Marine Biology Exam III Study Guide

8/9/2019 Marine Biology Exam III Study Guide

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Exam III Notes

Lecture 27: Rocky Intertidal Communities

• Main Questions to be answered in this section:! "hat are the main #hysical $actors in%uencin& community

structure'

2! "hat are the main biolo&ical $actors in%uencin& communitystructure'

(! )ow do #hysical and biolo&ical $actors interact to ex#lains#ecial and tem#oral *ariation in community structure'

+ ,hysical $actors in%uencin& the community structure o$ rockyintertidal communities

• "hat is the intertidal'o The intertidal is a

narrow strip of habitat

that lies between thehighest high tides andthe lowest low tides

o Readily accessible tomarine biolo&ists so it is thebest understood o$ marinecommunities

a+ -he e.ect o$ tides

− "hat makes the rocky intertidal an intertidal' /re*iew o$ tides!o

-ides are caused by the &ra*itational attractionbetween the Earth0 Moon0 and 1uno -idal cycles→ diurnal / hi&h tide and low tide #er

day!0 semidiurnal /2 hi&h tides and 2 low tides #er day!0or semidiurnal mixed tide /2 hi&h tides o$ di.erenthei&hts and 2 low tides o$ di.erent hei&hts #er day!

o Organisms alternately experience emersion andimmersion in seawater

− -he e.ect o$ the 1un on the tides

o Neap Tides → the &ra*itational e.ects o$ the Moon

and the 1un are at ri&ht an&les to each othero Spring Tides → the &ra*itational e.ects o$ the Moon

and the 1un are coincidin& with each other

− "hat are the challen&es o$ intertidal'o 3r&anisms alternately ex#erience emersion and

immersion in seawater



Exam III Notes

+ Desiccation stress: Intertidal or&anisms re&ularlyex#erience emersion0 and marine or&anisms tend to dryout when ex#osed to air

2+ Heat and salinity stress: Intertidal or&anismsex#erience &reater *ariation in tem#erature and salinity

than subtidal or&anisms(+ Restriction of feeding: Many intertidal or&anisms muststo# $eedin& when ex#osed to air0 which can ha*ene&ati*e 4tness conse5uences

b+ -he e.ect o$ wa*es

− "hat makes the rocky intertidal rocky'o Rocky shores usually occur on recently u#li$ted or

&eolo&ically youn& coasts6 ex+ -he west coast o$ the mericas is rocky

because its acti*e mar&in has been u#li$ted

o )awai8i and Iceland are rocky because la*a %ows arecreatin& new rocky shores

− Recall0 wa*es interact with the shore /re*iew!

o 9ee#water wa*es intermediate wa*es shallowwater wa*es

o s dee#water wa*es be&in to ;$eel< the bottom o$ theocean0 $riction increases /dee#water wa*es!

o Reduced s#eed and wa*elen&thcause increased wa*e hei&ht andstee#ness /intermediate wa*es!

o "hen wa*e a##roaches shallowwater and tends to break /shallowwater wa*es!

− Recall0 wa*es bend as they a##roachshore /re*iew!

o -he ener&y o$ wa*es re$racted o*er a shallowsubmer&ed rid&e is $ocused on the headland

o "a*es re$racted by shallow de#ths on each side o$ abay means less ener&y inside bay

− "hat are the challen&es o$ an intertidal'



Exam III Notes

o 3r&anisms ex#osed to breakin& wa*es and the materialthey carry

+ Abrasion: ,articles in sus#ension or %oatin& debrisscra#e delicate structures

2+ Pressre: -hey hydrostatic #ressure exerted by breakin&

wa*es can crush or dama&e delicate and com#ressiblestructures(+ Drag: s water %ows o*er rocks0 it exerts a directional

$orce on the or&anisms that can ri# them $rom theirlocation

+ =iolo&ical $actors in%uencin& the community structure o$ rockyintertidal communities+

a+ Adaption /recall0 natral selection generates adaptation!

− da#tions to desiccation

o 3r&anisms co#e with the #roblem o$ dryin& out in (basic ways:

+ =eha*ioral→ Rn and Hide2+ Mor#holo&ical→!lam p(+ ,hysiolo&ical→ Tolerate desiccation

− da#tions to heato 3r&anisms co#e with the #roblem o$ heat stress in (

basic ways:+ =eha*ioral→ Rn and Hide2+ Mor#holo&ical→ "ight color and ridges to

re#ect and reradiate heat(+ ,hysiolo&ical→ Tolerate heat $ia the se of

heat shoc% proteins

− da#tions to wa*e shock

o 3r&anisms co#e with the #roblem o$ wa*e shock in (basic ways:

+ =eha*ioral→ Holdfasts and byssal threads2+ Mor#holo&ical→ Thic%er shells and compact

shape

(+ ,hysiolo&ical→

&oing with the #ow

− Recall0 the s#ecies #oolo ,hysical0 chemical0 and biolo&ical $actors set limits on

the set o$ #ossible s#ecies that mi&ht be $ound in acommunity

,hysical $actors:



Exam III Notes

• -em#erature

• Li&ht Chemical $actors:

• 1alinity

• #)

=iolo&ical $actors:• 3ceanic basin

• ,hysiolo&ical tolerances

b+ !ompetition

− Com#etition $or s#aceo Rocky intertidal #o#ulations are o$ten limited by s#ace0

rather than $ood or nutrientso 1#ecies that are ca#able o$ o*er&rowin& or

undercuttin& others may come to dominate

− Ex#eriment conducted by >ose#h Connello ?irst to demonstrate the im#ortance o$ com#etition in

structurin& rocky intertidalso Ex#eriment in*ol*ed 2 barnacles:

! Chthamalus stellatus /dominates the u##ershore to mean hi&h tide!

2! Semibalanus balanoides /dominates the lowershore to mean low water!

o Connell selecti*ely remo*ed hy#othesi@ed com#etitorsand ca&ed areas to eliminate the e.ect o$ #redation

o st0 Connell demonstrated that the lar*ae o$ bothbarnacles s#ecies settle throu&hout the intertidal

o Connell trans#lanted Chthamalus downshore andBalanus u#shore0 and ca&ed areas to eliminate thee.ect o$ #redation

• Chthamalus trans#orted downshore wereo$ergrown and nderct by =alanus

• Balanus trans#orted u#shore died due to their#oor sur*i*al in the u##er intertidal

o Connell8s classic ex#eriments lead to the &eneral

conclusion that:• 'pper limit o$ an intertidal s#ecies is re&ulated

by #hysical $actors

• "ower limit o$ an intertidal s#ecies is re&ulatedby ecolo&ical $actors /ex+ Com#etition0 #redation!

o In this ex#eriment0 #hysical $actors set the u##er limiton the distribution o$ both s#ecies while com#etitionset the lower limit on the distribution o$ Chthamalus



Exam III Notes

o "hat sets the lower limit on the distribution o$Balanus'

c+ Predation

− "hat sets the lower limit on the distribution o$ Balanus'

o ,redation by do& whelks sets the lower limit on thedistribution o$ Balanus

o -he u##er limit o$ #redation is set by the #hysiolo&icallimits o$ the #redator

− Ex#eriment conducted by Robert ,aineo ?irst to demonstrate the im#ortance o$ #redation in

structurin& rocky intertidalso Ex#eriment in*ol*ed two ty#es o$ or&anisms:

! Mytilus californianus /mussels common in themiddle intertidal!

2! Pisaster ochraceus /carni*orous sea star that#reys on mussels!

o ,aine remo*ed the carni*orous sea star and examinedthe e.ects

-he community shi$ted $rom a community with

many di.erent s#ecies0 to a communitycom#letely dominated by mussels

o ,aine8s classic ex#eriments lead to the &eneralconclusion that:

Predation delays the displacement of

wea%er competitors by strongercompetitorso ,aine8s classic ex#eriments rein$orced Connell8s

&eneral conclusion that the lower limit o$ an intertidals#ecies is re&ulated by ecolo&ical $actors /ex+com#etition and #redation!

+ 1#atial and tem#oral #atterns o$ community structure o$ rockyintertidal communities+



Exam III Notes

+ (onation

− Rocky shores exhibit $ertical )onationo Most rocky shores ha*e a distinct #attern o$ *ertical

@onation /species composition changes $ertically!o A##er limit o$ a s#ecies is re&ulated by abiotic

factors and lower limit is set by speciesinteractions

o s s#ecies come and &o o*er the ran&e o$ theintertidal0 the set o$ s#ecies #resent at any one #art o$the intertidal *aries

− Beneral causes o$ *ertical @onationo Consider the case o$ the barnicles: Chthamalus /&ray!

and Balanus /rock!

o t the u##er ed&e o$ their ran&es0 youn& barnacles dryout and die → the two s#ecies ha*e di.erent heat anddesiccation tolerances

o t the lower ed&e o$ their ran&e0 the Chthamalus areoutcom#eted by the =alanus → =alanus su.er#redation by do& whelks

− ariation in *ertical @onationo -he #attern o$ *ertical @onation *aries o*er s#ace

hori@ontally0 at both small and lar&e scales

Ex+ the #attern o$ @onation *aries $rom rockyheadlands to rocky bays

2+ Sccession

− Rocky shores ha*e tem#oral succession



Exam III Notes

o Most rocky shores ha*e a distinct #attern o$ tem#oralsuccession /species composition changes throghtime following distrbances!

