorial auth orities

argue their positions in court. A Congressional resolu-

tion of th is conflict would r equire a ction u sing th e ple-

na ry powers of th e Const itut ion’s terr itorial clause,

tempered by t he goals of American and interna tional

terr itorial law, and th e political and economic develop-

ment of the territories and their people.

“Id. , 178, 179.



A p p e n d i x C

Mineral Laws of the United States

The five legal systems discussed below illustrate the

changes in national minerals policy over the past cen-

tur y. One ma jor s hift was from a policy of free disposal,

intended to foster development of the frontier, to a leas-

ing policy intended to provide a return to the public andto foster conser vation by controlling t he r at e of develop-

ment. A second change resulted in a balancing of miner-

al values against other values for the land in question.

Thus, the Mining Law of 1872 requires only that the

land be valua ble for minerals, but the leasing laws al-

low a lease only after a pr ospector shows th at t he land

is ‘‘chiefly valua ble’ for th e minera l to be developed.

The leasing laws, and, to a greater extent, the Outer

Continental Shelf Lands Act also require consideration

of economic and environmental impacts, State and lo-cal concerns, and the relative value of mining and other

existing or potential uses of the area. A third change

was a recognition that different types of minerals could

best be developed under different management systems.The hardrock minerals remain under a system that re-

wards t he prospector’s risk-tak ing, the fuel resources are

leased under a system that t akes nat ional needs and pri-

orities into account, a nd common const ru ction m ater i-

als ar e made read ily available und er a simplified sales

procedure. When creating a legal regime for the mineral

resources of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), the

United States can benefit from long experience under

several diverse systems.

The experimen tal n at ur e of mu ch of today’s explo-

ration and recovery equipment and the gaps in our

knowledge of the physical and biological resources of

the EE Z indicate th at i t m ay take years of research an d

explora tion before an inform ed decision to pr oceed withcommercial exploitation can be made. A legal system

must reasonably accommodate t he risk being tak en by

the mineral industry under these circumstances. At the

same time, the system must also accommodate impor-

tant public interests and ensure a fair market value for

the public resources. The law must also consider the na-

tional a nd Sta te interests in ocean development and de-

fine the respective Federal and State roles.

On s h o r e Mi n e r a l Ma n a g e me n t

Federal onshore minerals are managed under three

principal legal systems: the Mining Law of 1872, the

Minera l Leasing Act of 1920 and rela ted leasing laws,

an d t he Su rface Resour ces Act of 1955 (table C-1). The

laws do not apply uniformly to all Federal lands, and

a min eral m ay be subject t o different ru les in different

places, including some cases where there appears to be

no applicable law at all.

The M in ing Law o f 1872

The Minin g Law of 1872 is applicable to “ha rdr ock”

minerals in the public domain in most States. Like other

laws of its era , it was inten ded to expand development

of the Western St ates by making F ederal lands availa-

ble to persons who occupy and develop th em. It a dopt-

ed a system that was developed under State law and local

custom between the start of the California gold rush in

1849 and passage of the first mining law in 1866.

All valuable mineral deposits and the lands in which

they are found are free and open to exploration, occu-pation, and purchase. State mining laws and customs

of the mining districts are recognized to the extent that

th ey do not conflict with Feder al law. The Mining La w

outlines the requirements for locating, marking, andevaluating claims; sets a $100 minimum for annual ex-

penditu res on labor or improvements; an d provides for

transfer of ownership to the miner when these condi-

tions are met. Depending on the type of deposit, pay-

ment of $2.50 or $5.00 per acre is required. The

Government receives no royalties or other payments for

the minerals.

In its original form, the Minin g Law allowed for t he

greatest individual initiative and t he least Government

regulation. Over the years, its operation has become

more restricted. First, the Governm ent h as withdra wn

extensive areas from the operation of the Mining Lawwhen they were needed for other purposes (military

reservations, nat ional par ks, dam and reservoir sites,etc.). Second, cert ain miner als were excluded from th e

law and ma de available under other programs. Third,

mining operations are subject to environmental andreclamation requirements and varying degrees of review

and approval by the sur face man agement agency. Pri-

or to issuan ce of a pa tent , a claima nt ’s use of a mining

claim is limited to that required for mineral exploration,

development, and production. Nonconflicting surface

uses by others ma y continu e.

M inera l Leas ing A cts

Concern over resource depletion and monopolization

in the early years of the 20th century lead to withdrawals

of coal, oil, phosphate, and other fuel and nonmetallic

minerals from entry under the Mining Law. In 1920

Congress passed the Mineral Leasing Act, making these

300



Table C-1.-Comparison of Federal Mineral Statutes

Entry and patent system Mineral leasing systems Materials sale system Continental shelf leasing system Deep seabed system

General Mining Law of 1872 Mineral Leasing Act of 1920 Materials Act of 1947 (30 Outer Continental Shelf Lands Deep Seabed Hard Mineralslity (30 U.S.C. 22 etseq.): hard rock

minerals in the public domainin all States except Alabama,Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota,Missouri, Oklahoma (exceptceded Indian lands), and Wis-consin. Withdrawals and res-ervations make specifiedareas unavailable or condition-ally available.

Miner

ing “Free and Open”

hing Discovery of a valuable de-posit within limits of claim.Marking and recording claimas required by Federal andState law.

ng

mits

$100 worth of labor or im-provements annually on eachclaim until a patent is issued.

Lode claims: 1500 feet x 600feet. Placer claims: 20 acres orup to 160 acres for an associa-tion claim. No limit on thenumber of claims that a per-son may locate.

(30 U.S.C. 181 et seq.): coal,

oil, oil shale, gas, gilsonite,

phosphate, potash, and so-

dium in the public domain anddisposed lands in whichmineral rights were retained.Mineral Leasing Act for Ac-quired Land (30 U.S.C. 351 etseq.): above minerals and sul-phur in acquired lands. Reor-ganization Plan No. 3 of 1946(60 Stat. 1097): all otherminerals in acquired national

forests and grasslands.Miner or the Department ofthe Interior

By permit or license from theDepartment of the Interior.Prospecting permits not is-sued for oil or gas.

Entering into a lease. Non-competitive lease to first qual-ified applicant where mineralpotential is unknown. Pref-erence-right lease to prospec-tor who discovers a valuabledeposit. Competitive bid forleases in known mineralareas.

Compliance with terms oflease, including payments,diligent exploration and devel-opment, safety, resource con-servation, and environmentalprotection.

Coal: size of individual leasedetermined by Secretary ofthe Interior, 46,080 acres inany one State, 100,000 acresnationwide. Sodium: 2,560acres in any one lease, 5,120acres in any one State, may beraised to 15,360 acres if nec-essary for economic mining.Phosphate: 20,480 acres na-tionwide. Oil or gas: 640 acresper lease unit, 246,080 acres inany one State except Alaskawhere the limit is 300,000acres in each of two leasingdistricts. Oil shale orgilsonite:

5,120 acres. SU/phUc in Loui-siana and New Mexico, 640acres per lease. Potash: 2,560acres per lease.

U.S.C. 601-604): “common va-rieties” of sand, stone, gravel,cinders, and clay on publiclands. Surface Resources Actof 1955(30U.S.C.611-615): ex-cludes above minerals fromthe scope of the General Min-ing Law.

Miner

Not applicable

Disposal by sale. Use of a sitemay be communal or nonex-clusive. Miner does not ac-quire a property right.

Not applicable

Not applicable

Act (43 U.S.C. 1331-1356): allminerals in the submerged landsof the outer continental shelf be-yond the territorial waters of the50 States.

Miner or the Department of theInterior, pursuant to a 5-yearleasing program.

Lessee’s exploration plan, sub-ject to approval by the Depart-ment of the Interior.

Entering into a lease granted af-ter competitive bidding.

Compliance with terms of lease,including payment, rate of pro-duction, safety, protection offish, wildlife, and environment.

Oil or gas: 5,760 acres unless alarger area is necessary to com-

prise a reasonable e c o n o m i cproduction unit. Sulphur and

other minerals: size determinedby the Secretary of the Interior.

Resources Act (30 U.S.C. 1401-1473): manganese nodules onthe deep seabed outside thecontinental shelf or resourcejurisdiction of any nation.

Miner

By license from the NationalOceanic and AtmosphericAdministration.

Obtaining a permit upon dem-onstrating financial and tech-nological capability.

Diligent development, mini-mum expenditures, maintain-ing recovery for the durationof the permit.

Size and location chosen byminer. Must comprise a logi-cal mining unit.



Table C-1.—Comparison of Federal Mineral Statutes—Continued

Entry and patent system Mineral leasing systems Materials sale system Continental shelf leasing system Deep seabed system

Term An unpatented mining claimmay be held indefinitely.

Assignability An unpatented mining claimmay be leased, sold, mort-gaged, or inherited.

Payment $2.50 or $5.00 per acre patentfee.

Coal: 20 years and as longthereafter as coal is producedannually in commercial quan-tities. Phosphate and Potash: 20 years and for as long there-after as lessee complies withterms and conditions of lease.Oil and gas: 5 years for com-petitive and 10 years for non-competitive leases and for aslong thereafter as there is pro-duction in paying quantities.Oil shale: indeterminate

period. Sodium: 20 years witha preference right to renew foradditional 10 year periods.

All or part of a lease may beassigned with Department ofInterior permission.

Minimum rents and royaltiesestablished by statute, actualrates set by competitive bid.Coal: rent set by regulation(currently $3.00 per acre), min-imum royalty of 12.5 percentfor surface mines, may be lessfor underground mines, cashbonus. Phosphate: minimumrent $.25 per acre in the firstyear, $.50 in the second year,and $1.00 per acre in the thirdand subsequent years, cred-ited against a minimum roy-alty of 5 percent of gross valueof output. Oil and gas: mini-mum annual rent $.50 per acre,rising to $1.00 per acre after

oil or gas in paying quantitiesare discovered, minimum roy-alty of 12.5 percent, cash bo-nus. Oil shale: minimum an-nual rent of $.50 per acre,credited against a royalty setby the Secretary. Rent androyalty may be waived for thefirst 5 years to encourage pro-duction. Sodium and potash: minimum rent $.25 per acre inthe first year, $.50 in the sec-ond year and $1.00 in the thirdand subsequent years cred-ited against a minimum roy-alty of 2 percent of gross valueof production.

Not applicable

Not applicable

Fair market value of materialtaken. No charge to govern-mental and nonprofit entities.

Oil and gas: 5 years (10 years ifSecretary finds that a longerperiod is necessary to encour-age development) and for aslong thereafter as oil or gas isproduced in paying quantities.Sulphur: 10 years and as longthereafter as sulphur isproduced in paying quantities.Other minerals: prescribed bySecretary.

A lease may be assigned withDepartment of Interior per-mission.

Oil and gas: competitive biddingin which the royalty rate, cashbonus, work commitment, orprofit share or any combinationof them maybe the biddable fac-tor. Minimum royalty of 12.5 per-cent. Sulphur: competitive bidon cash bonus, minimum royaltyof 5 percent of gross value ofproduction, rent prescribed bySecretary. Other minerals: com-petitive bid on cash bonus;royalty and rent prescribed bySecretary.

20 years and for as long there-after as minerals are recov-ered annually in commercialquantities.

A permit or license may betransferred with NOAA ap-proval.

Administrative fee to coverthe cost of reviewing andprocessing applications. Taxof 3.75 percent on imputedvalue of resources removedpursuant to permit.



Table C-1.-Comparison of Federal Mineral Statutes—Continued

Entry and patent system Mineral Ieasing systems Materials sale system Continental shelf Ieasing system deep seabed system.

n of No t speci fied

ng Uses Exclusive possession of thesurface limited to use for min-ing purposes. Non-conflictingsurface uses by others maycontinue.

mental Not specifiedn

On public domain: 50 percent

to State, 40 percent to recla-

mation fund, 10 percent to

U.S. Treasury. /n Alaska: 90 percent to State. On acquired

land: in the same manner asother income from the af-fected lands (varies by man-agement agency).

Coal leases must be compati-ble with a comprehensive landuse plan considering the ef-fects on the surrounding areaor community. All leases onacquired land require the con-sent of the surface manage-ment agency and are subjectto conditions assuring thatthe primary purpose for whichthe lands were acquired ismaintained. No leasing in na-tional parks or monuments orin incorporated munic i-palities.

Coal leases may not begranted without considerationof environmental impacts.Otherwise, not specified.

In the same manner as other

in c o m e f r o m t h e a f f e c t e d

lands (varies by management

agency).

Consent of surface manage-ment agency required. Ex-cludes land in national parksand monuments and Indianlands.

Disposal of materials can’t bedetrimental to the public in-terest.

Credited to miscellaneousreceipts of the U.S. Treasury.

Leasing program must considereconomic, social, and environ-mental values and potential im-pacts on fisheries, navigation,and other resources of the outercontinental shelf.

The leasing program must con-sider the environmental value ofrenewable and nonrenewable re-sources and the environmentalimpact of exploration and devel-opment. The timing and locationof leasing must balance the po-tential for environmental dam-age, the potential for the discov-ery of oil and gas, and thepotential for adverse impacts onthe coastal zone. Detailed envi-ronmental studies required priorto leasing. Monitoring continuesduring the term of the lease toidentify and measure changes inenvironmental quality.

Fee credited to miscellaneous

receipts of the U.S. Treasury.

Tax credited to Deep Seabed

Revenue Sharing Trust Fund.

Permits and licenses are ex-clusive as against any U.S. orreciprocating State citizen.Activities may not unreasona-

bly interfere with freedom ofthe seas, conflict with any in-ternational obligation of theU. S., lead to a breach of thepeace, or pose a safetyhazard.

NOAA must prepare an envi-ronmental impact statementwhen issuing a permit orlicense. Stable referenceareas are to be established byinternational agreement. Allpermits and licenses are con-ditioned on protection of theenvironment and conservationof resources.



Table C-1.—Comparison of Federal Mineral Statutes—Continued

Entry and patent system Mineral leasing systems Materials sale system Continental shelf leasing system Deep seabed systemState and Public Activities are subject to State Statute may not be construedInvolvement and local laws not inconsist- as affecting the right of State

ent with the laws of the United or local governments to regu-States. late or tax lessees of the

United States. Land use plansfor coal leasing are to be pre-pared in consultation withState agencies and the public.Proposed coal leases in na-tional forests must be sub-mitted to the governor of theaffected State for review. Ifthe governor objects, leasingis delayed for six monthswhile the Secretary recon-siders the lease on the basisof the governor’s comments.

Disposals from land with-drawn in aid of a State, mu-nicipality, or public agencycan be made only with theconsent of the State, munici-pality, or agency.

State civil and criminal laws notinconsistent with Federal lawapply to those areas of the con-tinental shelf which would bewithin the State if its boundariesextended seaward. The Secre-tary shall enforce safety, envi-ronmental, and conservationlaws in cooperation with theStates. State comments are tobe invited and considered whengas and oil leasing programs areprepared and when proposedlease sales and developmentand production plans are beingreviewed. State recommenda-tions are to be accepted if theSecretary determines that theyprovide a reasonable balance be-tween the national interest andthe well-being of State citizens.Activities affecting land or wateruse in the coastal zone of a State

having a coastal zone manage-ment plan require State con-currence.

Public notice and comment(including hearings) are re-quired when permits andlicenses are issued, trans-ferred, or modified.




App. C—Mineral Laws of the United States q 305

deposits available only through prospecting permits and

leases. This move was a major departure from earlier

policy, replacing free entr y an d disposal with a discre-

tionary system. As initially adopted, prospecting per-

mits could be issued to the first qu alified applicant wish-

ing to explore lands whose mineral potential was

unknown. Discovery of a valuable deposit entitled the

prospector t o a preference-right lease t o develop an d pro-duce the mineral if the land was found to be chiefly val-

uable for that purpose. Known mineral lands could be

leased by advertisement, competitive bid, or other meth-

ods adopted by the Secretary of the Interior.

Prospecting permits are no longer available for oil,

gas, or coal. Lands known to contain these substancesmay be leased only by competitive bid. Non-competitive

leases ma y be issued to th e first qua lified applican t for

lands outside the known geologic structure of a produc-

ing oil or gas field. The Secreta ry h as br oad discretion

to impose conditions for diligence, safety, environment al

protection, rents and royalties, and other factors needed

to protect the interest of the United Stat es and t he pub-

lic welfar e.Like the Mining Law of 1872, the Mineral Leasing

Act of 1920 is applicable only to the public domain (for

the most part, land which has been retained in Federal

ownership since its original acquisition as part of the

territory of the United States). The Mineral Leasing Act

for Acquired Land was enacted in 1947 and made t he

fuel, fertilizer, and chemical miner als in acquired lan d

available under the provisions of the Leasing Act of

1920. Permits and leases on acquired land (mostly na-

tional forests in the E astern States) can be issued onlywith the consent of the su rface management agency and

mus t be consistent with t he prima ry pur pose for whichthe lan d was a cquired. Hardr ock m inerals in acquired

national forests a nd grasslands are available under sim-ilar conditions.

