Maria Martinez Ayerza

High in the air Sight reading, transposition and memory skills

for recorder players

Conservatorium van Amsterdam, march 2006

Thesis for the completion of the advanced music studies

1

Table of contents Page

Fingering symbols 2

Introduction 3

1. Sight reading 4

1.1. General information

1.2. Specific aspects of sight-reading concerning recorder players

1.2.1. Real pitch

1.2.2. Suggestions for the development of sight-reading skills

2. Transposition 10

2.1. Definition

2.2. Specific aspects of transposition concerning recorder players

2.2.1. Transposing while sight-reading

- Method I: changing the clef and key signature

- Method 2: use of intervallic structures

- Method 3: use of harmonic analysis

2.2.2. The recorder as a transposing instrument

- Transposing instruments

- Observations on teaching G-alto

2.2.3. Open and shaded tonalities

3. Memory skills 19

3.1. General information

3.2. Specific aspects of memory skills concerning recorder players

Bibliography 24

2

Fingering symbols

This paper uses the standard fingering nomenclature:

Strikethrough numbers indicate half-covered holes (as in 01234567)

3

Introduction

Sight-reading, transposition and memory are essential performance sub-skills for advanced

musicians. They make players more flexible, improve performance efficiency, increase self-

confidence and reduce dependency on the written score: a trait that remains typical of

classical music education in conservatories. These three skills are interrelated. The

development of one of them will reinforce the others, since they share a basic cognitive

process: the assimilation and recognition of musical patterns.

The development of music psychology during the past century has provided abundant

information about the cognitive processes underlying sight-reading, transposition and

memory skills that have significant implications for teachers and musicians. Nevertheless, a

detailed description of these psychological procedures is beyond the practical purposes of this

paper.

The fact that this thesis is especially addressed to recorder players responds to the

insufficient attention that sight-reading, transposition and memory skills usually receive in the

recorder education at music schools and conservatories. Therefore, this essay aims to provide

basic background information concerning the aforementioned skills; discuss specific issues of

these abilities which are directly relevant for recorder players; give basic advice to advanced

players willing to improve their sight-reading, transposition and memory skills and provide

both players and composers with a clear guide of the size, pitch and range of recorders.

This paper is divided in three sections, dealing with sight-reading, transposition and

memory skills respectively. Each section starts with a general introduction (for which the

main information sources are scientific articles, books and methods), followed by the

discussion of specific topics related to the recorder (for which an important information

source has been my own experience, next to existing recorder methods).

This research is addressed to advanced recorder players, teachers willing to stimulate

the development of sight-reading, transposition or memory skills of their students, and other

musicians interested on the acquisition and development of these skills, since many of the

principles exposed in this paper are applicable to other instruments as well.

4

1. Sight-reading

1.1. General information

- Definition and advantages

The musical term sight-reading refers to the performance of unfamiliar music from the

score without previous rehearsal. This skill is typical of Western classical music, where

musical notation is essential for the composition, conservation and transmission of musical

works1. Developing sight-reading skills offers considerable advantages for any musician: it

reduces the necessary study time to be able to perform a piece in public, it is crucial for the

musical activities of accompanists and orchestral musicians and it makes the player more self-

confident and reliable.

- How does it work?

The sight-reading of music relies on the short-term memory of the player, where the

information deciphered from the score is stored for a few seconds in the form of information

chunks (musically meaningful units). This process is easy to understand through an analogy

with language: if one reads a text, the smallest possible information chunk is one letter, if you

read music, one tone. If you are familiar with the language of a text, your mind will

automatically group several letters together: you will perceive a word like ‘example’ as a

meaningful unit and not as the sum of 7 letters. In the same way, the assimilation of certain

musical structures (like scales, arpeggios or sequences) makes them easy to recognize as

musically meaningful units and allows the player to sight-read more comfortably.

