Marais Des Cannes: The History of Drainage · 2014-09-10 · Marais Des Cannes: The History of...
Transcript of Marais Des Cannes: The History of Drainage · 2014-09-10 · Marais Des Cannes: The History of...
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Marais Des Cannes: The History of Drainage
Of Some Words of Note
Marais des Cannes is a flood prone area located in Lafayette Parish where future development is planned.
The project would entail changing the existing drainage patterns to provide for commercial development and
a conservation area. Before those changes are implemented, it is important to understand the changes in
area’s historical drainage patterns.
Of Landmarks, Boundaries, and Peoples
The largest single landmark in the area is a campground. Traveling west to Texas from Lafayette, Louisiana
on Interstate 10, the KOA Exit at mile marker 97 leads to a Campground of America trailer park and its it
large recreational lake adjoin the planning area.
Local government is represented by both the City of Scott and Lafayette Consolidated Government. Part of
the planning area falls within the corporate limits of Scott while the remainder lies within the unincorporated
area of Lafayette Parish, under the governance of Lafayette Consolidated Government.
The planning area is blessed and cursed with over 60 inches of annual rain fall within a flat 900 acres that
only changes two feet in elevation as the water flows southward. The water is the source of fertility,
however, the area frequently floods and often crops are destroyed by the standing water. Portions of the area
were once used for dairy production and pasturage, but it is now used as hayfields.
The northern boundary is Rue Bons Secours, a French name that translates roughly Street of Good Aid.
Interstate 10 transects the middle of the planning area.
The southern boundary is marked by US Highway 90 and the Southern Pacific Railroad.
The western boundary south of the interstate is Andres Road, named after an Afro-American Family who
owned a 20 acres farm along the road.
The western boundary north of the interstate is Rue Septembre, named after the month when crops are
harvested and children return to school.
The eastern boundary north of the interstate is marked by Highway 92, leading to Best Stop, a butcher shop,
gas station, grocery store known locally and indeed worldwide. Its renown is based on boudin, a rice and
pork sausage cooked by Cajuns.
The eastern boundary south of the interstate is the Coulee Isle des Cannes, a slow moving stream that
meanders to the Bayou Vermilion, and thence Vermilion Bay and the Gulf of Mexico. Water flowing through
the planning area eventually flows into the Gulf Stream and carried along the Eastern Atlantic Seaboard,
Nova Scotia, and thence on a grand circle to the eastern coast of Ireland. This stands in contrast to a great
counter-current of humanity that flowed into this project area in the past two centuries. We will have cause to
meet these divergent emigrant peoples from these regions as we tell this story.
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The grey area in the map that follows shows the floodway, which is subject to heavy inundation. The
diamonds show the location of bridges which acts as pinch points as water flows from north to South within
the planning area. This history is reflected in the bridges and their functions as the various groups of people
come into the area.
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Of Naming the Rose
Shakespeare said a rose by any other
name is still a rose; but the project
planners searched for name that would
convey the essence of the planning area.
They envisioned an area with both trees
and tall grass surrounded by a mixed
use development, where residential,
business and offices might be located
somewhat like their college alma mater.
Many of the planners graduated from
the University of Louisiana at Lafayette
where in the center of campus is
Cypress Lake, a place of memories and
inspiration as well as a point of
departure in urban design.
University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Cypress Lake1
The planners settled on marais, a Cajun French term for a low lying area, a place with both tall grass and
trees. Coulee Ile des Cannes is a slow moving stream, that runs through the center of planning area. The early
French settlers identified the place as an island of canes in midst of the prairies. The canes grew there
because the land was fertile and held water. The canes were used by the Native American to weave baskets,
build homes, and construct tools.
And so after naming our boundaries, our point of departure for urban design and the divergent peoples who
will come to the planning area, let us recount the area’s history.
Of French and Spanish Cowboys
New Orleans lies at the mouth of the Mississippi River, one of the great rivers of the world. The water that
flows along the banks of city drains from the Rocky Mountains in the West and Appalachians Mountain in
the East. The French identified rivers as sources of wealth along the Mississippi River in the American South
and along St. Lawrence River in Canadian North. And so lies New Orleans, balancing somewhere near the
middle of the North American continent riven by the Mississippi River.
Marais des Cannes does not drain to New Orleans and its great river. Rather, the little streams tumbles to the
Gulf of Mexico. No boat could sail up the stream from New Orleans because the stream is so shallow and
narrow except during times of heavy rain when it would only then be navigable by a pirogue or canoe..
