1

Mapping the Newport experience: A History of the City’s Urban Development by John R. Tschirch, Architectural Historian

Detail.CharlesBlaskowitz.APlanoftheTownofNewport,September1,1777.CourtesyoftheLibraryofCongress.“MappingtheNewportExperience”isaresearchprojectdedicatedtodocumentingtheurbanhistoryofNewport,RhodeIslandfromcolonialsettlementtothepresentday.Throughtheuseofperiodmaps,paintings,illustrations,photographsandliterarydescriptions,theprojectexaminesthephysicallayoutofthecity’sthoroughfaresandtheculturalresponsetotheurbanenvironmentoverthepastoverthreeandahalfcenturies.

2

ThisprojectismadepossiblethroughagenerousgrantfromtheRhodeIslandCouncilfortheHumanities,anindependentstateaffiliateoftheNationalEndowmentfortheHumanities.IwouldliketothanktheNewportHistoricalSocietyforaccesstotheirimportanthistoricalarchivesandforprovidingsuperbresearchguidance.WithappreciationtoNewportorganizationsforuseoftheirhistoricimages:TheNewportHistoricalSociety,TheNewportRestorationFoundation,TheRedwoodLibraryandAthenaeumandthePreservationSocietyofNewportCounty.SpecialrecognitiontoIlseBuchertNesbittforpermissiontoreproduceherartworkinspiredbyNewport’sstreetscapes.ThankyoutoHollyCollinsforherresearchexpertiseandtothecorpsoffeaturedartistswhovolunteeredmanyhoursphotographingNewport’sstreetscapesinordertoenhanceandenrichthisproject.FeaturedArtists:NickBelongKatrinaBennerMeredithHaskell-KhouryChadLubertowiczTan-yaMuldoonMarkReimelsAlexTavares

3

OVERVIEW

HowdoestheurbanfabricofNewportreflecttheculturalforcesthatshapedthecity?Howareartistic,social,political,religiousandeconomicideasembeddedinstreets,buildingsandopenspaces?Howhavebothresidentsandvisitorsthroughouttheagesbeenaffectedbyandperceivedtheirenvironmentasexpressedintheirartisticproductionandvisualdescriptionsoftheplace?“MappingtheNewportExperience”seekstheanswerstothesequestionsasabasisforassessingthecity’sphysicalandculturalevolution.Thefollowingessaybringstogetherseveralareasofthehumanitiesintheanalysisofthecity.Architecturalhistory,urbanplanning,culturalhistoryandliteratureallprovideaframeworkforthestudyofacityrenownedfortherarity,authenticity,integrityandnationalsignificanceofitsbuiltheritageandtheculturalresponseitinspires.

J.L.Richards.CityAtlasofNewport,RhodeIsland,1907.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.Newportisdepictedwithitsurbanplanfullydevelopedandintact,fromthecompactstreetsoftheColonialeraquarteralongtheharbortothegrid-likethoroughfaresoftheVictorianneighborhoods(upperpartofthemap)andthethecurvingroadsofthe19thcenturyOceanDrive(lowerrightsideofmap).Eachsectorisawindowontoanageillustratingthefunctionalprinciplesandaestheticvaluesofitsbuildersandinhabitants.

4

INTRODUCTIONNewport,RhodeIslandisaplaceofmemory,bothcollectiveandindividual,wheremythandrealityintersectinstreetsandcivicspaces.Spectacularscenery,acenturiesoldarchitecturalheritageandarichculturallegacymakesforastoriedpast.FromEuropeansettlementinthe17thcenturythroughthepresentday,theurbanlayoutreflectstheinfluenceofthenaturalforcesoftopography,freshwaterspringsandtheseaalongwiththeeconomic,religious,politicalandsocialvaluesofitsinhabitants.Throughthemediaofmaps,paintings,illustrations,photographsandliterarydescriptions,Newport’sevolutionmaybetracedfromtheentrepreneurshipandreligiouscircumstancesdeterminingitscolonialstreetscapestothepicturesqueidealsthatformedthe19thcenturyresortareaandthetenetsofurbanrenewalandhistoricpreservationthatshapedthe20thcenturycity.Today,inthe21stcentury,Newportisaremarkablyintactcity.Itsstreetscapesmaybereadlikelessonsfromthepast,instructionsforthepresentandrevelationsforthefuture.Culturelivesinitsurbanspaces,voicesareembeddedinitsbuildingsandthoroughfares.Throughouthistory,thedistinctcharacterofcitiesandtheirculturalidentityhavebeeninextricablylinked.Throughliteratureandthearts,ametropolisisoftenelevatedtomythicstatusreflectingboththerealitiesandaspirationsofaculturalepoch.Theurbanhistorian,WolfgangBraunfels,wrote,“Historytriestoencompassoverlappingprocesses.Ithastotakeeveryaspectoflifeintoconsideration.Citiescanbeunderstoodneitherfromtheirbeginningsalonenorfromtheirfinalstate…Oldviewsofatowncompleteourknowledgebymakingcircumstancesvisibletous.Whatishandeddowntousvisuallyteachesuswithgreaterprecisionaboutthegenesisofbuildings,theiraesthetic,ideologicalandsemanticrank...Wearereceivedbythepastwheneverwesetfootinanoldcitysquare,andatthesametimewearetaughtaboutapastthatneverdeniesitsidealsinthefaceofthepresent.”1Newport’scityscapereadslikeahistorybookofurbandesigninAmerica.Thecolonialquarter’ssystemofwharvesareevidenceofthecommercialimpetusthatformedthecity,whilethegridestablishedbytheSocietyofFriendsinthePointisanexampleofrationalplanningdatingbacktoancienttimes.Nosinglehouseofworshipdominatesthestreets.Instead,theyarescatteredthroughoutthetown,reflectingtheprincipleoffreedomofconsciencethatprevailedinthecolonialcommunity.Insucceedingcenturies,theformalityofBellevueAvenue,thepicturesqueplanofOceanDriveandthemodernisturbanplanningfeaturesofAmerica’sCupAvenueeachrevealtheaesthetic,socialandeconomicforcesthatshapedthecity.

1WolfgangBraunfels,UrbanDesigninWesternEurope,(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1961),p.9.

5

ThedocumentsrecordboththephysicalgrowthofNewportandtheroleofitshistoryandlegendarybeautyaskeyfeaturesofitsmystique,anintangiblequalitythathasbeenaspotentaninfluenceovertimeasthebuiltenvironment.Forhowdoesastoriedcitybecomeso?Howdoesamythicplacearise?Itbeginswiththeland,thesea,thewaysinwhichhumankindmakesitsmarkonthetopographyandthelegendsthatemergebythosewhocelebratetheplaceastimegoesby.Thephysicalandthemetaphysicalcombinetomakethemythicimage.UponvisitingNewportin1906,afterdecadesoflivingabroad,HenryJamesborewitnesstobothaNewportandacountryatlargethathaddramaticallychanged.Castingadiscerningeyeaboutthecity,herespondedtoboththephysicalplaceandthemoremutableatmospherethathadalwayscapturedhissensesashewrote,“Newport,onmyfindingmyselfbackthere,threatenedmesharply,quiteatfirst,withthatpredicamentatwhichIhaveglancedinanotherconnectionortwo-thefeltconditionofhavingknownittoowellandlovedittoomuchfordescriptionordefinition.”2AlthoughhedeclaredhisstruggletodescribeanddefineNewport,Jamesdidsowithnuanceanddepthassomanyartists,beforeandsince,whohaveencounteredthecity.Theseindividualsinvariablycelebratedandcritiquedwhatcanbecalledan“accidentalworkofurbanart,”forNewportwasneversubjecttoamethodicalplanwithagrandvision.Thecityisthesumtotalofcenturiesofevolution,resultinginaworkofartandelicitingmanyoftheresponsesassociatedwithaworkofart:admiration;condemnation;interpretation;and,notleastofall,inspiration.2HenryJames,“TheSenseofNewport,”Harper’sMonthlyMagazine,August1906,p.344.