Ex+ #atches o$ bare rock can be o#ened u# by

wa*e action0 dri$tin& lo&s0 or scourin& ice →

when a #atch o$ s#ace is cleared0 new or&anismso$ten mo*e into the #atch and &et re#laced byother or&anisms in se5uence

− Beneral causes o$ tem#oral successiono In the rocky intertidal0 the 4rst sta&e in succession is

o$ten a thin 4lm o$ bacteriao -y#ical ecolo&ical succession:

=are rock →→ =acteria →

→ 1eaweeds →→ =arnacles →

→Musselso -he 4nal sta&e in succession is called the climax

commnity

− ariation in ecolo&ical successiono -he #attern o$ ecolo&ical succession can *ary due to:

+ Relati*e abundance o$ bacterial &ra@ers likelim#ets and chitons

2+ Relati*e abundance o$ di.erent lar*ae at timeo$ disturbance

(+ Relati*e si@e o$ the #atch created by thedisturbance

− Recall0 intermediate disturbance hy#othesiso Intermediate disturbance hy#othesis su&&ests that the

number o$ s#ecies will be hi&her at intermediate0rather than hi&h or low0 le*els o$ disturbance

(+ Alternati$e Stable States

− ,atches exist in alternate stable states

o common obser*ation on rocky shores is thecoexistence and #ersistence o$ lar&e #atches withdi.erent dominant s#ecies0 e*en when all o$ the s#aceis occu#ied

o -he landsca#e may be #atterned by @onation andsuccession0 but also maintained in alternate stablestates0 which de#end on 4rst coloni@ers $ollowin&disturbance



Exam III Notes

ex+ Relati*e abundance o$ Enteromorpha /&reen

al&ae! and Chondrus crispus /red al&ae! de#endson the #resence o$ Littorina /&ra@in& snail!

+

lternate stable states0 rather than a continuous

&radation o$ states0 may be common in ecolo&icalsystems

)a*in& arri*ed at one state may make it hard to

&o back to another state

I$ the #ool starts withLittorina, then Chondruscomes to dominate →

Chondrus does not hideCarcinus $rom &ulls→ crabsdon8t eat snails0 so the #oolremains $ull o$ snails

I$ a #ool starts with no

Littorina, then Enteromorpha

comes to dominate→

Enteromorpha hides Carcinus/crabs! $rom &ulls → crabs eatsnails0 so #ool remains snailless



Exam III Notes



Exam III Notes

Lecture 2D: Estuaries /Mud%ats0 Marshes0 and Man&ro*es!

• Main Questions to be answered in this section:! "hat are the main #hysical characteristics o$ estuaries'2! )ow do #lants and animals deal with *ariation in salinity'

(! "hat are the similarities and di.erences between salt marshesand man&ro*es'

+ ,hysical characteristics o$ estuaries

• "hat are estuaries'o *staries are semi+enclosed areas where

freshwater and saltwater meet and mixo -hey are a #lace where terrestrial and marine

ecosystems interacto -hey are amon& the marine en*ironments most a.ected

by humanso Estuaries are ty#ically inhabited by $ewer s#ecies than

rocky shores because o$ the ra#id en*ironmentalchan&es

o Estuaries are $ound alon& the shores o$ all the oceans

o Estuaries *ary &reatly in si@e0 but there a basic ty#es0de4ned based on their ori&ins

• "hat are the basic ty#es o$ estuaries',- !oastal plain estaries or drowned ri$er $alleys

Estuaries that $ormed when sea le*el rose with meltin&

ice at the end o$ the last ice a&e /D0FFF years a&o!.- /ar+bilt estaries

ccumulation o$ sediments alon& the coast builds u#sand bars and barrier islands G #artially enclosed sectiono$ coast

0- Tectonic estaries Estuaries that $ormed when the land sank0 or subsided0

as the result o$ mo*ements o$ the Earth8s crust1- 23ords

Estuaries that $ormed when retreatin& &laciers cut dee#

*alleys alon& the coast

alleys #artially submer&ed when sea le*els rose0 andri*ers %ow into them

• )ow does salinity *ary in estuaries'o -he de4nin& characteristic o$ estuaries is the mixin& o$

$resh and salt water in a #artially enclosed section o$the coast



Exam III Notes

o "hen seawater o$ salinity (H ##t mixes with $reshwater/F##t!0 the mixture has a salinity somewhere in between

o =ecause in#uts o$ salt and $reshwater are comin& $romdi.erent directions0 the salinity $aries spatially andtemporally

o t a &i*en de#th in the water column0 salinity decrease

as one mo*es u#stream /towards the $resh water in#ut!o t a &i*en #lace in the estuary0 salinity increases with

de#th /salty seawater is more dense!o -he sources and relati*e densities o$ salt and $resh

water in#uts lead to the $ormation o$ a salt wedge

o -he salt wed&e mo*es back and $orth with the dailyrhythm o$ the tides

o It mo*es u# the estuary on the risin& tide0 then recedesas the tide $alls

o 3r&anisms that stay in one #lace must deal with

dramatic %uctuations in salinityo I$ the area has a diurnal tide0 the or&anisms ex#eriences

2 shi$ts in salinity each day: as the tide %oods and asit ebbs



Exam III Notes

o =eha*ior o$ water masses in an estuary will be a.ectedby:

-he sha#e o$ the estuary and its bottom

-he wind0 e*a#oration0 and *ariation in tides

,atterns o$ rain$all and snowmelt

o Less0 intuiti*ely0 the !oriolis e4ect will in%uence thecirculation and distribution o$ salinity in estuaries

S a l i n i t y g r a d i e n t

Coriolis effect onowing water inNorthern Hemisphere:North-South ows aredeected to the right.

fresh

salt

25

20

2

0

5

!so-salinitylines

• "hat is the substrate in estuaries'o ?ine0 muddy sediments brou&ht into estuaries by ri*ers

settle outo =acterial res#iration in these or&anic rich sediments

de#letes oxy&en $rom the estuarieso In estuaries with unim#eded tidal %ow0 there is usually

#lenty o$ dissol*ed oxy&en in water

2+ da#tions to estuarine en*ironments

• Co#in& with salinity %uctuationso Maintainin& the #ro#er salt and water balance is one o$

the &reatest challen&es $acin& estuarine or&anisms

! Stenohaline s#ecies tolerate only a narrow ran&eo$ salinities0 and are limited to the u##er or lower

reaches o$ estuary2! *ryhaline s#ecies are able to tolerate a wide

ran&e o$ salinities(! /rac%ish water s#ecies tolerate only water o$

intermediate salinities



Exam III Notes

o 1tenohaline s#ecies /many s#ecies! =rackish waters#ecies /$ew s#ecies!

o Most marine or&anisms ha*e internal salt concentrationhi&her than $reshwater and take on water by osmosis in

estuaries! Osmoconformers maintain osmotic balance by

allowin& body %uids to chan&e with salinity o$water /ex+ molluscs0 worms!

2! Osmoreglators kee# salt concentration o$ body%uids more or less constant *ia acti*e trans#ort/ex+ 4sh0 crabs!

o Estuarine #lants are saltier than their surroundin& water

→water u#take occurs by osmosis /this is not the case$or #lants with roots in estuaries!

o 1ome acti*ely absorb salt and concentrate su&ars tomatch outside concentrations and #re*ent water loss

+ Estuarine Communities

• -wo maJor estuarine communitieso Estuaries in tem#erate and subarctic re&ions are o$ten

bordered by &rassy areas that are #artially %ooded athi&h tide and extend inland $rom mud%ats: saltmarshes

o 5angro$e forests tend to re#lace salt marshes alon&similar coasts in tro#ical re&ions

a+ 1alt Marshes

− In the Northern hemis#here0 salt marshes are more commonon the le$t side o$ estuaries than the ri&ht side becauseerosi*e $orces are less on the #assi*e mar&in o$ continent /thele$t side o$ estuaries!

− 1alt marshes start on muddy bottoms but the mud &ets heldto&ether by the rhi)ome system o$ the #lants

o Rhi@omes take u# nutrients and allow the #lants toextend laterally

o s rhi@omes and shoots extend laterally0 they $acilitatesedimentation

− ertical Konationo -here is *ertical @onation across salt mashes /similar to

rocky intertidals!



Exam III Notes

o -he location o$ a &i*en @one is related to its hei&htrelati*e to the tides0 #hysiolo&ical ada#tations0 andinters#eci4c com#etition

o -he border between @ones can be 5uite shar# and at

#redictable tidal hei&htso Ex#eriment conducted by Mark =ertness

Conclusion:

+ "ower limit o$ salt marsh #lants isre&ulated by #hysical $actors

2+ 'pper limit o$ salt marsh #lants isre&ulated by ecolo&ical $actors /ex+com#etition!

o -o combine theories o$ =ertness0 Connell0 and ,aine: Lower limit o$ or&anisms o$ terrestrial ori&in is

re&ulated by #hysical#hysiolo&ical interactionswhile the u##er limit is re&ulate by ecolo&icalinteractions

A##er limit o$ or&anisms o$ marine ori&in isre&ulated by #hysical#hysiolo&ical interactionswhile their lower limit is re&ulated by ecolo&icalinteractions

− lternate stable stateso 5arsh wrac% is dead marsh &rass that $orms layers on

to# o$ water or marsh sur$aces → smothers the &rassand decom#oses to create a bare )one

o 3nce an area is bare0 stron& sunli&ht causese*a#oration0 which results in a layer o$ salt to de*elo#on the sur$ace

o -he salty layer #re*ents seed &ermination→ the bare#atch is sel$sustainin& as an alternate stable state

b+ Man&ro*es

− Man&ro*e $orests are the tro#ic e5ui*alent o$ salt marshes

− Man&ro*e $orests are $ormed by man&ro*es0 tro#ical and

subtro#ical trees and shrubs ada#ted to intertidal− Man&ro*es &row on #rotected coasts where muddy sediments

accumulate

− Re5uires $reshwater

− arious s#ecies o$ man&ro*e #lants ha*e di.erent tolerancesto immersion0 so there is distincti*e @onation



Exam III Notes

− 3nce established0 man&ro*es decrease wa*e ener&y andwater motion o$ the shoreline

− "ater in sediments o$ten becomes anoxic0 slowin& nutrientu#take and increasin& ex#osure to decom#osin& bacteria

− Many man&ro*e s#ecies ha*e shallow roots and root

extensions that #roJect into air /pnematophores! that hel#obtain oxy&en

− Many s#ecies ha*e roots loaded with tannins0 which con$er#rotection to some o$ the decom#osin& bacteria

− Remo*al o$ salto Man&ro*es must &et rid o$ salts taken in by roots

o 1ome s#ecies are ca#able o$ reducin& salt u#take usin&membranebound ion channels to exchan&e ) $or Na

or sore salt in Na *acuole1ome s#ecies ha*e salt &lands that excrete salt $romtheir lea*es

− -he #ro# roots o$ man&ro*es su##ort rich in*ertebrate andseaweed communities /s#on&es0 crustacea0 etc!