The transportation system, though, connect the area from Florida to California. The earliest trails connecting
the lower Mississippi Valley to Texas and Mexico were developed by Native Americans. The early cattle
drives were mapped by the time of Civil War (1960-1865) as traveling just south of the planning area. The
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fords needed to swim cattle across the Bayou Vermilion are located what is now the bridge over General
Mouton Avenue in the City of Lafayette, a city of some 125,000 persons. South of the bridge, the bayou is
navigable, sufficient in depth for riverboats, but near Lafayette the stream narrows and shallows so that herds
of cattle from Texas could be driven to market by cowboys who spoke Spanish and French. From Lafayette,
the cattle trail meanders toward another crossing in Morgan City and thence to New Orleans. These French
and Spanish Cowboys represent the first wave in the countercurrent of settlers to arrive in the project area
from the distant shores of Europe.
Of Revolution and Manifest Destiny
Seeking to serve the same markets with the same goods, the Southern Pacific Railroad followed the same
general route as those used by these cowboys. The US government succeeded in controlling the
entire route of New Orleans to Los Angles through the Louisiana Purchase in 1801 from France, the Texas
Revolution (1836-1837) and its entrance as a state in 1845 and the territorial expansion of resulting from the
Mexican American War (1846-1848) into New Mexico to California. This far flung empire fulfilling the
Manifest Destiny was connected in the 1880’s by the federal government subsidies and private investment
through the railroad construction. The railroads would eventually bring the next wave of settlers to trace the
flow of water to its source in the project area.
Southern Pacific Railway, 1880's2
Of Irishmen and Creole
The labor to construct the railroad is thought to be Irish. The water would flow down Coulee Ile des Cannes
to reach Ireland through the Gulf Stream. That water would evaporate from the sea and fall upon potatoes
that would be infected with a blight running the crop in the 1840’s. The migration and population loss would
continue for over a century depopulating Ireland.
Workers Adjusting Railroad Tracks at a Sulfur Plant, Louisiana 19393
Many settled in Boston, but New Orleans had significant Irish immigration before and after the Potato
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Famine. Irish labors constructed the Transcontinental Railroad through the American Midwest. These Irish
immigrants are thought to have laid the rail line on the southern boundary of Marais des Cannes sometime in
the 1880’s. However, as the photo shows below, the hard physical labor of building a railroad by Irish Gandy
dancers in the Nineteenth Century were replaced the hard work of maintaining the rail lines by Louisiana
Cajuns and Creoles in the Twentieth Century.
These tracks were being laid just as the end of Reconstruction was coming to the end in Louisiana in 1876.
Prior to this date, federal troops occupied the Deep South to implement equality between Afro-Americans
and white Americans, and enforce the rights and privileges guaranteed by the newly adopted fourteenth and
fifteenth amendments. The slow march of increasing discrimination would be marked by Plessy vs Ferguson
(1886) when the US Supreme Court when the US Supreme Court declared that separate public
accommodations and facilities were legal.
Homer Adolph Plessy, a Louisiana French
Creole of mixed of African and European
ancestry, was prohibited from riding a
railcar in New Orleans. This precedent
began an era of segregation in the Deep
South and the railroads would themselves
be mired in Jim-Crow legislation.
Workers Adjusting Railroad Tracks at a Sulfur Plant, Louisiana 19393
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Homer Adolph Plessy charged with riding a whites only rail car in 18864
Even though the railroad companies could not rise above the constitutional issues of discrimination and
transcontinental politics, nevertheless the railroad line itself would have to be elevated to prevent flooding
when it crossed Marais des Cannes. The unintended consequence of this elevated rail line was that it would
act as a levee impounding water and causing upstream flooding. Moreover, the egress of water would be
pinched under the levee by a narrow bridge. Although the constitutional issues and the transcontinental war
have been resolved in this era, that elevated section and bridge still causes flooding to this day.
Of the Andres and Begnaud Families
Two separate families would be affected by the elevated rail line and its bridge. The Afro-American Andres
family purchased a modest parcel 20 acres, a quarter mile from the tracks. This nuclear family on a working
farm grew into an extended family during the Twentieth Century, each family sibling and their descendants
owned smaller parcels divided amongst themselves from the original plot. When the parcels became too
small or the Jim Crow laws to severe, members of the family would immigrate to the western coast of
America, probably using the very rails that caused their lands to flood.