Recent studies about the acquisition of sight-reading skills (like Goolsby, 1994 and

Waters, 1997) have shown that good readers scan the page more efficiently than poor readers,

looking for eventually difficult passages that they are therefore able to prepare to a higher

standard. In addition to this, good readers seem to be able to recall more fragments of a piece

they have just played than poor ones. This is relevant because similar musical material can

come back several times during a piece, and to improve the performance level in a second

interpretation of the same work.

How can musicians improve their sight-reading skills?

Psychologists agree on two determinant factors that help improving the development of

sight-reading skills in musicians:

- Experience (sight-reading regularly)

- Familiarity with the repertoire: the greater the knowledge of a certain style, the more

fluent the sight-reading.

1 A very interesting vision on the function and problems of Western notation can be found in chapter 4 of Nicholas Cook’s Music. A very short introduction (2000).

5

Experience can be acquired by sight-reading regularly, during practice sessions,

rehearsals and even in public performances. It is essential to choose pieces with growing

technical and expressive demands.

Familiarity with the repertoire can be built up listening to recordings or improvising on

the chosen style. Both ways help to assimilate the recurring patterns of the chosen style.

Lehmann & McArthur (2002) suggest the following strategies to practice sight-reading:

Practicing for performance Practicing sight-reading

Correct your mistakes Maintain rhythm and meter Look at hands while playing Avoid looking at hands

The details are important The big picture is important Correct fingering is crucial Get to notes however you can Avoid errors and omissions Errors and omissions are OK

6

1.2. Specific aspects of sight-reading concerning recorder players

1.2.1. Real pitch

The sounding pitch of recorders is often confusing for listeners. As early as 1619,

Michael Praetorius pointed out in his Syntagma Musicum that recorders actually sound an

octave higher than is usually indicated. Many modern editions have appeared with wrong

clefs, in which the notated pitch is an octave lower than intended. For example, the Schott

edition of the C major concerto RV 4432 by Antonio Vivaldi is notated like this:

This actually corresponds to the compass of an alto recorder. The correct notation for

sopranino implies the use of an ottava (8) sign above the clef, indicating that the sounding

pitch is one octave higher than written:

The following table illustrates the sounding and written pitch of different types of

recorders. The first column shows the real pitch in treble or bass clef, the second, the clef in

which music for the instrument should be notated. In the case of instruments in different tones

(keys) than C and F (the standard modern fingering systems), the right column includes also

instructions to write a transposed part.

Instrument

Lowest note (real pitch)

Lowest note (written pitch)

Piccolino in F

Garklein in C

Sopranino in G

transp. 1 tone down (F-fingerings, + 2 flats)

Sopranino in F

Sixth flute in D

transp. 1 tone down (C-fingerings + 2 flats)

Soprano in C (Fifth flute)

2 Originalmusik für Blockflöte OFB 113

7

Instrument

Lowest note (real pitch)

Lowest note (written pitch)

Fourth flute in Bb

transp. 1 tone up (C-fingerings + 2 sharps)

Third flute in A

transp. minor 3rd up (C-fingerings + 3 flats)

Alternative: Maj. 3rd down, F-fing., + 4 flats

Alto in G

1 tone down (F-fingerings, + 2 flats)

Alto in F

(Alto in Eb)

1 tone up (F-fingerings, + 2 sharps)

Voice flute in d

1 tone down (C-fingerings, + 2 flats)

Tenor in c

Basset in g

1 tone down (F-fingerings, +2 flats)

Basset in f

Great bass in c

Double bass in f

Contrabass in c

Sub-contrabass Bb

5th up, F-fingerings, + 1 sharp

Sub-contrabass F

8

Next to the existing variety of commercially available recorder sizes (shown in the table

above), another factor contributes to the expansion of the recorder family: makers build

instruments using different pitch reference standards. Renaissance instruments are often tuned

in A=512 Hz. or A=466 Hz.; modern instruments in A=440 Hz.; baroque instruments in

A=415 Hz. or A=392 Hz. (French baroque pitch). All these pitches are a half-step apart.