− Man&ro*e shallow waters and creeks are im#ortant nursery&rounds $or 4shes and many commercially im#ortant 4sheries

− Man&ro*e $orests are threatened throu&hout the worldbecause o$ shoreline de*elo#ment0 dred&in& $or a5uaculture0and 4rewood needs

#neumato#hores

,ro# roots o$man&ro*e



Exam III Notes



Exam III Notes

Lecture 2: 1ubtidal /1ea&rass =eds Oel# ?orests!

• Main Questions to be answered in this section:! "here are sea&rass communities $ound'2! "hy are sea&rasses considered $oundational s#ecies'

(! "here are kel# $orest communities $ound'! Ex#lain how abundance o$ kel#0 urchins0 and sea otters are

related+

+ 1ea&rass Communities

• Blobal distribution o$ sea&rass bedso 1ea&rass beds are $ound in shallow water and on soft

sbstrateso 1ea&rass beds are $ound in hi&h latitudes to the tro#ics:

the tlantic0 Indian0 and ,aci4c 3ceanso 1ea&rasses are marine angiosperms

• 9ominant s#ecies o$ sea&rass bedso In tem#erate North tlantic0 the eel&rass "ostera

marina dominates+ It $orms thick beds in sediments ran&in& $rom

sand to mud It is not consumed by any maJor herbi*ores

o In tro#ical tlantic0 the turtle&rass #halassiatestudinum dominates+

It co*ers shallow %ats o$ carbonate sediment

It is consumed by manatees0 &reen turtles0 and

sea urchins



Exam III Notes

• )ow do sea&rasses s#read'o 1ea&rasses &row laterally by the #roduction o$

rhi)omes /asexual re#roduction!o 1ea&rasses ha*e roots which enable them to take u#

nutrients $rom the sediment

o 1ea&rasses are #owering plants and re#roducesexually+

Seagrasses prodce pollen and set seeds6

which are dispersed throgh the crrents

• 1uccession in sea&rass bedso 1ea&rass beds most easily coloni@e sediment a$ter a

successional se5uence $eaturin& a #re*ious coloni@ationby seaweeds

o Early successional seaweeds stabili@e sediments andadd nutrients to the sediments0 such as ammonium

• 1ea&rass beds su##ort communities

o Many small al&ae &row on the sur$ace o$ sea&rasslea*es /epiphytes!

o Many small animals /#ori$erans0 cnidarians0 bryo@oans!&row own the sur$ace o$ the sea&rass lea*es /epifana!

o 1ea&rass0 itsel$0 is not hea*ily &ra@ed0 but its e#hi#hytesand detritus are consumed+

lso0 by #ro*idin& substrate $or #lankti*orous

e#i$auna0 sea&rasses $acilitate more ener&y

bein& incor#orated into the system+

• -hreats to sea&rass communitieso Ntrient addition: seaweeds res#ond more ra#idly to

nutrient addition to the water than sea&rasses0 therebyoutcom#etin& the sea&rasses



Exam III Notes

o Sspension feeder redction: remo*al o$ sus#ension$eeders may result in a #hyto#lankton bloom0#re*entin& li&ht $rom reachin& sea&rasses

o Seagrass wasting disease: an e#idemic o$ sea&rass

wastin& disease caused by the $un&us Labyrinthula sp. Caused HP loss o$ sea&rass beds on the North

tlantic coasts o$ A1 and Euro#e "hy an outbreak should ha##en at a #articular

time and #lace is unclear 1ome #o#ulations o$ sea&rass are more

genetically resistant that others dditional stressors0 such as #o#ulation0 can

make sea&rass #o#ulations more susce#tible tothe disease

2+ Oel# ?orest Communities• Blobal distribution o$ kel# $orests

o Oel# $orests are $ound in shallow water and on hard+

sbstrateso Oel# $orests are $ound in the rctic to ntarctic /in

waters less than 2FC!0 and in the tlantic0 Indian0 and,aci4c 3ceans

-here is a dee#er #enetration into the low

latitudes on "estern side o$ continents becauseo$ the cool water crrents

"hat mi&ht be li*in& on hard substrates atthose latitudes on the Eastern side o$continents' /coral reefs!

• 9ominant s#ecies in kel# $orestso Oel# $orests are dominated by brown seaweeds

/Phaeophyta! #articularly $rom the &rou# Laminariales

• Li$e cycle o$ a ty#ical kel#

o Oel#s ha*e com#lex0 bipartite li$ecycles: lar&e di#loid0 s#ore #roducin& s#oro#hyte

Microsco#ic0 ha#loid0 &amete #roducin&&ameto#hyte

o In many kel#s0 the s#oro#hyte is annualo 7n large %elps6 the sporophyte tends to be

perennial and can li$e for se$eral years



Exam III Notes

o Recall0 each indi*idual kel# is attached to the rockybottom by a hold$ast+

3ne or many stipes &row $rom the hold$ast and

fronds &row $rom the sti#es -he $ronds are sus#ended by &as 4lled

pnematocysts Indi*iduals can be massi*e0 &rowin& (Fm $rom

the bottom to the sur$ace

• ?ormation o$ a kel# $oresto Lar&e0 dense #atches o$ kel# are called %elp beds

/analo&ous to sea&rass beds!o 3nce the kel# ha*e &rown to $ull si@e0 and their $ronds

%oat on the sur$ace0 they are known as %elp forests

• ertical @onation in kel# $orestso Oel# $orests alon& the ,aci4c coast o$ North merica

exhibit distinct de#th @ones0 each made u# o$ s#eciesthat &row at a characteristic hei&ht abo*e the bottom

-his structure results $rom interaction o$

#hysical and biolo&ical $actors

o ?loatin& cano#y o$ &iant kel# de*elo#s only where wateris dee# enou&h to reduce wa*e action0 but shallowenou&h $or li&ht to reach the bottom0 #ermittin& &rowth$rom the hold$ast

o 3ther kel#s0 such as the bull and ?eatherboa0

contribute to the sur$ace cano#y $urther inshoreo -he elk kel# $orms a midwater cano#y in dee#er water

alon& the outer ed&e o$ the &iant kel#o 1maller kel#s ex#loit the understory

o 1horter al&ae /red al&ae! li*e under the two o*erlyin&layers



Exam III Notes

• Oel# $orests su##ort communitieso -he (9 structure o$ kel# $orests is ex#loited by many

animalso Rocky bottoms are the kel# are inhabited by s#on&es0

sea s5uirts0 sea rchins0 lobsters0 crabs0 octo#uses0

etc+o ,olychaetes0 small crustaceans0 brittle stars0 and

bryo@oans and others li*e on the hold$asts0 sti#es0 andblades o$ the kel# /mostly sus#ension $eeders!

o 1ur#risin&ly $ew &ra@ers eat lar&e kel#s because theyprodce secondary componds calledphlorotannins that protect the %elp

o nimals use most o$ the #roduction o$ kel# in the $ormo$ drift %elp G #ieces o$ kel# that break loose and sinkto the bottom or are washed ashore

o Many s#ecies o$ sus#ension $eeders $eed on small

#articles o$ detritus &enerated by dri$t kel#o ?ishes0 occu#yin& a number o$ di.erent ecolo&ical

niches0 are common in kel# communitieso -he sea otter is a maJor #redator within kel#

communities0 #reyin& on sea urchins0 molluscs0 and 4sh 1ea otters are #reyed u#on by killer whales

• lternate stable stateso "hen kel# is #resent0 urchins are relati*ely sedentary0

#rimarily $eedin& on dri$t kel#o

"hen kel# is absent0 urchins are relati*ely acti*e0$eedin& on new kel# recruits



Exam III Notes

• "hat causes state transitions

• "hat causes hi&h kel# mortalityo )i&h kel# mortality may dri*en by bottom u#0 physical

#rocesses: storms0 warm water0 El Nio

o )i&h kel# mortality may be dri*en by bottom u#0biological #rocesses: hi&h urchin recruitment andsur*i*al

• "hat causes hi&h kel# recruitment

o )i&h kel# recruitment and sur*i*al may be $acilitated bytop down #rocesses: 1ea otters #rey on urchins

"hen kel# is #resent0 urchins are relati*elysedentary0 $eedin& on dri$t kel#

"hen kel# is absent0 urchins are relati*elyacti*e0 $eedin& on new kel# recruits

)i&h kel# mortality )i&h kel#recruitment



Exam III Notes

E*idence $or this comes $rom islands where kel#

$orests were healthy where sea otters werecommon

In contrast0 there were $ewer kel#s and many

more sea urchins where otters were rare

o More com#ellin&ly0 there ise*idence that some otter#o#ulations ha*e declineddue to #redation by killerwhales

In these areas0

urchin and kel##o#ulations ha*eres#onded as#redicted by

trophic cascade



Exam III Notes

Lecture (F: 1ubtidal /Coral Ree$s!