6

THELANDTheinterplayoflandandseadefineNewport.SituatedatthesoutherntipofAquidneckIsland,thecityissetinavariedtopographyofmarshylowlands,hills,valleysandcliffsborderedbywateronthreesides.Thisveritablearcadiaofscenicviewsiscomposedofashelteredwestfacingharborwithcoves,wetlandandstonyoutcroppings.TothesoutharetherockypromontoriesandpondsoftheOceanDrivearea.ThehighcliffsandflatlandscapeofBellevueAvenuedominatetheeasternsideofthecitywhilegentlyslopinghillstothenorthterminateatEaston’sPond,totheeast,andattheshoresofNarragansettBay,tothewest.WhenGiovannidaVerrazzanofirstlaideyesuponAquidneckIslandin1524,heencounteredaplacealreadymarkedbyhumansettlement.ThisItalianseacaptainintheserviceoftheFrenchCrownhadbeenexploringtheeasterncoastlineofNorthAmericaandrecordedhisaccountinalettertohisMajesty,KingFrancisI.“Wereachedaland…wherewefoundanexcellentharbor…Wefrequentlywentfivetosixleaguesintotheinterior,andfounditaspleasantasIcanpossiblydescribe,andsuitableforeverykindofcultivation–grain,wineoroil.ForthesefieldsextendforXXVtoXXXleagues,theyareopenandfreeofanyobstaclesortrees,andsofertilethatanykindofseedwouldproduceexcellentcrops…Whenwewentfartherinland,wesawtheirhouses,whicharecircularinshape,aboutXIIItoXVpacesacross,madeofbentsaplings,theyarearrangedwithoutanyarchitecturalpattern…Theymovethesehousesfromoneplacetoanotheraccordingtotherichnessofthesiteandtheseason.”3Thiswasnovirginwilderness,butahighlycultivatedlandscapecreatedbygenerationsofNativeAmericans.GiovannidaVerrazanodidnotremaininthelocalehecalled“PortdiRefugio,”butcontinuedonwithhisexplorationofthecoastlinenorthtoNovaScotia.4Theremarkshemadeonthisislandwouldberepeatedbycountlessobserverscommentingontheabundance,allureandenchantingseasideatmosphereofwhatappearedtobeparadise.AnothercenturypassedbeforeEuropeancolonistssettledinNewport.Aplaceofremarkablefertilityandnaturalbeauty,thestagewassetforthecreationofthecitythateventuallyroseontheblessedspot.3LawrenceC.Wroth,TheVoyagesofGiovannidaVerrazzano,1524-1528,(Yale,1970),pp.133-134.4Ibid,p.140.

7

SETTLEMENT:THESEVENTEENTHCENTURYIdealismandpragmatismcombinedtocreateNewportwhen,in1639,agroupofcolonistssettledatthesoutherntipofAquidneckIsland.AmongtheleadersofthegroupwereNicholasEaston,WilliamCoddington,WilliamBrenton,JohnClarke,JohnCoggeshall,JeremyClarke,ThomasHazard,HenryBullandWilliamDyer.5Thesefoundersprovidedtheplacenamesforvariouspointsofland,covesandstreetsinthenewsettlement,whichoccupiedlandsalreadyclearedandcultivatedforcenturiesbyNativeAmericans.FollowingtheprinciplesestablishedbyRogerWilliamswiththefoundingoftheRhodeIslandColony,freedomofconscienceprevailedinthemindsandcivicaffairsofthesettlerswhilewatersourcesandtopographydeterminedtheplacementofthestreetsanddomiciles.Thelackofonedominantreligioussectinthelifeofthecommunity,asinnearbyPuritanMassachusettsBayColony,producednohouseofworshipasthefocalpointofthetown,notevenwhentheinhabitantsestablishedthe“GreatCommon.”6InMarchof1640,theRhodeIslandGeneralAssemblyorderedthefoundersto“layoutthestreetsandlandsandtokeepallseabanksfreeforfishingforthetownofNewport.”7ThefirstsettlersbuilttheirhousesnearaspringatthepresentdayintersectionofSpringandTouroStreets.SeveralstreamsemanatedfromthespringinthedirectionofBroadStreet,nowknownasBroadway,andMarlboroughStreettowardstheharbor.In1654,WilliamDyrewroteof“HighWayesLaydoutbymr.NicholasEaston,mr.JohnClarkeandmyselfe,”whichextendedfromthespringtotheseasideandsouthwardalongagridcreatedbytheparallelplacementofThamesandSpringStreets.8BroadStreetwasorientedinanortheasterlydirectiontowardmeadowsandorchards.Farmingandfishingprovidedsustenanceforthefirstfewyearsofsettlementuntilthecoloniststurnedtoseatrade.Wharvesandthestreetsconnectingtothembecamethedominantfeatureoftheurbanplan.TanneriesrosealongthewaterwayadjacenttoTannerStreet,nowDr.MarcusWheatlandBoulevard,whilesawmills,breweries,ropewalksandothershopssupportingshipbuildingandmaritimeactivitieslinedtheburgeoningarteriesofatownnumberingoverfourhundredhousesby1680.9

5RecordsoftheColonyofIslandofRhodeIslandandProvidencePlantationsinNewEngland,Vol.1638-1644,RhodeIslandStateArchives.Providence,RI.Newport’sfoundershadbrokenawayfromthesettlementestablishedbyAnneHutchinsonin1636onthenortherntipofAquidneckIsland.6AntoinetteDowningandVincentJ.Scully,Jr.,TheArchitecturalHeritageofNewport,RhodeIsland,2nded.,rev.,(NewYork:ClarksonN.Potter,1967),p.15.7RecordsoftheColonyofRhodeIslandandProvidencePlantationsinNewEngland,1636-1663,p.102.RhodeIslandStateArchives8RhodeIslandLandEvidencesVol.1.,1648-1696,p.54.9Downing.p.17.

8

Thetriumphofmercantilismbecameapparentinthe1680swhenseveralmerchantscollaboratedinthecreationoftheProprietorsofLongWharftopromotetheshippingtrade.10Duetothevalueofwaterfrontland,narrowlotsranfromtheharboronthewestupthehillsidetotheeast.Thenorth/southaxisofThamesstreetextendedtheentirelengthoftheharborandeverysidestreetterminatedatthewaterfront.Thus,theseadeterminedthecity’sorientation.Shopsandresidencesincreasedinnumber,buttherewereveryfewreligiousstructuresasreportedin1690inAShortAccountofthePresentStateofNewEngland,whichreported,“hereisamedleyofmostPerswasiansbuttneitherchurchnormeetinghouse,exceptforonebuiltfortheuseofQuakers,whoareverynumerous.”11ThefreedomtopursuebusinesspreoccupiedtheresidentsasNewportgrewintooneofthemajorseaportsofBritishNorthAmerica.Sturdilybuiltwharves,housesandwarehousesdefinedthestreetscapesofthehardworkingandentrepreneurialcolonialcity.Yet,itlackedgrandeur.Withtheincreasingmercantilewealthoftheensuingcentury,allofthatwouldchange.10Ibid.p.16.11Ibid.p.18.