M ater ia l s S a les S ys tem

The Mat erials Act of 1947 ma de “common varieties’

of san d, stone, gravel, cinders, an d clay in F edera l lands

available for sale at fair market value or by competitive

bidding. The Surface Resources Act of 1955 removed

these materials from entry and pat ent un der the Gen-

eral Mining Law. The miner does not acquire a prop-

erty right t o the source of these materials, and t he use

of a site may be communal or nonexclusive. Govern-

menta l and n onprofit ent ities ar e not charged for mate-

rial taken for public or nonprofit purposes.

Offshore Minera l Management

O u t e r C o n t i n e n t a l S h e l f L a n d s A c t

The Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA)was adopted in 1953 and provides for the leasing of

mineral resources in su bmerged lands tha t ar e beyond

State waters and subject to U.S. jurisdiction and con-trol (table C-1 ). The law’s primary focus is on oil, gas,

and sulphur but Section 8(k) authorizes th e Secretar y

of th e Int erior to lease oth er min era ls also occur ring in

the outer continent al shelf.

Oil and gas leases are grant ed to the highest bidder

pursu ant to a 5-year leasing program. The pr ogram is

based on a determination of national energy needs and

must also consider the effects of leasing on other re-

sources, regional development and energy needs, indus-

try interest in particular areas, and environmental sen-

sitivity and marine productivity of different areas of thecont inent al sh elf. The size, timing, an d location of pro-

posed lease sales a nd lessees’ proposed development an d

production plans are subject to review by affected Stateand local governments. Recommendations from State

and local governments must be accepted if the Secre-

tary determines that they provide for a reasonable bal-

ance between t he na tional inter est an d th e well-beingof local citizens. A flexible bidding system is provided

in which the royalty rate, cash bonus, work commit-

ment , profit sha re, or any combina tion of th em ma y be

the biddable factor.

A comprehensive program is not required for

minerals other t han oil and gas, and bidding for leases

is limited to the h ighest cash bonus. It is unclear to what

extent t he law’s coordin at ion an d environmen tal pr o-tect ion provisions apply to these other minerals.

Leases un der OCSLA ar e not explicitly limited t o U.S.citizens by th e statu te, but su ch a limitation has been

imposed by regulation. See 30 CFR 256.35(b).

D e e p S e a b e d H a r d M i n e r a l s R e s o u r c e s A c t

The fifth legal system wa s adopted in 1980 as an in-

terim measure pending the entry into force of a law of

the sea t reaty binding on t he United Sta tes. The Deep

Seabed Hard Minerals Resources Act (DSHMRA) ap-

plies to the explora tion for an d comm ercial recovery of

man ganese nodules in the seabed beyond the continen-

tal sh elf or resour ce jur isdiction of an y nat ion. In con-

trast with the other laws, where the Un ited States as-

serts jurisdiction based on ter ritorial control, DSHMRA’s




jurisdiction is ba sed on th e power of the Un ited Sta testo regulate the activities of its citizens outside its t er-ritory.

Licenses for exploration and permits for commercialrecovery are granted by the Administrator of the Na-tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration forarea s whose size and location are chosen by the appli-

cant. The applicant must prove financial and techno-logical capa bility t o car ry out the proposed work, an dthe designated area must comprise a ‘‘logical miningunit . The Administrator is required to prepare an envi-ronmental impact s tatement pr ior to granting a l icenseor permit. To help gauge the effects of mining on themarine environment, stable reference ar eas a re t o beestablished by internat ional a greement. Permits andlicenses are conditioned on protection of environmentalquality and conservation of the mineral resource.

Because the United States does not claim ownershipof the seabed or minerals involved, DSHMRA does notrequire rent or royalties. Only an administrative fee,sufficient to cover the cost of reviewing applications, is

charged. In addition, a 3.75 percent tax on the value

of the r esource recovered is levied. Proceeds of the t ax

ar e assigned to a tru st fund t o be used if U.S. contribu-

tions ar e required once an int ernat ional seabed treat y

is in effect.All commercial recovery must be by vessels docu-

mented under U.S. law. At least one U.S. vessel must

be used to tra nsport minera ls from each mining site.Land processing of recovered minerals must be within

the United States unless this requirement would make

the operation uneconomical. Minerals processed else-

where must be return ed to the United Sta tes for domes-

tic use if the national interest so requires.

Before the United States ratifies an international

seabed treaty, DSHMRA calls for reciprocal agreementswith nations that adopt compatible seabed regulations.

The agreements would require mutual recognition of

the rights gra nted un der an y license or permit issuedby a reciprocating state. The United States has signedagreements with Fr ance, Italy, Japa n, the United King-

dom, and West Germany.



A p p e n d i x D

Ocean Mining Laws of Other Countries

This appendix summa rizes th e seabed mining lawsof 10 countries. Not all of these countries have declared

Exclusive Economic Zones (EE Zs); thu s, th eir laws ma y

be based on cont inenta l shelf or t err itorial claims. Thesestatutes illustrate the range of choices available for de-

veloping marine minerals. The general comparison that

follows analyzes the various provisions shared by many

of the sta tut es, but th ree provisions in particular ar e of primary interest for assessing the U.S. seabed mining

regime:

1. allocating the right to mine,

2. payment for the right to mine, and

3. the division of responsibility between national and

state or provincial authorities.

Allocating the right to mine includes selecting the

location and size of a mining site and choosing a mine

operator. In all of the countries surveyed, the initiative

for prospecting or mining lies with the applicant, whomust prove technical and financial capacity for carry-

ing out t he pr oposed work. Competing a pplications for

the sa me a rea are generally assigned on a first-come ba-

sis, but Australia, for one, is considering work-program

bidding or cash bidding for cases wher e some competi-

tion is needed. The applicant-initiative system is modified

by general requirements for shoreline and environ-

mental protect ion, area and t ime l imits, and proj-

ect-specific conditions imposed after an application is

reviewed.

Payment for the privilege to mine may include ap-plication fees, rents, royalties on the value of recovered

minerals, a tax on gross or net income, or a combina-

tion of these. The rate of payment may be set by lawor negotiated on a case-by-case basis. Some countries

provide for periodic adjustment based on economic con-

ditions or the market for the mineral being recovered.

In addition to paying for the minerals removed, miners

may be required to spend funds each year for explora-

tion or development. Spending above the minimum an-

nual r equirement m ay be credited to futur e years, while

spending less may require paying the difference to the

governm ent or forfeiting the r ight to prospect or m ine.

The United States appears to be the only country which

ha s a cash competitive bidding pr ocess to awar d leasesin offshore areas.

Thr ee of th e coun tr ies included in t his r eview—Aus-

tralia, West Germany, and Canada, have a federal sys-tem of governm ent . Aust ra lia is developing a system of

joint authority over the continental shelf beyond the ter-

ritorial sea; the st ates or t err itories have jurisdiction over

the terr itorial sea. In West Germany, the stat es regu-late activities within terr itorial waters while th e na tional

governm ent ha s exclusive jurisdiction over th e continen -

tal shelf beyond the territorial limit. Canada has not yet

enacted offshore min ing legislation, but t he Ministr y of

Energy, Mines, and Resources is drafting a proposed

statute. A division of authority between the national and

provincial governments will be part of the new law.

A u s t r a l i a

L a w sq

q

q

Australia claims a 3-mile territorial seal Under the

Coastal Wat ers (Sta te P owers) Act of 1981, onsh ore

mining legislation in the states of New South Wales,

Tasmania, South Australia, Western Australia,and the Northern Territory can be applied offshore.

Activities would be regulated according to stand-

ard terms, including environmental conditions.

Western Australia is currently revising a modelState Minerals (Submerged Lands) bill, particu-

larly in regard to registration and transfer of leases.

A version to be circulated to the States and Com-monwealth may be ready in early 1987. Although

some states are concerned that they cannot proc-

ess company applications, offshore s tat e legislation

will most likely not be enacted before 1988.2

In 1967, Australia passed a continental shelf act,

based on Geneva provisions, for petroleum. In

1981, the Subm erged Lan ds Act, which has a “de-gree of complementarily” with petroleum legisla-

tion3, was passed to cover other seabed minerals.

4

However, the complementary state legislation nec-

essary to implement it has not been passed yet.5

Australia has not declared an EEZ.6

J u r i s d i c t i o n

q Territorial waters: The adjoining state/territory has

jurisdiction over minerals development.7

qContinental shelf: Offshore activities are adminis-

tered by a Joint Authority, including a Common-

I Law of the Sea Bulletin, December 1983, No. 2, Off Ice of Special Repre-

sentative of the Secretary-General for the Law of the Sea, United Nations (83-

35821), p. 13.

‘Letter from David Truman, Assistant Secretary, Minerals Policy Branch,

to OTA, Oct. 3, 1986.

‘Letter from the Australian Department of Resousres and Energy toOTA

through Science and Technology Counselor J .R . Hlubucek, A u s t ra l i a n E m-

bassy, May 28, 1987,

‘Letter from Geoffrey Dabb, Legal Counsel, Australian Embassy to OTA,

Oct. 6, 1986.

‘Truman, op. cit.

bLaw of the Sea Bulletin , 1983, op. cit , p. 4.

7Hlubucek, op . cit,

307




wealth Minister for Resources an d En ergy and a

State Mines Minister. a The adjoining State Min-

ister supervises day-to-day administration andserves as an industry contact. The Commonwealth

minister is consulted on important issues and ha s

the final authority in cases of disagreement. g

P e r m i t P r o c e s s

q Explorat ion: If a company wishes to explore forminerals (defined to include sand, gravel, clay,

limestone, rock, evaporates, shale, oil-shale, and

coal, but n ot petr oleum10) in th e ocean , it mu st ap -

ply to the Designated Authority (a State Minister

charged with t he responsibility by th at St at e’s

Parl iament11) for an exploration permit. If the area

of the a pplicat ion is on th e seawar d side of the outerlimit of the territorial sea, the Joint Authority de-

cides whether or not to grant the perm it.12

The ap-

plication mu st be accompa nied by a work a nd ex-

penditure plan, and information regarding the

technical qualifications of th e applicant, an d tech-nical advice and finan cial resources ava ilable to the

a p p l i c a n t .q Exploitation: Same

14

T e r m s

q Explorat ion: A fee of $3,000 (Aust ra lian dollar s)

is charged for an application to explore any num-

ber of blocks less th an 500 (A block is boun ded by

adjacent minutes of longitude and latitude). The

permit lasts for 2 years, and gives the right to ex-

plore and take samples of specified minerals.15

A

permit can be renewed 4 times, for up to 2 years

each time, for up to 75 percent of the area in the

perm it being renewed. An ap plicat ion mu st be ac-

compa nied by a report on pa st a nd pr ojected work

and expenditures and a fee of $300.16

qExploitation: Application for a production license

is done in a man ner very similar to that for a n ex-

ploration permit. Once granted, it lasts for 21

years. An an nu al ren t of $100 per block is cha rged.

Royalty rates are set by the Joint Authority; the

value of the exploited mineral may be consideredin setting the rate.

17Within the territorial sea,

‘1981 Minerals (Submerged Lands) Act, Section 8.

‘Hlubucek, op. cit.

101981 Minerals (Submerged Lands) Act, Section 3.

1 i Hlubucek, op. cit.121981 Minerals (Submerged Lands) Act, Section 23.13

1 bid., Section 24.

I+ Ibid., Sections 31 and 32.

t$Ibid,, Sections 26 and 27.

l b Ib id , , Sections 28 and 29.

I TIbld,, Sections 31 ’35.

royalties are shared with the Commonwealth. 18 An

application for a permit renewal must be accom-

panied by a $300 fee.19

There is no competitive allocation mechanism

in th e un proclaimed Minerals (Submerged Lands)

Act as it stands. However, at the recent meetingof Commonwealth an d Sta te officials, it was agreed

th at p rovisions should be ma de for competit ive al-location. Genera lly, perm its will be allocated on a

first -come basis. In cases wher e some competition

is needed, competitive allocation will generally use

a work program bidding system, but provision for

a cash bidding approach is being considered.The Minerals (Submerged Lands) Act does not

cont ain a royalty r egime. At th e officials’ meeting,

it was agreed that the endorsement of Ministers

would be sought for the a djacent sta te to apply their

onshore royalty regime to minerals won from the

sea bed within the outer limit of the territorial sea.

For minerals won from th e sea bed on the seawar dside of this limit, the commonwealth intends to ap-

ply a profits-based royalty. Stat e royalties vary withthe sta te and the minera l concerned, and in some

cases profits-based royalties may be used, in other

cases ad-valorem r oyalties or set tonna ge rate r oyal-

ties may be set. However, this does not preclude

th e stat es from opting for a profits-based royalty.

C o n d i t i o n s

Unreasonable interference with navigation, fishing,

conser vation of resources, and oth er lawful operations

is prohibited.20

Environmental assessment is generally

the concern of the adjacent state. However, where min-

ing impinges on commonwealth functions, assessment

may be required by the appropriate commonwealth au-thority (there ar e arr angements to ensure tha t th e assess-

ments can be carried out jointly in most cases).

Section 105 further delineates regulations which the

Governor General may promulgate under this law, con-

cerning ma tters such as safety an d conservation.21

A ct iv i t i e s

Australia has explored for tin, monazite, phosphorite,

ru tile, and zircon .22

Private companies ha ve been gra nted

exploration licenses u nder current state onshore m in-

ing acts for aggregate and mineral sands off the coast

‘8H1ubucek, op. cit.

191981 Minera]s (Submerged Lands) Act, Section 36.

*“Ibid., Section 75 .

‘l Ibid.22P . Ha]e and P. Mcbren, “A Preliminary Assessment of Unconsolidated

Mineral Resources in tbe Canadian Offshore, Th e Canadian &fining an d

A4etallurgicaf Bul le t in , September 1984, p, 10,



App. D—Ocean Mining Laws of Other Countries q 309

of New South Wales. Production licenses h ave a lso beenissued for dredging limestone off the Queensland and

Western Australian coasts. Permit applications have

been received for areas off the Western Australia and

Northern Territory coasts for which t he minera ls have

not been

Public

tation is

L a w s

specified”.

sector involvement in exploration a nd exploi-

not expected .

23

C a n a d a

q Canada claims a 12-mile territorial sea.

q Continent al shelf: Legislation was passed in J une,

1969, as t he Oil and Gas Production a nd Conser-

vation Act.

q Canada has n ot declared an EEZ, but it does havea 200-mile fisheries zone.

24

q Currently, regulations for offshore mining could

be promulgated under the Public Lands Grants

Acts (The Ministry of Energy, Mines, and Re-

sources has jurisdiction sout h of 60°; the Ministr y

of Indian and Northern Affairs has jurisdiction

north of 60 O). However, the Minist ry of Energy,

Mines, and Resources is in the pr ocess of dra ftinglegislation which would be specifically applicable

to offshore mining of ha rd miner als; the objective

is to develop an ‘ ‘ad equ at e ba sis in law’ for oceanmining. The law will address adm inistration and

management, disposition of mineral rights, royal-

ties, and environm ent a nd fisheries. Plans call for

the legislation to be written by the end of 1987; the

Cabinet will make the final decision as to whether

the new legislation should be introduced in Parlia-

ment. The recent Mineral and Metals Policy of

Canada officially announced the Government in-

tent to establish a legal an d regulatory regime to

maximize benefits from offshore mining. It seeks

to develop ‘‘a simple, uniform, cooperative manage-

ment system for mining development activities a cross

all areas of the Canadian Continental Shelf. ’25


The Canadians hope to formulate a regulatoryscheme that can be applied regardless of who has juris-

diction over mining activities. However, the desired

mechanism is one of cooperation with the provinces.

The Canadians take a ‘‘single window approach’ to

regulation, allowing companies to apply to a single gov-

- - - - —2 3 1 2 aw , of t h e Sea BuUetin, 1 9 8 3 , O p . Clt., P 11

Z+”rhe Tcrrl torla] se a an d Fishing Zones Act, as amended, 1979.

ZsTh e Mlnera] an d .Me t a l s Policy of the Government of Canada, Depart-

m e n t of Energy, Mines, and Resources, May 1987, p 8

ernment agency for exploration and/or exploitation per-

mits. The rationale for this appr oach is t hat a simpler,stream-lined permitting process will encourage indus-

try activity.


Ž Explorat ion: Companies must submit a proposal

to the appropriate agency. This agency in turn fol-lows the environmental assessment and review

process which allows the contact agency to com-

municate with the Departments of Environment,

Fisheries and Oceans, and Transport for project

approval. However, the contact agency has final

authority to approve or disapprove the project.

This approach r eflects t he Can adian desire to tr eatenvironmental concerns as mandatory concerns

and of equal importance with economic develop-

ment. Thus,

ronment are

planning.

C o n d i t i o n s

Environmental

potential negative effects on the envi-

reviewed at a n ea rly sta ge of project

conditions are considered through the

Environmental Assessment and Review Process.

The government sees itself as “facilitator” of en-

trepreneurial interests. As facilitator, it has two main

functions: 1) to eliminate structural barriers, i.e. by cre-

at ing a r egulatory scheme (since the la ck of one is seen

as a ba rr ier to activity), an d 2) to provide fundam enta linformation about ocean mining.