The white Cajun Begnaud families would acquire sufficient wealth to purchase farms further upstream, but
they too would be subject to inundations. These families would sell off parcels occasionally to outsiders and
these outsiders would divide lands amongst themselves into parcels the same size the Andres family.
However, unlike the Afro-American Andres, these Cajun families would remain on the land even though
their plots were too small to support commercial agriculture. They would find small town work in the City of
Scott or urbanized work in the City of Lafayette.
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Of Where the West Begins
The closest and largest
city then and now to
Marais des Cannes
was the City of
Lafayette, which
during this era was a
major railroad repair
center. Workers were
attracted because the
railroads provided jobs
as well as access to
markets. For example,
McComb Veasey and
Freetown-Port Rico
are two neighborhoods
in the City of
Lafayette that grew up
around the railroad.
The railroad yard was
built near the current
Rosa Parks
Transportation Center.
Scott, where the Western District of the Southern Pacific Railroad Begins, Building on The Old
Spanish Trail, September, 19385
The next town traveling along the rail line west was Scott, where a sign marked the beginning of the western
district of the South Pacific Railroad. Scott took the motto of their municipality as “Scott, where the West
Begins.” The City of Scott arose around what would be the first of a series of fuel and water stops that were
built at regular intervals to serve the railroad as it thundered westward on a man-made current of steel and
wood.
Of Rice, Reapers, and Tractors
Carried on the tide of the railroads, white Protestant settlers from the American Midwest settled near Marais
des Cannes. They had previous introduced industrialized wheat agriculture to Kansas and Iowa just before
the Civil War. These farmers were well versed in using reapers and tractors and selling their crops for distant
markets with railroads. These farmers also arrived with technology to harvest well water beneath prairies and
from the bayous to control irrigation in their rice fields, which were no longer dependent upon rainfall. The
Cajun tradition of small irregular crops of subsistence rice agriculture was replaced by massive investment,
much of it from the British Isles.6
The epicenter of their Midwest farmers settlement was in Crowley, some fifteen miles west of Marais des
Cannes which was also one of those critical fueling and watering stations for the railroad.
Of Long Lots in Arpents and Townships in Acres
Moreover, these Midwest farmers immigrated into the Cajun Prairies where prior to the coming of the
railroad settlement had been rare. Studies of the Bayou Vermilion and its major tributaries show long lots like
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those in French and Acadian Canada. The narrow lots provided short frontage on the river, but long narrow
parcels measured in arpents, French measurements, as way of providing equal access to the rivers as sources
of transportation and wealth. The initial layout in Marais des Cannes do not show these patterns, but rather
the standard township and range system found in the rest of America east of the Appalachians Mountains.
These mile square parcels of 640 acres are laid out as a checkerboard grid without consideration to the local
landscape. However as the land would be parceled among descendants, the tracts took on the French long lots
configuration as a means to share access to roadways rather than streams.
World War I (1941-1919) would come
some 18 years after Plessy vs Ferguson
(1886). During the war, the need for rail
transportation from coast to coast would
provide farm to market transportation for
basic food crops needed by Allies; but after
the war, commodity prices would continue
fall well into the 1930’s Great Depression.
It would be in this era that Afro-American
would begin the Great Migration from the
American South to the north and west.
Cajuns farmers, burdened by the same
economic system of share cropping, would
immigrate to industrialized jobs in east
Texas near Port Arthur and Port Neches.7
Rice Harvest, Crowley, Louisiana, September, 19388
Of the Old Spanish Trail
During the period just before and after the World War I, local boosters sought to use tourism and economic
growth based on improved transportation to improve the fortunes of their economies undergoing economic
and social diversification. They planned roadways linking Florida to Texas, and thence to California joined,
forming an organization called the Old Spanish Trail Highway Association. The proposed roadway was
neither Spanish nor old nor a trail. Because this private association had no construction budget, they
identified the local roadways, hotels, and repair shops that could be cobbled together to link the Atlantic
Coast to the Pacific Coast.
Of Huey Long
However, Huey Long and his political descendants created a state budget
which taxed major corporations like Standard Oil and the Texas Company to
build highways, schools and hospitals. Before then only a rudimentary
system of public transportation, education and health infra-structure existed.
Prior to the Long era large corporations and plantations largely escaped
taxation, These taxes were used to constructed what is now known as the
state-wide highway system still in use today.