9

CIVICSPLENDOR:THEEIGHTEENTHCENTURY

UnknownArtist.Newportin1740.CourtesyofMrs.AllettaM.Cooper.Wharvesandsteeplesdefinetheskylineofthecolonialcity.FortGeorgeappearsonGoatIslandintheforeground.Streetsandbuildingswereorientedtowardsthewaterfront.In1712,theNewport’sgoverningcouncildeclared,“thetownhadgrowntotheadmirationofallandwasMetropolitan”and,withconfidence,commissionedJohnMumfordtosurveythestreetsoftheirfaircity.12Theseverythoroughfaresbecamethesettingforgrandarchitectureasthe18thcenturyprogressed.UnlikeWilliamsburg,PhiladelphiaorSavannah,whichfrominceptionwereformallyplannedcitiesfocusedonsquares,parksandpublicedifices,Newport’sstreetswerewellestablishedbythetimeconstructioncommencedonlargescalearchitecturalprojects.13Churches,meetinghousesandcivicbuildingshadtotaketheirplaceamongthedomicilesofmerchants,artisansandlaborers.Evenwithinsuchlimitations,theeffectwasexceptionalandcreatedastrikingdisplayofpublicgrandeur.FacingtheGreatCommon,theFriendsMeetingHouse(1699)wasNewport’sfirstlargebuilding.Itspostandbeamconstructionandshingledfacades,inkeepingwiththeQuakerprincipleofplainliving,providednoelaborateornament.TheSabbatarianMeetingHouse

12Ibid.p.18.TownMeetingRecords,(NewportHistoricalSociety),I,138.13Ibid.p.21.TheTownCouncilhadinstitutedanactconcerningthepavingofstreetsin1707.

10

(1706)soonfollowedinyetanotherunderstatedmanner.ArchitecturalrichnessarrivedwithTrinityChurch(1726),designedbyRichardMunday,whogavethecityscapeitsfirsttallspiremodeled,aswiththebodyofthechurchitself,aftertheLondonchurchesofSirChristopherWren.SetonanarrowplotborderedbySpring,ChurchandFrankStreets,TrinityChurchhadlittleornamentonitslowerfloorssinceneighboringhousesclusteredaroundthesacrededifice.Nolargescalepublicsquareorgreenprovidedspacetoviewthebuilding.Thespire,soaringhighaboveallotherbuildings,becameaconstantlandmarkofferingasophisticatedrenderingofclassicalarches,obelisks,archesandurnstotheskyline.

Detail.Newportin1740.CourtesyofMrs.AllettaM.Cooper.RichardMunday’sgrandbuildingsdominatetheskyline.ThespireofTrinityChurch,totheleft,andthecupolaoftheColonyHouse,inthecenter,proclaimedthewealthandcultureoftheprosperousmaritimeport.TheFriendsMeetingHouseistotheleftoftheColonyHouse.

11

RichardMunday’sarchitectureintroducedthesumptuousBaroquetotheurbanlandscapeofNewport.AfterthesuccessfulcompletionofTrinityChurch,hismostimportantprojectlayaheadwiththeColonyHouse(1739-41).Placedbetweenthetownspringandthesprawlingtriangularshapedareaknownasthe”Parade,”theColonyHousebecamethefocalpointofalargepublicspace.ItsmainelevationfacedwestaffordingaviewtotheendofLongWharf.Individualsdisembarkingfromshipsonthewharfbeheldanextensivevistatowardstheopulentbrickandbrownstonebuildingwithagildedpineappleatopitselaboratelycarvedcentralpediment.Thus,thefirstgrandurbanaxisinNewportdidnotfocusonareligiousbuilding,butagovernmenthouseapproachedfromacommercialdock.Createdaftertheestablishmentofitssurroundingstreets,Munday’sbuildingtookadvantageofitsphysicalsituationtoboldeffect.ThefinalensembleoftheColonyHouse,theParadeandLongWharfheraldedanewscaleofcivicsplendor,areflectionoftheeconomicwealthandtasteforarchitecturallandmarksthatcharacterizedthe18thcenturycity.

JohnCollins.StateHouse.Print,1850.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.ViewofColonyHousefromtheParade,knownaftertheRevolutionas“WashingtonSquare.”WhiletheColonyHousevisuallydominatedthecenterofNewport,abuildingrosetotheeastinthemeadowlandsabovethecitythatwouldheraldanewerainarchitecturalmagnificence.Becausenolandorurbansquareexistedforthesolepurposeofservingasasettingforapublicbuilding,thosewhowishedtoembellishthetownwithfinearchitecturehadtomaketheirhomewhereveropportunityprovidedacreage.ThiswasthecasewiththeRedwoodLibrary,whichbeganwithagroupofintellectuallymindedmerchants,ministersandscholarswhoweregivenaplotoflandontheoutskirtsofthetown.In1729,agroupofprominentresidentsformedthePhilosophicalSocietyfor“thepropagationofknowledgeandvirtuethroughafree

12

conversation.”14Theirlivelydiscussionsandcommoninterestsledtothedesireforalibrarytohousetheircombinedcollectionofbooks.In1747,thegroup,renamedtheCompanyoftheRedwoodLibrary,engagedPeterHarrisontodesignabuildingworthyoftheirclassicaltastes.HecreatedthefirstNeo-PalladiantempleforminBritishNorthAmerica.Suchanobleedificewouldusuallybethefocalpointofanavenue,squareorprominenthill.NotsoinNewport.AgiftbyHenryCollinsdeterminedthelocationofthetempletolearning.OneofNewport’srichestmerchantsandgenerouspatrons,Collinswasknownasthe“LorenzodeMedici”ofcolonialRhodeIsland.Hedonatedhisbowlinggreenonthecrestofthehillabovethetownforthepurposeofbuildingthelibrary.Thus,thestructurestoodinisolationamongfields,theresultofapracticalgiftratherthanintentionalplacementinamagnificentspot.AlthoughnotinitiallyperceivedasNewport’sversionoftheParthenononanAcropolis,theresult,however,wasstillaugust.HarrisonestablishedhiscareerandwentontoendowNewport’sstreetscapeswithsomeofthefinestpublicbuildingsintheNeo-Palladianmanner,suchasTouroSynagogue(1762)andtheBrickMarket(1763).Hewouldablyadapthisdesignstothevariouslotsmadeavailabletohiminatownguidedfirstbytheneedsofcommerceand,second,thetasteforpublicgrandeur.

UnknownArtist.RedwoodLibraryandAthenaeum,1860.CourtesyofRedwoodLibraryandAthenaeumTheDoricstyletemplefrontofthelibraryconferredanobleclassicismonthecityscapeofNewport.Throughoutthecenturies,thebuildinghasacquiredavenerablemystique,perceivedbymanyasalandmarkofaheroicage.AmongitsmembershavebeenthepoetsEmmaLazarusandJuliaWardHowe,thewritersHenryJamesandEdithWharton,andthepainterCharlesByrdKing.

14GeorgeChamplinMason,AnnalsoftheRedwoodLibrary,(Newport:TheRedwoodLibraryandAthenaeum,1890),pp,12-13.