A ct iv i t i e s

Currently, mining activity is “on hold. ” The gov-

ernment will not prevent anyone from exploring, butis not issuing any mining permits. However, the gov-

ernment is suggesting companies submit mining appli-

cations, t o protect an y ‘ ‘first in line’ adva nt age wh en

applications are processed. In the past, sand and gravel

were mined in the Beaufort Sea to construct oil drilling

platforms. Perm its issued for th is activity were su bjectto requirements equivalent to obtaining land use

permits.

Fr a n c e

L a w s

q

France claims a 12-mile territorial sea.

26

q France declared its rights over the continental shelf

on December 30, 1968.27

lsLaW, of th e Sea Bu l le t in , 1983 , O p Clf . , p . 31.

27cont1nental Shelf I~w, Dec. 30, 1968 (no 68- 1181)



App. D—Ocean Mining Laws of Other Countries 311

reputation for cooperativeness with the govern-

ment. This approach derives from a historical tr a-dition in which the King had personal authority

over all mining operations. Competitive bidding

is not used because it is seen a s discouraging min-

ing activity .43

T e r m s

Explorat ion: Perm its are valid for 3 year s, with ex-

tensions possible up to 5 years, if the Act referredto in Article 16, paragraph 2 of the ContinentalShelf Declara tion, has not yet come int o force whenthe original permit expires.Exploitation: Royalty payments to the Chief Min-ing Board of Clausthal-Zellerfeld are required‘‘wher e t he competit ive position of enter prises en-

gaged in mining in Germa n terr itorial waters would

otherwise be substantially affected. The amount

is to be ba sed on m ining du es wh ich would ‘ ‘cus-

tomarily be payable at the point in German ter-

ritorial waters n earest to the place of extraction.

Royalty payments are transferred according to theAct of Article 16, paragraph 2.

[Details r egarding exclusive and sampling rights,

size and fees ar e unkn own. ]

C o n d i t i o n s

Permits may be issued su bject to conditions a nd r e-

strictions and may be subject to cancellation. The law

does not specify what issues those conditions might ad-

dress, although safety and technical aspects are among

those considered .44

Act iv i t i e s

Exploration has revealed that German waters have

limited am ount s of oil an d gas an d some coal .45 The sta -

tus of an application for the exploration of the continen-

tal shelf, filed by a consortium of companies, was un-

certain as of 1980.46

No exploration is currently t aking

place, as no finds are expected .47

Sand and gravel extractionis an esta blished industr y in

within the territorial seasthe Baltic.

48

Japan

L a w s

q

q

q

Japan claims a 12-mile territorial sea.49

Japan does not claim a continental shelf or an

E E Z .50

Japan has no comprehensive legislation dealing

with offshore mining. The Mining Law, QuarryLaw, and Gravel Gathering Law apply to offshore

mining, depending on the t ype of mineral to be ex-

ploited. The Mining Law regulates activities on t h econtinental shelf. The applicability of the other two

laws outside th e territorial waters ha s not been ex-

amined in detail .51


The government of Japan exercises jurisdiction over

off-shore mining under the above-mentioned laws.52

Per mi t P r o cess

Under the Mining Law, application for permits for

offshore mining are submitted to the Director-General

of Ministry of Trade and Industry (MITI) regionalbureau.

For quarr ying, permits ar e grant ed by the Director-

General of MITI regional bureau. Entrepreneurs reg-

ister with the Governor of the prefecture, or with the

Director-General of MITI regional bureau if their oper-

ations extend over more than one prefecture.

For gravel-gathering, issuance of permits is regulated

on the prefectur al level. Ent repreneur s register with th e

Governor of the prefecture, or with the Director-Generalof MITI regional bureau if their operations extend over

more tha n one prefectur e. 53

T e r m s

A fixed fee is assessed for each unit of aggregate

mined .54 Perm its for explorat ion a nd exploitation a re

issued separately under the Mining Law. One permit

covers both exploration and exploitation under the

Quarry Law and the Gravel Gathering Law.

Duration: Permits for exploration are valid for two

years with two possible extensions; no limit in durationfor permits for exploitation (Mining Law). Permits are

valid up to 20 years with possible extensions (Quarry

*JM. Kehden, op cit

“M Kehden, op . cit

“Ibid,

*cMarlne Aggr~ate Project, EIS, VO1. 1, February 1980, Consolidated Cold

Fields Austral ia Ltd and ARC Marine Ltd

“ M . Kehden, op . cit4 8 M a r i n e A g g r q a t e prOJect, oP. clt.

+gLaw of the Sea Bul let in, 1983, op . cit., p. 39.

$OIb id ,

s) Letter from Kaname Ikeda, Science Office, Embassy of Japan, to OTA,

June 15, 1987.

‘zIbid.

3JIkeda, o p cl t

5~Ibid,




Law). No specific provisions (Gravel and Gathering

Law).

Maximum permit area: 35,000 ares (Mining Law);55

no specific provisions (Quarry Law, Gravel Gathering

Law).Perm its ar e exclusive (Mining Law, Quar ry Law) .5’

C o n d i t i o n sFactors which are considered in deciding on the issu-

ance of permits a re: health and sanitar y considerations,

unreasonable interference with other industrial uses, andcompliance with public welfare.

Factors which are considered in regulating mining

activity are: whether a firm is part of an association,

exclusivity, fishing r ights, location (minimu m d istan ce

from shore and minimum water depth), conflicting uses,

prohibited a reas (seaweed ‘ ‘plant at ions’ an d dr ag n et

areas), buffer zones (sometimes greater than 500m be-

tween zones), mining meth ods (must be sand pump or

clam shell), quantity, duration of license, uses, and mar-

ket area.57

Activ i t ies

Activity is limited to sand and gravel, 94 percent of which occurs in Kyushu and offshore the Seto Opera-t ions .

58There is also some iron sand mining in the

Prefecture of Shimane.

N e t h e r l a n d s59

L a w s

q

q

q

The Netherlands recently expanded its t erritorial

sea to 12 miles. A law for sa nd a nd gra vel extrac-

tion within t his ar ea exists. By 1988 or 1989, thislaw will be extended to the continental shelf , basedon the provisions of the 1958 Geneva Convention.The Netherlands Continental Shelf Act applies onlyto oil and gas.The Nether lands has n o declared EEZ, because t hegovernment does not consider the EEZ to be cus-

tomary intern ational law yet.

553,5 square kilometers.

5sIkeda, op. cit.57T, u ~ am i , K , T s u m s a k l , T. Hirota, et al., ‘‘Seafloor Sand Min i n g in J a -

pan, ” in “Proceedings of Marine Technology ‘79—Ocean Energy’ Marine

Technology Society, Washington, DC, pp . 176-189.

‘81bid.

sgTh is information was obtained through in terv iews with Mr. Wim J . Van

Teeffelen, Assistant Attache for Science and Technology, Royal Netherlands

Embassy, and Mr. Henk Van Hoom from the Ministsy of Transportation and

Waterworks, Directorate for the North Sea.


q Territorial waters: The central government has

jur isdiction since provinces in the Net herla nds h ave

little power. The Ministry of Transport and Pub-

lic Works issues permits for mining within the 12-

mile zone.

q Continental shelf: The central government has

jurisdiction. The Department of Treasury issues

permits.

Pe rmi t P roc e s s

Exploration and exploitation: If a company wishes

to extract sand, it approaches the appropriate govern-

ment agency with it s request . As long as a compa ny does

not violat e any of the inform al conditions a nd criter ia,

it is granted a permit. Since few companies are inter-ested and potential mining areas are plentiful, compa-nies do not ha ve to bid competit ively for m ining perm its.

T e r m s

qExploration: [Details on duration, exclusivity and

sampling rights, size, and fees are unknown.q Exploitation: Royalties must be paid. [Details on

rates, duration, exclusivity, size, and fees are

unkn own. ]

C o n d i t i o n s

Currently, informal policy criteria guide the agency’sdecisions to issue permits. In th e Nether lands, one lear nsfrom childhood about th e importan ce of preser ving the

coastal and ocean environment. The most important

considera tion is dista nce from the coastline of the pr o-

posed activity (must be no closer than 20 km to the

coast ); since the Neth erlan ds is 2/3 below sea level, it

is crucial to prevent coastal er osion. Some area s, suchas t he Waddensea a rea in the north, are off l imits even

though a great deal of sand is available, for environ-menta l reasons (wetlands, seals, and nu rsery grounds

for North Sea fish). Conflicts with pipelines, t he en vi-ronment, and fisheries are also considered; these con-

flicts are rare, however, because activity is limited. A

third consideration is the type of technology the com-

pa ny pr oposes to use. (i. e., thin layer dredging or deep

hole dredging; the former is currently preferred)

The Ministry of Transport and Public Works is cur-

rent ly work ing to formalize th ese policy criter ia, which

center around environmental concerns. The Ministryis examinin g the environmental consequences of min-

ing in different ar eas. This will guide t he choice of fu-

ture mining sites and types of technologies.



App. D—Ocean Mining Laws of Other Countries q 3 1 3

Activ i t ies

Only sand an d gravel, an d mostly the former, is cur -

rently being extracted. No other economic minerals are

expected to be found in Dutch waters. Few companies

ar e involved and not mu ch expan ded activity in the fu-

ture is anticipated unless land mining becomes very re-

stricted.

Sand is extracted either from areas where it is natu-rally abundant or from shallow channels in the NorthSea which need to be dredged anyway to allow largeships through (e. g., on the approach to Amsterdam).Activity takes place fairly close to shore because of trans-por t requirements .

N o r w a y

L a w s

Territorial sea and continental shelf: Norway

passed, on June 21, 1963, Act No. 12, relating to

Scientific Research an d Exploration for an d Exploi-

tation of Subsea Natural Resources other than Pe-troleum Resources. On June 12, 1970, a Royal De-

cree was issued, setting provisional Rules for the

Exploration for Certain Submarine Natural Re-sources other tha n Petr oleum.

Norway d eclar ed a n Exclusive Economic Zone on

December 17, 1976.60


Under the Act of June 21, 1963, the King has theauthority to issue exploration and exploitation permits

and m ake r egulations, in r egard to both territorial seas

and the continental shelf.61


Unknown

T e r m s

q Exploration: The Ministry of Industry may grant

two year licenses for exploration of certain subma-

rine natural resources. An application must include

a description of the method of proposed explora-

tion. The license does not give exclusive right s orguara ntee exploitation rights.

62

‘“Act of De c 17, 1976, E conomic Z one o f Norway .

“Act No. 12, June 21, 1963, Sclentlfic Research and Exploration for and

Exploitation of Subsea Natural Resources other than Petroleum Resources

6’Royal Decree, June 12, 1970, provisional Rules concerning Exploration

for Certain Submarme Natural Resources other than Petroleum In th e Nor-

~egian Continental Shelf, etc

C o n d i t i o n s

Exploration: Activities must avoid disturbing ship-

ping, fishing, aviation, marine fauna or flora, subma-

rine cables, etc. 63

T h a i l a n d

La ws

Thailand ha s a 12-mile territorial sea.64

Thailand h as declared a continental shelf.65

Thailand has not declared an EEZ.66

Offshore mining is governed by the Minerals Act

B.E. 2510, 1967, as am ended by th e Minerals Act

No. 2, 1973 and the Minerals Act No. 3, 1979.

This act also covers onshore mining.67


The govern ment ha s exclusive owner ship of all min-

erals ‘‘upon, in or u nder th e sur face of public domain

and privately owned land. The Minerals Act is admin-istered by the Department of Mineral Resources within

the Ministry of Industry. 68


Unknown for both exploration and exploitation

T e r m s

q Explorat ion: There are three types of permits:

1. The local District Mineral Resources Officer, on

2

behalf of the central government, can issue a

one-year nonr enewable pr ospecting license for

a prescribed fee. The mineral of interest and thearea to be prospected must be specified.

Exclusive Prospecting Licenses are granted by

the Minister of Industry, although applications

are filed with the District Officer. The licenseis usually valid for 1 year, but for no more than

2. It is exclusive and non-transferable. The max-

imum permit area is 500,000 rai ( 1 rai is about

2/5 acre).

—b31bid.

G4Law of the Sea Bulletin, 1983, op. cit. , p 82.

c51bid.

csIbid., p, 63 .67C-U, Ruan gSu y , an (Department

of Mineral Resources, M inistr}’

of Industry, Thailand), ‘ ‘The Development of Offshore Mineral Re-

sources in Tha iland, ‘‘ in Int ern at ional Symposium on th e IN ew La w

of the Sea in Southeast Asia, D, Johnston (ed. ) (Dalhousie Ocean

Studies Programme: 1983), pp . 83-87.

bBIbid.

7 2 - 6 7 2 0 - 87 -- 11




3. A Special Pr ospecting License is gran ted if th e

project requires substantial investment and spe-

cial technology. The maximum permit area is

10,000 rai, but t here is no limit on t he nu mberof permits for which one may apply. Permits are

valid for 3 years, and may be renewed for no

more than 2 years. A certain amount of activity

is required.69

Exploitat ion: Mining leases an d concessions ar e is-

sued by the Minister of Energy. An application

must be made in a prescribed form and certain feesare required. The maximum m ining area is 50,000rai.

70A prospector is en titled to a concession upon

making a mineral discovery and showing financialability. Royalty rates are fixed by the governmentand ma y vary by mineral and area. An annu al rentma y also be required. Concessions are for a 75-yearte rm.

C o n d i t i o n s

Environmental considerations ar e minor. The coun-

try does not have comprehensive environmental legis-lation.

71

A ct iv i t i e s

Tin is the

of Thailand

place since

20,000 tonsonshore h ad

main mineral being extracted from the Gulf

and t he Andaman Sea; activity has t aken

1907. In 1976, onshore production was

while offshore was about 8,300. By 1980,

only risen t o 22,200 tons wh ile offshore h ad

jumped to 23,700.72

U n i t e d K i n g d o m

L a w s

q A bill to extend the t err itorial sea from 3 to 12 miles

has recently been passed.73

qThe United Kingdom claimed its continental shelf in 1964.74

q The United Kingdom has not declared an EEZ.


qTerritorial waters: Proprietary rights to the bed of

the Territorial Sea form a part of the Crown Es-

Wbid.

701bid.

“D , Johnston, Ocean Studies Programme, Dalhousie University , Halifax,Canada, personal communication to OTA, Aug. 15, 1986.

72C. U , R u a n g m v a n , o p . Ci t ,

7JLe t te r f rom th e Fo r e i g n a n d C o m m o n w e a l t h office of the United King-

dom, London, England to OTA through R. L. Embleton, British Embassy,

May 15, 1987.7~Law of the Sea Bulletin, 1983, op. cit.

tate. Under the Crown E stat e Act of 1961 the Crown

Estat e Commissioners ar e char ged with t he man -

agement of the Esta te which includes the rights t olicense mineral extraction on the Territorial Seabed

but excluding oil, gas, and coal.

Continental shelf: Rights to mining of minerals

other than oil, gas, and coal on the continental shelf are granted to the Crown by the Continental Shelf

Act, 1964. The Commissioners have the power to

grant prospecting and dredging licenses.75


Exploration: Since experience has shown thatprospecting usu ally does not conflict un accepta bly

with other ocean u ses, no formal governmen t con-

sultation process is required to obtain a permit.

However, th e Crown Esta te Commissioner s do in-

form the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and

Food (MAFF) before issuing a license and the

MAFF, after consultation with regional officials,

will notify the company of potential objections.

Bulk sampling requires separate authorization bythe Commissioners. The MAFF may propose

changes (e. g., in time, place or extraction method)in order to protect fisheries.

76

Exploitation: Applications to the Commissioners

are first sent to Hydraulics Research Limited to ad-

vise whether th ere is likely to be any adver se effect

on the adjacent coastline. Only if their advice isfavorable does the application proceed, and it is

then forwarded to the Minerals Division of the De-

partment of the Environment (DOE)77

The DOE

oversees the ‘‘Government View’ procedure which

includes consultation with other Government de-

partments and agencies dealing with coast protec-

tion, fisheries, navigation, oil and gas, and defense

interests. If any department has a substantive ob-

jection, it ma y discuss it in form ally with t he com-

pany or with t he Crown Esta te Commissioners be-

fore report ing i t to the Department of the

Environment .78

The Department ultimately makes

a recommendation to the Commissioners.

T e r m s

q Exploration: Licenses are issued for either 2 or 4

years and are n ot tran sferable. They permit use of

75

D. Pasho, ‘ ‘The United Kingdom Oflkhore Aggregate Industry: A Reviewo f M a n a g e m e n t Practims and Issues, Ministry of Energy, Mines and Re-

sources Canada, January, 1986, p. 17,

7Wode of Practice for the Extraction of Marine Aggregates, December 1981,

p. 10.“D . Pasho, p. 19,Tacode of Practice, p. 11.