It is possible to consider an instrument tuned to a certain pitch as a different size tuned to

another. For example: an F-alto in 440 can be considered as a G alto in 392. The following

table shows how five different f-altos, tuned to different pitches, can be considered as five

different models in A=440:

A= 392 (-1 tone) A = 415 (-1 semitone) A = 440 (reference) A = 466 (+1 semitone) A = 512 (+1 tone) Alto in F (392) = Alto en Eb (440)

Alto in F (415) = Alto in E (440)

Alto in F

Alto in F (466) = Alto in F# /Gb (440)

Alto in F (512) = Alto in G (440)

With this information, it is possible to fill the chromatic gaps of the table on pages 7-8,

obtaining a fully chromatic range of recorders:

Instrument

Lowest note (real pitch)

Lowest note (as written)

Soprano in b

transp. 1 semitone up, C-fingerings + 5 flats

Alto in Ab

transp. min. 3rd down, F-fingerings + 3 flats

Alto in F#/Gb

Chr.semitone down, F-fing., +7 flats, or Diat.semitone down, F-fing, + 5 sharps

Alto in e

Diatonic semitone up, F-fingerings, + 5 flats

Tenor in c#(db)

Chr.semitone down, C-fing., +7 flats, or Diat.semitone down, C-fing, + 5 sharps

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1.2.2. Suggestions for the development of sight-reading skills

As mentioned above, the development of sight-reading skills depends on two main

factors: experience and familiarity with the repertoire. Integrating short sight-reading sessions

(of around 20-30 minutes) two times a week in the regular practice routine should be enough

to enhance the sight-reading skills of a player. Since recorder players usually deal with very

different music styles, it is recommendable also to vary the style of the material used for

sight-reading, as long as the chosen pieces are technically challenging for the player (overly

simple works will not stimulate any development).

During a sight-reading practice session, the following procedure can be followed:

- Scan the score before playing. Focus first on understanding the musical form: look

for repetitions, da capo and dal segno signs.

- Identify technically difficult passages and try to prepare them mentally.

- Play the piece, making a clever tempo choice. Do not stop or correct eventual

mistakes: concentrate on the overview of the piece.

- After the first performance, evaluate your playing. Have a look at the problematic

passages, but do not practice them on your instrument. Try to elaborate strategies to perform

them better on a second run through.

- If certain passages continue to be technically problematic, spend no longer than five

minutes on them between your second and third run through.

- After the third run through, move on to another piece.

This way of practicing focuses on the importance of mental preparation: many

players tend to repeat difficult passages over and over in an unvaried manner, while looking

for possible alternatives can make it feel much easier.

When sight-reading non - original recorder music, players might need to transpose on

the spot. Therefore, the next chapter focuses on the development of transposition skills and

the means by which recorder players deal with the great variety of instruments of the recorder

family.

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2. Transposition

2.1 Definition

According to The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, transposition is

‘the notation or performance of music at a pitch different from that in which it was originally

conceived or notated, by raising or lowering all the notes in it by a given interval.’

Considering, for example, the following fragments:

Example I Example II

Example II is a transposition of the first one a fourth up.

2.2 Specific aspects of transposition concerning recorder players

Two aspects of transposition are especially relevant for recorder players:

a) Transposing while sight-reading

b) Considering certain recorder models as transposing instruments

2.2.1 Transposing while sight-reading

The ability of transposing while sight-reading is very practical for recorder players in

a variety of situations:

- when trying out different transpositions or instrumentations for a piece

- when playing unconventional recorder models (like a fourth flute in Bb)

Hereunder three different transposition methods are presented, based respectively on

the imagination of a new clef and key signature, the recognition of intervallic structures and

the harmonic analysis of a piece.