• Main Questions to be answered in this section:! "hat is a coral'2! )ow do corals &et their nutrition and re#roduce'

(! "hat is a coral ree$'! "here do coral ree$s occur and how do they $orm'H! "hat is known about ecolo&ical interactions in coral ree$

communities'

+ Corals

• "here are corals $ound'o Coral are &enerally $ound in clear6 shallow water and

on hard sbstrateso Corals are $ound in the tropics /in water &reater than

2FC! and in the tlantic0 Indian0 and ,aci4c 3ceanso -here is a dee#er #enetration into hi&h latitudes on the

Eastern side o$ continents because o$ the warm watercrrents

o Corals are #articularly di*erse in the !oral Triangle =orders two $aunas /Indian ocean and ,aci4c

3cean! More sunli&ht 1#eciation and extinction rates are steady

• "hat are corals'

o Coral is a term $or se*eral &rou#s o$ cnidarians0 o$which only some build ree$s

o In ree$ buildin& corals /hermatypic!0 the indi*idual#oly#s #roduce CaC3( skeletons

o -he most im#ortant ree$ builders are the scleratinian

corals

• "hat is a coral #oly#'o Coral #oly#s0 like anemones and other cnidarians0 ha*e

nematocysts /armed tentacles to ca#ture $oodo Nearly all ree$buildin& /hermaty#ic! corals contain

symbiotic )ooxanthellae that #hotosynthesi@eo )ermaty#ic corals #roduce CaC3( skeletons0 with the

hel# o$ their @ooxanthellae

• "hat is a coral colony'o Most ree$ buildin& corals are colonies o$ many #oly#s



Exam III Notes

-he colony starts when #lanktonic coral lar*a

settles on a hard sur$ace -he lar*a metamor#hoses into a $ounder #oly#

→ then it di*ides re#eatedly to $orm a colony

• -he di&esti*e and ner*ous systems o$

the #oly#s within a colony areconnected

• "hat is the role o$ @ooxanthellae'

o Kooxanthellae #er$orm #hotosynthesis and #ass thecarbohydrates they #roduce on to the coral

o Most corals #rey on @oo #lankton and detritus usin&their tentacles or mucous sheets→ source o$ nitro&enand #hos#horous

• )ow do colonies &row'

o Coral #oly#s lie in a cu#like skeleton o$ CaC3( that they$orm themsel*es in collaboration with the @ooxanthellae

o -he #oly#s continually lay down new layers o$ CaC3(→ the skeleton &rows u#ward and outward

o -he skeleton $orms the maJority o$ the colony

• ariation in colony $orm'o Coral colonies can take on many di.erent $orms

o -he *ariation can be interspeci8c and intraspeci8c /&enetic le*elSdi.erent &ene ex#ression throu&h

di.erent habitats!

2+ Coral Ree$s

• ?actors limitin& ree$ &rowth'o Coral ree$s are rare on so$t bottoms because coral

lar*ae need to settle on hard sbstrateso Corals &row well where there is lots of light0 because

o$ their @ooxanthellae need li&ht $or #hotosynthesiso -here$ore0 coral ree$s are only $ound on continental

shel*es0 around islands0 or on to# o$ seamounts

Lots o$ li&ht andhard substrateT



Exam III Notes

o Ree$buildin& coral are limited to warm water and can&row and re#roduce only i$ the a*era&e watertem#erature is abo*e 2FC

o CaC3( is more soluble in cold water0 which ex#lains whycoral ree$s are not $ound in colder re&ions

o -here$ore0 coral ree$s are only $ound within 2F isotherm

o Bi*en the conditions $or coral &rowth0 we can #redictthe conditions that lead to coral decline

High le$els of trbidity and sedimentation

→ turbid waters #re*ent #hotosynthesis andsedimentation inhibits $eedin&

9ater temperatres o$er 0+0;<! lead to

the breakdown o$ coral@ooxanthellaesymbiosis and cause bleaching

o Corals do not build ree$s alone → ree$ &rowth in*ol*edother or&anisms and se*eral other #rocesses

a+ Ree$ &rowth be&ins when corals settle and &rowon a hard sur$ace

b+ 1#aces in ree$ $ramework are 4lled by coral$ra&ments and skeletons

c+ Loose sediment is &lued to&ether by encrustin&corallin algae

• -hree ty#es o$ coral ree$s,= 2ringing reefs

− ?rin&in& ree$s are the sim#lest and most commonty#e o$ ree$

− -hey de*elo# nearshore throu&hout the tro#ics0where*er there is a hard sur$ace /$or the settlemento$ coral lar*ae! and low turbiditySsedimentation

"ater tem#eratureo$ 2F(F C



Exam III Notes

− Consists o$ an inner reef #at0 and an outer reefslope

o Ree$ %at→ com#osed o$ sand0 coral rubble0some corals0 and can be ex#osed

o Ree$ slo#e→ the #art o$ the ree$ with the

densest coral co*er and the most corals#ecies

− 1ediment and rubble accumulates at the bottom o$the slo#e and may ser*e as substrate $or new coral&rowth so that the ree$ can &row outward andu#ward

.= /arrier reefs

-he distinction between barrier ree$s and $rin&in&ree$s is sometimes unclear /=arrier ree$s areoldSmassi*e $rin&in& ree$s!

=arrier ree$s can be hundreds o$ kilometers $romshore and se#arated $rom shore by a relati*elydee# la&oon

6-he la&oon will be #rotected $rom wa*esand currents and may contain sea&rassbeds and #atch ree$s

barrier ree$ consists o$ a bac%+reef slope0 a reef #at0 and a fore+reef slope

o Ex#osed $oreree$ areas o$ten ha*e spr+and+groo$e $ormations /#ossibly $ormed bywind and wa*es!

o Richest coral &rowth is on the outer ree$crest

bundance and di*ersity

decreases with de#th Browth $orm o$ corals also

chan&es with de#th



Exam III Notes

0= Atolls

n atoll is a rin& o$ ree$ surroundin& a centralla&oon

-he *ast maJority o$ atolls occur in the Indo"est

,aci4c re&ions

n atoll can be thou&ht o$ as a circular barrier ree$:outerree$ and innerree$ slo#e o$ atolls can beanalo&ous to the $oreree$ and backree$ slo#e o$barrier ree$s

tolls can be (Fkm acrosso -he water may be hundreds0 or thousands

o$ meter dee# Just o. the outerree$

tolls are $ormed by ree$ &rowth on a subsidin&

island

a= n atoll be&ins as a $rin&in& ree$ around a*olcanic island



Exam III Notes

b= s the island sinks0 the ree$ %at &ets wider0dee#er0 and e*entually becomes a la&oon

c= E*entually0 the island sinks com#letely0 lea*in&only a rin& o$ &rowin& ree$

(+ Coral Ree$ Communities

•Coral ree$s ha*e more s#ecies than any other marine communityand a more com#lex network o$ interactions than any othercommunity

• 1cienti4cally tractable systemo )ow do all o$ these s#ecies make a li*in& and how do they all

interact with each other'6"hy mi&ht these ty#es o$ 5uestions be easier to

address in rocky intertidal communities than in coralree$ communities'

Number o$ #ossible ty#es o$ interactions U n20

where nU number o$ s#ecies

• coral ree$ #aradox'

o -ro#ical waters on the Eastern side o$ oceans are relati*ely#oor in nutrients and ha*e relati*ely little #hyto#lankton#rimary #roduction

o 1o0 how do coral ree$ communities thri*e under such

conditions' "here do the nutrients come $rom' Kooxanthellae #roduce carbohydrates *ia

#hotosynthesis

Coral ree$s ha*e amon& the hi&hest rates o$ nitrogen8xation o$ any natural community due to $reeli*in&and symbiotic cyanobacteria

Currents brin& in additional dissol*ed nitro&en0

#hos#horus0 and other nutrients+ -hey also brin&@oo#lankton /rich nutrient source!

o 3nce nutrients ha*e been se5uestered by corals0 a lar&enumber o$ 4shes and in*ertebrates consume the coral#oly#s0 their mucous0 e&&s and lar*ae

ll o$ these consumers excrete nitro&en0 #hos#horous0

and other nutrients as waste

o Ntrient recycling occurs at the scale o$ corals and their@ooxanthellae and at the scale o$ 4sh to corals

• "hat ty#es o$ interactions structure coral ree$ communities',= !ompetition

− Com#etition $or s#ace is im#ortant in corals



Exam III Notes

− -he two main ways in which corals com#ete $ors#ace are by o$ergrowing and directlyattac%ing their neighbors

− Benerally0 corals outcom#ete seaweeds

• Nutrient limitation and &ra@in& kee#s

seaweeds in check)owe*er0 i$ nutrient le*els increase /due to#ollution! or i$ &ra@ers are remo*ed /due too*er4shin&!0 then seaweeds can outcom#etecoral

.= Predation

− ,redation and &ra@in& are im#ortant in structurin&coral ree$ communities

− *ariety o$ #redators are s#ecialists on corals

− Benerally0 crowno$thorns sea stars0 occur in lowabundances →)owe*er0 there are sometimesoutbreaks or #la&ues o$ crowno$thorn sea stars

• -hese sea stars can decimate a coral ree$0consumin& e*ery coral in its #ath

− 3utbreaks o$ sea stars can occur in wet years→ there is more nutrient run o.0 and hi&herrecruitment o$ sea stars

− 3utbreaks o$ sea stars can occur due to o*er4shin&→ reduces #redation on youn& sea stars0

allowin& more o$ them to sur*i*e to adulthood

0= 5talism

− Mutualism enhances the &rowth o$ both#o#ulations0 makin& them $or resistant toextinction