App. D—Ocean Mining Laws of Other Countries q 315

s e i s m i c a n d c o r e - s a m p l i n g t e c h n i q u e s a n d l i m i t e d

bulk sampling by dredger (up to 1,000 t o n n e s over

th e period of the licence). The license fee chargedby t he Crown Estate is on a sliding scale depend-in g on the size of a r e a . Exploration licences ar e

nonexclusive and are normally renewable.79

qExploitation: Licenses are granted on a continu-

in g basis but may be terminated a t 6 month s’ no-

tice. They are expressed to be nonexclusive bu t as

far as possible each area is granted to a single oper-ator. A maximum annual removal limit is stipu-lated. Royalties are payable on the actual quan-t i ty rem oved from the seabed but a dead rent of

20 percent of the maximum permissible tonnagemultiplied by the current r oyalty rate is chargedwhether or not any material is removed. Royaltyrates ar e reviewed periodically but ar e indexed in

the Re ta i l P r ice Index in the in te rven ing years . The

c u r r e n t r o y a l t i e s r e p r e s e n t a b o u t 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e

s e l l i n g p r i c e o f t h e m a t e r i a l a t t h e w h a r f o f l a n d -

ing. 80

C o n d i t i o n s

q E x p l o r a t i o n : D r i l l i n g a n d s a m p l i n g n e a r c a b l e s i s

r e s t r i c t e d . ‘ ‘U n j u s t i f ia b l e i n t e r f e r e n c e ” w i t h n a v i -

g a t i o n , f i s h i n g o r c o n s e r v a t i o n o f l i v i n g r e s o u r c e s

i s p r o h i b i t e d . T h e c o m p a n y m u s t p r o v i d e t h e C o m -

miss ioners wi th repor ts on opera t ions and a fu l l re -

p o r t o n p r o s p e c t i n g r e s u l t s i n c l u d i n g g e o p h y s i c a l

p r o f i l e s .

q E x p l o i t a t i o n : A n a p p l i ca n t m u s t h a v e h e l d a

p r o s p e c t i n g l i c e n s e f o r t h e a r e a . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e

1 9 7 7 C o d e o f P r a c t i c e , a n a p p l i c a n t m u s t h a v e t h e

n e c e s s a r y v e s s e l s , f a c i l i t i e s , e t c . t o u n d e r t a k e w o r k .

T h e l i c e n s e s p e c i f i e s t h e m a x i m u m a n n u a l q u a n -t i t y t o b e d r e d g e d , a n d s a f e t y p r o v i s i o n s . L i c e n s e s

m a y b e t e r m i n a t e d b y e i t h e r p a r t y a t 6 -m o n t h s ’

n o t i c e .

T h e G o v e r n m e n t V i e w p r o c e d u r e i s i n t e n d e d t o r e -

s o l v e o c e a n u s e c o n f l i c t s . S p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n i s g i v e n t o

p o t e n t i a l c o n f l i c t s b e t w e e n f i s h i n g a n d m i n i n g i n t h e

C o d e o f P r a c t i c e . T h e g o v e r n m e n t r e c o g n i z e s t h a t b o t h

i n d u s t r i e s ‘ ‘a r e l e g i t i m a t e l y ex p l oi t i n g t h e s e a ’s r e -

s o u r c e s . T h e r e f o r e , i t d o e s n o t g i v e s p e c i a l p r i o r i t y t o

a n y p a r t i c u l a r a c t i v i t y ; f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e M A F F d o e s n o t

ob jec t to a min ing l icense so le ly because i t invo lves a

f i s h e r y a r e a .a]

‘qF(Jrelqn and Commonweal th Of l i c c, op . CI (

*011)1(1

8 ’II)ld , p 11

Activ i t ies

S a n d a n d g r a v e l d r e d g i n g i s a f a i r l y w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d

a c t i v i t y , d a t i n g b a c k t o t h e m i d - 1 9 2 0 s .82

T h e a t t a c h e d

t a b l e g i v e s d e t a i l s o n p r o d u c t i o n a t d i f f e r e n t m i n i n g

s i t e s . I n 1 9 8 5 , m a r i n e s o u r c e s p r o v i d e d a b o u t 1 4 p e r -

c e n t o f B r i t a i n ’s s a n d a n d g r a v e l n e e d s .

N e w Z e a l a n d

L a w s

q

q

q

q

N e w Z e a l a n d c l a i m s a 1 2 - m i l e t e r r i t o r i a l s e a .83

N e w Z e a l a n d d e c l a r e d i t s c o n t i n e n t a l s h e l f i n

1 9 6 4 .8 4

N e w Z e a l a n d d e c l a r e d a n E E Z o n S e p t e m b e r 6 ,

1 9 7 7 w i t h A c t N o . 2 8 . E n a c t m e n t o f i m p l e m e n t -

i n g l e g i s l a t i o n i s p e n d i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n f i r m a -

t i o n o f t h e L a w o f t h e S e a T r e a t y .85

L e g i s l a t i o n i s c u r r e n t l y b e i n g r e v i e w e d o n a l o w -

key bas is by the Min is te r o f Energy’s o f f ice ; a re -

p o r t t o t h e m i n i s t e r s i s p e n d i n g .86


C o n t i n e n t a l s h e l f : T h e M i n i s t e r o f E n e r g y h a s e x c l u -

s i v e a u t h o r i t y t o i s s u e p r o s p e c t i n g a n d m i n i n g l i c e n s e s

f o r m i n e r a l s i n t h e s e a b e d o r s u b s o i l o f t h e c o n t i n e n t a l

shelf .87


E x p l o r a t i o n a n d e x p l o i t a t i o n : I n t e r e s t e d c o m p a n i e s

apply to the Minister of Energy and so long as they meet

a l l t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s , w i l l b e a w a r d e d a l i c e n s e . T h e

c o m p a n y m u s t s h o w t h a t i t m e e t s a l l t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s

b y s u b m i t t i n g a p r o j e c t a s s e s s m e n t w i t h i t s a p p l i c a t i o n

( e . g . , e n v i r o n m e n t a l a s s e s s m e n t ) . T h e c o n c e r n e d a g e n -

c i e s w i l l b e c o m e i n v o l v e d i n t h e r e v i e w p r o c e s s , b u t t h e

c om p a n y o n l y d e a l s d i r e c t l y w i t h t h e M i n i s t e r o f

Energy .88

T e r m s

E x p l o r a t i o n a n d e x p l o i t a t i o n : To d a t e , o n l y on e

p r o s p e c t i n g l i c e n s e h a s b e e n i s s u e d , s o f e w p r e c e d e n t s

h a v e b e e n s e t . H o w e v e r , t h e g r a n t i n g p r o c e s s i s l i k e l y

t o c l o s e l y p a r a l l e l t h a t f o r o i l a n d g a s . P r o s p e c t i n g a n d

‘2D. Pasho, p. 10,aJ1,aw. “f th e Se a Bul]erln, 1 ~8’\ , ~p [’it ~ P. 62‘+Ibd8$\ Ir p a t Hc.lm, N ew Zealan(j Embass}, a n d ofl i ( Ials In wt>ilin~ton, ~’~’~

Z e a l a n d , l e t t e r t o O T A , Aug 1, 198b

‘cIbd

‘~~”ew Z e a l a n d (;ontlncntal Sb e l t A( t, 19b4, Nc] 28, S e c t i o n 5

Ssrbl{



App. D—Ocean Mining Laws of Other Countries . 317

I

I I I I I

I I I I I

1

I I I

I

.

. .

I

I

I

.




mining licenses are granted separately, so legally, the

right to prospect is not tied to the r ight to mine. Logi-

cally, however, a compa ny which ha s invested in p ros-

pecting is likely to obta in a m ining license. Furt herm ore,

since the government is often a partner in prospecting

operations, exploitat ion rights follow na tu ra lly. Licenses

do not grant exclusive rights; however, not enough

activity has taken place to make this a controversial is-sue.

89[Details regarding duration, size, and fees are

unkn own. ]

Royalties must be paid to the Crown by the opera-

tor. Rat es ar e specified in th e license. No mining licenseha s been issued, so no basis for a ssessing royalties ha s

been esta blished.go

C o n d i t i o n s

Any mining activities must disturb t he ma rine envi-

ronment and life as little as ‘‘reasonably possible, ” mustnot interfere with the rights of commercial fishermen,

mu st comply with safety provisions of the 1971 Minin g

Act and 1979 Coal Mines Act.‘gIbid.

‘“Ibid

A c t i v i t i e s m u s t n o t v i o l a t e a n y o f t h e r e s t r i c t i v e r e g -

u l a t i o n s s e t f o r t h b y t h e G o v e r n o r - G e n e r a l , c o n c e r n i n g

n a v i g a t i o n , f i s h i n g , c o n s e r v a t i o n o f l i v i n g r e s o u r c e s , n a -

t i o n a l d e f e n s e , o c e a n o g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h , s u b m a r i n e c a -

b le s , or p i p el in e s . “U n j u s t i f i a b l e i n t e r f e r e n c e ” wi t h a n y

o f t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s i s d e f i n e d a t t h e G o v e r n o r - G e n e r a l ’s

d i s c r e t i o n .91

H o w e v e r , i n p r a c t i c e , t h e d e t a i l s o f r e g u -

l a t i o n s a r e s p e c i f i e d i n P a r l i a m e n t a r y c o m m i t t e e s , i nc o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s f r o m a p p r o p r i a t e g o v -

e r n m e n t b r a n c h e s ( i . e . , t h e M i n i s t r y o f t h e E n v i r o n -

m e n t ) .92

The Inspector of Mines, in consultation with the Min-

istry of Transport, Marine Division, and Ministry of

Agriculture and Fisheries arbitrates conflicts between

miners and commercial fishermen. 93

Ac t i v i t i e s

One license has been issued for the prospecting of phosphorite nodules.

94

g! NC W zea]and Con t inen ta l Sheff Act, Section 8.92

P H e l m , op . cit .

‘s

Ib id .

‘*Ibid.



A p p e n d i x E

Tables of Contents for

OTA Contrac tor Repor ts

Manned Submers ib l e s and Remote l y

Operated Vehic les: Their Use for

E x p l o r i n g t h e E E Z

F r a n k B u s b y

B u s b y A s s o c i a t e s , I n c .

5 7 6 S . 2 3 r d S t r e e t

A r l i n g t o n , V A 2 2 2 0 2

T ab le o f Co n ten t s

A p p l i c a t i o n s

M a n n e d S u b m e r s i b l es

R e m o t e l y O p e r a t e d Ve h i c l e s

H y b r i d V e h i c l esA d va n t a g e s a n d L i m i t a t i o n s

C a p a b i l i t i e s

V e h i c l e A p p l i c a t i o n s i n t h e E E Z

R e g i on a l S u r v e y s / R e co n n a i s s a n c e

L o ca l S u r v e y s

S a m p l i n g

I n S i t u M i n e r a l A n a l y s e s

E x a m p l e s

N e e d e d T e c h n i c a l D e v e l o p m e n t s

Technologies for Dredge Mining

Minerals o f the Exclus ive

E c o n o m i c Z o n e ( E E Z )

M . J . R i c h a r d s o n

C o n s o l i d a t e d P l a c e r D r e d g i n g , in c .

1 7 9 6 1 A C o w a n

I r v i n e , C A 9 2 7 1 4

E d w a r d E . H o r t o n

D e e p O i l T e c h n o l o g y , I n c .

P . O . B o x 1 6 1 8 9

I r v i n e , C a l i f o r n i a 9 2 7 1 3

A r l i n g t o n , V A 2 2 2 0 2

T ab le o f Co n ten t s

i n t r o d u c t i o n

P l a c e r M i n i n g T e c h n o l o g y

P r e c i ou s M i n e r a l s

H e a v y M i n e r a l s

I n d u s t r i a l M i n e r a l s

D e f i n i t i o n s

B i b l i o g r a p h yD r e d g e M i n i n g S y s t e m s

B u c k e t L a d d e r D r e d g e

B u c k e t D r e d g e s f o r M i n i n g

S u c t i o n d r e d g e s f o r M i n i n g

B e n e f i c i a t i o n S y s t e m s

T a i l i n g s D i s p o s a l

M i n i n g C o n t r o l

E c o n o m i c s a n d E f f i c i e n c y o f D r e d g e M i n i n g

O p e r a t i o n s

C a p i t a l C o s t s

O p e r a t i n g C o s t s

P l a c e r S a m p l i n g M e t h o d s

I n i t i a l S u r v e y S c o u t S a m p l i n g

I n d i c a t e d R e s e r v e sP r o v e n R e s e r v e s

D r i l l i n g S y s t e m s

B u l k S a m p l i n g

P l a c e r S a m p l i n g E q u i p m e n t C o m p a r i s on

E v a l u a t i o n P r o c e d u r e s

P r e c i ou s M i n e r a l s

H e a v y M i n e r a l s

I n d u s t r i a l M i n e r a l s

A p p l i c a t i o n s t o O f f s h o r e D e p o s i t s

F u t u r e T e c h n o l o g i e s f o r O f f s h o r e D r e d g e M i n i n g

O f f s h o r e T i t a n i u m H e a v y M i n e r a l

Placers: Process ing and Related

Cons idera t ions

A r l i n g t o n T e c h n i c a l S e r v i c e s

4 C o l on y L a n e

A r l i n g t o n , M A 0 2 1 7 4

W . W . H a r v e y a n d F . C . B r o w n

T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s

T i t a n i u m a n d A s s oc ia t e d M i n e r a l s

S a l i e n t F e a t u r e s o f t h e I n d u s t r y

R e c e n t H i s t o r y o f T i t a n i u m S a n d s M i n i n g i n t h e

Us.General Extrapolations to Offshore Deposits

Typical Flow Sheets for Processing Ti/associatedHeavy Mineral Sands

Modifications for Processing an Offshore Deposit

A Dune Sands Analog of the Postulated Offshore

Deposit

37 9




Offshore Titanium Heavy Minerals Production

Scenario

Approach to a Framework for Evaluation

Component Costs for Heavy Mineral SandsMining and Processing

Ore Grades for Break-Even Production from

Offshore

Ore Grade Requirements: Revised Basis and

Approach

References

TablesFigures

Appendix

Process ing Cons idera t ions for Chromi te

Heavy Minera l Placers

Arlington Technical Services4 Old Colony Lane

Arlington, MA 02174

W.W. Harvey and F.C

Table of Contents

Preliminar y Notes

Brown

Synopsis’ of U.S. Chromium Industry

Mining and Processing of the Black Sands

Production Potential of Offshore Chromite Placers

Costs for a Southwest Oregon Beach Sands Placer

Costs for an Offshore Chromite Heavy Mineral

Placer

Effect of New TechnologiesReferencesTables

Figures

Offshore Phosphor i t e Depos i t s :

Pr o c e s s i n g a n d Re l a t e d Co n s i d e r a t i o n s

Arlington Technical Services

4 Old Colony Lane

Arlington, MA 02174

W.W. Harvey and F.C. Brown

Table of Contents

Background and PerspectivesInitial Perspectives

Onshore/Offshore Comparisons

Development Incentives

Past Commercial ActivitiesQualitative Economic Considerations

Broad Cost Comparison

Cost Offset Via Higher Ore Values

Phosphorite Placer Development

Prior Engineering/Economic Studies

References

Tables

Figures

Po l y me t a l l i c S u l f i d e s a n d Ox i d e s o f

the U.S . EEZ: Meta l lurg ica l Ex t rac t ion

and Re la ted Aspec t s o f Poss ib le

F u t u r e D e v e l o p m e n t

Arlington Technical Services

4 Old Colony Lane

Arlington, MA 02174

W.W. Harvey

Table of Contents

Foreword

Recent LiteraturePolymetallic Sulfides

Subsea Occurrences

Terrestrial DepositsProcessing Technologies

Tables and Figures, Section II

Oxide Nodules and Crusts

Broad IntercomparisonsMajor Processing and Marketing Issues

Recent Process-Related Studies

Figures, Section III

References

Appendix

Da t a Ma n a g e me n t i n a

o f Ex p l o r a t i o n a n d

o f the U.S .Richard C. Vetter

4779 North 33rd Street

Arlington, VA 22207

T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s

Introduction

Na t i o n a l Pr o gr a m

D e v e l o p m e n t

E E Z

Conclusions, Problem Areas, and

Examination of Limiting Factors

Is Technology Limiting?

Is Understanding of Wise DataConcepts Limiting?

Is Infrastr ucture Lacking?

Is Funding Limiting?

Recommendations

Management

The Present-Situation-and the Near Future

Feder al Agencies

Department of Commerce/National Oceanic

and Atmospheric Administration



App. E—Tables of Contents for OTA Contractor Reports . 321

National Environmental Satellite, Data, U.S. Navy

and Information Service State and Local Governments

National

National

National

National

Geophysical Data Center Academic and Private Laboratories

Oceanographic Data Center Industry

Ocean Service Other Data Management Studies

Marine F isheries Service Study Procedures

Department of the Interior References

Minerals Management Service Appendices

U.S. Geological Survey Questionnaire

National Aeronautics and Space Administration Contacts

72-672 0 - 87 -- 12



A p p e n d ix F

OTA Workshop Par t i c ipan ts

and Other Contr ibutors

W o r k s h o p P a r t i c i p a n t s -

Technologies for Surveying and Exploring the Exclusive Economic Zone, Washington, D. C., June 10, 1986.Par ticipant s described and evaluated t echnologies us ed for reconnoitering the EEZ, including bat hymetry system s,

side-looking sonar systems, and seismic, magnetic, and gravity technologies.