13

WhileentrepreneurshipinfluencedtheplanofNewport,thereisastrikingexampleofreligiousidealsproducingauniquedistrict.In1674,NicholasEastongrantedlandonEaston’sPointtotheSocietyofFriends.15In1715,theQuakersdirectedtheirmemberstoinvestigatethelayoutofPhiladelphiabytheirfellowFriends.16UnliketheeconomicimpetusunderlyingtheplanningofThamesStreetandthewharves,theorganizationofthePoint,whileconsciousofcommercialactivities,exhibitsthespiritualandculturalidealsoftheQuakers.Organizedinasymmetricalgridpatternwithlotsofequalsizeandstreetsnamedbynumberandaftertrees,thedistrictexhibitsanemphasisonorder,equalityandmodesty.ThelayoutalsoderivesfromtheclassicalprinciplesofEuropeantownplanningdevelopedduringtheRenaissance.TheurbangridplantypewasfirstdevelopedinancienttimesbyHellenisticplannersincitiessuchasMiletusandPriene.17Romansthenadaptedthegridtobothmilitarycampsandnewlyfoundedcitiesthroughouttheirempire.AsRenaissancescholarsandartistsrediscoveredtheancientworld,thegridpatternbecamethebasisforidealcityplanning.Withitsemphasisonfunctionanditsappealtoreason,thisurbanplantypecrossedtheAtlanticandfoundahomeinBritishNorthAmerica.TheQuakersofNewportmayhavevaluedthegridmoreforitspracticalityandsimplicityratherthanitsclassicalallusions,butitalsorepresentedthemostadvancedapproachtocityplanningofitsday.ThesenseofprideinNewport’scityscapeisevidentinthemapdrawnin1758bytheReverendEzraStiles,whogaveasmuchattentiontopublicbuildingsandshopsastotheorientationofstreets.ThiseminenttheologianandscholarservedasthePastoroftheSecondCongregationalChurch,LibrarianofRedwoodLibrary,and,laterPresidentofYaleUniversity.HisapproachtothemapwasnotthatofaskilledcartographerbutasmanoftheEnlightenment,asonededicatedtorecordinghisenvironment.Eachwharfisnamed,reflectingitsprimaryimportanceasaneconomicengine.ReligiousstructuresandtheColonyHouseareclearlylistedalongwitheverytypeofshopandhouse.TheParade,presentdayWashingtonSquare,appearsasatriangledominatedtotheeastbyLongWharfandtothewestbytheColonyHouse.Tothesouth,theRev.Stilesrecordedthetwolongstreets,ThamesandSpring,andthegridcreatedbythecrossstreetsleadingdirectlytothewharves.TothenorthwestofWashingtonSquareistheplannedgridofthePointandinthenortheasterlydirectionisBroadStreet,includinglistingsofitsnumerousdomicilesandshops.

15NicholasEaston,LastWillandTestament,1674.NewportHistoricalSociety,VaultABox82,Folder6.AnnBullEaston,thewidowofNicholasEaston,deededadditionalacreageonthePointtotheSocietyofFriendsin1706.AnnBull(Easton)Deed,LandEvidence,theColonyofRhodeIslandandProvidencePlantations,October15,1706,pp.360-362.NewportHistoricalSociety,VaultABox82,Folder6.16SocietyofFriendsRecordsofRhodeIslandMonthlyMeetings,1707-1739,February26,1715,p.115,andMarch31,1715,p.116.NewportHistoricalSociety.17LewisMumford.TheCityinHistory.(NewYork:HarcourtInc.,1961),pp.192-193.

14

TheRev.EzraStiles.MapofNewport,1758.CourtesyoftheRedwoodLibraryandAthenaeum.Religiousbuildings,shopsandthenumberofhouses,indicatingthenumberofstories,arelistedindetail.LongWharf,themostprominentinNewport,appearsintheupperleftsideofthemap.Thesignificanceofcommercialmaritimeactivityisevidentinthenamingofthewharves,theonlyfeaturesofthecitytobeidentifiedinsuchamanner.

15

ThefinalgrandgestureofNewport’s18thcenturycommercialandculturalsplendoroccurredinthelate1760s.Althoughnotintentionallyenvisionedasafocalpoint,theParade,outofnecessity,evolvedintothecity’svisualcenter.LongWharfandthelocationofthetriangulargrassyplotforlocalmilitiaproducedtheshapeofthearea.TheplacementoftheColonyHouseattheheadofthisopenzonein1741establishedaformalaxis.In1758,PeterHarrisonprovidedthefinaltouchtothefinesquarewithhisdesignfortheBrickMarket.Thelocationforthisbuildingwasentrepreneurialratherthanaesthetic.WithineasyreachofLongWharfandtheThamesstreetcommercialquarter,itwasperfectlysituatedasaneconomicnexus.HarrisondesignedasophisticatedversionofaPalladiantownpalacewithanarcadedfirstleveltoppedbymonumentaltwostoryhalfcolumnsintheIonicstyle.Withmerchants’housesliningthestreetsaroundthesquare,theColonyHouseatitseasternendandtheBrickMarketatitseasternend,theParadebecameanurbanspaceofcivicsplendor.FinesteeplesofthevarioushousesofworshipmayhavemarkedNewport’sgeneralskyline,butagovernmentbuildingandamarkethousedominateditsmainsquare.Politicsandcommerce,ratherthanreligion,ruledinColonialNewport’surbanscenery.Thus,thecity’sstreetsandbuildingsarethephysicalmanifestationoftheRhodeIslandcolony’sdedicationtopoliticalliberty,freedomofconscienceandtherealitiesofmaritimetrade.

UnidentifiedHessianArtist.TheParade,1818.Oiloncanvas.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.TheParade,thetriangulargreenlawn,istotheleft.PeterHarrison’sBrickMarketbuilding(1762)isthefocalpointoftheeasternendofthesquare.TotherightoftheBrickMarketisLongWharf.TheParadewasrenamedWashingtonSquarefollowingtheRevolution.

16

Newport’seconomyandtheflourishingofitsartsandcraftsreacheditsapexinthemid-18thcentury.CharlesBlaskowitzrecordedtheurbanplanofthisvibrantcityatitsheightin1777,theveryyearwhenitfacedtheabysswithoccupationbyBritishtroopsatthebeginningoftheWarforIndependence.Hismaplistsallpublicbuildings,ropewalks,abatteryraisedbytheAmericans,andwindmillsonthehillsabovetown.SidestreetsextendingfromSpringtoJewStreet,thepresentdayBellevueAvenue,indicatetheexpansionofthecitysincethe1758EzraStilesmap.Suchgrowth,however,cametoahaltwiththewar.

CharlesBlaskowitz.APlanoftheTownofNewport,1777.CourtesyoftheLibraryofCongress.TheBlaskowitzmapdepictsthecleargridplanofthePoint(onthelowerleft),LongWharfcuttingacrossthecoveandterminating,onland,inthetriangularshapedParade,whichwouldbecomeWashingtonSquare,andthelongthoroughfareofThamesStreetrunningthelengthofthewaterfront.Wharvesfeatureprominently,terminatinginthegridofstreetsextendingeastwardupthehilltoSpringStreetandJewStreet.Eachpublicandreligiousbuildingisclearlydelineatedontheplanandlistedinthethelowerrightcornerofthemap.ExecutedatthehighpointofNewport’surbandevelopmentntheeveoftheRevolution,themapcapturesthecityatacriticaljunctureinitshistory.EconomicdownturnaftertheRevolutionlimiteddevelopmentuntilthemid-19thcentury,whenthefieldandmeadowsadjacenttothetownbecamesubdividedforsummerhousesasNewportrosetoprominenceasaseasideresort.

17

Detail.Blaskowitz.PlanofNewport,1777.CourtesyoftheLibraryofCongress.ThisdetaildepictsthePointsectiondevelopedbytheSocietyofFriendsintheearly18thcenturyonlanddonatedbyNicholasEaston.Thelandwasdividedintosquareandrectangularlotsinagridarrangementtypicalof18thcenturycityplanning.Houseslinethestreetswhilethecenterofthelotsprovidedgardenspace.Duringthecourseofthe19thand20thcenturies,thelotsweresubdividedtoallowforadditionalbuildings,increasingthearchitecturaldensityofthedistrict.Thecove,totheright,wasfilledinbeginninginthe1860stoprovidewaterfrontaccessfortheOldColonyRailroad.

18

Detail.Blaskowitz.PlanofNewport,1777.CourtesyoftheLibraryofCongress.ThisdetailshowsBroadStreet,laterrenamedBroadway,thecentralarteryleadingfromtheheartofthecitytoopencountryside.ThetopographyofhillsdetermineditsplacementasthemostconvenientrouteoutofNewport.FreshwatersourcesalongTannerStreetalsodeterminedthelayoutofthestreetandthelocationofitsmanytanneries.QueenandAnnStreetsformthetriangularshapeoftheParade.

19

Detail.Blaskowitz.PlanofNewport,1777.CourtesyoftheLibraryofCongress.LowerThamesStreetservedasthemainnorth/southorientedtrafficarteryaccessingthewaterfrontanditsmanywharves.Eachsidestreetterminatesinawharfand,intheeasterndirection,climbsagentlehilltoSpringandSouthStreets.