− Corals0 sea anemones0 snails0 and &iant clams allha*e obli&ate mutualistic interactions with@ooxanthellae

− Many in*ertebrates /corals0 anemones0 s#on&es!$orm habitats and these habitats host otherin*ertebrates or *ertebrates



Exam III Notes



Exam III Notes

Lecture (2: E#i#ela&ic

• Main Questions to be answered in this section:! "hat are the ( maJor &rou#s o$ e#i#ela&ic or&anisms' re

these &rou#s de4ned by ecolo&ical roles or e*olutionary

history'2! "hat are the maJor challen&es associated with li*in& in the

e#i#ela&ic' "hat ada#tations ha*e arisen as a result o$ naturalselection on e#i#ela&ic #o#ulations'

(! re e#i#ela&ic $ood webs relati*ely eVcient or relati*elyineVcient' "hy are humans #articularly interested ine#i#ela&ic $ood webs'

• -he E#i#ela&ic

o -he e#i#ela&ic is the )one from the srface of the oceanto .m in depth /photic )one!

o In contrast to other communities we ha*e discussed0 thee#i#ela&ic lacks #hysical structure G there is no bottom andno strctre pro$ided by organisms

o -he e#i#ela&ic can be subdi*ided into 2 @ones: Neritic → E#i#ela&ic that lies o*er the continental shel$

Oceanic→ E#i#ela&ic that lies beyond the continental

shel$ o -he e#i#ela&ic re&ulates the climate and atmos#here

+ 3r&anisms o$ the E#i#ela&ic• ,lankton G 9ri$ters o$ the sea

o ,lankton are o$ten classi4ed based on their si@e: Me&a → macro → meso → micro → nano → #ico →

$emto#lankton

o ,lankton are also classi4ed based on their li$e history: )olo#lankton → #ermanent members o$ #lankton



Exam III Notes

Mero#lankton → tem#orary members o$ #lankton

o ,lankton are also classi4ed based on their ecolo&ical role: ,hyto#lankton → #rimary #roducers

Koo#lankton → #rimary consumers

Nekton → secondary consumers

• ,hyto#lanktono In most o$ the e#i#ela&ic0 the only #rimary #roducers are

sin&le celledo E#i#ela&ic #hyto#lankton #er$orm more than HP o$

#hotosynthesis in oceanso ,hyto#lankton #er$orm hal$ o$ the world8s carbon 4xation and

oxy&en #roduction

o Diatoms 9iatoms /#hylum =acillario#hyta! are the dominant net

#hyto#lankton Es#ecially common in tem#erate and #olar re&ion0 and

other nutrient rich waters bundant in both neritic and oceanic waters

o Dino#agellates 9ino%a&ellates /#hylum 9ino#hyta! are dominant

members o$ net #hyto#lankton Es#ecially common in tro#ical and subtro#ical waters

/better ada#ted than diatoms to nutrient #oor waters! bundant in both neritic and oceanic waters

o !occolithophores Coccolitho#hores /#hylum )a#to#hyta! are dominant

members o$ nano#lankton Im#ortant #rimary #roducers in both neritic and oceanic

@ones o$ the e#i#ela&ic

o !ryptophytes Cry#to#hytes /#hylum Cry#to#hyta! are another member

o$ nano#lankton 1ometimes abundant in neritic waters

o Silico#agellates 1ilico%a&ellates /#hylum Chryso#hyta! are im#ortant

members o$ nano#lankton



Exam III Notes

3ccasionally bloom and become im#ortant #rimary

#roducers

o !yanobacteria Cyanobacteria are the most abundant #ico#lankton and

account $or hal$ o$ the ocean8s total #rimary #roduction 3ne &rou#0 Prchlorococcus0 is the most abundant o$ all

marine #hyto#lankton and is es#ecially dominant innutrient#oor tro#ical and subtro#ical waters+

nother &rou#0 Trichodesmium0 &rows in 4lamentouscolonies that can be lar&e and are abundant n nutrient#oor waters /they can 4x nitro&en!

• Koo#lankton

o )erbi*orous @oo#lankton #ro*ide a *ital link between #rimary#roducers and the rest o$ the community

o Most @oo#lankton s#ecies are carni*orous0 consumin&herbi*orous @oo#lankton

o Proto)oans -iny #ico#lankton and nano#lankton are too small $or

most multicellular animals to consume "ithout #roto@oan #lankton0 much o$ the #rimary

#roduction in the #ela&ic would &o unused -he most im#ortant o$ these #roto@oan &rou#s are

ciliates0 $oramini$erans0 and radiolarians

o !opepods

1mall crustaceans /co#e#ods! dominant the net

@oo#lankton throu&hout oceans Co#e#ods are amon& the most numerous animals on

Earth Co#e#ods eat #hyto#lankton and smaller @oo#lankton

usin& their a##enda&es as #addles to create watercurrents that brin& the $ood to the maxillae

o >rill

Not as abundant as co#e#ods0 but a&&re&ate in hu&enumbers at certain times and #laces

Orill may dominate @oo#lankton in #olar seas

Orill consume #hyto#lanktom /diatoms!0 small

@oo#lankton0 and detritus

o Salps



Exam III Notes

1al#s are #lanktonic relati*es o$ sea s5uirts /tunicates!

1al#s catch #hyto#lankton by 4lterin& water thou&h a

sie*e like saco "ar$aceans

Lar*aceans are also relati*es o$ sea s5uirts0 sharin& the

tad#ole lar*a -hey li*e inside a mucus ;house< and ca#ture $ood usin&

a mucus net

o Pteropods Member o$ molluscs

,hyto#lankton ra@ers

,tero#ods are small snails in which the $oot has been

modi4ed to $orm a #air o$ win&s that are used $orlocomotion

o ?elly8shes Cnidarians that $orm #art o$ the @oo#lankton

Carni*orous→ eat @oo#lankton and small 4shes

>elly4shes are becomin& increasin&ly abundant in the

world8s oceans as their com#etitors and #redators declinein abundance

o !omb 3ellies Cteno#hores that $orm #art o$ the @oo#lankton

Carni*orous→ eat @oo#lankton and small 4shes

Comb Jellies are becomin& increasin&ly abundant in theworld8s oceans as their com#etitors and #redators declinein abundance

• Nektono ,hyto#lankton and @oo#lankton are the most abundant

or&anisms in the ocean+o )owe*er0 we are more $amiliar with the nekton: 8shes6

marine mammals6 and s@idso 1ome s#ecies o$ nekton are #lankti*orous /ex+ herrin&s0

sardines0 ancho*ies0 whale sharks0 baskin& sharks0 baleenwhales!

o Most s#ecies o$ nekton are carni*orous6 s a &eneral rule: The larger the predator6 the

larger the prey

2+ da#tations o$ the E#i#ela&ic

• In the e#i#ela&ic0 there are 2 maJor challen&es:



Exam III Notes

! -he need to stay in the epipelagic where there is nobottom to de#end on

2! -he need to a$oid predators where there is no #lace tohide

• 1tayin& a%oat

o Cells0 tissues0 shells0 and skeletons are denser than seawaterand tend to sink

o ,rimary #roducers need to stay a%oat to &et li&ht $or#hotosynthesis

o Consumers need to stay a%oat because that is where their $oodis

o Natral selection will ha$e fa$ored indi$idals thatcold stay a#oat

( basic strate&ies ha*e e*ol*ed:

+ 7ncreased resistance → reducin& rate o$ sinkin&2+ 7ncreased boyancy reducin& tendency to sink

(+ Swimming → o.settin& sinkin& that occurs /ener&etically costly!

7ncreased resistance

− )ow $ast an or&anism sinks de#ends on the resistance/or dra&! it encounters

− 9ra& de#ends &reatly on sur$ace area

− Many or&anisms ha*e #at6 parachte+li%e shapes to increase dra&

− Many or&anisms ha*e long pro3ections and spines0

which hel# to increase dra&− Note that the structures that hel# or&anisms stay

a%oat by increasin& resistance is inconsistent with$astswimmin& #redatory li$estyle

7ncreased boyancy

− 3ne common buoyancy ada#tation is to store lipids:6 Li#ids are less dense than seawater and hel#

o.set the dense tissues -rait has e*ol*ed in diatoms0 co#e#ods0 and

sharks

− nother buoyancy ada#tation is to ha*e poc%ets of

gas:6 Bases are less dense than seawater and hel#

o.set the denser tissues -rait has e*ol*ed in cyanobacteria and bony 4shes



Exam III Notes

− Note that &ases ex#andScontract as the or&anismmo*es u# and down0 in%uencin& buoyancy but swimbladders can only be adJusted slowly Many 4shes that chan&e de#th ra#idly ha*e

ado#ted the li#id solution rather than the &as

solution

Swimming the #oaters-

− mon& the e#i#ela&ic #lankton are hi&hly s#eciali@ed&rou# o$ or&anisms that %oat at the sur$ace o$ theocean /ex+ ,ortu&uese mano$war!

• *oidin& #redatorso In the e#i#ela&ic0 there is #lenty o$ li&ht and there are N3

structures to hide behindo ,redators are numerous and they ha*e wellde*elo#ed sense

or&anso Natral selection will ha$e fa$ored prey that ha$e a

lower li%elihood of being eaten ( basic strate&ies ha*e e*ol*ed:

,= Transparency.= !ontershading0= Bertical migration

-rans#arency

− 3ne way to a*oid #redators is to be basicallytransparent -rait is seen in am#hi#ods0 cteno#hores0 s5uids0

etc+

Countershadin&

− nother $orm o$ #rotecti*e #i&mentation iscountershadin& → the dorsal srface is dar% andthe $entral srface is light

6 -o #redators lookin& down0 the dorsal sur$aceblends with the dark ocean

6 -o #redators lookin& u#0 the *entral sur$aceblends with downwellin& li&ht

-his ada#tation is seen in most e#i#ela&ic nekton:

cartilaginos 8shes6 ray+8nned 8shes6tetrapods

ertical mi&ration

− 1ome @oo #lankton undertake *ertical mi&ration



Exam III Notes

6 9urin& the day0 they li*e at a de#th o$ 2FFmor more0 where there is little li&ht /sa$e $rom#redators that use *ision!