Chris Andreasen

National Ocean Service, NOAA

Robert D. Ballard

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

John Brozena

Naval Research Laboratory

Gary Hill

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston

John La BrecqueLamont-Doherty Geological Observatory

William M. Marquet


Don Pryor

Charting and Geodetic Services

National Ocean Service, NOAA

Bill Ryan

Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory

Carl SavitWestern Geophysical Co.

Robert C. Tyce

Graduate School of Oceanography

University of Rhode Island, RI

Donald White

General Instrument Corporation

Si te-Speci f ic Techno log ies fo r Exp lo r ing the Exclus ive Economic Zone , Wash ing ton , D. C . , July 16, 1986.

Participants described and evaluated technologies for coring, dredging, and drilling and technologies for electrical

and geochemical exploration.

Roger Amato John Noakes

Minerals Management Service Center for Applied Isotope Studies

Alan D. Chave

AT&T Bell Laboratories

Michael J. Cruickshank

Consulting Marine Mining

Charles Dill

University of Georgia, GA

William D. Siapno

Marine Consultant

Engineer Paul Teleki

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA

Alpine Ocean Seismic Survey, Inc.

Peter B. Hale

Offshore Minerals Section

Energy, Mines, and Resources Canada

W. William Harvey

Arlington Technical Services, VA

Edward E. Horton

Deep Oil Technology, Inc.

Jerzy Maciolek

Exploration Technologies, Inc.

John Toth

Analytical Services, Inc.

Robert Willard

U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minneapolis, MN

S. Jeffress Williams


Robert Woolsey

Mississippi Minerals Resources Institute, MS

J. Robert Moore

Department of Marine Studies

University of Texas, TX

32 2



App. F—OTA Workshop Participants and Other Contributors q 323

Pacific EEZ Minerals, Newport, Oregon, November 20, 1986. Participants assessed knowledge of chromite sands,cobalt crusts, and polymetallic sulfides of the U.S. Pacific EEZ and evaluated existing and potential technologyfor mining and processing these deposits. Held in cooperation with the Hatfield Marine Science Center, Oregon

Stat e University.

Robert Bailey

Department of Land Conservation and

Development

State of Oregon

Thomas Carnahan

Bureau of Mines, Reno, NV

David K. Denton

Bureau of Mines, Spokane, WA

Don Foot

Bureau of Mines, Salt Lake City, UT

Laverne Kulm

College of Oceanography

Oregon State University, OR

Charles Morgan

Manganese Crust EIS Project

Joseph R. RitcheyBureau of Mines, Spokane, WA

Reid Stone

Office of Strategic and International Minerals

Minerals Management Service

Steve Hammond Ja mes Wenzel

Vents Program, NOAA Marine Development Associates, Inc.

Benjamin W. Haynes Robert Zierenberg

Bureau of Mines, Avondale, AZ U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, CA

James R. Hein

U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, CA

Donald Hull

Oregon Department of Geology and Mineral

Industries, OR

Data Class i fi ca t ion , Woods Hole , Massach use t t s , Ja nu ar y 27, 1987 . Participants assessed the effect that classifi-

cation of bathymetric data and other types of oceanographic data may have on marine science activities. Held in

cooperation with the Marine Policy and Ocean Management Center, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.

James BroadusWoods Hole Oceanographic Institution

John Edmond

Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, MA

Richard Greenwald

Ocean Mining Associates

James Kosalos

International Submarine Technology

Jacqueline Mammericks

Scripps Institution of Oceanography

Donna Moffitt

Office of Marine Affairs

Department of Administration

W. Jason Morgan

Department of Geological and Geophysical Sciences

Princeton University, PA

Peter A. Rona

Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological

Laboratories, NOAA

David Ross


Derek W. Spencer


Robert C. Tyce

Graduate School of OceanographyUniversity of Rhode Island, RI




M in i n g a n d P r o c e s s in g P l a c e r s o f t h e E x c lu s i v e E c o n o m i c Zone, Washin g ton , D. C. , Sep t em ber 18, 1986.Participants critiqued an OTA working paper on the mineral resources of the U.S. Atlantic and Gulf coast EEZs.

Technologies for offshore placer mining and for minerals processing were also discussed.

Richard A. Beale David Ross

Associated Minerals (U. S. A.) Ltd. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

Michael J. Cruickshank John Rowland

Consulting Marine Mining Engineer Bureau of Mines, Washington, D.C.

Edward Escowitz Langtry E. Lynd

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA U.S. Bureau of Mines, Washington, D.C.

Andrew Grosz J. Robert Moore

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA Department of Marine Studies

University of Texas, TXFrank C. Hamata

Sceptre-Ridel-Dawson Constructors Scott Snyder

Gretchen LuepkeDepartment of Geology

U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, CAEast Carolina University, NC

George WatsonRuud Ouwerkerk

Dredge Technology CorporationFer roalloy Associates


Tom OxfordU.S. Army Corps of Engineers


Richard Rosamilia

Great Lakes Dredge and Dock Co.

En viron me nt a l Ef fec ts o f Offshore Min ing , Wash in g ton , D. C. , Octobe r 29 , 1986 . Surface, mid-water, and

benthic impacts were assessed for both near-shore and open-ocean mining situations. Potential effects of offshore

dredging on coastal processes were also addressed.

Henry J. Bokuniewicz

Marine Sciences Research Center

State University of New York at Stony Brook, NY

Michael J. Cruickshank

Consulting Marine Mining Engineer

Clifton CurtisOceanic Society

David Duane

National Sea Grant College Program, NOAA

J oseph Flanagan

Ocean Minerals and Energy, NOAA

Barbara Hecker


Michael J. Herz

Tiberon Center for Environmental Studies

University of San Francisco, CARobert R. HesslerScripps Institution of Oceanography

Art Hurme

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Greg McMurray

Oregon Department of Geology and Mineral

Industries, OR

Ed Myers


John Padan


Andrew Palmer

Environmental P olicy Institut e

Dean Par sons

National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA

David W. Pasho

Resource Management BranchEnergy, Mines, and Resources Canada



AD D . F—OTA Workshop Participants and Other Contributors 325 .

Mario Paula

New York District, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,NY

Richard K. Peddicord

Battelle NE, MA

Joan Pope


Jean Snider

Ocean Assessment, NOAA

Other Con t r ibu tor s

Craig Amergian

Analytical Services, Inc.

Robert Abel

N.J. Marine Science Consortium, NJ

W.T. Adams

U.S. Bureau of Mines

Vera AlexanderUniversity of Alaska

Chris Andreasen

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Jack H. Archer


Ted Armbrustmacher

U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, CO

Dale Avery


Ledolph Baer


Susan Bales

David Taylor Naval Ship Research andDevelopment Center

Bill Barnard

Office of Technology Assessment

Aldo F. Barsotti


Dan Basta


Alan Bauder


Wayne Bell

University of Maryland, MD

J eff BenoitMassachusetts Department of Environmental

Quality and Engineering, MA

Rick Berquist

Virginia Institute of Marine Science, VA

Buford Holt

U.S. Department of the Interior

David Thistle

Department of Oceanography

Florida State University, FL

George D. F. Wilson

Scripps Institution of Oceanography

Thomas Wright


Lewis Brown

Nat ional Science Foundat ion

Bill Burnet t

University of Florida, FL

R.J. Byrne

Virginia Institute of Marine Sciences, VA

David CampFlorida Department of Natural Resources, FL

Bill Cannon


Jim Cathcart

U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, CO

M. W. Chesson

Zellars-Williams Company

Michael A. Chinnery

National Geophysical Data Center

Joe Christopher

Gulf of Mexico Region, Minerals Management

Service

Jay Combe

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, New Orleans

District, LA

Stephen G. Conrad

North Carolina Division of Land Resources, NC

Margaret Courain

National Environmental Satellite, Data, and

Information Service

Dennis Cox


Michael Cru icksha nk

Consulting Marine Mining Engineer

Mike CzarneckiNaval Research Laboratory

Lou J. Czel

E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co.




James F. Davis

California Department of Conservation, CA

Mike De LucaNational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

John H. De Young, Jr.


John Delaney

University of Washington, WA

Bob Detrick

University of Rhode Island, RI

Captain Joseph Drop

National Environmental Satellite, Data and

Information Service

Barry Drucker

Offshore Environmental Assessment Div.

David Duane

National Sea Grant College Program

John Dugen

Arete Associates

Frank Eaden

Joint Oceanographic Institutions

R.L. Embleton

British Embassy

Bill Emery

National Center for Atmospheric Research

Robert Engler


Herman Enzer


William Erb

State Department,

Edward EscowitzU.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA

Robert H. Fakundiny

New York State Geological Survey, NY

Rich Fa ntel

U.S. Bureau of Mines, Denver, CO

Mart in Finerty

Ocean Studies Board, National Academy of

Sciences

Joe FlanaganNational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

John E. Flipse

Texas A&M University, TX

Mike Foose


Er ic Force


Linda Glover

U.S. Navy

John Gould

Institute of Ocean Sciences, England

James L. GreenNational Space Science Data Center

Andrew Grosz


Kenneth A. Haddad

Florida Department of Natural Resources, FL

Robert Hall

Department of the Interior

Gary HallbauerTexas Sea Grant, TX

Erick Hartwig

Office of Naval Research

W. William Harvey

Arlington Technical Services, VA

G. Ross Heath

Oregon State University, OR

Barbara Hecker


J.B. Hedrick


George Heimerdinger

National Oceanographic Data Center, NE Liaison

P.O. Helm

Embassy of New Zealand

H. James Herring

Dynalysis of Princeton, PA

Jerry Hilbish

University of South Carolina, SC

Gary Hill


Tom Hillman

U.S. Bureau of Mines, Spokane, WA

Jack Hird

Texas Gulf

Joe Hlubucek

Embassy of Australia

Porter Hoagland


Carl H. Hobbs

Virginia Institute of Marine Science, VA

Kent Hughes

National Oceanographic Data Center




Carla Moore

National Geophysical Data Center

Peter MoranEastman Kodak Co.

S. P. Murdoch

Embassy of New Zealand

Nancy Friedrich Neff

University of Rhode Island, RIMyron Nordquist

Kelley, Drye & Warren

Terry W. Offield

U.S. Geological Survey

Jim Olsen


Tom Osborn

Chesapeake Bay Institute

Ned Ostenso

National Sea Grant College Program

Norm Page


John Padan


Tom Patin


Jack Pearce

Nat ional Mar ine Fisheries Service

John PerryAtmospherics Studies Board, National Research

Council

Hal Petersen

Battelle NE, MS

Richard A. Petters

Sound Ocean Systems, Inc.

Don Pryor


Larry Pugh


Tom Pyle

Joint Oceanographic Institutions

Ransom Reed


R. Reese


Joe Ritchey

U.S. Bureau of Mines, Spokane, WADonald Rogich


Nelson C. Ross

National Oceanographic Data Center

West Coast Liaison

John Rowland


Paul D. Ryan

Embassy of Japan

Carl SavitWestern Geophysical Co. of America

Frederick Schmidt

Ames Laboratory, Iowa State University, IA

Robert L. Schmidt


Henry R. Schorr

Gulf Coast Trailing Company

Bill Siapno

Deepsea Ventur es

Allen Sielen

Environmental Protection Agency, Office of International Activities

E. Emit Smith

Geological Survey of Alabama, AL

Jean Snider


David J. Spottiswood

Colorado School of Mines, CO

Sidney Stillwaugh

National Oceanographic Data Center Pacific NW

Liaison

Reid StoneMinerals Management Service

William F. Stowasser

U.S. Bureau of MinesWilliam L. Stubblefield


Tim SullivanAtlantic OCS Region, Minerals Management

Service

Bill Sunda

Nat ional Ma rine F isheries Service

Nick Su ndt


John R. Suter

Louisiana Geological Survey, LA

George Tirey




App. F—OTA Workshop Participants and Other Contributors 329

Tom Usselman

Geophysics Study Committee, National Research

Council

Gregory van der Vink


Van Waddell

Science Applications Inc.

Mike Walker

Intermagnetics General Corporation

Maureen Warren


Sui-Ying Wat

United Nations, Ocean, Economics and Technology

Branch

E. G. Wernund

University of Texas at Austin, TX

Hoyt Wheeland

National Marine Fisheries Service

Bob Willard




Stan Wilson

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Robert S. Winokur

Office of the Chief of Naval Operations

Gregory WitheeNational Oceanographic Data Center

W.D. Woodbury


Tom Wright


Jeffrey C. Wynn

U.S. Geological Survey

Dave Zinzer


Ph ilip Zion

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory



A p p e n d i x G

Acronyms and Abbrevia t ions

AE M —Airborne Electromagnetic BathymetryAOML —Atlantic Oceanographic and

Meteorological Laboratories

BOF —Basic Oxygen FurnaceBOM —U.S. Bureau of MinesBP L —Bone Phosphate of Lime

BS3

—Bathymetric Swath Survey System

CAIS —Center for Applied Isotope StudiesCALCOFI—California Cooperative Fisheries

Investigations

CDP —Common Depth Point

C OE —U .S. Ar my Cor ps of E ngin eer s

CSO —Coastal States Organization

C Z M A —Coa st a l Zon e Ma n agem en t Act

DGS —Digita l Gra in SizeD M R P —Dredged Material Research Program

D OD —U.S. Depa rt men t of Defen se

DOE —U.S. Department of EnergyD OI —U.S. Depa rt men t of t he In ter ior

DOMES —Deep Ocean Mining Environmental

Study

DSHMRA—Deep Seabed Hard Minerals ResourcesAct

DS L —Deep Submergence Laboratory

E E Z —Exclusive Economic Zone

EIS —Environmental Impact Statement

E PA —U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

E RM —Exact Repeat Mission

FOB —Free on BoardFWS —U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

GEODAS —Geophysical Data System

GEOS AT —U.S. Navy Geodetic Satell iteGI —General Instrument Corp.

GGB —Gridded Global Bathymetry

GLORIA —Geological Long Range Inclined Asdic

GP S —Global Positioning SystemHEBBLE —High Energy Benthic Boundary Layer

Experiment

H IG —H awa ii In st it ut e of Geoph ysics

HS —Hydrographic Survey

I CE S —I nt er n at ion a l C ou n cil for E xp lor a tion

of the Seas

I DO E —I nt er n at ion al Deca de of Ocea nExploration

IGY —International Geophysical Year

IOS —Institute of Oceanographic Sciences1P —Induced Polarization

ICES —International Council for the

Explorations of the Seas

1ST

ITA

J OILDGO

LOS

LOSCMB

MCC

MESA

MGF

MIPS

M M

M M SM O U

MS R

NASNASA

NACOA

NCAR

NEPA

NESDIS

NGDC

NMFSNMPIS

NOAA

NOAC

NODC

—International Submarine Technology,Ltd.

—Intern ational Trade Administration

—Joint Oceanographic Institutions—Lamont-Doherty Geological

Observatory

—Law of the Sea

—Law of the Sea Convention—Marine Boundary Data

—Marine Core Curator

—Marine Ecosystems Analysis Project

—Miscellaneous Geology Files

—Mini-Image Processing System

—Marine Mineral Data

—Minerals Management Service—Memorandum of Understanding

—Marine Seismic Reflection

—National Academy of Science—National Aeronautics and Space

Administration

—National Advisory Committee on

Oceans and Atmosphere—National Center for Atmospheric

Research

—National Environmental Policy Act

—National En vironmenta l Satellite Dat a

and Information Service

—National Geophysical Data Center

—National Marine Fisheries Service—National Marine Pollution Information

System

—National Oceanic and AtmosphericAdministration

—National Operations Security Advisory

Committee

—National Oceanographic Data CenterNOMES —New England Offshore Mining

Environmental Study

NORDA —Na va l Oce an Resea rch a nd

Development Activity

NOS —National Ocean Survey

NOS/HS —Nat iona l Ocean Survey Hydrographic

SurveysNOS/MB —National Ocean Survey Mult ibeam

EEZ Bathymetry

N RC —Na tion al Resea rch Cou ncilN RL —Na va l Resea rch La bor at or y

NS F —National Science Foundation

NS I —NASA Science Internet

330



App. G—Acronyms and Abbreviations q 331

O A R —Oceans and Atmospheric Research S AR —Syst em e Acou st iqu e Rem or qu e

OCS —Outer Continental Shelf SASS —Sonar Array Sounding SystemOCSLA —Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act SeaMARC—Sea Mapping and Remote

OCSEAP —Outer Continental Shelf Environment Characterization

O M A

OMB

OSIM

OSTP

ODP

O M A

O N R

P GMP M E L

R O R

R O V

SAB

Assessment P rogram

—Ocean Mining Associates

—Office of Management and Budget

—Office of Strategic and InternationalMinerals

—Office of Science and Technology

Policy

—Ocean Drilling Program

—Ocean Mining Associates

—Office of Naval Research

—Platinum Group Metal—Pacific Marine Environmental

Laboratory

—Rate of Return

—Remotely Operated Vehicle

—Strategic Assessment Branch

SP —Self Potent ial

SPAN —Space Physics Analysis Network

T A M U —Texa s A & M Un iver sit y

TOGA —Tropica l Oce an Globa l At mosphe reStudy

U MI —Underwater Mining Institute

USCG —U.S. Coast Guard

U T M —Universal Transverse Mercator

UNOLS —Univers ity Nat iona l Oceanographic

Laboratory System

USGS —U.S. Geological SurveyWADSEP —Walking and Dredging Self-Elevating

Platform

WOCE —World Ocean Circulation Experiment

WH OI —Woods Hole Oce anogra ph ic Inst it u t ion



A p p e n d i x H

Convers ion Table and Glossary

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

Convers ion Table for Dis tances , Areas , Volumes , and Weight s

inch = 2.54 centimeters

square inch = 6.45 square cent imeters

cubic inch = 16.39 cubic centimeters

centimeter = 0.39 inches

square centimeter = O. 15 square inches

cubic centimeter = 0.06 cubic inches

foot = 0.30 meters

square foot = 0.09 square meters

cubic foot = 0.03 cubic meters

meter = 3.28 feet

square meter = 10.76 square feet

cubic meter = 35.31 cubic feet

ya rd = .91 met er s

square yard = 0.84 square meters

cubic yard = 0.76 cubic meters

meter = 1.09 yards

square meter = 1.20 square yards

cubic meter = 1.31 cubic yards

Gl o s s a r y

Abyssal Plain: A flat region of the deep ocean floor.