20

Newport’ssystemofstreetsandwharveswerefullyestablishedbytheeveoftheRevolution.Publicbuildingsproclaimedthewealthandincreasingculturalsophisticationoftheinhabitants.Thisfinemetropolisenjoyedtheheightofcommercialandartisticsuccess,whichcametoadrasticendwiththeonsetofwar.OccupationbytheBritishfrom1777to1780andtheensuinglossofpopulationsubstantiallyimpairedthetown’smaritimeeconomyandassociatedenterprises.Thewaterfront,theParade,thePointandtheHillremainedthenucleusofacitythatwasnowsurpassedeconomicallybyProvidenceandotherportsinthepost-waryears.Fewnewstreetsandevenfewergrandbuildingsappearedontheurbanlandscape,asymptomofeconomicstagnation.Onlyinthe1840sdidNewportbegintoflourishagainwithitsriseasasummerresort.Whilethecolonialseaportdiminishedinsocialandeconomicimportance,theopenmeadowstoitseastandsouthprovidedfertilegroundforthenextboominurbandevelopment.

21

VICTORIANEXPANSION:1840-1890Landsubdivision,theestablishmentofBellevueAvenueandOceanDrive,realestatespeculation,resortarchitectureandtheintroductionoftrainsandstreetcarscharacterizedNewport’sgrowthinthemid-19thcentury.Astheacknowledged“QueenofResorts,”thecityexperiencedacottageboomassummerhousesroseontheonceopenmeadowstotheeastandsouthoftheoldcolonialquarter.18Thiseravaluedthepicturesque,celebratingthetypeofspectacularnaturallandscapewhichNewportpossessedinabundance.Fashionablesocietybroughtitsowncodesofconductandbehaviortothispastoralsetting,whichevolvedintoaverypublicstagewheretheneedtoseeandbeseendictatedsocialhabits,assoaptlystatedinHenryJames’recollectionsofBellevueAvenue.“Hadn’titbeenaboveall,ingoodfaith,theAgeofBeauties-theblessedagewhenitwassoeasytobeaBeautyontheAvenue.”19Architectsmadetheirreputationswithcommissionsforsummervillas.Painters,illustratorsandphotographerscapturedthesublimeatmosphereoftheseasideclimateandwritersandpoetsreflectedontheplaceandthesocialmannersandmoresofitsoccupants.Inthisromanticage,themythofNewportemergedinthehandsoftheseartistsinspiredbyitsnowtwocenturiesoldpast,enchantedbyitssceneryandfascinatedbyitsarchitecturalachievements.

C.Graham.TheNewportCasino.Lithograph,1883.Harper’sWeeklyMagazine.ThedailydriveonBellevueAvenuebecameaprimaryritualofNewport’sfashionablesummercolonyinthemidtolate19thcentury.

18CityAtlasofNewport,R.I.1876,G.M.Hopkins,Philadelphia,PA.19James,p.352.

22

Adirtroad,knownasJewStreet,leadingsouthfromtheoldtownbecamethefocalpointforurbanexpansioninthe1840sassummercottages,suchasKingscote(1841)andtheEdwardKingVilla(1845),werebuiltamongopenpasturelandwithviewstothedistantharborandocean.Speculators,notablyAlfredSmithandJosephBailey,wereassistedbyGeorgeChamplinMason,Sr.,apainter,architectandeditoroftheNewportMercurywhousedthenewspapertopromoteNewportasaresort.20Centraltothisideawasthecreationofaproperroadwayprovidingaccesstothethecliffsandocean.JewStreetwasextendedand,whencompletedin1853,giventheofficialtitleof“BellevueAvenue,”orbeautifulview,aFrenchnameinkeepingwiththedesiretoappealtofashionablesummervisitors.21ThislongstraightthoroughfareopeneduptheentireeasternsideofNewporttodevelopment.Farmswerepurchasedandsubdivided.Streetplansinthisdistrictweresymmetricalandorderlysincetheflattopographylentitselftoagridplan.22

UnknownArtist.BellevueAvenue.Photograph,circa1880.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.Gates,fencesandthegreeneryoffashionablesummercottagesdefinedthecharacteroftheBellevueAvenuedistrict,whichreflectstheimportanceplacedonintroducingnatureintomid-19thcenturystreetscapes.

20W.MackenzieWoodward,“OceanDriveNationalHistoricLandmarkStudy”,(RhodeIslandHistoricalandPreservationCommission,October2008),Section8,p.5.Inthemid-1840s,AlfredE.SmithdevelopedthreehundredacresoflandintheKay-Catherine-OldBeachRoadarea.21Ibid.Section8,p.5.22Theevolutionofthecityintheperiod1840to1890isdocumentedinthefollowingatlases:CityAtlasofNewport,RI,1876,G.M.Hopkins,Philadelphia,PA;Newport,RI,1878,GaltandHoy,NewYork,N.Y;CityAtlasofNewport,RI,1883,G.M.Hopkins,Philadelphia,PA.;Newport,RI,1884,SanbornMapandPublishingCo.

23

Thebuildingboominthisneatlylaidoutareaensuedataquickpaceinthe1850s.Artists,suchasJohnP.Newell,recordedthisarchitecturalactivityinillustrationsmadeforsale.Theworldwatchedandcritiquedeverymajornewhouse,asseenbythecommentaryofthenotedpoet,WilliamCullenBryant.“Cottages-everythinghereiscalledacottage-everyvarietyofarchitecture.Swiss,Gothic,French,Elizabethan,andAmerican,andofeverydegreeofcost,fromthehumblerstructurethatisrentedforathousandayearuptothestatelymansioninwhichhundredsofthousandsareinvested,linethespaciousavenues…23Theseearlysummerhousesweresetinopenlawns,but,bythe1870s,thetasteforlushspecimentreesalteredtheappearanceofthedistrict.Influencedbytheprevailingtasteforthepicturesque,naturemadeitswayintothestreetscape.TheprominentarchitecturalcriticandlandscapewriterMariannaGriswoldvanRensselaerborewitnesstotheemerginginterestinurbantreesintheMay1886issueofTheCenturyMagazine,“Buttothestudentofdomesticarchitecture,Newportisthemostinterestingofoursummercolonies.ItsnewerportionsshowacharacteristicinstanceofthatwayofvillageplanningwhichIhavealreadyspokenofaspeculiarlyAmerican-widestreetsofdetachedhouses,eachwithitsownsmalllawnandgarden,andallovershadowedbythicksetandloftytrees.”24

UnknownArtist.KayStreet.Photograph,circa1885.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.

23WilliamCullenBryant,ed.“Newport,”PicturesqueAmerica,1872.24MariannaGriswoldvanRensselaer,“AmericanCountryDwellings,”TheCenturyMagazine,May1886.

24

Althoughgainingfameforitshouses,BellevueAvenuewasfirstandforemost,astreetofgates,fencesandgreenery.Theprominenceofnatureinthecityscaperesultedfromthefascinationforthepicturesqueaspopularizedbythetheoristandauthor,AndrewJacksonDowning,whoadvocatedforaharmonybetweenbuildingsandlandscape.Hisbestsellingbook,TheArchitectureofCountryHouses(1850),featuredanimageoftheEdwardKingVilla(1845)setinaluxuriantlandscapebetweenBellevueAvenueandSpringStreet.25ThehousesurroundedbytreesandgardenswouldbecomeapatternofdevelopmentforAmericancommunitiesthroughoutthe19thcentury.Asthedecadesprogressed,Newport’sestatescreatedanurbanforestthatgavetheentireresortareaontheeasternsideofthecitytheatmosphereofonecontinuousparkland.ThisimpetustotreatNewportasoneentirelandscapeisevidentinthewritingofErnestBowditch,whodesignedthegroundsofTheBreakers,VinlandandWakehurstinthe1870sandearly1880s.Heenvisionedtheseadjacentestates,linkedtoeachotherbyanetworkofserpentinepathsandofferingexpansiveviewsacrosseachopenlawns,“toactasfoilsforeachother…toproduceoneharmoniousvisualwhole.26

ClarenceStanhope.Mrs.J.M.Fiske’sVilla“Masonlea”onRugglesAvenue.Photograph,circa1890.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.Thelowstonewallandhedgeallowsforanextensiveviewacrosstheestategroundstothesea.ThistypeofopennessdistinguishedtheBellevueAvenuedistrictuntilthe1890s,whenlargewallsenclosedthenewlybuiltBeauxArtshouses.