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Method 1: Changing the clef and key signature

This graphic is a representation of the circle of fifths. Outside the circle appear the

major (in capitals) and minor tonalities (in small letters), inside, the number of accidentals in

the key signature of every tonality. Enharmonic tonalities always make the sum of twelve

accidentals (for example: C# Major has seven sharps and Db Major five flats, together they

make twelve.)

The circle of fifths is the basis of a basic transposition method for tonal music that

can be illustrated through this example.

from J.S. Bach, Musikalisches Opfer BWV 1080

To transpose this melody a minor third down:

a) Find out the original tonality (in this case, c-minor)

b) Find out the new tonality (a minor third under the original one, therefore: a minor)

c) Find out the new clef. The first original note is C. The new first note must be a

minor third below: A. Find out in which clef the first tone is called "a", in this case, c on the

first line. This is the imaginary clef to use.

d) Check the graphic above. Find the original tonality and the new one. Count the

steps between both following the shortest way (in this case 3 steps to the right). The arrows

inside the circle indicate the two possible directions: to the right (when adding sharps to the

original key signature) or to the left (when adding flats). Then check the following table:

Steps 1 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 5 – 6 – 7 – 8 – 9 – 10 – 11 – 12

To the right (adding sharps) F – C – G – D – A – E – B – F# – C# – G# – D# – A#

To the left (adding flats) B – E – A – D – G – C – F – Bb – Eb – Ab – Db – Gb

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Having taken three steps to the right, whenever the tones F, C and G receive an accidental in

the transposed version, you must read them a half-step higher than notated.

At the end of this process, you would read:

When making a transposition in which you need to add flats, the corresponding steps

must be lowered by a half-step. To simplify this calculation, you can also make use of the

following table:

Interval Up Down

Minor second diatonic: + 5 flats (b, e, a ,d ,g down) or chromatic: + 7 sharps (all up)

diatonic: + 5 sharps (f, c, g, d, a up) or chromatic: + 7 flats (all down)

Major second + 2 sharps (f, c up) + 2 flats (b, e down) Minor third + 3 flats (b, e, a down) + 3 sharps (f, c, g up) Major third + 4 sharps (f, c, g, d up) + 4 flats (b, e, a, d down)

Perfect fourth + 1 flat (b down) + 1 sharp (f up) Augmented fourth + 6 sharps (f, c, g, d, a, e up) + 6 flats (b, e, a, d, g, c down)

Once you have established the new tonality, and before you start playing, run through

some scales and arpeggios in the new tonality. Make sure you that you are aware of where the

half-tone steps are, so as to be able to use them as checkpoints.

The main advantage of this system is that we continue to be conscious of the real

pitch. The problem is that to be able to transpose to any tonality one must be able to read in

all the clefs (seven in total), and having to replace the accidentals mentally can create

confusion or insecurity.

A similar transposition method was already being employed by amateur recorder

players in the seventeenth century: the anonymous Italian handbook Tutto il bisognevole...,

probably written around 1670, includes a table of transpositions based on clef and key

signature changes, so that amateurs are able to play their favourite songs and opera arias if the

original vocal range is out of the recorder compass.

- Method 2: Use of intervallic structures

This system is based on the mental recognition of the intervals that conform the

melody we want to transpose. In the example used before, we recognize the following

intervals:

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This method is especially suitable to transpose previously memorized melodies, since

it is necessary to avoid thinking note names to make use of it. This might sound complicated,

but we often do it unconsciously: when we whistle or sing a familiar tune, our mind

automatically applies the melodic intervals independently of the chosen starting pitch.

The application of this transposition method when playing recorder implies training

the ability of automatically playing any interval from any fingering, as suggested by Walter

van Hauwe in The Modern Recorder Player, volume II, part I ("About scales and arpeggios").

Following Van Hauwe's principles, to transpose the given fragment a minor third down, the

first step is finding the new first fingering. If the above example is played on a tenor recorder,

the first fingering in the original tonality is 02. If the player wishes to transpose the fragment

a minor third down, the first fingering will be a minor third below 02 (0 12). The player can

then perform the melody by reproducing its intervallic structure.