Acid-Grade Phosphate Rock: Phosphate rock that canbe used d irectly in fert ilizer plan ts. A compara tively

pure grade of phosphate r ock th at a ssays at 31 per-

cent phosphorous p entoxide (P 2O5), an d is also called

“fertilizer-grade” rock.

Acoustic: Of or relating to sounds or to the science of

sounds. Active Margin: The leading edge of a continental plate

characterized by coastal volcanic mountain ranges,

frequent earth quake activity, and relatively narr ow

continental shelves.

Alluvial Deposits: Secondary deposits derived from thefragmentation and concentration of chromite minerals

from primary stratiform or podiform deposits. Allu-

vial deposits are either placers, e.g., beach sands

which occur in Oregon and stream sand deposits in

the east ern St ates, or laterites, which occur in north-

west California an d south western Oregon.

Anatase: One of two major crystalline modifications of

titanium dioxide (TiO 2), the other being rutile.

Argon-Oxygen-Decarburization (AOD); Vacuum-Oxygen-Decarbur izat ion (VOD): Processes for

removing carbon from molten steel without oxidiz-

ing large a mount s of valua ble alloying elements, espe-

cially chromium. AOD and VOD enable the use of

lower gr ade, lower cost high-car bon ferrochromium.

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

are = 100 squar e meters = 119.6 square yards

statute mile = 0.86 nautical miles

square statute mile= 0.74 square nautical miles

statute mile = 1.61 kilometers

square statute mile = 2.59 square kilometers

nautical mile = 1.16 statute miles

square na utical mile = 1.35 square statute miles

nautical mile = 1.85 kilometers

square nautical mile = 3.43 square kilometers

kilometer = 0.62 stat ute miles

square ki lometer = 0.39 square statute miles

kilometer = 0.54 nautical milessquare kilometer = 0.29 square nautical miles

short ton = 2000 pounds = 0.91 metric tons

long ton = 2240 pounds = 1.02 metric tons

metric ton = 1.10 short t ons = 0.98 long tons

Attenuation: A reduction in the amplitude or energy

of a seismic or sonar signal, such as produced by

divergence, reflection and scattering, and absorption.

Barrier Island: A long, narrow, wave-built sandy island

parallel to the shore and separated from the main-

land by a lagoon.

Bathymetry: The measurement of depths of water in

th e oceans . Also, the informat ion d erived from such

measurements .

B e n e f i c i a t i on -G r a d e P h o s p h a t e R o c k : Phosphate rock tha t a ssays at 10 to 18 percent ph osphorous pentox-

ide (P 2O5) and requires the removal of hydrocarbons

an d other im pur ities before processing in a chemical

plant. It m ay be upgraded to acid grade or furna ce

feed quality.

Beneficiation: Impr ovement of th e grade of ore by mill-

ing, flotation, gravi ty concentrat ion, or other

processes.

Benthos: the a nimals living at t he bottom of the sea.

Bioassay: a method for semi-quan titatively measu ring

th e effect of a given concent ra tion of a subst an ce on

the growth of a living organism.

Biomass: The amount of living matter in a community

or population of a single species. (It may be meas-ured either by wet, dry, or ash-free [burned] weight. )

Calcium Phosphate: Any of the calcium orth ophospha tes

that may be used for fertilizers, plastics stabilizers,

pharmaceuticals, animal feeds, and toothpastes. They

include acid calcium phospha te, calcium dihydrogen

332



App. H—Conversion Table and Glossary q 333

phosphate, monobasic calcium phosphate, monocal-

cium phosphate, and tricalcium phosphate.

Cephalopods: Marine m ollusks including squids, octo-

puses, and Nautilus.

C h r o m i c O x i d e : A dark green a morphous powder tha t

is insoluble in water or acids. Also known as chrome

green. It is commonly used as a standard measure

of chromium content in chromite.Chromite: An iron-chromic oxide (chrome iron ore). A

mineral of the spinel group, and the only mineral

mined for chromium. ‘‘Chromite " is used synony-mously for chromium ore and concentrates madefrom the ore used in commercial trade. When refer-

ring to the spinel mineral chromite, it is referred to

a s ‘‘chromite mineral.

Conductivity: The ratio of electric current density to

the electr ic field in a m at erial; the reciprocal of resis-

tivity.

Contin ental rise: That part of the continental marginthat is between th e continenta l slope and the a byssal

plain except in areas of an oceanic trench.

Continental S helf: The part of the continenta l margintha t is between th e shore and th e continental slope

and is characterized by its very gentle slope.

Continental Slope: The relatively steeply sloping part

of the continental margin that is between the con-

tinental sh elf and the continent al rise.

Crustacean: Jointed animals with hard shells. This

group includes crabs, shrimp, lobsters, and barnacles.

Deposit-Feeder: An animal that feeds on particulate

matter deposited on the seafloor.

Detritus: Particulate matter resulting from the degener-

ation and decay of organisms or inorganic substances

in nature.

Diversity: a measu re of the n umbers an d kinds of spe-

cies found in a part icular area. Dredging: The various processes by which large float-

ing machines, or dr edges, excavate ear th mat erial at

th e bottom of a body of water , raise it t o the su rface,

an d discharge it in to a hopper, pipeline, or ba rge, orreturn it to the water body after removal of ore

minerals.

Electrolytic Manganese Metal: A relatively pure form

of metal produced by the deposition of a metal on the

cathode by passing an electric current through a

chemical solution of manganous sulfate; at the same

time electrolytic man ganese dioxide (MnO2) is form ed

at the anode.

Fauna: th e anima l life cha ra cteristic of a part icular envi-

ronment or region.Ferrochromium: A crude ferroalloy cont aining chro-

mium that is an intermediate iron-chromic product

used in t he ma nufacture of chromium st eel.

Ferromangan ese Crusts: Crusts of iron and m anganese

oxides enriched in cobalt that are found on the flanks

of seamounts, ridges, and other raised areas of ocean

floor in the central Pacific.

Ferromanganese Nodules: Concretions of iron and man-

ganese oxides containin g copper, n ickel, cobalt, a nd

other metals th at a re found in deep ocean basins an d

in some shallower areas of the oceanfloor.Ferrom anga nese: A ferr oalloy cont aining a bout 80 p er-

cent ma nganese and used in steelmaking. There arethree grades: (1) High-Carbon (Standard)—74 to 82

percent manganese; (2) Medium-carbon—80 to 85

percent manganese; and (3) Low-carbon—80 to 90

percent m anganese.

Filter-Feeder: an animal that feeds on minute organ-isms suspended in th e water column by u sing some

screening and capturing (filtering) mechanism.

Flotation Separation: A meth od of concentr at ing ore

that employs the principles of interracial chemistry

tha t separa tes the useful minerals in the ore from the

waste by adding rea gents or oils to a wat er slur ry mix-

tu re of fine p ar ticles of ore a nd collecting t he u sefulportion th at “floats” to the su rface in association with

the oil or reagent.Full Alloy Steel: Those steels may contain between one-

half percent to nine percent chromium, but more

commonly contain between one and four percent.

Chromium is used to impart hardness.

Furnace-Grade Phosphate Rock: Phosphate rock thatassays at 18 to 28 percent phosphorous pentoxide(P 2O 5) , I t m a y b e c h a r g e d d i r e c t l y t o e l e c t r i c f u r n a c e s

t o p r o d u c e s l a g a n d f e r r o p h o s p h o r u s a s b y p r o d u c t s

a n d v o l a t i l i z e d e l e m e n t a l p h o s p h o r u s a s t h e p r i m a r y

p r o d u c t .

Gangue: The nonmetalliferous or nonvaluable metal-

liferous minerals in an ore.Geomagnetic: Pertaining to the magnetic field of the

earth .Geophysics: Study of the earth by quantitative physi-

cal methods (e. g., electric, gravity, magnetic, seis-

mic, or thermal techniques).

Grade: The relative quantity or weight percentage of ore-mineral content in an orebody.

Gradiometry: Measurement of the difference in the

magn etic or gravity field between two points, ra th er

tha n t he total field at an y given point.

Gravity Anomaly: The difference between t he observed

value of gravity at a point and the theoretically cal-

culated value. E xcess observed gravity is positive an d

deficient observed gravity is negative. Hadfield Man ganese S teel: A steel cont ainin g 10 t o 14

percent manganese; resistant t o shock an d wear. Ilmenite: A black, opaque min era l consisting of impu re

FeTiO 3 that is the principal ore of titanium.

Interferometry: The precise measurement of wave-

length, very small distances and thicknesses, etc.

through the separation of light (by means of a sys-




tern of mirrors and glass plates) into two parts t hat

travel unequal optical paths and when reunited con-

sequently interfere with each other.

Invertebrate: an an imal lacking a backbone an d an in-

ternal skeleton.

Kroll Process: A redu ction process for th e pr oduction

principally of titanium metal sponge from titanium

tetra chloride by molten magnesium metal. Larvae: free-living inmature forms that have developed

from a fertilized egg but must undergo a series of

shape a nd size chan ges before assuming th e charac-

teristic features of the adult organism.

Laterite: Weathered material composed principally of

the oxides of iron, aluminum , titanium, m angan ese,nickel and chromium. Laterite may range from soil-

like porous material to hard rock.

Leucoxene: A mineral assemblage of intermediate tita-

nium dioxide (TiO2) content composed of rutile with

some anatase or sphene. Usually an alteration prod-

uct of ilmenite, with the iron oxide content having

been reduced by weathering.

Macrofauna: animals barely large enough to be visibleto the n aked eye and not likely to be photographed

from a meter or two. Average body length might be

about 1 mm.

Magnetic Anomaly: The difference between the inten-

sity of the magn etic field at a point an d th e theoreti-

cally calculated value. Anomalies are interpreted as

to the depth, size, shape, and magnetization of geo-

logic features causing them.

Manganese Ore: Those ores containing 35 percent or

more manganese.

Manganese Dioxide: Mn O 2, a black, crystalline, water-

insoluble compound used in dry-cell batteries, as acatalyst, a nd in dyeing t extiles. Also known a s ‘‘bat-

te ry manganese . Manganiferous Ore: Any ore important for its man-

ganese content containing less tha n 35 percent m an-

ganese but not less than 5 percent. There a two types

of manganiferous ore: (1) ‘‘Ferruginous ore"--con-

ta ining 10 to 35 percent m an ganese; and (2) "‘Man -

ganiferous iron ore”—containing 5 to 10 percentmanganese.

Mining: The process of extracting metallic or nonmetal-

lic mineral deposits from the earth. The process may

also include preliminary treatment, such as cleaning

or sizing.

Mollusk: a division of the animal kingdom containing

clam s, mu ssels, oysters, sn ails, octopuses, a nd squids;

they are characterized by an organ that secretes ashell.

Nekton: Free-swimming aquatic animals.

Neutron Activation: Bombardment of a material by

high-energy neutrons which transmute natural ele-

ments to gamma-ray-emitting isotopes of character-

istic identity.

Ore: The naturally occurring material from which a

mineral or minerals of economic value can be ex-

tra cted at a r easonable profit.

Overburden: Loose or consolidated rock material that

overlies a mineral deposit and must be removed prior

to mining.P2O

5: Phosphorus pentoxide, the standa rd u sed to meas-

ure phosphorus content in ores and products.

Passive Margin: The trailing edge of a continent locatedwithin a crusta l plate at th e tran sition between con-

tinental and oceanic crust and characterized by its

lack of significant volcanic and seismic activity.

Pelagic: pertaining to the open ocean.

Perovskite: A na tu ra l, complex, yellow, brown ish-yel-low, reddish, brown, or black calcium-titanium ox-

ide mineral.

Phosphate Rock: Igneous rock that contains one or more

phosphorus-bearing minerals, e.g. phosphorite, of

sufficient purity and quantity to permit its commer-

cial use as a source of phosphatic compounds orelemental phosphorus.

Phosphorite: A sedimentary rock with a high enough

cont ent of phospha te m inera ls to be of economic in-

terest. Most commonly it is a bedded primary or re-

worked secondary marine rock composed of micro-

crystalline carbonate fluorapatite in the form of layers,

pellets, nodules, and skeleta l, shell, and bone fragments.

Phylogeny: th e evolutionar y or an cestr al hist ory of organisms.

Phytoplankton: the plant forms of plankton.

Placer: Concentrations of heavy detrital minerals th at

are resistant to chemical and physical processes of weathering.

Placer: A mineral deposit formed by mechanical con-centration of mineral particles from weathered debris.

The mineral concentra ted is usua lly a h eavy mineral

such as gold, cassiterite, or rutile.

Plankton: passively floating or weakly motile aquatic

plants and animals.

Plate Tectonics: A model to explain global tectonics

wherein th e Ear th’s outer sh ell is ma de up of gigan-

tic plates composed of both cont inent al a nd oceaniclithosphere (crust and upper mantle) that “float” on

some viscous underlayer in the mantle and move

more or less independently, slowly grinding against

each other while propelled from the r ear by seafloor

spreading.

Podiform-Type Deposits: Primar y chromite mineral de-posits that are irregularly formed as lenticular, ta bu-lar, or pod shapes. Because of their irregular n atur e,

podiform deposits are difficult to locate and evalu-

ate. Most podiform deposits are high in chromium,



App. H—Conversion Table and Glossary q 335

and are the only source of high-aluminum chromite.

In t he Un ited States, they occur mostly on t he Pa -

cific Coast in California and Alaska.

Polychaete: a class of segmented marine worms.Polymetallic Sulfide: A popular term used to describe

the suites of intimately associated sulfide minerals that

have been found in spreading centers on t he ocean

floor.Primary Productivity: the amount of organic matter

synthesized from inorganic substances in a given area

or a measured amount of time (e. g., gm/m2 /yr).

Processing: The series of steps by which raw material

(ore) is transformed into intermediate or final mineral

products. The number and type of steps involved in

a particular process may vary considerably depend-

ing on the characteristics of the ore and the end prod-

uct or products to be extracted from the ore.

Pycnocline: a vertical gradient in th e ocean wh ere den-

sity changes rapidly.

Pyrolus i te: A soft iron-black or dark steel-gray

tetragonal mineral composed of manganese dioxide

(MnO 2). It is the m ost importan t ore of manganese. Reconnaissance: A genera l, explora tory examin ation or

sur vey of the main feat ur es of a region, usu ally pre-

liminary to a more detailed survey.

Refractory: A material of high melting point, possess-

ing the property of heat resistance.

Remote Sensing: The collection of information about

an object by a recording device that is not in physi-

cal contact with it. The term is usually restricted to

mean meth ods that record r eflected or rad iated elec-

tromagnetic energy, rath er th an methods that involvesignificant penetrat ion int o the eart h.

Resistivity: The electr ical r esistan ce offered by a mat e-rial to the flow of current, times the cross-sectional

area of current flow and per unit length of curr entpath; the reciprocal of conductivity.

Resolution: A measu re of th e ability of geophysical in-

struments, or of remote-sensing systems, to defineclosely spa ced t argets .

Rhodochrosite: A rose-red or pink to gray rhombohedral

mineral of the calcite group: MnCO 3. It is a minor

ore of manganese.

Rhodoni te: A pink or brown mineral of si l icate-

manganese: MnSiO3.

Rutile: Occurs na tur ally as a reddish-brown, tetr agonalm i n e r a l c o m p o s e d o f i m p u r e t i t a n i u m d i o x i d e ( T i O 2) ;

c om m o n i n a c i d r o c k s , s om e t i m e s f o u n d i n b e a c h

s a n d s .

Seafloor S preading Center: A rift zone on the ocean floorwhere two plates are moving apar t an d new oceanic

crust is forming.

Seamount: A seafloor mountain generally formed as asubmarine volcano.

Seismic Reflection: The ma pping of seismic energy th at

has bounced off impedence layers within the earth.