25Downing,AndrewJackson,TheArchitectureofCountryHouses,NewYork:DoverPublicationsInc,1969.26ErnestW.Bowditch,“TheYear1881attheOffice,”OfficeWork-PersonalitiesII,no.10,BowditchFamilyPapers,(Salem:EssexInstitute).

25

AssummerhousesfilledtheavailableparcelsofBellevueAvenue,KayStreet,OldBeachRoad,RhodeIslandAvenueandOchrePoint,attentionsturnedtothesouthernpartoftheislandfornewterritory.Bothlocalsandsummerresidentsspeculatedinlanddevelopmentinthisperiod,purchasinglargelotsoflandinthepresentdayOceanDriveareaasinvestmentsforfuturegrowth.27TheywereencouragedbyGeorgeChamplinMason,whohadchampionedtheideaofaseasidedrivealongtherockysoutherncoastline.HisarticleshelpedswaypublicopiniononthebenefitsofusingNewport’snaturalbeautytofulladvantage.“…onthesubjectofdrivesandwalkswecannotaskbetterthantourgeonallinterested(andwhoarenot?)theadvantagestobederivedfromanopenshoreroadaroundthewholesouthernportionoftheIsland…sucharoadismuchwantedbyallwholovetostrollneartheseashore,ifopeneditwouldimmediatelybecomeafashionabledriveofanafternoon.28Mason’sdreambecamearealityin1868withtheinstallationofOceanDriveconnectingBellevueAvenue,ontheeasternsideofthecity,withCastleHill,overlookingNarragansettBayonthewest.UnliketheflatterrainoftheBellevueAvenuedistrict,thenewdriveranamongvalleys,covesandrockypromontories.Theseruggedfeaturesconstituteditsappeal,especiallytotheleadinglandscapearchitectoftheday,FrederickLawOlmsted.AsthefameddesignerofCentralParkinNewYorkCity,OlmstedwastheacknowledgedleaderoflandscapedesignintheUnitedStates.In1884,theKing,GloverandBradleyfamiliespurchasedtwenty-sevenacresofrollingmeadowonthenorthernsideofOceanDriveandcommissionedOlmstedtocreateaseriesofcurvedroadsleadingtohousesdesignedbythearchitecturalfirmofMcKim,MeadandWhite.29Theinformalityofthescheme,therespectforthenaturaltopographyoftheregionandanawarenessofsightlinesoflandandseadistinguishOlmsted’screation.Thecriticsapproved,amongthemMariannaGriswoldvanRensselaerwhostated,“Thenewroadsareadmirablydisposedforconvenienceandbeauty.”30

27CityAtlasofNewport,1876.28Woodward,Section8,p.10.29F.L.andJ.C.Olmsted,“PlanforSubdivisionofPropertiesinNewport,RIBelongingtoMrs.EdwardKing,J.H.Glover,Esq.,TheHon.C.S.Bradley,G.GordonKing,”NewportLandEvidenceOffice,PlatBook1,pp.30-31,NewportCityHall,Newport,RI.30MariannaGriswoldvanRensselaer,“Newport-II,”ForestandGarden1(5December1888),p.483.

26

GeorgeChamplinMason(1820-1894).RockyFarmandCherryNeck.Oiloncanvas,circa1854.CourtesyoftheRedwoodLibraryandAthenaeum.ThiswindsweptmeadowlanddepictsthesouthernportionofNewportbeforethelayingoutofOceanDrivein1868,openingtheareatodevelopmentforsummerestates.BornintoaprominentNewportfamily,Masonbecameanotedlandscapepainter,illustratorandarchitect.HewasalsotheeditoroftheNewportMercury,usingthenewspapertopromoteNewportasasummerresort.

27

Galt&Hoy,NewYork,NY.Newport,RI,1878.CourtesyoftheLibraryofCongress.Bythesecondquarterofthe19thcentury,streetsemanatedfromtheColonialeraquarteralongtheharbor,withThamesandSpringStreetsasthemaintrafficarteries,toBellevueAvenue,intheforeground,whichextendedtothesoutherntipofAquidneckIsland(bottomrightsideofmap).Thisbird’seyeviewprominentlyfeaturesthecliffs,rockycovesandbeachesratherthantheharbor,theusualvantagepointformapsandillustrationsofNewportuntilthemid-1800s.Themapappealedtothetastesofsummervisitorsseekingdramaticnaturalscenery.

28

ClarenceStanhope.VinlandandOchrePointAvenue.Photograph,circa1886.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.

JohnTschirch.BoweryStreet.Photograph,2016.InthisviewofBoweryStreet,betweenBellevueAvenueandSpringStreet,fencesandtheoverhangofalushcanopyoftreesfromthesummerestatescreateashadylane.

29

ClarenceStanhope.Almy’sPond.Photograph,circa1900.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.ThewindsweptfieldsandmarshesaroundAlmy’spondaffordedextensiveviews.TothefarleftisBelcourtandtothefarrightofthephotographarehousesoverlookingBailey’sBeach.Withthegrowthoftreesandadditionalbuilding,thisopenqualitynolongerremains.

MapofOceanDrivefromProposedImprovementsforNewport,1913.FrederickLawOlmstedJr.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.ThemapdepictstheKing-Glover-BradleyplatdevelopedbyFrederickLawOlmstedin1884.Thislargescalerealestatedevelopmentofsummerestatesfeaturedcurvingpicturesquedrivesofferingviewsofthehillycountrysideandthesea.

30

WhiletheappreciationofnatureandscenerypreoccupiedthedevelopersofsummervillasonBellevueAvenueandOceanDrive,industryandnewtechnologiesweretransformingthenorthernendandcentralcoreofthecity.AlthoughNewportneverbecameamajormanufacturingcenter,ithadabustlingwaterfrontandanincreasingnumberofyear-roundresidentswhomadetheirhomesinthenewneighborhoodsalongBroadwayfromEqualityParktoOneMileCornerandintheblocksaroundsouthernThamesStreet.ThemethodicallylaidoutstreetsandhousinglotsservedmiddleandlowerincomeresidentsworkingfortheU.S.Navyandinavarietyofsmalltomiddle-sizebusinesses.Asrailroadstraversedthenationinthemid-19thcentury,theymadetheirarrivalinNewportinFebruaryof1867withthecompletionoftheOldColonyRailroad.31TherailroadtrackscutthroughthePoint,acrossthecoveborderingonBridgeStreetandterminatedattheharbor-sidewharvesinanintegratedtransportationsystemlinkingNewportbylandandseatothemainland.Bythe1900s,thecoveformingthesouthernborderofthePointwasentirelyfilledintoallowfortraintraffic.Thelarge18thcenturyparcelsoflandonthePoint,oncecontainingbetweenthreetofivehousesandlargegardenplots,weresubdividedandfilledinwithVictorianbuildings,increasingthedensityofthestreetscapes.

UnknownArtist.TheOldColonyStationonThePoint.Photograph,circa1870.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.Therailroadtrackstraversedthehistoriccove,entirelyfilledinbytheearly1900s.

31HistoryofOldColonyRailroad.www.ocnnr.com/history1.htm

31

AtlasoftheCityofNewport,1876.ThePoint.CourtesyoftheRedwoodLibraryandAthenaeum.