6 t ni&ht0 the @oo #lankton swim u# to thesur$ace layer to $eed on #hyto#lankton and

other @oo#lankton -his mi&ration is extremely costly $rom an

indi*idual #ers#ecti*e+ E#i#ela&ic communities

• E#i#ela&ic communities are o$ s#ecial interest to humans becausethey #ro*ide $ood and income $or millions o$ #eo#le on the #lanet

• E#i#ela&ic $ood chainso E#i#ela&ic $ood chains *ary in the number o$ ste#so -ro#ical $ood chains tend to ha*e more ste#s than tem#erate

$ood chainso 3ne o$ the shortest $ood chains is:

9iatoms → Orill→ "hale

• E#i#ela&ic $ood webso E#i#ela&ic $ood webs tend to be com#lex:

Many animals eat multi#le #rey $rom di.erent tro#hic

le*els0 makin& it hard to assi&n tro#hic le*els or #redict#o#ulation dynamics

Many animals consume di.erent #rey at di.erent times in

their li*es0 makin& it hard to assi&n tro#hic le*els or#redict #o#ulation dynamics

o E#i#ela&ic $ood webs tend to be ineVcient E#i#ela&ic herbi*ores con*ert more than 2FP o$ the

ener&y deri*ed $rom #hotosynthesis into &rowth E#i#ela&ic carni*ores are more than FP eVcient0 where

FP is the &eneral rule o$ thumb $or how much ener&y&ets #assed $rom one tro#hic le*el to the next

• Microbial Loo#

o -he basic %ow o$ ener&y is:

,hyto#lankton → Koo#lankton → Nekton

o *nergy in dissol$ed organic matter is sed by bacteriaand archaea and %ept in the system

• ,rimary #roducti*ity



Exam III Notes

o 1ome #arts o$ the e#i#ela&ic rank amon& the most #roducti*eecosystems on Earth

Recall0 #rimary #roducti*ity is limited by li&ht and

nutrients: "hat causes this #attern o$ #rimary#roducti*ity

Recall nutrients are always sinkin& out o$ the e#i#ela&ic

and there must be u#wellin&So*erturn to brin& nutrientsback to the #hotic @one /Season pwellingCo$ertrn6coastal pwelling6 e@atorial pwelling!

Lecture ((: -he 9ee# 1ea

• Main Questions to be answered in this section:! )ow do li&ht0 tem#erature0 and #ressure *ary in the dee# sea'2! "hat is the &eneral distribution o$ biodi*ersity across the

maJority o$ the dee# sea'

(! "hat creates islands o$ hi&h biodi*ersity in the dee# sea'

+ ,hysical en*ironment

• )ow do we de4ne the ;dee# sea<'

o *pipelagic: #hotic @one0 li&ht suVcient $or #hotosynthesis /F2FFm!

o 5esopelagic: dim li&ht0 but not enou&h $or #hotosynthesis/2FFFFFm!

o Deep sea: no light /FFF m!

• ,hysical en*ironment o$ the dee# seao 9ee# sea habitats ha*e no li&ht at all /#er#etually dark waters

below meso#ela&ic!o ,ressure increases with de#th at a rate o$ atm #er Fm de#th

o -em#erature is low /Just abo*e FC! -em#erature is low0 but relati*ely stable

o 1alinity is also relati*ely stable across s#ace and time

• Chemical en*ironment o$ the dee# sea



Exam III Notes

o 1ince there is no li&ht0 there is no #hotosynthesis or #rimary#roduction

o !ommnities beneath the photic )one depend on

organic material prodced in the photic )one 9etritus $rom the #hotic @one rains down throu&h the

water column as ;marine snow<6 s detritus rains down0 it is decom#osed and

oxy&en in the water is used u# in res#iration6 -his results in oxy&en bein& de#leted in the

meso#ela&ic G oxygen minimm )one6 =elow the meso#ela&ic0 there is less

decom#osition0 less res#iration0 and oxy&en isre#lenished by thermohaline circulation

• Beneral #hysical and chemical context:

No light Relati*ely constant in time and s#ace"ow temperatre Relati*ely constant in time and s#ace

High salinity Relati*ely constant in time and s#aceHigh pressre Increases with de#th

7ntermediateoxygen

Re#lenished by thermohaline circulation

"ow ntrients Re#lenished by marine snow

2+ 9ee# sea deserts

• 3nly HFF m2 o$ the 27F million km2 o$ dee# sea %oor has been5uantitati*ely sam#led /serious sam#lin& #roblem!



Exam III Notes

•

-he dee# sea bottom is thou&h to be mainly composed of sandand md

• 9ee# sea so$tsubstrate communitieso lot o$ the acti*ity occurrin& in so$tsubstrate dee# seabeds

occur beneath the sediment sur$aceo 9istribution o$ biomass

/iomass per nit area decreases with depth

,= ,rimary #roduction o$ o#enocean sur$ace waters isless than that o$ continental shel$ waters0 so theprodction of marine snow is less o$er deepwaters

.= Primary prodction o$er deep waters ta%eslonger to descent to the benthos than thato$er shallow waters6 and marine snow is

consmed in the transit

=oth $actors result in less nutrient a*ailability in relati*ely

dee# #arts o$ the dee# sea than in the relati*ely shallow#arts o$ the ocean

•

9istribution o$ biodi*ersity

o -he ex#ected number o$ s#ecies in any en*ironment is

estimated $rom species accmlation cr$es -his in*ol*es analy@in& how o$ten we 4nd new s#ecies as

we collect more indi*idual or&anisms

o "hy does the ex#ect number o$ s#ecies #eak at intermediatede#th'



Exam III Notes

,= t de#ths &reater than 2FFFm0 scarcity of food mayha*e a ne&ati*e im#act on biomass and s#eciesdi*ersity

.= t de#ths less than a $ew hundred meters0en$ironmental instability o$er geologic time may

ha*e resulted in numerous extinctions0= -here may be more total area in the 2FFFm @one0and more area to spport more species ada#ted tothat @one

o -he number o$ s#ecies #eaks around the e5uator0 #arallelin&the number o$ s#ecies $ound in shallow waters

o "hy do the number o$ s#ecies #eak in the tro#ics'

(+ 9ee# sea oases

•

!oral 5onds

o 9ee# sea coral mounds #robably initiate when dee# watercorals coloni@e hard substrate

o Coral mounds are $ound at de#ths $rom F m to HFF m0 andare &lobally distributed

o Mounds are not ;coral ree$s0< rather they are mostly coral$ra&ments and mud

o -hese corals do not ha*e @ooxanthellae and #roducti*ity isrelated to #roducti*ity at the sur$ace

• Dead /odieso Lar&e 4sh and whales die and sink to the bottom0 creatin&

#atches o$ habitat hi&h in nutrientso Carcasses $orm e#hemeral /shortli*ed! islands throu&hout the

dee# sea0 su##ortin& e#hemeral #o#ulationso -hese #atches may last a $ew years and under&o a successional

se5uence:,= Sca$enger stage: carcass *isited by sharks0 bony

4sh0 and crabs.= *nriched sediment stage: sediment0 rich in

nutrients0 su##orts in*ertebrates0= Sl8de stage: sediment becomes anoxic and

emits hydro&en sul4de0 su##ortin&chemoautotro#hic bacteria and in*ertebrates thathost them

1= Reef stage: bones #ro*ide hard substrate $ore#ibenthic sus#ension $eeders

• Deep Sea Hot Bentso 9isco*ered in 7Fs



Exam III Notes

o Communities o$ animals and microbes associated withhydrothermal $ents

o -he #rimary #roducers are chemosynthetic #rokaryotes thatuse ener&y in the $orm o$ hydro&en sul4de

o 1ome animals use sus#ension $eedin& to &ather the microbes

$rom the watero -he lar&e tube worm0 Riftia pachyptila0 is a dominant member

o$ this community -hese worms ha*e a s#eciali@ed or&an called a

trophosome0 #acked with symbiotic bacteria

•

-he worm8s hemo&lobin binds oxy&en andhydro&en sul4de and deli*ers this to the bacteria

•

-he bacteria #er$orm chemosynthesis and #assor&anic matter to the worm

•

Deep Sea !old Seeps

o 9isco*ered in the Fs

o !old seeps are areas where hydrogen sl8de andmethane seep ot from the sea #oor0 at tem#eraturese5ual to surroundin& water

o ,rimary #roduction by chemosynthetic #rokaryotes su##ortscommunities similar to those $ound at hydrothermal *ents

• )ot *ents Cold see#so Anlike most dee# sea habitats0 hot *ents0 cold see#s /and dead

bodies! are ener&y rich en*ironments

o -hese #atches o$ habitat are oases se#arated by *ast distanceso -hese habitats are ephemeral:

9ead bodies → lasts F years

)ot *ents→ lasts tens or hundreds o$ years Cold see#s→ lasts hundreds o$ years o$ more



Exam III Notes

Lecture (W: -hreats to Marine =iodi*ersity II

• Main Questions to be answered in this section:! "hat makes $or a &ood in*ader' )ow ha*e humans $acilitated

in*asion' "hat actions can be taken to reduce in*asion

$re5uency'2! "hat are maJor #ollutants and their e.ect' "hat actions can

indi*iduals take to reduce #ollution'(! "hat are maJor causes o$ habitat destruction' "hat actions

can indi*iduals make to reduce habitat destruction'