A great advantage of this way of transposing is its universal versatility. It is possible

to apply it to tonal music, like the given example, but also to non-tonal music (based on

pentatonic, whole-tone or octotonic scales, church modes or even atonal)which can be studied

with this approach. Next to van Hauwe’s book, the method Recorder Revisited by Erik

Bosgraaf offers multiple exercises through which players can internalize the intervallic

distance between fingerings.

- Method 3: Use of harmonic analysis

The harmonic method is based on the harmonic function of the notes and their

position in a certain chord. For example:

Telemann, Fantasia TWV 40:12 (arranged for alto recorder)

The harmonic scheme of this fragment can be applied to any other tonality. Knowing

the function and disposition of the chords (indicated in the example by the figured bass) it is

possible to transpose the fragment. This method can rarely be used independently, since

compositions are not always as harmonically clear as this example. Nevertheless, good

understanding of the harmony of a piece combined with any of the other transposition

methods described above can be extremely helpful.

14

The recorder as a transposing instrument

- Transposing instruments

The New Grove Dictionary online defines transposing instruments as follows:

‘Instruments for which the music is not notated at the actual pitch of the sound, but is transposed upwards or downwards by some specific musical interval. Transposition is traditionally reckoned

relative to the pitch C (…) The intention is to maintain the relationship between notation and execution (fingering etc.) among instruments of a similar kind but of different pitch.’

Many modern woodwind instruments are transposing: a clarinet in Bb, for example

sounds a major second lower than notated. If the player reads

the sounding pitch will be

Published parts for clarinet in Bb are transposed one tone up so that the player can

read comfortably.

Because of the development of this transposing system, woodwind players often learn

one set of fingerings (‘in C’) that they use on all the members of their instrumental family.

Recorder players, on the contrary, usually learn two sets of fingerings (for instruments in C

and in F, which became a standard in the 1940s). Next to instruments in C and F, recorders in

G (like Renaissance altos), D (like the baroque voice flute and sixth flute) and Bb are

relatively common. Most players and teachers consider these models as transposing

instruments, although learning a third or fourth fingering system is also an option for

frequently played models, such as G-alto or voice flute.

In the past, many recorder sizes were considered transposing instruments. In England,

in the late seventeenth century and first half of the eighteenth, the names third flute, fourth

flute, fifth flute and sixth flute designated different kinds of recorders tuned respectively a

third, fourth, fifth and sixth above an F-alto recorder, the standard model at the time. These

models were transposing instruments: music was adjusted so that players could always read

F-fingerings. This is the case in the solo part of the concerto in F for soprano recorder and

strings by Giuseppe Sammartini (1695-1750) and in the concerti for sixth flute by John

Baston (fl. 1708-39), William Babell (c.1690-1723) and Robert Woodcock (1690 - 1728).

A logical order to learn new fingering systems could be the following:

1) Renaissance alto in G: this is a good instrument to play early solo and ensemble

repertoire. In the earliest known treatises mentioning the recorder family, like Musica

Getutscht (1511) by Sebastian Virdung, Musica Instrumentalis Deudsch (1529) by Martin

Agricola and Opera intitulata Fontegara (1535) by Sylvestro Ganassi, G-alto was the highest

model.

15

2) Voice flute in D: the system to learn its fingerings is basically the same than for

the G-alto. Learning to sight-read music for voice flute allows the student to perform a large

amount of baroque music originally written for transverse flute whilst keeping the original

tonality.

3) Recorders in B flat (like the baroque fourth flute or some Renaissance models of

tenor, bass and sub-contrabass).

4) Recorders in other keys.

- Observations on learning G-alto as a transposing or non-transposing instrument

To illustrate how models in other tones than F or C can be introduced to students, G-

alto has been taken as an example: the following remarks are also valid for other models. It is

important to learn G-fingerings on an instrument in G (and not, for example, on one in F), to

create the right association between fingering and pitch, and to enhance the perception of

sound and character differences with other models.