G.M.Hopkins,Philadelphia,PA.CityAtlasofNewport,1907.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.TheOldColonyRailroadfilledinthecoveonthesouthernborderofthePoint(rightsideofmap)tolinkwiththewharves.TheoncelargelotsoftheColonialerahouseswerein-filledwithVictorianbuildings.

32

AtlasoftheCityofNewport,1907.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.FromBullStreettoEqualityPark,thefieldsonbothsidesofBroadwayweredevelopedduringthemidtolate19thcentury.ThedotteddarkandlightlinesrunningdownBroadway,SpringStreetandWashingtonSquaredepictstreetcartracks,establishedin1889.

33

UnknownArtists.Photograph,circa1880.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.ViewofBroadwayattheintersectionofSpringStreet,totheleft,andMarlboroughStreet,tothefarright.Streetcartracksappearinthecenterofthestreet.

JohnTschirch.BullStreet.Photograph,2016.ThedevelopmentofthelandsateithersideofBroadwayinthe1860sthroughthe1890sproducedastreetscapeofdiversearchitecturereflectingtheVictoriantasteforcomplexbuildingfacadesoftowers,gables,porchesandbaywindows.

34

Inadditiontotrainsandsteamships,streetcarsweretheothertechnologicalmarvelintroducedtoNewportduringaburgeoningindustrialage.Notallresidentswarmlygreetedthenewformoftransportation.Thefirstattempttoestablishstreetrailsinthe1860swasafailure,followedbyanotherdefeatin1884.32Summerresidentsinparticulartookoffenseattheincursionthestreetcarsmadeintotheirresortenclave.TheProvidenceJournalreported,“itwouldbeannoyingtothesepeopletobeobligedtomovetoallowpassageofsovulgarandplebianthingasahorsecar.”33Undaunted,theproponentsofmasstransitfoughton.In1889,thenewlyorganizedNewportStreetRailwayinitiatedplacementoftracksalongBroadway,WashingtonSquare,SpringStreet,LevinStreetandBathRoad.ThispromptedthecreationoftheNewportImprovementAssociationwithapowerfulcoterieofindustrialtitansatitshead,amongthemWilliamWaldorfAstorwhostated,“sucharoadwouldbeastandingdangertolife,aseriousdetrimenttothevalueofproperty,andanirreparableinjurytotherenownedbeautyoftheplace.”34Althoughastreetcarsystemwassuccessfullylaunchedinthesummerof1889,thetracksdidnotgotoBellevueAvenueorOceanDrive.Theroutesbecameindicatorsofsocialstatusandprivilege.Streetcarspliedtheworkingandmiddleclassdistricts,whilestayingawayfromthewealthyandfashionconsciouswhoretreatedtotheprivacyandexclusivityoftheirtree-ladenboulevardsandseasidedrives.

UnknownArtist.OldHomeWeekonWashingtonSquare.Postcard,1900.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.StreetcarsranfromthesquaretoLongWharf.TheBrickMarketistotheleftofthephoto.

32D.ScottMalley,“MassTransitinRhodeIsland,Part7,”TheFirstRhodeIslandTrolleys:WoonsocketandNewport.OldRhodeIslandMagazine,September1994.33Ibid.34Ibid.

35

UnknownArtist.WashingtonSquare.Photograph,circa1900.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.ViewlookingeasttowardsColonyHouse,totheright.

AnthonyCaralazzolo.AtlanticFleetPartyinWashingtonSquare.Photograph,1922.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.Streetcartracksrundownthecenterofthesquare.

36

UnknownArtist.SpringStreet.Photograph,circa1920.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.

UnknownArtist.ThamesStreetandWashingtonSquare.Photograph,circa1890.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.

37

UnknownArtist.ThamesStreet.Postcard,circa1900.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.Victorianstores,theatersandcommercialbuildingsreplacedmanyoftheoldercolonialerabuildingsalongThamesStreet,butthethoroughfareitselfretaineditscolonialerawidth,causingoverahalfcenturyofdebateandplanningeffortsaboutitspossibleredesign.

UnknowArtist.ThamesStreet,fromWashingtonSquaretoFranklinStreet.Photograph,circa1890.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.

38

CityAtlasofNewport,1907.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.ThecolonialeraplanofThamesStreetanditswharvesremainedfullyintactintothemid-20thcentury.Thedensityofbuildingsincreasedasthegardenplotsofthecolonialerawerefilledinwithcommercialstructuresandadditionalhousing.

39

CityAtlasofNewport,1907.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.Thetwotypesof19thcenturyNewport’sstreetscapesareapparentinthisAtlasPlate#4depictinglowerThamesStreetfromFranklinStreettoMile’sEnd.Ontheleftsideofthemap,theworkingwaterfrontisdenselybuiltwithcommercialstructuresonthewharves,whileontherightsideofthemap,depictstheexpansivelawnsandserpentinedrivesofsummerestatesbuiltbetween1840and1890.

40

Assummercottagesexpandedneartheseashore,andtrainsandstreetcarsmadeincursionsintothecity,the18thcenturyquarterremainedrelativelyuntouchedandbegantoappealtothesentimentsofartiststakenbyitsassociationswithaheroicageoffoundingsettlersandRevolutionarypatriots.NewwarehousesandshopsdidappearonmanyoftheoldwharvesanddepartmentstoresrosealongThamesStreet,butthemajorityofColonialbuildingsremainedintact.Admirersdidnotcometobuild,theycametovenerate,extolandprojectromanticviewsandancientvirtuesontheplace.ThearchitectCharlesFollenMcKim,thethirdAmericantobeeducatedattheEcoledesBeauxArtsinParis,sawthevalueoftheseoldstreetsandbuildings.Withhisclassicaltrainingandeyeforarchitecturalform,heappreciatedthehistoricallayersofNewport’spast.In1874,hecommissionedaseriesofphotographstorecord18thcenturystreetscapesandstructures.35AsthenationapproacheditsCentennialin1876,NewportservedasapowerfulsiteofinspirationfortheColonialRevival.Manyotherarchitects,writers,poetsandpaintersbegantoadmiretheintimatescaleandlayersofhistoryofthecity,whichappealedtotheirpicturesquesensibilities.

WilliamJamesStillman.VernonHouse,atthecornerofMaryandClarkStreets.Photograph,1874.CharlesMcKimPortfolio.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.

35ThephotographscommissionedbyCharlesFollenMcKimareinthecollectionoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.

41

HenryJames,enchantedbytheoldtown,vieweditasaremnantofamythicpast.Timehadconferredavenerableairaboutthetown,whichtheauthordulynoted.“Ihavebeenquiteawe-struckbytheancientStateHouse(theColonyHouseof1741)thatoverlookstheancientParade,anedificeample,majestic,archaic,ofthefinestproportionsandfullofacertainpublicDutchdignity…Herewasthecharmingimpressionofatreasureofantiquity…thewide,cobbly,sleepyspace…intheshadowoftheStateHouse,musthavebeenmuchmoreofaVanderHeyden,orsomebodyofthatsortthanonecouldhavedreamed.36JameswritesofNewportinapainterlyway,usingcolor,lightandperspectiveandthemoodstheyevoke,comparingWashingtonSquareandtheColonyHousetooldDutchpaintings.Hewasalsotakenbythetextureofthestreets.“Whatindeedbutveryoldladiesdidtheyresemble,thelittleveryoldstreets?...Inthismildtowncorner,whenitwassoindicatedthatthegrassshouldbegrowingbetweentheprimitivepavingstones,andwhereindeedIhonestlythinkitmainlyis,whateverremainsofthem,ancientpeacehadappearedformerlytoreign-thoughattendedbytheghostofancientwar,inasmuchasthesehadindubitablybeenthehauntsofourauxiliaryFrenchofficersduringtheRevolution.”37Theauthorimaginedtheinhabitantsthatlivedinthestreetscapesandbuildingsoftheoldcity,wellawarethatculturalvoicescouldanddidcallouttothosewhostopped,lookedandlistened.Hiswritingimbuedtheurbanscenewithpersonalityanditsownparticularpsychologyofspaceandemotion.ForJames,Newportwascastasbothaplaceandapersonwithdistinctcharactertraits.Nobility,bravery,vanity,gluttonyandahostofotherqualitieswereelicitedbythebuildings,lanesandlandscapesencounteredbythewriteronhisliteralandfigurativewanderings.

