Mar. 12 - 16 Modules 8 & 9 DevelopmentMar. 19 - 23 Modules 10 & 11Mar. 26 – 30 Modules 41 – 44 PersonalityApril 2 – 4 Modules 30 – 31 IntelligenceApril 6 – 13 Easter Vacation ???April 16 – 20 Modules 45 – 48 DisordersApril 23 - 24 Modules 49 – 50 TherapiesApril 25 – 27 Modules Motivation/EmotionApr. 30 – May 4 AP ReviewMay 7 AP exam

Prenatal Development and the Newborn

Module 8

Prenatal Development & the NewbornConception

Prenatal Development

The Competent Newborn

Developmental Psychology

• A branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive and social change throughout the life span.

• Developmental perspective: examines how people are continually developing – from infancy to old age

Three Key Developmental Issues

Developmental PsychologyIssue Details

Nature/Nurture

How do genetic inheritance (our nature) and experience

(the nurture we receive) influence our behavior?

Continuity/Stages

Is development a gradual, continuous process or a

sequence of separate stages?

Stability/Change

Do our early personality traits persist through life, or do we become different persons as

we age.

ConceptionA single sperm cell (male) penetrates the outer coating of the egg (female) and fuse to form one fertilized cell.

Prenatal Development

• Prenatal defined as “before birth”

• Prenatal stage begins at conception and ends with the birth of the child.

Prenatal Development• 3 phases

–Zygote = first 2 weeks

• Conception & formation of placenta

–Embryo = 2 weeks – 2 months

• formation of vital organs and systems

–fetal stage = 9 weeks after conception

• bodily growth continues

• movement capability begins

• brain cells multiply rapidly

•A zygote is a newly fertilized cell with 100 cells, which become increasingly diverse. •At about 14 days the zygote turns into an embryo (a and b).

• At 9 weeks an embryo turns into a fetus (c and d). • Teratogens are chemicals or viruses that can enter the placenta and harm the developing fetus.

Placenta

• A cushion of cells in the mother by which the fetus receives oxygen and nutrition

• Acts as a filter to screen out substances that could harm the fetus

Teratogens

• Substances that pass through the placenta’s screen and prevent the fetus from developing normally

• Includes: radiation, toxic chemicals, viruses, drugs, alcohol, nicotine, etc.

Teratogensharmful agents to the prenatal environment

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

• A series of physical and cognitive abnormalities in children due to their mother drinking large amounts of alcohol during pregnancy

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

The Competent Newborn

•Infants are born with reflexes that aid survival.•Apgar Score: a scaled score of a newborn’s physical condition •based on: heart rate, respiration, muscle tone, color & reflex responsiveness •(1 min. ; 4 min. after birth)

APGAR Score

Rooting Reflex

• infants’ tendency, when touched on the cheek, to move their face in the direction of the touch and open their mouth

• is an automatic, unlearned response

• child is looking for nourishment.

http://images.google.com/url?source=imgres&ct=tbn&q=http://www.nurse.cmu.ac.th/webped/educate/lesson1/36.jpg&usg=AFQjCNEmpPTf4BDbdvUNj4puXMrIbnKOog

• Moro reflex – when startled, baby will throw arms and legs out and head back and then pull them into body

Moro Reflex

Babinski Reflex

• Known as the “toe curling reflex”

• stroke outer sole and baby spreads toes, stroke inner sole and baby curls toes.

Babinski Reflex – toe curling reflex

• Grasping reflex – put finger in baby’s palm and baby will grab

Infant Reflexes

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rjnQhno3LA4&feature=related

Cognitive Development in the Newborn

Investigators study infants getting habituated to objects over some duration of time. New objects are paid more attention than habituated ones, showing learning.

Preferences

1. human voices and faces

2. face-like images

Habituation

• As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner

• Which more novel after series of cats?

• The hybrid with the dog’s head

Habituation Study• 4 month olds shown cat images

• Spent more time looking at the hybrid w/dog’s face

• More novel measured in looking time

• Infants, like adults focus on face first, not the body!

Habituationdecreasing responsiveness with

repeated stimulation

MODULE 9Infancy & Childhood

Infant, Toddler, Child

• Infant: First year

• Toddler: From about 1 year to 3 years of age

• Child: span between toddler and teen

Brain Development – increases quickly after birth!