G-alto as a non-transposing instrument

When learning G-alto as a non-transposing instrument, G-fingerings must be learnt as

a completely new system. This means creating the association

0 1234567

with all its consequences: if we raise finger 7, we get an A, if then we raise finger 6, we get B,

and so on.) The problem of this system is that F and G fingerings are only one tone apart: they

are so close that the player might shift or confuse the pitches3. To avoid, it is useful to

establish some checkpoints from the beginning, namely:

- The lowest tone and its octave:

- The semitones of the G major scale:

To internalize this checkpoints, we can use exercises like

3 Except in the cases of students with absolute pitch.

16

that repeat the semitone link and consequently help the player to remember it. When this step

is assimilated we can start introducing minor scales with different half-tone steps (harmonic,

melodic, etc.), for example:

These exercises can be combined with the performance of pieces in G with very

simple modulations, gradually adding other modes or tonalities.

G-alto as a transposing instrument

Considering G-alto as a transposing instrument implies relating it to the closest

fingering system: F. Consequently, the player will think in F, but the instrument will sound

one tone higher. If the player reads

the sounding pitch will be

This means that music should be transposed one tone down to be able to play it in

real pitch. Since there are not many modern editions specifically arranged for G-alto, it is

really necessary (apart from very practical) for players to be able to sight-read G-fingerings.

A good piece to start could be the Ricercata Terza by Giovanni Bassano, which is constructed

mainly with scales and sequences and which begins and ends in G.

Bassano's Ricercata starts like this:

To transpose one tone down, we have to add two flats to the key signature and

imagine the same heights on a C clef on the fourth line (see ‘transposing a written tonal

melody’). 4

The main advantage of this system is that the same method (transposing one tone

down) can be applied to recorders in D in relation to C-fingerings. A student who can play G-

alto as a transposing instrument will also be able to learn quickly how to deal with

instruments in D.

4 In this case, the sounding pitch will in addition be an octave higher than notated.

17

2.2.3 Open and shaded tonalities

The recorder, because of its lack of keys, is a diatonic instrument. Walter van Hauwe

explains it as follows in The Modern Recorder Player:

‘the principle underlying recorder playing is simply that starting from the fingering 01234567 an interval of a major second results from the lifting of each consecutive finger.

The inevitable imperfection of the recorder results in exceptions which prove the rule.’5

There is a clear difference in sound quality between the diatonic tones obtained by

lifting consecutive fingers and the chromatic steps in between. These are produced by ‘fork

fingerings’, so called because they comprise one or more open finger holes between two

closed ones (for example 012 456 or 01234 67). Fork fingerings produce softer, darker and

more unstable tones than diatonic fingerings (with consecutive closed holes, for example

012345) - hence the choice of the adjectives "shaded" (for tonalities featuring several fork

fingerings) and "open" (for tonalities featuring several diatonic fingerings).

For recorders in which holes 6 and 7 are single (like Renaissance models and some

copies of Baroque instruments), the chromatic steps between the fingerings 0 1234567 - 0

123456 and 0 123456 – 0 12345 are very weak. The introduction of double holes, probably by

the maker Paul Bressan (1663 – 1731) contributed improving the sound quality of the lowest

four semitones of the recorder. Modern recorders like the ones developed by Maarten Helder

and Nikolas Tarasov have keys for finger number 7. Therefore in these models, chromatic

steps are more stable.

On Renaissance recorders, the difference between open and shaded fingerings is even

more extreme than on Baroque or modern ones. Pieces with one or two sharps sound brighter

and stable. Flats result darker, softer and unstable. In the standard baroque repertoire, key

signatures featuring more than three accidentals are rare. A remarkable exception is Georg

Philipp Telemann's sonata in F minor (TWV 41:f1), as well as collections like L'art de

Preluder, by Jacques Martin Hotteterre, or L'Alphabet de la Musique, by Johann Christian

Schickhardt that include pieces in all the tonalities.