Senator Huey Long addresses the US Senate in 19359
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Part of this state highway network, US Highway 90 was constructed by 1936 with state funds. It s federal
route number was coordinated with the states numbering systems so as to link into a large highway system.10
The highway known today as US Highway 9012 was
constructed by 1936 with state funds, but its federal route
number13 was coordinated with the states numbering systems
so as to link into a large highway system. The route was from
New Orleans, Houma, Morgan City, Franklin, New Iberia,
Lafayette and thence to Texas.US Highway 90 followed the
path laid down by the Native Americans, French and Spanish
cowboys and the Southern Pacific Railroad. Though the route
might diverge occasionally from the previous routes, the US
Highway 90’s right-of-way adjoins the right of way of the rail
road as it transverses the southern boundary of Marais des
Cannes. Even though the highway is not elevated, its bridge
over Coulee Ile des Cannes is about as wide as the railroad
bridge, further compounding the issue of flooding causes by
transportation projects.
Vintage Louisiana US Highway 9011
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Itinerate Preacher and Wife with a push cart
US Hwy 90, near Marais des Cannes September, 193814
Driver with Freight Truck, US Hwy 90, near Marais des Cannes September,193815
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Of Surveying and Electricity
The resulting flooding was not created out of a lack of information. The center of the United States was
identified near Meades Ranch, near Tipton Kansas. The reference point was used for almost all land survey
measurements in the United States from 1927 until 1983 with the widespread use of computers. During the
height of the Depression, the Roosevelt administration funded the US Geodetic Survey to organize surveying
parties and field offices that employed over 10,000 including many out-of-work engineers. The field books of
these survey parties are still used today to determine the height of transportation importations being planned
in and around Marais des Cannes.
The Roosevelt Administration created the Rural Electrification Administration (REA), as part of the New
Deal in 1935. In the 1930s, the U.S. lagged behind Europe in providing electricity to rural areas due to the
unwillingness of power companies to serve farmsteads. The farms around Marais des Cannes were not being
served by local utility companies. Private electric utilities argued that the government had no right to
compete with or regulate private enterprise, despite many of these utilities' having refused to extend their
lines to rural areas, claiming lack of profitability. Private power companies set rural rates four times as high
as city rates. Under the REA there was no direct government competition to private enterprise. Instead, REA
made loans available to local electrification cooperatives, which operated lines and distributed electricity.
South Louisiana Electric Membership Cooperative (SLEMCO)16
is a REA cooperative, which was organized
in and around Marais des Cannes as the in 1937. Lafayette Utility System (LUS) serving the City of
Lafayette also faced opposition from private electrical companies when it organized one of the first
municipal electrical companies near the turn of the Twentieth Century. The resulting electrical infra-structure
began in 1900’s and the 1930’s crisscrosses Marais des Cannes. Entergy is a private electrical utility with
large electrical wholesale distribution lines running from North to South in Marais des Cannes. The lines
provide power to the City of Scott and the other smaller municipalities in Lafayette Parish. LUS has similar
lines running from east to west. There is a large power distribution center owned by Entergy located on a 28
acre parcel that adjoins the Marais des Cannes north of the Interstate.
Of Pipelines
In this period between the beginning of World War I and the end of World War II, Marais des Cannes was
identified as a major source of oil. A study of oil drilling records and aerial photographs by 1958 show the
planning area had two production facilities indicating significant oil reserves. In addition, the area was served
by a railroad siding for tank cars to transport oil to market. The area is also crisscrossed by gas pipelines
many of which are high pressure carrying gas to market far beyond Louisiana.
Of the Convoys and the Autobahn
During the period after World War I, Dwight Eisenhower as a Lt. Col. was a member of a US Army motor
truck convoy assign to test the readiness to traverse the United States. This was the era before the
construction of engineered roadways like US Highway 90. It took 62 days in the summer of 1919 to travel
from Washington, DC to San Francisco.
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When Eisenhower was a general in World War II, he saw the autobahns in
Germany to move traffic over a network of 2,400 miles with another 1,550
miles under planning and construction. From the outset of World War II, the
autobahn proved to be a key asset to Germany. During his administration
during the 1950’s, Eisenhower proposed the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1954,
which set aside $175 million for the Interstate System on a 60-40 matching
federal and state ratio. The highway construction was financed by a two cent
gas tax when gasoline sold for less than twenty three cents per gallon.17
General Dwight Eisenhower, Germany, 194518
Official Louisiana Highway Map, 1963, showing Interstate 10 Construction Status19
The official Louisiana highway maps drawn in 1963 shows that the interstate transects the middle of Marais
des Cannes. The interstate was still under construction inching towards Texas some thirty miles westward
near the town of Evangeline. The four lane bridge over Coulee Ile des Cannes was sized in width and depth
similar to the prior inadequate railroad bridge constructed during the 1880’s and the highway bridge
constructed in the 1930’s. Similarly, the interstate also created a barrier to the flow of water similar to the
railroad and the highway. The result was second drainage pinch point was created in the middle of the
planning area pinch.