Maturation• Biological growth processes that

enable orderly changes in behavior

• Severe deprivationslows down development

Maturation• To a certain extent we all maturate similarly,

but the time can vary depending on the person.

What will this child remember from his infant experiences?

Maturation/Infant Memory

• Lack of neural connectionsearliest memories seldom predate our 3rd birthday

• infantile amnesia

• Average age of earliest memory3.5

Physical Development• Average weight? 7.5 lbs.

• Height? 18 – 22 inches

• MATURATION: gives doctors and parents a timetable to measure progress

sit up crawl walk run

Motor Development• Includes all physical skills and muscular

coordination

• Sequence of physical (motor) development is universal

• Walking: 25% by 11 mos.

• 50% by the week after 1st b-day

• 90% by 15 mos.

Motor Development

Motor Development• Important to know each child is unique

• Genes play major role: – Identical twins sit up/walksame day

• Biological development: – creates readiness to learn

• Experience before that time has limited effect– No set timetable for “potty training”

Cognitive Development

Piaget’s Cognitive Stages

• Jean Piaget – most influential psychologist in cognitive development of children

• Developmental psychologist who introduced a stage theory of cognitive development

• Proposed a theory consisting of four stages of cognitive development

• Child’s mind develops from newborn simple reflexesadult abstract reasoning

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Cognitionall the mental activities associated

with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

each stage has distinct characteristics for certain thinking at specific ages

Schemas

• Concepts or mental frameworks that people use to organize and interpret information

• Sometimes called schemes

• A person’s “picture of the world” through experiences

We have no schema (plan) for this image!

2 Key Terms: Assimilation and Accommodation

• Assimilation

–Interpret new experience in terms of our current understandings (schemas)

–What we learn as we 1st experience

• Accommodation

–interpreting a new experience by adapting or changing one’s existing schemas…adapt what we learned

–the new experience is so novel the person’s schemata must be changed to accommodate it

–as children interact w/worldconstruct & modify schemas

Assimilation/Accommodation

Assimilation/Accommodation

Assimilation/Accommodation

Assimilation - Scale Errors

This little girl (21 mos) is attempting to “slide” down the miniature sliding board

24 month old tries to open the miniature car door and “step” inside.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

• Sensorimotor

• Preoperational

• Concrete operational

• Formal operational

Sensorimotor Stage – 1st stage• Piaget’s first stage of cognitive

development

• From birth to about age two

• Child gathers information about the world through senses and motor interactions

• Child learns object permanence

Object Permanence

• The awareness that things continue to exist even when they cannot be sensed

• “Out of sight, out of mind”

Lack of Object Permanence

SUCCESS!!!...Object Permanence

1. Objects placedin case.

2. Screen comesup.

3. Object is removed.

4. Impossible outcome:Screen drops, revealing two objects.

4. Possible outcome: Screen drops, revealing one object.

Shown a numerically impossible outcome, infants stare longer

The BIG Question!!!

• Do children’s cognitive abilities go thru stages???

• Today, researchersmore continuous

Preoperational Stage

• Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development

• From about ages 2 to 7

• Children can understand language but not logic

Egocentrism

• The child’s inability to take another person’s point of view

• Includes a child’s inability to understand that symbols can represent other objects

• “model room” experiments

• Hands over face: “if I cant seem you, you cant see me!”

Example of Egocentrism

• “Do you have a brother”

• “Yes”

• “What’s his name?”

• “Jim”

• “Does Jim have a brother?”

• “No”

More egocentrism

• Block the TV while you are watching it, figure you see what THEY see!

• Nod their head to answer a question while talking to someone on phone

Theory of Mind

• Children become to realize people have minds

• Ability to infer intentions and grasp another’s perspective

• Infer others’ feelings

Autism• Disorder characterized by deficient

communication & social interaction

• Marked by impaired theory of mind

• *Asperger’s Syndrome –high functioning autism

–normal intelligence

–may have an exceptional skill or talent

–mostly deficient in social/communication skills

This is Sally This is Anne

Sally puts the ball in the red cabinet

Sally goes away

Anne moves the ball to the blue cabinet

Where will Sally look for the ball?

How is autism diagnosed• no babbling or pointing by age 1

• no single words by 16 months or two-word phrases by age 2

• no response to name

• loss of language or social skills

• poor eye contact

• excessive lining up of toys or objects

• no smiling or social responsiveness.