Seismic Refraction: The transport of seismic energy

through rock and along impedence layers.

Silicomanganese: A cru de alloy made u p of 65 to 70 per-

cent ma nganese, 16 to 25 percent silicon, and 1 to

2.5 percent carbon; used in the manufacture of low-

carbon steel.

Sonar: Sonic ener gy boun ced off distan t objects u nder -water t o locate a nd ra nge on th em, just a s rada r does

with microwaves in air.

S tainless Steel: Steel with exceptional corrosion and ox-

idation resistance, usually containing between 12 and36 percent chromium. Chromium contents of 12 per-

cent are required to be corrosion resistant. Some low-

chromium stainless steels are produced (nine percent

to 12 percent), but chromium content averages about

17 percent.

S tratiform Deposits: Primar y chromite m ineral depos-

its tha t occur as un iform layers up t o several feet thick similar to coalbeds. Str at iform deposits gener ally con-

tain chromite with low chromium-iron ratio, are com-

para tively uniform an d extend over lar ge areas. The

chromite occurrences in the Stillwater Complex in

Montana are characteristic of stratiform deposits.

Stratigraphy: Study of the order of rock strata, their age

and form as well as their distribution and lithology.

Substrate: 1) The substa nce on or in which an organ-ism lives and grows, 2) The un derlying mat erial (e. g.,

basalt) to which cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts are

cemented.

Succession: the gradual process of community change

brought about by the esta blishment of new popula-

tions of species which eventually replace the originalinhabitants.

Superphosphate: One of the most importa nt phospho-

rus fertilizers, derived by action of sulfuric acid on

phosphate r ock. Ordinary superphosphate contains

about 18 to 20 percent phosphorous pentoxide (P 2O 5).

Triple superphosphate is enriched in phosphorus (44

percent to 46 percent P 2O5) and is manu factur ed bytreating superphosphate with ph osphoric acid.

Synthetic Rutile: Rutile substitutes made from high-

grade ilmenites by va rious combinat ions of oxidation-

reduction a nd leaching treatm ents t o remove the bulk

of the iron.

Taxonomy: classification of organisms into groups re-

flecting their similarity and differences (Kingdom,

Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species).

Thermocline: a gradient in the ocean where tempera-tur e changes rapidly.

Titanium Dioxide Pigment: A white, water-insoluble

powder composed of relatively pure titanium dioxide(TiO 2) produced commercially from TiO 2 minera l s




ilmenite and rutile (both rutile and anatase ‘‘grades’ T r a n s p o n d e r : A radio or radar device that upon receiv-

are manufactured). ing a designat ed signal emits a signal of its own. Used

T i t a n i u m S l a g : High t itan ium dioxide (TiO2) slag made for detection, identification, and location of objects,

by e le ct r ic fu rna ce smelt ing of ilmen it e wit h ca rbon , a s on t he s ea floor .

wherein a lar ge fraction of the iron oxide is reduced Turbidity: cloudiness in water due to the presence of

to a saleable iron metal product. suspended matter.

Titanium Sponge: The primar y metal form of titanium Zooplankton: animal forms of plankton.

obtained by reduction of titanium tetrachloride va-por with magnesium or sodium metal. It is called

sponge because of its appearance and high porosity.



I n d e x



I n d e x

Ad Hoc Working Group on the EEZ, recommendations: 29

airlift systems: 19, 176-177

Albania: 87

Alvin: 145, 148, 151-152, 161, 245

AMAX Nickel Refining Co.: 89

Ambrose Channel: 231, 290

Amdril: 156-157American Samoa: 293, 298

Analytical Services, Inc.: 159

andesites: 57

Anti-Turbidity Overflow System: 236

Arctic Research and Policy Act: 26

Arctic Research Commission: 26

ASARCO: 200

assistance to States: 34, 291

legislative: 34, 291

State-Federal Task Forces: 34, 291

Associated Minerals (U.S.A.): 105, 193

Association of American State Geologists: 267

at-sea mineral processing technology: 167, 185-192Australia: 96, 99, 104, 174, 307, 317

mining laws: 307-309

Baffin Island: 161

barrier islands: 47

bathymetric data: 17, 22, 23, 132

general: 17, 132

security classification: 22, 23

Bathymetric Swath Survey System: 122, 128, 131, 256,

268

bathymetric systems: 124-131

airborne electromagnetic bathymetry: 130

Bathymetric Swath Survey System: 122, 128, 131, 256,

268

Canadian Hydrographic Service: 130

charts: 124, 128

deep-water systems: 126-128

G e n e r a l I n s t r u m e n t C o r p . : 1 2 6 , 1 2 8Hydrochar t : 128 , 256

Larson 500: 130

laser systems: 128

passive multispectral scanner: 130

Sea Beam: 122, 123, 126-128, 131, 256, 276

seafloor mapping: 126, 131-132

shallow-water systems: 128-131

Sonar Array Sounding System: 126, 128, 132

synthetic aperture radar: 130

WRELADS: 130

beach erosion: 224

Becker Hammer Drill: 156-158

Bedford Institution of Oceanography: 161

benthic communities: 20

benthic environmental effects: 215, 223, 226-227, 243,

245 BIMA dredge: 169, 171, 200

Bone Valley Formation: 53, 56

borehole mining: 19

Botswana: 96

Brazil: 39, 41, 91, 94, 171

Brown & Root: 182

California Cooperative Fisheries Investigations: 262

Canada: 13, 39, 45, 49, 51, 65, 96, 98, 99, 102, 104,

218, 309, 317

mining laws: 309Center for Applied Isotope Studies: 144

Challenger, HMS: 158

Challenger, space shuttle: 149

charting: 254-256

funding: 254

GLORIA program: 254-255

Chile: 98

chromite sands, seabed mining scenario: 196-199

at-sea processing: 197

costs: 198

location and description: 196, 197

mining technology: 197

operation: 198

profitability: 199

chromium, commodities: 91-93

demand and technological trends: 93

domestic production: 92

domestic resources and reserves: 91

foreign sources: 91

properties and uses: 90, 91

stockpile: 92

Clarion Fracture Zone: 122

Clipperton Fracture Zone: 122

coastal erosion, effects of dredging: 21

coastal plain: 42, 51, 52

Coastal States Organization (CSO): 34

Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA): 34

coastline alteration: 218, 224

cobalt, commodities: 89, 90


domes t ic p roduc t ion : 90foreign sources: 89, 90

prices: 90

properties and uses: 89

stockpile: 89

substitutes: 89

Cobalt Crust Draft Environmental Impact Statement:

215, 240

cobalt crust mining: 182-183

cobalt crust mining, environmental effects: 240-244

plume effects: 240-242

temperature effects: 242

threatened and endangered species: 243

cobalt crust sampling: 158-160

and deepsea dredges: 159

bulk sampling: 160

measuring crust thickness: 159

quantitative sampling: 159

reconnaissance sampling: 159-160

Colombia: 96, 103, 171

commercial potential , marine minerals: 13, 17, 19, 81

33 9




common depth point seismic data: 264consumption, mineral commodities: 82, 83

general: 82nickel: 83platinum-group metals: 83t i tanium: 83

cont inen ta l: 3, 7, 41, 42, 45, 47, 49, 50, 52, 57-59drift: 3

margins: 41sea: 41, 42sh elf: 7, 45, 47, 49, 50, 52, 57, 58, 59slope: 57

continuous casting, steel: 89continuous seafloor sediment sampler: 144, 149, 151Convention on the Continental Shelf: 29copper, commodities:

demand and technological trends: 98domestic production: 98properties and u ses: 97resources and reserves: 98

coring devices: 118, 155-158box core: 156costs: 158impact corers: 155

vibracores: 154, 155, 157, 158Cross Seamount: 242-243

dacites: 57dat a class ificat ion: 139, 268-277

an d Navy: 272, 275an d NOAA: 272, 275and ocean mining interests: 273costs to scientific and commercial interests: 273foreign policy implications: 275risks to national security: 270-272

data collection and management: 21, 23, 32, 250-268academic and private laboratories: 267const ra ints: 251-254Department of the Interior: 263-265

indust ry: 267-268missing components: 252NASA: 265-266Navy: 266-267NOAA: 256-263State and local governments: 267

Deep Ocean Mining Environmental Study: 215, 236-242and manganese nodule recovery: 236-237objectives: 237recommendations for future research: 240

deep sea mining environmental impacts: 237-238

Deep Sea Drilling Project: 137

Deep Seabed Hard Mineral Resources Act: 29, 237,

305-306

deep submergence laboratory: 152

Deep Tow: 124, 149deep water environmental effects: 218, 226, 236-245

Deepsea Ventures: 159

Defense Production Act: 92

deltas: 42, 54, 55

Department of the Interior: 22, 56, 182

diorite intrusive: 58

direct curren t r esistivity: 140-141

Dominican Republic: 96

downhole sampling: 162

drag sampling: 155

Dredge Material Research

215

dredge mining technology,

dredge mining technology,capacities: 171

capital costs: 171

limitations: 171

operating costs: 171

operating depths: 171



174-175

capabilities: 175

capital costs: 175

description: 174

Program, Corps of Engineers:

air lift suction: 176

bucket ladder-bucket line: 171

bucket wheel suction: 176

cutter head suction dredge:

dredge mining technologies, general: 18

dredge mining technology, grab dredge: 177

dredge mining technology, hopper dredge: 173-174

capabilities: 174

capacities: 173

capital costs: 174

description: 173

dredge mining technology, new developments and trends:

179-180increasing operating depth: 180

motion compensation, stability: 179

dredge mining technology, suction dredge: 172-173

capacities: 172

components: 172

limitations: 172

price and costs: 173

types: 172

dredges, environmental impacts: 233-234

drill ships: 18

drilling, percussion: 156-157Amdril: 156-157

Becker Hammer Drill: 156-158

vibralift: 157

E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., Inc.: 105, 193

ECHO I, expedition: 239

ecological: 20, 21

deep-sea communities: 21

information: 20

East-West Center: 73, 74

electrical techniques: 139-143

direct current resistivity: 140-141

electromagnetic methods: 140

horizontal electric dipole: 140

induced polarization: 141-143

induced polarization and ti tanium minerals: 142

induced polarization for core analysis: 143

M O S E S : 1 4 0

reconnaissance induced polarization: 141

self-potential: 141



Index q 3 41

spectral induced polarization: 142

spontaneous polarization: 141

transient electromagnetic method: 140

vertical electric dipole: 140

electromagnetic methods: 140

endangered species: 243

Endangered Species Act of 1973: 243

Energy Security Act of 1980, Title VII: 26

environmental effects: 20, 110, 215, 218, 222-223,

226-245

benthic effects: 215, 223, 226-227, 243, 245

deep water effects: 218, 226, 236-245

mid-water effects: 215, 222-223, 226

plume effects: 222, 226, 234, 239, 240-241

shallow water effects: 218, 226, 227-236

surface effects: 215, 222, 226

environmental impact statements: 215, 218, 240, 244

Cobalt Crust Draft Environmental Impact Statement:

215

Gorda Ridge Draft Environmental Impact Statement:

215, 244

Manganese Crust EIS Project: 240

environmental monitoring: 20, 21, 228-230, 237

Environmental Studies Program: 219, 264Escanaba Trough: 162

exploration: 8, 22-28, 31

budget planning and coordination: 23, 27, 28

costs: 25

general: 8, 22

pre-lease prospecting rules, proposed: 31

private sector: 24

State programs: 26

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ): 3, 4, 5, 7, 10, 23, 29,

41, 42, 45, 47, 49, 51, 52, 55, 57, 58, 61, 64, 65,

70, 74, 169, 199, 249, 275, 292

Federal Interagency Arctic Research Policy Committee:

26

Federal Republic of Germany: 105, 317mining laws: 310-311

ferromanganese crusts, seabed mining technology: 182Finland: 96

fish, effects of mining on: 231-233, 242,245

France: 94, 317


Frasch process: 183

Gabon: 94

Galapagos Rift: 63garnet, commodities: 112

General Instrument Corp.: 256

geochemical techniques: 143-145

dissolved manganese: 143

helium-3: 143

hydrothermal discharges: 143

light scattering measurements: 143

methane: 143

particulate metals: 143

radon-222: 143

SLEUTH: 143-144

temperature: 143

thermal conductivity: 143

water sampling: 143-144

geographic locations, United States:

Alabama: 282, 291

Alaska: 12, 16, 24, 40, 41, 56, 65, 67, 68, 100, 103,

128, 138, 169, 171, 177, 192

Alaska Peninsula: 66, 68

Aleutian Islands (AK): 41, 66

A m b r o s e C h a n n e l : 2 3 1 , 2 9 0

A m e r i c a n S a m o a : 2 9 3 , 2 9 8

A p p a l a c h i a n M o u n t a i n s : 4 9 , 5 0

Atlantic coast: 45

Atlantic Ocean: 43

Baker Island: 292

B a l t i m o r e C a n y o n : 4 3

Beaufort Sea: 41, 67, 69, 122, 253

Bering Sea: 12, 40, 66, 67, 68, 69, 122, 138

Blake Plateau: 12, 24, 45, 53, 94

Brooks Range (AK): 67

California: 12, 41, 42, 56, 57, 58, 60, 65, 122, 138,

281, 282, 291

California Borderland: 61

C a p e F a r r e l o ( O R ) : 6 0

Cape Mendoc ino (CA): 57

Cape Prince of Wales (AK): 67, 69

C a s c a d e M o u n t a i n s : 4 1 , 5 8

Chagvan Bay (AK): 69

Chesapeake Bay: 51, 52, 224, 290

Chukchi Sea: 67, 69, 122

Columbia R iver : 57 , 60 , 291

Colville River: 67

Connec t icu t : 283 , 290

Cook In le t (AK): 67 , 68

Coqu i l le R iver (OR) : 60

C o r o n a d o B a n k : 6 1

Delaware: 281, 283, 290

Delaware River: 52

Delmarva Pen insu la : 47Dog Island (FL): 56

E s c a n a b a T r o u g h : 6 5

Florida: 12, 16, 41, 45, 53, 175, 281, 283, 290, 291

Forty Mile Bank: 61

Galves ton (TX): 55

Georges Bank: 45, 46, 52

Georgia: 45, 49, 53, 281, 284, 290

Goodnews Bay (AK): 12 , 68

Gorda Ridge: 12, 29, 42, 57, 61, 64, 65, 244-245, 291

Grand I s le , (LA) : 218 , 224

Gray’s Harbor (WA): 57 , 60

Guam: 292 , 293 , 296 , 298

Gulf of Alaska: 40, 65, 67, 69

Gulf of Mexico: 42, 55, 56, 122, 138, 183, 253

Hawaii: 43, 69, 95, 122, 182, 284, 290, 291

Hawai ian Arch ipe lago : 72 , 240 , 243

Hoh R iver (WA): 60

H o w l a n d I s l a n d : 2 9 2

Jacksonville (FL): 53

James R iver (VA): 51

Johnston Island: 240, 243, 292




Kayak Islan d (AK): 67Kingman Reef: 292Klamath Mountains (CA, OR): 58, 59, 60Kodiak Island (AK): 67, 68Kusk okwim Mount ains (AK): 66, 69Long Island : 47, 50Louisian a: 55, 56, 281, 284, 291Maine: 45, 94, 281, 285

Maryland: 285Massachusetts: 12, 281, 285, 290Miami Ter ra ce (FL): 53Midway Island: 292Minnesota: 95, 103Mississippi: 41, 281, 286Mississippi River: 55, 56Montana: 103Monterey Bay (CA): 57Nant ucket Shoals: 45Necker Ridge (HI): 71New England: 51New Hampshire: 281, 286New J ersey: 12, 41, 47, 286, 290New York: 12, 41, 287, 290New York City (NY): 45

Nort h Ca rolina: 47, 52, 53, 192, 281, 287, 291Olympic Mountains (WA): 57, 58Onslow Bay (NC): 52, 53, 192Oregon : 12, 16, 40, 42, 57, 58, 59, 60, 97, 122, 244,

281, 287, 290, 291Osceola Basin (FL): 53Pa cific Mount ains (HI): 72Pacific Ocean: 41, 53, 63Palmyra Atoll: 292Penguin Bank (HI): 69Pescadero Point: 61Point Conception (CA): 56, 57, 58, 60Port land (OR): 57Prince of Wales Island (AK): 67Pu ert o Rico: 122, 291, 292, 294

Raritan River: 231Rhode Islan d: 288, 290Salmon River (AK): 69San Andreas Fault (CA): 56San Diego Bay: 57San Fr an cisco (CA): 57Santa Rosa Island (FL): 56Savannah River: 53Seattle (WA): 57Seward Peninsula (AK): 12, 67Smith Islan d (VA): 52South Carolina: 288S.P. Lee Seam ount : 72St. George Islan d (FL): 56Sur Knoll: 61Texas: 281, 288

Thirty Mile Bank: 61Trust Territories: 122, 295, 298Twin Knoll: 61Tybee Island (GA): 53, 192Vermont: 49