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It would seem that the placement of a new town would be better suited in a well drained area than in this
place by 1963 which had become bemired with drainage, transportation, electric, and pipelines systems. Each
of separate systems challenged developing a settlement out of whole cloth; but when taken together, it would
seem to present insurmountable challenges. But perhaps not for this community well steeped in the Cajun
traditions of draining low lying land.
Of New England and New France
Let us now recount the history of the ancestors of the current residents of Marais des Cannes and their
relationship to living in close proximity to low lying areas.
The Acadians settled Acadie (now known as Nova Scotia) in New France just as the English were settling
New England. While the English settlements were challenged by death and starvation, the Acadian
settlements proposed through a mix of farming and fishing. Rather than competing with the First Nations, the
Acadians selected the low tidal areas along the Baie Franciase (now known as the Bay of Fundy)., with the
highest tidal change in the world.
Farmland was created by building dykes and using the steep drop of tides to pull water from the behind the
dyked farmlands. In New France, a peaceful interaction was established between these First Nations and the
new comers, each pursing different ecological zones for their own purposes. This pattern contrasted with
New England where the settlers cleared and claimed former woodlands for their farms challenging Native
Americans for ownership. Eventually these Acadian settlers would be swept South in a wave of forced
human migration that resulted from the British Policy of ethnic cleansing after the British victory in the
Seven Years War.
Of Arboteaux
These alternating settlement patterns were taken from traditional practices in France and England. Many of
the early Acadians immigrated from a farming region of Poitou, France. Their farmstead were surrounded by
Bridge Dimensions within Marais des Cannes Planning
Area
Roadway Design
Area
Top
Width
Bottom
Width
Bottom
Depth
Interstate 10 Middle 70 24 22
South Pacific RR South 76 30 24
Cameron St/US Hwy 90 South 70 16 19
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extensive wetlands. Upon immigrating to Acadie, advanced knowledge of agricultural land reclamation
techniques were put to use. Among these technologies, the Acadians used a dike:
“The concept was simple: build a dike on an elevation contour just
a few feet above the peak elevation of the highest tide, thereby separate-
ing the highest salt marsh from the Bay’s influence. The impounded
salt marsh would eventually freshen with rainwater, and the soils were
soon amenable to agriculture. To prevent flooding the newly impounded
fields with excessive rainfall, a sluice was built at a location where the
naturally draining tidal creek would have crossed the dike. To prevent
saltwater tides from entering the field through the sluice, a one-way flap
gate was built into the sluice that allowed free flowing freshwater to
exit the diked land while denying saltwater tides from entering.
The combination of such a dike, sluice, and flap gate is known
as an aboiteau (plural aboiteaux).” 20
The traditional settlement pattern among the Acadians were hamlet based on extended families living in close
proximity to where three ecology zones meet: the uplands not subject to flooding, the converted tidal lands,
and the sea. Each of these zones provides a source of food which taken together provide a bountiful harvest
unlike in New England where settler starved during the first years. Additionally, the edge of these three
ecological zones provided resources that were not in competition with the First Nations. The English
organized farms as separate freeholds without community shared labor. In contrast, the Acadians worked in
large groups to create dykes benefiting the entire community.
The Acadian lands were one of the most productive in the New World, and so New Englanders wanted these
productive lands as their own. The Acadians were subject to transportation, a penal sentence used by the
English to disperse criminals. It was feared because many died on their way to distant lands. The significance
of the Acadian Exile is that it was the first time transportation was used on a whole people.
Arboteaux — Eighteenth Century in Acadie21
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Acadian Land, 1714, August, 201422
The result was the Acadiana Exile of thousands from Acadie in 1755 during
the times of the Seven Years War (1755-1762), also known as the French and Indian Wars. The displacement
would place Acadians in the English Colonies on Atlantic Seaboard, the Caribbean Islands, French Guiana at
the mouth of the Amazon, England, France, and the Falkland Islands, one of last inhabited places southward
toward Antarctica.
The settlement patterns used by the Acadians were not adopted after the exile. The Arboteaux were
abandoned. And so the wealth of the Acadie was discarded and Nova Scotia remains one of the poorest
provinces in Canada today.