• 1 in 110 children in the United States

• Fastest-growing developmental disability

• Autism effects 1 in every 54 boys.

• 40% of autistic children do not talk at all.

• Only 56% of students with autism finish high school

Facts and Figures about Autism

Concrete Operational Stage

• Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development

• From about ages 7 to 11

• Child learns to think logically and understands concept of conservation

Principle of Conservation

• An understanding that certain properties remain constant despite changes in their form

• The properties can include mass, volume, and numbers.

Conservation the principle that properties such as

mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

Principle of Conservation

The child agrees that A & B have the same amount of liquid

Principle of Conservation

The child observes as the liquid is poured from B into C which is shaped differently!

Principle of Conservation

The child is asked which container as more liquid?

Pre-operational: taller beaker has more liquid

Concrete operational: tends to answer correctly...They are equal amounts

Preoperational stageSensorimotor stage

Concrete/formal stage

Formal Operational Stage

• Piaget’s fourth and last stage of cognitive development

• Child can think logically and in the abstract

• About age 12 on up

• Can solve hypothetical problems (What if…. problems)

Typical Age Range

Description of Stage

Developmental Phenomena

Birth to nearly 2 years SensorimotorExperiencing the world through senses and actions (looking, touching, mouthing)

•Object permanence•Stranger anxiety

About 2 to 6 years

About 7 to 11 years

About 12 through adulthood

PreoperationalRepresenting things with words and images but lacking logical reasoning

•Pretend play•Egocentrism•Language development

Concrete operationalThinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations

•Conservation •Mathematical transformations

Formal operationalAbstract reasoning

•Abstract logic•Potential for moral reasoning

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory

• Piaget underestimated the child’s ability at various ages.

• Piaget’s theory doesn’t take into account culture and social differences.

Social Development in Infancy and

Childhood

Social DevelopmentStranger Anxiety

fear of strangers that infants commonly display

beginning by about 8 months of age

Schemas for familiar faces

Attachment• An emotional tie with another person

resulting in seeking closeness

• Children develop strong attachments to their parents and caregivers.

• Body contact, familiarity, and responsiveness all contribute to attachment.

Harry Harlow – Body Contact• research with infant monkeys on how

body contact relates to attachment

• The monkeys choose between a cloth mother (no food) or a wire mother that provided food.

• The monkeys spent most of their time by the cloth mother.

Monkeys preferred contact with the comfortable cloth mother, even while feeding from the nourishing wire mother

Harlow Results Monkeys raised by surrogate mothers were

terrified when placed in strange situations without artificial mother

Familiarity

• Sense of contentment with that which is already known

• Infants are familiar with their parents and caregivers.

Familiarity - attachmentCritical Period

an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism’s exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development

Imprinting and Critical Period

• A process by which certain animals, early in life, form attachments

• The imprinted behavior develops within a critical period– an optimal period when the organism’s

exposure to certain stimuli produce the imprinted behavior.

Konrad Lorenz

• Studied imprinted behaviors

• Babies are imprinted to follow the first large moving object they see.

Konrad Lorenz and Imprinting

Ever see “Fly Away Home”??

• “mere exposure effect”– One’s liking for stimulus is increased simply

by being exposed to it

– fosters fondness

–Similar family interests

• Same book, movie, story over & over.

• familiarity is a safety signal to child

• “familiarity breeds content”

Social Development in Infancy and Childhood: Parenting Patterns and

Attachment

Mary Ainsworth - 1979

• Studied attachment

• “strange situation” w/o mothers

“The Strange Situation” NOT IN NOTES• the researcher takes a mother and child of

approximately one year old into an unfamiliar room with toys.

• a series of separations and reunions where the mother and child are first alone in the room

• then the researcher enters, and after a few minutes, the mother leaves.

• A few minutes later, the mother returns and

• the researcher observes the child's reaction to this return.

Responsiveness

• Responsive parents are aware of what their children are doing.

• Unresponsive parents ignore their children--helping only when they want to.

Securely or Insecurely Attached

• Securely attached – children will explore their environment

when primary caregiver is present

• Insecurely attached – children will appear distressed and cry

when caregiver leaves.