+ In*asi*e 1#ecies

• "hat is an in*asi*e s#ecies'o -echnically0 all s#ecies ori&inated at some #oint in history and

all s#ecies ha*e s#read naturally $ollowin& their ori&ino 7n$asi$e species are introdced species that negati$ely

a4ect the habitats they in$ade ecologically oreconomically

Ex+ -he Lion4sh is a naturally occurrin& #redator in the

Indo,aci4c re&ion and was introduced to ?lorida →Lion4sh are *oracious #redators and com#etitors0chan&in& the community structure o$ Caribbean ree$sand ham#erin& conser*ation e.orts

• "hat makes a &ood in*ader'o 7n$asi$e species often originate in regions with similar

abiotic conditions -his enables the in*aders to sur*i*e while their

#o#ulation numbers are still low

o 7n$asi$e species often achie$e large body si)es and high

poplation densities Esca#e $rom the e.ect o$ natural enemies /#redators0

#arasites0 com#etitors! is a $re5uent ex#lanation6 -orchin et al+ com#ared #arasites o$ in*asi*e

s#ecies in their nati*e and introduced ran&es6 -he number o$ #arasites $ound in nati*e

#o#ulations was twice that $ound in introduced#o#ulations

• "hat makes communities #rone to in*asion'o -heory #redicts that systems that are more di$erse should be

more resistant to in*asion



Exam III Notes

-o test this idea0 1tachowic@ et al+ constructed

ex#erimental communities o$ sessile marinein*ertebrates *aryin& in richness o$ nati*e s#ecies

6-hey $ound that increased s#ecies richnesssi&ni4cantly decreased in*asion success

6 -his is because more s#ecies rich communitiesmore com#letely and eVciently use limitin&resources

6 -hey concluded that declinin& biodi*ersity$acilitates in*asion, $urther acceleratin& loss o$biodi*ersity

o Communities that are subJect to additional stresses are more#rone to in*asion

-o test this idea0 1tachowic@ et al+ in*esti&ated the

e.ect o$ winter water tem#erature on the recruitment

o$ nati*e and nonnati*e ascidians in New En&land6 nnual recruitment o$ introduced s#ecies was

#ositi*ely related to water tem#erature0 whereasrecruitment o$ nati*e s#ecies was ne&ati*elyrelated to water tem#erature

6 ?urthermore0 introduced s#ecies &rew $aster thannati*e s#ecies at warmer tem#eratures

• "hat are maJor causes o$ in*asions'o An in$asi$e species mst ha$e a means of crossing a

barrier that it wold not natrally crosso 7n$asion sccess is li%ely related to the fre@ency with

which potential in$aders arri$eo -he ballast water o$ shi#s #ro*ides a $re5uent source o$

mo*ement across lon& distances =allast water exchan&e in*ol*es re#lacin& coastal

water with o#en ocean water durin& a *oya&e ,rocess reduces the density o$ coastal or&anisms in

ballast tanks that mi&ht in*ade reci#ient #ort =allast water exchan&e is recommended as a

$olntary measure by the International Maritime

3r&ani@ation

2+ ,ollution



Exam III Notes

• "hat are the maJor causes o$ #ollution'

,= Toxic Sbstances .= Ntrient Sorces

Metals 1ewa&e

,esticides ?ertili@er

,C=s nimal "aste

3il tmos#heric sources

a+ -oxic 1ubstances

− Hea$y metals

o 5ercry reaches the ocean in low concentrationsthrou&h natural weatherin& o$ rocks and *olcanicacti*ity

o 9ischar&es $rom industries0 cities0 and coal burnin&ha*e increased the concentration o$ mercury inmarine en*ironment

o Mercury combines with or&anic chemicals to $ormor&anic com#ounds such as methyl mercury0 whichare #articularly toxic

5ethyl 5ercry accumulates in the $ood

chain Older 8sh6 higher in the food chain ha$e

H7&H*R mercry le$els "hen humans eat 4sh containin& mercury0

they may su.er neurolo&ical disorders0#aralysis and death

o 3ther #roblem hea*y metals: !admim → batteries and com#uters

"ead → batteries0 #aints0 $uel additi*es !opper → wood treatment0 other industries

− Pesticides

o ,esticides are usually desi&ned to kill terrestrialinsects0 but they are carried to the ocean by ri*ers

o ,esticides are taken u# by #lankton0 thenaccumulate and are ma&ni4ed $urther u# the $ood

chaino -he e.ects o$ chlorinated hydrocarbons /ex+ 99-! on

birds are dramatic )i&h concentrations accumulate in body $at

and inter$ere with re#roduction0 s#eci4callythe de#osition o$ calcium in e&& shells

In 720 99- and other chlorinated

hydrocarbons were banned in the A1



Exam III Notes

− P!/so ,olychlorinated bi#henyls /,C=s! deri*e $rom

industrial acti*ities and #ose a maJor toxicity#roblem in estuarine en*ironments

o ccumulate in $ood chains and $ound as a

contaminant o$ marine in*ertebrates0 4shes0 andmarine mammals

Im#licated in re#roducti*e $ailures in marine

mammal #o#ulations /causes carcinoma inmice!

− Oil

o n estimated HD million tons o$ oil enters the worldoceans each year *ia natural see#a&e

o n estimated WD2 million tons o$ oil and deri*ati*es

enter each year as a result o$ #ollutiono lmost DHP o$ the #ollutin& oil in the A1 comes $rom

storm water0 ri*er runo.0 and $uel $rom small cra$to 3il can ha*e shortterm and lon&term e.ect on

marine li$e =irds and mammals are #articularly a.ected

→many die o$ ex#osure because oil co*ered$ur and $eathers loses its insulatin& #ro#erties

Reco*ery is estimated to *ary $rom ; to

years

o

Reducin& oil #ollution Doble+hlled tankers minimi@e loss o$ car&o

/oil! in the e*ent o$ minor accidents Ase o$ doublehulls $or oil tankers is

recommended

b+ Nutrient 1ources

− )uman acti*ities result in lar&e additions o$ dissol*ednutrients to coastal waters:

o 1ewa&e treatment out$all #i#es /nitro&en!o 1torm sewer o*er%ows

o Commercial $ertili@er → runo. $rom a&riculturallands

o nimal waste→ runo. $rom a&ricultural lands

o tmos#heric de#osition

− -he atmos#here can be a maJor source o$ nutrient additionto the ocean



Exam III Notes

− ?ossil $uel combustion is a maJor source o$ nitro&en oxideemissions

− Baseous emissions return to Earth as soluble nitrates in#reci#itation

−

E.ects o$ added nutrientso *trophication is the ecosystem8s res#onse to the

addition o$ dissol*ed nutrients common res#onse is $or a #hyto#lankton

bloom $ollowed by hypoxia /oxy&ende4ciency o$ or&anism! or anoxia /no oxy&en!

)y#oxia leads to crashes in #o#ulation o$

@oo#lankton and nekton

o De$elopment of hypoxia in an estary Normal situation: #hyto#lankton is &ra@ed and

bottom waters are oxy&enated Nutrient in#ut stimulates #hyto#lankton

&rowth and dead #hyto#lankton sink →bacterial decom#osition reduces oxy&encontent o$ water

3xy&en is remo*ed $rom bottom waters and

benthic or&anisms dieo Lar&e dead @ones can a##ear as a result o$ nutrient

additiono -y#ically0 lar&e amounts o$ nutrients $rom a

watershed are carried to sea by a ri*er0 stimulatin&

#rimary #roduction0 microbial acti*ity0 hy#oxia0 andanoxia

− Reducin& nutrient in#uts

o Eliminatin& ocean dum#in& o$ solid sewa&e waste andbetter treatment o$ sewa&e be$ore wastewaters arereleased into the coastal @one can abateeutro#hication

o ,rimary treatment remo*es solids secondarytreatment remo*es toxic com#ounds tertiarytreatment remo*es nitrates and #hos#hates0 but this

method is expensi$e

− "hat action can be taken'o Chan&e be&ins with us

Make better choices with $ood

(+ )abitat destruction



Exam III Notes

• "hat are the maJor causes o$ habitat destruction'o !oastal de$elopment: dred&in&0 dum#in& o$ silt and

mud0 land4llin& 5a3or dri$ers: &rowin& cities0 increased

tourism0 industrial de*elo#ment

o Trawling: trawls are dra&&ed alon& the bottom tosu##ly 4sh and shrim# to markets

5a3or dri$ers: &o*ernment subsidies andcustomer demand $or trawl cau&ht 4sh

− "hat action can be taken'o Chan&e be&ins with us

Make better choices about where we choose tostay and li*e



Exam III Notes

Lecture (7: -hreats to Marine =iodi*ersity III /Blobal warmin& 3cean cidi4cation!

• Main Questions to be answered in this section:! )ow ha*e C32 and sea sur$ace tem#erature chan&ed o*er

the last century'2! )ow does burnin& $ossil $uels cause an increase in sea

sur$ace tem#erature'(! )ow ha*e C32 and ocean #) chan&ed o*er the last century'! )ow does burnin& $ossil $uels cause a decrease in ocean

#)'H! Ex#lain why the #rocess o$ #hysiolo&ical acclimation

#ro*ides ho#e $or the $uture+W! Ex#lain why the #rocess o$ e*olutionary ada#tation #ro*ides

ho#e $or the $uture

! Blobal "armin&• Blobal warmin& trends

o )istoric trends Reconstructed tem#erature trends are taken $rom $ree

rin&s0 ice cores0 and coral cores -here is a &eneral ne&ati*e trend until the start o$ the

FFs

o Current -rends:

o 3n a*era&e0 ex#ect a (C rise in sea sur$ace tem#eraturesby year 2FF

Blobal -em#erature 1ea 1ur$ace -em#erature



Exam III Notes

• =iolo&ical im#acts o$ warmin&o =iolo&ical im#acts:

Corals

=leachin&

?ish ,hysiolo&y Li$e )istory

,o#ulation Community

Ran&e shi$ts

,o#ulation declines

o Im#acts on Corals: =leachin&

−

Coral #oly#s $orm obli&ate symbiotic relationshi# with@ooxanthellae /dino%a&ellates!