Of Acadie and Marais des Cannes
With an eye on the lessons of the past and the traditions of a unique nation of peoples, these Arboteaux in
Acadie inspire and inform the proposed drainage improvements in Marais des Cannes.
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Cross section of Arboteaux dike system showing ecological zones in Eighteenth Century Acadie23
Cross Section of Marais des Cannes Proposed Improvements & Eco-Zones, Twenty-First Century
The fundamental difference between the two drainage projects is the type of water and the source of energy.
The Acadian system utilizes salt and fresh water with tidal energy. The Marais des Cannes project utilizes
only fresh water using gravity to drain the lands. However, the two approaches are similar in that both have:
Dyke or a berm to impound water
Drainage pipe connecting through the dyke
Excavation behind the dike
Planted grasses along the edge of water ways
Dry retention areas behind the dike or bern
The true similarity between the two systems is related to ecological zones. The physical infra-structure
enables inhabitation and commercialization of lands lying in close proximity to the three ecological zones
found both in Acadie and Louisiana: the uplands not subject to flooding, the converted wetlands lands, and
the ponds and lakes.
Endnotes and Photo Credits
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Over a forty year period of two generations, over 10,000 Acadians would seek their families split between
young and old, male and female, mothers and father, sisters and brother, children and parents dispersed far and
wide over the Atlantic. Only 5,000 would arrive in Louisiana, settling in area ecologically similar to those they
left behind in Acadie. Now, their descendants number in the millions and are dense in and around Marais des
Cannes. Given chance, they will rebuild a Twenty-First Century development similar to their Eighteenth Centu-
ry homeland, lost so long ago.
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End notes and Credits
1. University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Cypress Lake, Flickr.com, August, 2014.
2. Southern Pacific Railway, 1880's, raremaps.com. August, 2014
3. Workers Adjusting Railroad Tracks at a Sulfur Plant, Louisiana, 1939, wikepedia.org, August, 2014.
4. Homer Adolph Plessy charged with riding a whites only rail car in 1886, blogspot.com, August, 2014.
5. Scott, where the Western District of the Southern Pacific Railroad Begins, Building on The Old Spanish Trail,
September, 1938, www.loc.gov, August 2014.
6. The Cajun Tradition, 1990, Lauren Post, Cajun Sketches from the Prairies of Southwest Louisiana: From Prairies of
Southwest Louisiana, Baton Rouge: Louisiannfl.com, August, 2014.
7. Cajun Farmers, Michael LeBlanc, Cajun Ethnicity and Migration from Louisiana Agriculture to Texas Oil Refining,
Unpublished Master’s Thesis, University of Kentucky, 1982, August, 2014.
8. Rice Harvest, Crowley, Louisiana, September, 1938, www.loc.gov, August, 2014.
9. Senator Huey Long addresses the US Senate in 1935, wikepedia.org, August, 2014.
10. US Highway 90, Alfred E. Lemon, John T. Magill, and Jason R. Weise, Charting Louisiana: Five Hundred Years of
Maps. (New Orleans: The Historic New Orleans Map Collection) 2003. Map 150: Map of Louisiana Showing Progress of
Hard Surfacing Program, page 273, August, 2014.
11. Vintage Louisiana US Highway 90, www.aaroads.com, August, 2014.
12. ibid. (11)
13. Federal Route Number, www.wikepedia.org, August, 2014.
14. Itinerate Preacher and Wife with a push cart US Hwy 90, near Marais des Cannes September, 1938, www.loc.gov,
August, 2014.
15. Driver with Freight Truck, US Hwy 90, near Marais des Cannes September,1938 www.loc.gov, August, 2014.
16. SLEMCO, www.slemco.com, August, 2014.
17. The Highway Construction, www.fhwa.dot.gov, August, 2014.
18. General Dwight Eisenhower, Germany, 1945, www.fhwa.dot.gov, August, 2014.
19. Official Louisiana Highway Map, 1963, showing Interstate 10 Construction Status, Collection of the Lafayette
Metropolitan Planning Organization, August, 2014.
20. Of Arboteaux, Whitney T. Broussard in “The Acadian Arboteaux: A Cultural and Economic Keystone, August, 2014.
21. Arboteaux constructed in 18th Century Acadie, http://genealogie.dalbiez.eu, August, 2014.
22. ibid. (21)
23. Cross section of Arboteaux dike system showing ecological zones in Eighteenth Century Acadie, museeacadien.ca,
August, 2014.
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