The following table includes the optimal (open) and non-optimal (shaded) tonalities

for Baroque recorders. Instead of pitches, fingerings are used to indicate the tonic, so that the

same table can be applied to any model. The tonalities considered as ‘optimal’ are the one of

the lowest note of the instrument, those a fifth up and down, and their minor relatives. Non-

optimal tonalities are sorted according to the amount of awkward connections (of the kind

012456-0135, involving several fingers), the sound quality of the tonic and the fifth, and the

eventual use of hole 8. Although open tonalities give the best sound quality and respond to

the diatonic nature of the instrument, shaded tonalities can have a special, contrasting color.

5 Van Hauwe refers here to the interval between the fingerings 0123456 and 012345, which is smaller than a major second.

18

Baroque recorders

Optimal (open) Good Non-optimal (shaded)

0-1234567 Major 0-12 minor

0-123467 Major 0-123456 minor

0-123 Major

0-12345 minor

0-1234567 minor

0-135 Major 0-123 minor

0-123456 Major

0-1 minor

0-12 Major 0-12356 minor

0-123456 Major

0-12345 Major

0-1234567 minor

0-1234567 Major 0-135 minor

0-1 Major

0-12456 minor

0-12356 Major 0-123456 minor

0-12456 Major 0-123467 minor

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3 Memory skills

3.1 General information

Soloists and chamber music players often perform compositions by heart. The value of

performing by memory resides mainly in three aspects:

a) Practical reasons (like avoiding page turns or acquiring a better body posture)

b) Improvement of the communication between performer and audience, other

musicians or a conductor.

c) Memorizing a piece implies understanding it well: while memorizing, the

performer internalizes not only the structure, but also the expressive qualities of a musical

work.

The advantages of playing by heart are more obvious in live performances. The absence

of music stands and the possibility of establishing visual contact with the player has positive

effects in the way the audience perceives the performance. The experiments of Davidson

(1993) have demonstrated that visual perception is essential to music making, and that very

complex emotional, cognitive and personal information can be transmitted by movement.

Aaron Williamon (1999) confronted a group of listeners with four different versions of two

movements of Bach’s cello suites, played by the same cellist. One of the versions, identified

by the majority of the participants as the best in technical and expressive qualities, was played

by heart.

- How does it work?

When learning a piece of music, musicians use three kinds of long-time memory:

- Aural: memory of sound (a musician can imagine the forthcoming sounds while

playing and evaluate the performance in real time)

- Visual: memory of images (like a mental image of the written score)

- Kinesthetic: memory of movements

Combining these three types of memory helps players to memorize better.

Chase & Ericsson (1982) developed a theory about the use of retrieval structures in

music performance. According to this theory, our memory stores information in short

fragments or information chunks. Performing a certain fragment triggers the recovery of the

next information chunk, creating a chain that allows the player to play the piece from

beginning to end. Chase and Ericsson point out that performers are able to memorize faster if

they are familiar with the style of the work they are studying. Different pieces written in the

same style make use of similar patterns. If the performer is familiar with the style, he will

recognize them and will be able to memorize the music faster, in the same way that we can

easily identify and learn a text written in our native language. If the style is unfamiliar or too

complex (like atonal music), the player will have difficulties finding logical structures while

memorizing.

20

When performing music by heart, different memory layers are active (for example:

players must be conscious of the general structure of the piece but also of small details).

Chaffin & Imreh (1994) studied the process of a pianist learning the third movement of the

Italian Concerto by Bach and noticed seven different memorization layers, organized in three

groups:

Conceptual organization

Non-standard fingerings

Technical difficulties

Reproduction

Phrasing

Dynamics

Tempo

Interpretation

Emotional expressiveness Performance

The hierarchy changed within the process: at the end, the performer was consciously

busy with emotional expressiveness, while the reproduction and interpretation layers had been

almost entirely automatized.