Virgin Islands: 122, 292, 293, 296, 298

Virginia: 281, 289, 290, 291

Wake Island: 292

Washington: 122, 281, 289, 290

Wisconsin: 100

Yakutat (AK): 67

Yukon River: 66

Geophysical Data System: 268

Ghana: 171glacial deposition: 46, 47

Global Marine, Inc.: 177

Global Positioning System: 128, 131-132, 137, 268

GLORIA: 116, 119-123, 128, 131, 249, 251, 254-255,

266

gold, commodities: 100, 101





gold placers, seabed mining scenario: 200-203


costs: 203

environmental effects: 203

location and description: 199, 203

mining technology: 200Gorda Ridge: 122

Draft Environmental Impact Statement: 215, 244

Gorda Ridge Task Force: 244-245, 291

government subsidies: 23

grab sampling: 118, 154, 155

gravity: 17, 138, 163

airborne gravimetry: 138

and navigation: 163

shipborne gravimeters: 17, 138

Great Lakes Dredge & Dock Co.: 199

Greece: 87

Green Cove Springs Deposit: 105

Guam: 292, 293, 296, 298

Guaymas Basin: 65

Hallsands (UK): 224

Hanna Mining Co.: 97

Harwell Laboratory: 144

Hawaii Institute of Geophysics: 122

Hawaii Undersea Research Laboratory: 244

High Energy Benthic Boundary Layer Experiment

(HEBBLE): 218

Hydrochart: 128, 256

hydrothermal activity: 42, 63, 64, 65

igneous rocks: 49

induced polarization: 18, 141-143

Inspiration Resources (Mines): 16, 40

Institute of Oceanographic Sciences: 119, 255

International Council for Exploration of the Sea: 215,

218, 227-228recommendations: 228

zones: 228

International Hydrographic Bureau: 123, 132

international law: 296



Index q 3 4 3

I n t e r n a t i o n a l S u b m a r i n e T e c h n o l o g y , L t d . : 1 2 2

International Tin Council: 85

Japan: 39, 41, 65, 105, 173, 174, 177, 317


J o h n C h a n c e A s s o c i a t e s : 1 2 3

Johnston Island: 17, 74, 182, 240, 243, 292

JOIDES Resolution: 160-161

Juan de Fuca Ridge: 12, 42, 57, 61, 63, 65, 122, 134,

140, 141, 143, 161

Kane Fracture Zone: 161

K i n g m a n - P a l m y r a I s l a n d s : 7 4 , 2 9 2

K e r r - M c G e e C h e m i c a l C o r p . : 1 0 6

Koken Bor ing & Mach ine Co . : 161

L a m o n t - D o h e r t y G e o l o g i c a l O b s e r v a t o r y : 2 6 , 1 2 2 , 1 3 1

L O R A N - C : 1 6 3 - 1 6 4

Louisiana Purchase: 115

mafic rocks: 57

magnetic anomalies: 59, 136, 137

magnetic profil ing: 118, 136-138

airborne surveys: 136

satell i te surveys: 136

ship-towed magnetometers: 137

sub-bottom profilers: 133

total f ield measurements: 137

m a g n e t o m e t e r s : 1 7 , 1 3 7

M a g n u s o n F i s h e r y C o n s e r v a t i o n a n d M a n a g e m e n t A c t o f

1976: 6

Malays ia : 171

m a n g a n e s e , c o m m o d i t i e s :



resources and reserves: 95

Manganese Crust EIS Project: 240

M a r c o n i U n d e r w a t e r S y s t e m s : 1 2 2

margins, continental: 42Marine Ecosystems Analysis Project: 262

M a r i n e P o l i c y a n d O c e a n M a n a g e m e n t C e n t e r : 2 7 3

materials: 13, 88

conserva t ion : 13 , 88

recycling: 13, 88

substitution: 13, 88

Materials Act of 1947: 305

metamorph ic rocks: 49

Mexico: 98, 99

Mid-Atlantic Rift Valley: 160

mid-water environmental effects: 215, 222-223, 226

heavy metals: 223, 226

particulate concentrations: 222, 226

mineral commodities:

chromium: 13, 14

cobalt: 13, 85, 88, 89

fe r rochromium: 14 , 15 , 86 , 87

ferromanganese: 14, 15, 86, 87, 94

lead: 13, 88

manganese: 13, 14, 88

markets: 8 , 17, 81

nickel: 13, 14, 88

phosphate rock: 14, 16, 19

platinum-group metals: 13, 88

steel: 14, 87

supply and demand: 8, 81, 87

tin: 13

titanium: 13, 88

titanium pigment: 14zinc: 13

mineral laws, United States: 300-306

Deep Seabed Hard Mineral Resources Act: 305-306

Materials Act of 1947: 305

Mineral Leasing Act for Acquired Land: 305

Mineral Leasing Act of 1920: 300-305

Mining Law of 1872: 300-304

Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act: 305

Surface Resources Act of 1955: 300-305

Mineral Leasing Act for Acquired Land: 305

Mineral Leasing Act of 1920: 300-305

mineral occurrences, general:

amber: 39

amphiboles: 49, 56, 58

cerium: 71

chromite: 12, 15, 39, 49, 58, 59, 60coal: 39

cobalt: 53, 71, 75

copper: 39, 53, 75

diamonds: 41, 49, 171

ferromanganese crusts: 10, 12, 16, 39, 53, 70, 71, 72,

73, 90, 96

ferromanganese nodules: 10, 12, 16, 39, 53, 63, 70, 72,

75, 81, 91

garnets: 49, 59, 60

gemstones: 39, 49

gold: 39, 40, 49, 50, 55, 58, 59, 68, 69, 171

heavy minerals: 8, 14, 15, 19, 49, 50, 51, 52, 55, 56,

59, 105, 174

ilmenite: 14, 15, 51, 56, 59

iron: 39, 312lead: 39, 71

lime: 39

magnetite: 18, 39, 59, 60

metalliferous muds: 39, 174

molybdenum: 71

monazite: 49, 55, 60, 308nickel: 53, 75

oil and gas: 18, 45

phosphorite: 10, 14, 15, 52, 53, 56, 61, 69, 308, 316

placers: 10, 12, 15, 18, 39, 40, 45, 48, 49, 50, 52, 54,

56, 57, 59, 60, 67, 68, 69,

platinum: 12, 49, 58, 60, 68, 171

polymetallic sulfides: 8, 10, 16, 19, 39, 45, 61, 62, 63,

65, 98, 100precious coral: 39

precious metals: 12, 39, 49, 50, 58, 59, 67

pyroxenes: 49, 56, 58

rhodium: 71

rutile: 15, 49, 51, 171, 308

salt: 43, 55

sand and gravel: 12, 16, 39, 45, 46, 47, 48, 52, 54, 55,




57, 67, 69, 174, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 315

shells: 39

silver: 65

staurolite: 39

sulfur: 43, 55

tin (cassiterites): 39, 49, 169, 171, 308, 314

titanium: 39, 49, 52, 60, 71

tourmaline: 49

vanadium: 71

zinc: 39, 63, 65, 71

zircon: 39, 49, 56, 59, 60, 308

mineral processing technologies: 20, 186-192

at-sea deployment: 185, 191, 192

at-sea v. onshore: 186

classifiers: 188

electrostatic separation: 190

flotation: 190

general: 20

gravity separation: 188

magnetic separation: 189, 190

shipboard processing: 20

trommel: 188

minerals industry, overcapacity: 8, 13

Minerals Management Service (MMS): 16, 22, 26, 29,31, 73, 136, 249, 253, 263

minerals, strategic and critical: 9

mining industry, state of: 85

Mining Law of 1872: 300-304

mining laws of other countries: 307-316

Australia: 307-309

Canada: 309

France: 309-310

Federal Republic of Germany: 310-311

Japan: 311-312

Netherlands: 312-313

New Zealand: 315, 318

Norway: 313

Thailand: 313-314

United Kingdom: 314-315miocene: 56

monazite, commodities: 112

monitoring, environmental: 20, 21, 228-230, 237

Morocco: 16, 85

multi-beam echo sounders: 22, 124-131, 249, 254, 276

National Academy of Sciences: 271

Naval Studies Board: 271

National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program: 26

National Advisory Committee on Oceans and

Atmosphere: 271

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA):

26, 265-266

Ames Research Center: 266

data handling problems: 266

NASA Science Internet: 265-266

National Space Science Data Center: 265

National Climatic Data Center: 263

National Defense Stockpile: 10, 87, 89, 92, 94, 96, 98,

99, 101, 102

National Environmental Satellite, Data and Information

System: 22

National Geophysical Data Center: 22, 32, 131, 136,

253-256, 259-261, 266, 273

data handling problems: 260, 261

Marine Geology and Geophysics Division: 259, 260

mission: 259

types of data held: 260, 261

National Governors Association (NGA): 34

National Marine Fisheries Service: 239, 257, 259

National Marine Pollution Information System: 262

National Marine Pollution Program: 27

National Materials Advisory Board (NMAB): 93

National Ocean Pollution Planning Act of 1978: 27

National Ocean Service (NOS): 23, 163-164, 254-257,

261, 266


(NOAA): 6, 17, 22, 25, 122, 128, 131-132, 136,

143-144, 218, 219, 230, 239, 237, 253-263

National Oceanographic Data Center: 22, 32, 253, 256,

261-263, 266

National Operations Security Advisory Committee: 270

National Science Foundation (NSF): 22, 26, 32, 253

Division of Ocean Sciences: 253, 267, 273Division of Polar Programs: 267

National Seabed Hard Minerals Act of 1987 (H. R. 1260):

29

National Security Council: 271, 275

Naval Ocean Research and Development Activity: 123,

130

Naval Oceanographic Office: 266

navigable waterways, dredging: 229

navigation: 162-164

ARGO: 163-164

circular error of position: 163

data classification: 268

Global Positioning System: 163-164, 268LORAN-C: 163-164

Mini-Ranger: 163Precise Positioning Service: 163

Raydist: 163-164

Standard Positioning Service: 164

Netherlands: 297, 317


neutron activation: 145

New Caledonia: 96

New England Offshore Mining Environmental Study:

215, 227, 229, 230

recommendations: 230

New York Harbor Sea Grant studies: 231

New Zealand: 167, 171, 315, 318

mining laws: 315, 318

nickel, commodities:





Nippon Kokan: 182

NORDCO: 161



Index q 3 4 5

North Sea, sand and gravel: 228

Northern Mariana Islands: 292, 295, 298

Norway: 89, 318

mining laws: 313

nuclear exploration techniques: 18, 118, 144-145

continuous seafloor sediment sampler: 144, 149, 151

cookie maker: 144

neutron activation: 145

X-ray fluorescence: 144

Ocean Assessment Division, NOAA: 263

Ocean Drilling Program: 137, 160

Ocean Mining Associates: 239

oceanic crust: 42, 45

Office for Research and Mapping in the Exclusive

Economic Zone: 252

Office of Energy and Marine Geology: 254, 255

Office of Management and Budget (OMB): 26

Office of Naval Research: 266Office of Oceanography and Marine Assessment, NOAA:

257

Office of Oceans and Atmospheric Research: 257

Office of Science and Technology Policy: 271

Office of Strategic and International Minerals, MMS: 263offshore mining technologies, transfer of oil and gas

technology: 185

optical imaging: 152-154

ANGUS: 152

Argo: 152-153

data transmission: 152-153

fiber optic cables: 152-153

Jason: 152-153

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC):

85

Outer Continental Shelf: 22, 56, 59

Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Assessment

Program: 262

Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act: 6, 23, 28, 263, 300,

305

Pacific Geosciences Center: 140

Pacific Islands, mineral occurrences: 95

Belau-Palau: 74

Federated States of Micronesia: 74

French Polynesia: 72

Guam: 74

Howland-Baker: 74

Jarvis: 74

Johnston Island: 17, 74, 182

Kingman-Palmyra Islands: 74

Marshall Islands: 72, 74

Samoa: 74

Wake Islands: 74

Pacific Ocean: 3, 12, 16

passive margins: 42peridotite deposits: 49

Peru: 98, 99

Philippines: 87

phosphate rock:




foreign competition: 108


phosphorite, Onslow Bay (NC), seabed mining scenario:

207-209

costs: 209

location and description: 207


processing technology: 207

profitability: 209

phosphorite, Tybee Island (GA), seabed mining scenario:

204-206


costs: 206

location and description: 204


processing technology: 205

profitability: 206

pigments: 91, 93, 96, 104, 107

chromium: 91, 93

nickel: 96

titanium: 104, 107

plate tectonics: 3, 43, 61, 69platinum-group metals, commodities: 102-103




foreign sources: 102


Pleistocene: 45, 46, 57, 65, 67

plume environmental effects: 222, 226, 234, 239, 240, 241

polymetallic sulfides, seabed mining technology: 160-162,

181-182

concepts: 181

conditions: 181

problems: 182

sampling: 160-162

positioning: 162-164Preussag AG: 182

prices, commodity: 83, 85

general: 83

nonmetallic: 85

speculation: 85

Puerto Rico: 122, 291, 292, 294, 298

Pungo River Formation: 52

radiometric dating: 71

Raritan River: 231

Reagan Proclamation (No. 5030): 5, 6, 275

reconnaissance surveys: 17, 18, 56reconnaissance technologies: 119-139

refractories: 93

remotely operated vehicle (ROV):

advantages and limitations: 146-148and hard mineral exploration: 151

and navigation: 163

ANGUS: 151

Argo: 152

capabilities: 149-151




comparison with manned submersibles: 146-148

costs: 148-149

Deep Tow: 149instrumentation: 146

Jason Junior: 151

needed technical developments: 151-152

Solo: 149

towed vehicles: 149-150

types: 146Republic of South Africa: 41, 85, 87, 91, 94, 102, 175

rift zone: 43, 63

S.P. Lee: 116-117, 245

sampling technologies: 12, 154-162

characteristics of: 154-155

crust sampling: 158-160

placer sampling: 154-158

polymetallic sulfide sampling: 160-162

representa tive sa mpling: 154-155

sand and gravel (see mineral occurrences, general):




seabed mining ventures: 199Sandy Hook Marine Laboratory: 231

satellites: 22

schist: 57

Scotian Shelf: 45

Scripps Institution of Oceanography: 26, 131, 132, 140,

263

Sea Beam: 122, 123, 126-128, 131, 268, 276

Sea Cliff: 245

Sea Grant: 215, 227, 229, 231, 257

data collection: 257

New York studies: 215, 227, 229, 231

seabed mining:

competitiveness: 15, 16, 17, 19, 167

economic potential: 8, 17

legislation: 23, 28, 30, 31

technology: 10, 15, 17, 181, 182

world: 39

SeaMARC systems: 122-124, 128, 132

seamounts: 42, 72, 74

seasonal environmental effects: 224, 226

sedimentary rocks: 45, 57, 58, 67

seismic reflection: 17, 22, 118, 132-136

chirp signals

profiles: 47, 56

sub-bottom profilers: 133

three-dimensional seismic surveying: 135

seismic refraction: 118, 132-136

self-potential: 141

shallow water environmental effects: 218, 226, 227-236

dredges and: 233-234

ICES: 228minimizing effects: 232-233

Shell Oil Co.: 200

ships, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration:

13 1Surveyor: 131, 268, 270

Discoverer: 131

Davidson: 131, 271

side-looking sonars: 17, 116, 119-124

Deep Tow: 124, 149

GLORIA atlas: 122

GLORIA: 116, 119-123, 128, 131

Interferometric systems: 123

long-range side-looking sonar: 116, 119-122

mid-range side-looking sonar: 118-119Mini-Image Processing System: 119

SeaMARC systems: 122-124, 128, 132

short-range side-looking sonar: 118-119, 124

Systeme Acoustique Remorque: 124

Sierra Leone: 104, 171

silt curtain: 235-236

site-specific technologies: 139-162

SLEUTH: 143-144

solution/borehole mining technology: 183

Sound Ocean Systems: 162

Southwest Africa: 169

sphalerite: 63

spontaneous polarization: 141

spreading centers, seafloor: 3, 41, 63, 64

State-Federal Task Forces: 34, 291State-owned or State-controlled minerals companies: 14,

86

State resource management: 281

strategic and critical minerals: 9, 88, 94, 96, 98, 101, 102

Strategic Assessment Branch, NOAA: 218, 219, 257

atlases: 221, 257

Strategic Petroleum Reserve/Brine Disposal Program: 262

Stillwater Complex: 92, 103

Stillwater Mining Co.: 103

subduction zone: 3, 41, 57

Submerged Lands Act of 1953: 4

submersibles, manned: 18, 145-152

advantages and limitations: 146-148

Alvin: 145, 148, 151, 152, 161

and hard mineral exploration: 151

battery-powered: 145capabilities: 149-151

comparison with remotely operated vehicles: 146-148

costs: 148-149

free-swimming: 145

Johnson-Sea-Link: 148

needed technical developments: 151-152

superalloys: 88, 91, 96

surface environmental effects: 215, 222, 226

Surface Resources Act of 1955: 300

tectonic processes: 41

territorial sea: 4

Territories, United States: 55, 292-299

tertiary sediments: 57, 58Texas A&M University: 123

Thailand: 169, 171, 318


Third World: 13

Titanic: 124, 151, 152, 154

Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier

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Transcript of Marine Minerals: Exploring Our New Ocean Frontier