- will cling to them when they return

Results of Ainsworth• Sensitive, responsive mothers

– those that noticed what babies were doing and responded appropriately

• had infants who were securely attached

• Insensitive, unresponsive mothers:

–mothers who attend to babies when they felt like it but ignored at other times

•had infants who often became insecurely attached

Effects of Attachment

• secure attachment may predict social competence.

• a responsive environment helps most infants recover from attachment disruption.

• deprivation of attachment is linked to negative outcome.

Ainsworth’s major types of attachment • anxious/avoidant

– the child may not be distressed when the mother leaves and may avoid her when she returns

• securely attached

– the child is distressed by the mother's departure and seeks comfort from her when she returns

• anxious/resistant

– the child stays close to the mother in first few minutes alone and becomes highly distressed by her departure

• only to seek comfort when she returns, but then reject her closeness

Deprivation of Attachment

• Babies reared w/o stimulation/attention or locked away, abused or neglectedoften are withdrawn, frightened, timid

• Lasting emotional scars

Number 1 achievement of childhood is attachment

Self-concepta sense of one’s identity and

personal worth

Important to develop a positive self-image

• Children’s view of themselves affect their actions

–Children who form positive self-conceptmore confident, optimistic, assertive and sociable

• In what ways does parenting style affect a child’s development???

Parenting Patterns

• Diane Baumrind’s three main parenting styles

–Authoritarian parenting (too hard?)

–Permissive parenting (too soft?)

–Authoritative parenting (just right?)

Authoritarian Parenting• Low in warmth

• Discipline is strict and sometimes physical.

• Communication high from parent to child and low from child to parent

• Maturity expectations are high.

• “Don’t do it or else!”

• “Don’t interrupt.” – “Why?

– Because I said so.”

• “Don’t be late or you’re grounded”

Permissive Parenting

• High in warmth but rarely discipline

• Communication is low from parent to child but high from child to parent.

• Expectations of maturity are low.

• submit to children’s desires

• few demands

• little punishment

Authoritative Parenting• High in warmth with moderate

discipline

• High in communication and negotiating

• Parents set and explain rules.

• Maturity expectations are moderate

• Handouts “Strange situation and Identity Status Theory.

“The Strange Situation”• the researcher takes a mother and child of

approximately one year old into an unfamiliar room with toys.

• a series of separations and reunions where the mother and child are first alone in the room

• then the researcher enters, and after a few minutes, the mother leaves.

• A few minutes later, the mother returns and

• the researcher observes the child's reaction to this return.

Ainsworth’s major types of attachment • anxious/avoidant

– the child may not be distressed when the mother leaves and may avoid her when she returns

• securely attached

– the child is distressed by the mother's departure and seeks comfort from her when she returns

• anxious/resistant

– the child stays close to the mother in first few minutes alone and becomes highly distressed by her departure

• only to seek comfort when she returns, but then reject her closeness

The Search for Identity• James Marcia (1988)

–4 identity statuses

• Identity diffusion

• Identity foreclosure

• Identity moratorium

• Identity achievement

James Marcia Identity Status Theory

• The main idea is that one’s sense of identity is determined largely by the choices and commitments made regarding certain personal and social traits.

• the status in which the adolescent does not have a sense of having choices;

• he or she has not yet made (nor is attempting/willing to make) a commitment

Identity Diffusion

• the status in which the adolescent seems willing to commit to some relevant roles, values, or goals for the future.

• Adolescents in this stage have not experienced an identity crisis.

• tend to conform to the expectations of others regarding their future (e. g. allowing a parent to determine a career direction)

• As such, these individuals have not explored a range of options.

Identity Foreclosure

Identity Moratorium

• the status in which the adolescent is currently in a crisis

• exploring various commitments and is ready to make choices

• but has not made a commitment to these choices yet.

Identity Achievement

• the status in which adolescent has gone through a identity crisis

• has made a commitment to a sense of identity (i.e. certain role or value) that he or she has chosen

Marcia’s four identity statuses – Commitment vs. Crisis

Secure of “who we are”

No goals…don’t care!...yet!Not sure of “who we are”

Do as one is told

Other Cognitive Abilities

• Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

– Importance of social interactions in cognitive development

– Zone of proximal development (ZPD) – difference in accomplishing alone and with help from others

– Notion of readiness

– When a child is prepared to begin a task he/she can do…

– Moved to higher level of performance