− )ow each #artner bene4ts: More than FW @ooxanthellae #er cm2 o$ coral

sur$ace ,roducts o$ #hotosynthesis /su&ars0 oxy&en! are

translocated to the host Kooxanthellae also aid in the hose calci4cation

)ost #oly#s also $eed by catchin& @oo#lankton0

#roducin& nitro&en $or both the host and the@ooxanthellae

!oral bleaching is the brea%down of symbiosis

− =leachin& is associated with ele*ated tem#eratures

− Im#lications o$ bleachin&:

-here is an increase in

&eneralists and a drasticdecrease in theabundance o$ s#ecialists



Exam III Notes

o Im#acts on 4sh: ,hysiolo&y

− Ele*ated tem#erature increases basal metabolic rate

− ;Aerobic scope< → the di.erence between basal andmaximal metabolic rates

6 De8nes the amont of aerobic energy

that can be allocated to higher le$elacti$ities

− Measurin& aerobic sco#e in 4shes Res#irometry a##aratus

3xy&en u#take is a #roxy $or metabolic rate

Measure oxy&en u#take at rest /M32rest! and

when swimmin& a&ainst a current /M32max! biotic $actors can be modi4ed

Aerobic scope declines at high temperatres

o Im#acts on 4sh: li$e history

− Reduction in aerobic sco#e a.ects hi&her le*el$unctions

&rowth and reprodcti$e rates decline

beyond aerobic optimm -ro#ical s#ecies are more susce#tible due to a

narrower thermal ran&e

&rowth declines at high temperatres

Inde#endent e.ects o$ $ood and tem#erature

Increased $ood does not ameliorate e.ects o$

tem#erature at (C Ex#eriment increased the sea sur$ace

tem#erature by (C as ex#ected by 2FF

"hite U hi&h $ood=lack U low $ood



Exam III Notes

Reprodcti$e failre at high temperatres ?ood and tem#erature in%uence multi#le #roxies

o$ re#roducti*e success "ow food pairs experience reprodcti$e

failre at high temperatres

o Im#acts on #o#ulations: Ran&e 1hi$ts

− *era&e rate o$ warmin& on land /F+2P #er decade!is &reater than the ocean8s a*era&e rate o$ warmin&/F+F7P #er decade!

The ocean experiences more rapid seasonal

shifts in climate daysCdecade- than land ate@i$alent latitde

− Ran&e shi$ts im#act 4sheries

o Im#acts on #o#ulations: ?ood "ebs

− Orill are shrim#like herbi*orous members o$ the@oo#lankton community

− bundant in the ntarctic where they $eed on al&aeunder sea ice

− Orill are a key tro#hic &rou# in the ntarcticecosystem

>rill decline a4ects the food web from

bottom+p

− Orill density related to sea ice

Orill abundance is hi&h with lon& duration o$ ice

2! 3cean cidi4cation /;the e*il twin o$ &lobal warmin&<!



Exam III Notes

• #) trends are linked with #artial #ressure o$ C32

o s the #artial #ressure o$ C32 increases0 #) decreases /moreacidic!

• #) and #artial #ressure o$ C32 trends are linked with 9IC

o 3n a*era&e0 ex#ect a reduction in #) by F+( units by 2FF

• =iolo&ical im#acts o$ acidi4cationo Calci4ers

− Reduced calci4cationo ?ish

− ,hysiolo&y

− Li$e history

• Im#acts on corals: reduced calci4cation

o cidi4cation will inhibit corals8 ability to de#osit calciumcarbonate and build ree$ structure

• Im#acts on #lankton: reduced calci4cationo cidi4cation will inhibit calci4cation by #lankton /#tero#ods0

$oramini$era0 coccolitho#hores!

• Im#acts on 4sh: sensoryo cidi4cation will disru#t chemosensory ca#ability in lar*a

o )abitat cues: Rain$orest tree /#re$erred!

1wam# tree /not #re$erred!

-ro#ical &rass /not #re$erred!

nemone /#re$erred!

o 1ocial cues: ,arent /not #re$erred! Non#arent /#re$erred!

o cidi4cation will in%uence auditory ca#ability in lar*a Lar*a raised in hi&h C32 treatments #re$er daytime

ree$ sounds

o cidi4cation in%uences rates o$ mortality in the 4eld >u*eniles raised in hi&h C32 treatments su.er hi&her

#redation mortality

• Im#acts on 4sh: li$e history



Exam III Notes

o Common #rediction is that ocean acidi4cation a.ects&rowth0 es#ecially durin& early li$e history

o Re&ulatin& acidbase balance o$ cells occurs *ia acti*e iontrans#ort0 and re5uires ener&y

Less ener&y there$ore a*ailable $or hi&her $unctions

o cidi4cation #ositi*ely a.ects lar*al &rowth Lar*ae raised In hi&h C32 treatments &rew $aster

(! )o#e $or the ?uture

• )o#e: da#tation

o ,otential mechanism to counter ra#id climate chan&eo E*olution can be ra#id

o Challen&es lie in understandin&: "hat $actors constrain or #romote e*olutionary

res#onses' "ill e*olutionary res#onses kee# u# with #ace o$

climate chan&e' "ill simultaneous ada#tation to warmin& and ocean

acidi4cation be #ossible'

• da#tation to ocean warmin&o 1ymbiont &enerally *iewed as ;weaker link<o 1ymbionts *ary in their thermal resistance

o 1ome coralsymbiont combinations react better to thermalstress

o ariation on which natural selection can act

• Corals may ada#t by hostin& thermallyresistant @ooxanthellae

• )o#e: cclimationo cclimation → the #rocess in which an indi*idual or&anism

adJusts to a &radual chan&e in its en*ironment allowin& it tomaintain #er$ormance across a ran&e o$ en*ironmentalconditions

,otential $or De$elopmental cclimation ,otential $or Transgenerational cclimation

o -rans&enerational cclimation No de*elo#mental acclimation 3.s#rin& o$ #arents raised at +H or ( had hi&her

aerobic sco#e than their #arents



Exam III Notes

Lecture (: Measurin& and aluin& =iodi*ersity

• Main Questions to be answered in this section:! "hat is the *alue o$ biodi*ersity in economic and

medical terms'

+ alue o$ biodi*ersity

• "hat is biodi*ersity

o =iolo&ical di*ersity /biodi*ersity! is the *ariety o$ li$e on earth Gits &enes0 s#ecies0 #o#ulations0 and ecosystems

• W MaJor threats to marine biodi*ersity! In*asi*e s#ecies2! ,ollution(! )abitat destruction! 3*erex#loitationH! Blobal chan&eW! #athy and the tra&edy o$ the commons

• "hat incenti*e is there to act'o Ecosystem 1er*ice:

!ltral Ser$ices

− Nonmaterial bene4ts that #eo#le obtain $romecosystems: recreational0 aesthetic0 s#iritual0intellectual

− 3utdoor recreation and ecotourism are bi&

industries0 and contribute a si&ni4cant #ortion o$ B9, in some nations

− 3ri&inally #ercei*ed as bein& subJecti*e orluxuries only a*ailable to a minority o$indi*idualsX

Pro$isioning Ser$ices

− ,roducts that #eo#le obtain $rom ecosystems:?ood0 $uel0 4bers0 medicines

− ?ish is a core com#onent o$ #eo#les8 diets inmany #arts o$ the world0 where it is #rimarysource o$ #rotein $or 2FP o$ the #o#ulation

Reglating Ser$ices

− =ene4ts that #eo#le obtain $rom en*ironmentalre&ulation o$ ecosystem #rocesses:

o Cleanin& airo ,uri$yin& water



Exam III Notes

o Miti&atin& %oodso Controllin& erosion

o 9etoxi$yin& soils

o Modi$yin& climate

− In wetland sediments0 #hysical0 chemical andbiolo&ical #rocesses #uri$y water by remo*in&nutrients0 toxins0 and human waste

− In estuaries0 bi*al*e molluscs0 includin& mussels0clams0 and oysters0 act as 4lterin& systems thatconsume al&ae secondary to eutro#hication andenhance #roducti*ity

− Man&ro*e $orests and salt marshes bu.er theland a&ainst ocean storm sur&es and #re*entcoastal erosion0 durin& normal and extreme/hurricane and tsunami e*ents!

Spporting Ser$ices

− 1er*ices necessary $or the #roduction o$ all otherecosystem ser*ices:

o ,rimary #roducti*ityo Nutrient cyclin&

o ,ollination

− Net #rimary #roduction is the amount o$ #lantmaterial #roduced durin& a year as a #roduct o$

#hotosynthesis− ?or the world8s ocean ecosystems N,, is

estimated to be around 2F billion metric tons0and it su##orts marine 4sheries and the cyclin&o$ nutrients in oceans

*cosystem Ser$ices

− maJor challen&e is to *alue in dollar terms allo$ these ecosystem ser*ices

− 3nly then can we understand the costs andbene4ts o$ enhancin&Sdiminishin& biodi*ersity inthe same currency as that on which mostdecisions

Marine Biology Exam III Study Guide

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