- How do musicians approach this task?

Susan Hallam (1997) interviewed a group of musicians about their memorization

techniques. Her conclusion was that professional musicians show two different approaches to

memorization:

a) Repetition

b) Analysis (harmonic, formal, structural, etc.)

The combination of both systems is advantageous: repetition helps the storage of

aural and kinesthetic information, while analysis contributes to the internalization of patterns,

the knowledge of the form and structure of the piece and the storage of visual information.

How can musicians develop their memory skills?

Aiello & Williamon (2002) suggest that the best way to help students to improve their

memory skills is questioning them about the way they memorize pieces, so that they can

analyze their own working method and try different things. Improvising on the style of the

pieces that must be memorized might help, since it helps to assimilate basic musical patterns.

To learn the structure of a piece, Aiello suggests going through the following checklist:

-Describe and analyze the macro- and microstructure of the piece.

-Where are the landmarks? How do we get to them and out of them?

-How are the different sections of the piece linked?

-Highlight the most important melodic and rhythmic patterns of the piece and

determine their importance.

-Get to know the different entrances of the main themes

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-Get to know the harmonic structure (modulations, cadences)

-Memorize by logical sections

In his detailed study of musical memorization, Rubin-Rabson (1937, 1939, 1940, 1941)

gives similar advices:

-Analyze the piece before practicing it (to understand the big structure and identify

eventual problematic passages)

-Distribute practice over time (it is more efficient to have short but regular

memorizing sessions)

-Rehearse mentally (‘listen’ to the piece in your head and recall the physical

sensations of movement you experiment while performing the piece)

-Learn in sections

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3.2 Specific aspects of memory skills concerning recorder players

The general memorization guidelines suggested by Aiello and Rubin-Rabson, although

specifically directed to piano students, are also pertinent for recorder players. Nevertheless,

there are specific aspects that deserve some extra attention.

The first point to underline is that short but regular practicing sessions will be far more

helpful than long, sporadic ones. Learning a piece by heart is much more than being able to

recall the information expressed on the original score: it implies storing very detailed

structural, technical and expressive information (a few examples: fingerings, tone color

differences, the harmonic function of tones, timing, articulation, or the length of final chords).

It is important for any performer to combine different kinds of memorization exercises, to

stimulate the storage of information in the visual, aural and kinesthetic memory. Some

possible memorization strategies are:

For the visual memory:

a) Mark a few important moments (highlights, or places where you have to

pay special attention) with a colored pencil.

b) Play the piece (or a specific section) from the score, and immediately

after without it, trying to picture it in your mind.

For the aural memory:

a) Listen to a recording of the piece, to get a general impression.

b) Play or sing along with the recording.

c) Play the piece a few times. Identify peculiar motives or passages that

catch your attention.

For the kinesthetic memory:

a) Play the piece without blowing into your instrument, concentrating only

on your finger movements.

b) Try to think through the piece. Listen to it in your head and imagine

yourself playing it on your instrument; feel the movements you usually

make to produce the music.

c) Kinesthetic memory is especially active when learning very complex

contemporary music. Some gestures might be so complex that the player

will not have time to consciously recall every tone. The memory of

movements is then vital to repeat the same gesture efficiently.

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Since the recorder is a melody instrument, players memorizing polyphonic or ensemble

pieces tend to learn melodically rather than harmonically, or in terms of imitation and

counterpoint with the other parts. Some possible solutions for this are:

a) Use the score to make a general analysis of the piece. Pay as much

attention to the other parts as to yours: identify their highlights,

important motives, themes and entrances.

b) Be conscious of the order of events in complicated passages and train

yourself to listen to it. For example:

Aspasia Nasopoulou (*1972): Rodia = SO2H4 (rev. 2005)

c) When you have rests, do not count beats: learn and listen what other

parts are playing. Establish an auditory cue for your next entrance.

d) Remember the global sound of the piece.

e) Be conscious of the harmonic function of your part.

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