36James.p.351.37Ibid.351.

42

UnknownArtist.MarlboroughandDukeStreets.TheOldTown.Photograph,circa1900.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.Colonialstructureswithaddedstairwells,shedsandwingsproducedthelayeredandweatheredappearanceofstreetscapesthatappealedtoartistsandphotographers.TheromanticviewillustratedinJames’swritingandtheantiquarianinterestexhibitedbyMcKim’sphotographymixedeasilyinChildeHassam’spaintingsofNewport.ThisleadingAmericanImpressionistusedthesoaringsteepleofTrinityChurch(1726),thenotablelandmarktothecity’sglorydaysasaColonialseaport,inhisworkWhiteChurchatNewport.Withsoftdappledbrushstrokes,theartistsrenderedthewhitesteepleamongtheclusterofbuildings,lushtreesandgardensoftheoldtown.Hisistrulyamerehazysuggestionoftheoldchurch,imbuedwithadiffusedlightandsoftcontoursinherentintheimpressionistworksofthetime.Hehasmadeaniconicimage,callinguponhistorytoconfergravitastohisworkwhileexecutingitinthemodernpaintingtechniquesoftheday.Captivatedbytheancientairofthetown,McKim,JamesandHassaminwritten,photographic,paintedandbuiltformviewedthe18thcenturytownasavenerablespot,aplacefirmlyinthelexiconofAmerica’sfoundationmythandaninspirationfortheirownwork,wherethepastcouldinformthepresent.Bythe1890s,thejuxtapositionofoldandnewinNewportbecameevenmorestriking.Linkedtothemainlandbytrainandsteamship,Newportwasnolongeranisolatedcoastalenclave.TheoldquarterbecameincreasinglyappreciatedforitsconnectiontothecolonialpastwhileamongtheVictorianresortofwoodencottagesroseanewgildedcity.

43

FrederickChildeHassam.WhiteChurchatNewport,alsoknownasaWhiteChurchinaNewEnglandTown,1901.Oiloncanvas.PrivateCollection.

44

THEGILDEDCITY:1890-1914Classicallyinspired,massiveinscaleandunabashedlygilded,thearchitectureandlandscapedesignofthe1890sachievedanimperialsplendor.ThisglitteringcitywasimposedonthepreviouspicturesquewoodenNewportoftheVictorianage.RichardMorrisHuntledtheway.AsthefirstAmericanarchitecttobetrainedattheEcoledesBeauxArtsinParis,hehadseenfirst-handthechateauxandpalacesofEurope,whichhewouldrecreateonthecliffsofNewport.Hemasteredtheprinciplesofclassicaldesignfromrationallydevelopedplanningtothepreciserenderingofhistoricallyinspireddetail.Furthermore,heunderstoodhowtocreatearchitecturalpageantryasabackdropforsocialtheater.In1897,Munsey’sMagazinereported,“SocietyinNewportisalwaysondressparade...”38Theafternooncarriageridebecameakeymomentinthissocialtheater,atimewhentheelegantstreets,theimposinggatesandopulenthousesplayedbackdroptofashion.ConsueloVanderbiltrecalledthisparticularroleoftheavenueinthe1890s,writing,“…weproceededinstatedownBellevueAvenue.Andsocietyrolledbyintheelegantequipagesonesawinthosedayswhentobewellturnedoutonwheelswithahandsomepairofhorseswasasnecessarytoone’sstandardofluxuryasafinehouse.”39

UnknownArtist.BellevueAvenueatTheElms.Photo,circa1905.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.

38“ThePalaceCottagesofNewport,”Munsey’sMagazine,September1897.39ConsueloVanderbiltBalsan,TheGlitterandtheGold,(NewYork:RandomHouse,1953),p.52.

45

TheurntoppedstonepillarsofthegatestoTheElmsintroducedaclassicalformalitytoBellevueAvenue.TheBeauxArtsClassicismespousedbyHuntandhiscontemporaries,aidedbytherichesofAmerica’sindustrialandfinancialoligarchs,producedanenclaveofpalatialhousesinNewportthatbespokeofanewaristocracyofwealth.MonumentalbuildingswereappearingthroughoutthenationinthisperiodwhentheUnitedStatessurpassedGreatBritain,FranceandGermanyintheproductionofcoal,steelandoil.Nowaworldeconomicforce,Americawascreatinganarchitecturalbackdropofmonumentalproportionstoexpressthisnew-foundsupremacy.In1904,BarrFerreeproducedAmericanEstatesandGardenstocelebratethecountry’slavishnewresidences.Thechapterentitled,“AGroupofNewportPalaces,”highlightedthecity’sgildedenclave.“ThearchitecturalthoughtthatlaybehindthecreationofVersaillesisidenticalwiththeideasthathavebroughtthegreathousesofNewportintoexistence.ItistruethatVersailleswasasinglepalace,builtbyadespoticmonarchforhisowndelight,whileNewportisanaggregationofpalaces,builtnotbydespots,butbyfreeAmericancitizens.ButthepalaceofVersailleswasavastarchitecturalbackgroundforcourtfetesandfestivitiesofallsorts.JustsothepalacesofNewportarearchitecturalbackgroundsforthepleasuresandsportsofitsinhabitants….Newport,atallevents,illustratessplendidlivinginthemostsplendidfashionithasyetattainedinAmerica.,sofarasagroupofhousesandpeopleisconcerned.”40TheauthoraccuratelyexpressesthehistoricalandculturalinspirationforthemagnificenceofNewport’sGildedAgehouses.Hislanguagealsorevealsthenationalisticandself-congratulatorytonetakenbymanyduringAmerica’srisetoworldprominenceintheearly1900s.Thestoneandmarblepalacesofthiseraweremostassertivelycourtlystagesforthenation’spowerelitewhotransformedthewoodenseasideresortofthemid-19thcenturyintoanopulentstonecityatthedawnofthe20thcentury.BellevueAvenueandOchrePointbecameevergranderstreetscapesmarkedbyanewscaleofmonumentality.Theonceopenlawnsofearlierhouseswerenolongerinfashion.Privacy,distanceandexclusionweremademanifestbyhighgatesandironfencesthatconcealedfromviewthenewerFrenchchateauxandItalianpalazzos.Neo-Classicalstylepillars,postsandelaboratemetalgrilleworkintroducedamonumentalitytotheleafystreetsofthesummerresort.Ratherthanthecurvingdrivesandserpentinewalksofmid-19thcenturyvillas,theBeauxArtspalaceswerecomprisedofentrancecourtsanddrivesinformal,straightaxesandelaborateparterregardenslaidoutingeometricprecisioninthemannerofRenaissanceandBaroquelandscapes.40BarrFerree,AmericanEstatesandGardens,(NewYork:MunnandCompany,1904),pp.63-67.

46

JohnTschirch.TwoWalls.Photograph,2016.ABeauxArtsmarblewallof1892(left)byRichardMorrisHuntatMarbleHousemeetsaRenaissanceRevivalredbrickandlimestonewallof1859byCalvertVaux.ThesewallsrepresenttwodifferentapproachestothestreetscapeofBellevueAvenue:theearlytomid-19thcenturypicturesquemanneroflowwallsandfencesaffordingviewsacrossopenlawns;thelate19thandearly20thcenturyformalityofhighBeauxArtswallsandirongatesofferinggreaterprivacyandexcludingthehousefromthepublicgaze,whileleavingjustahintofasightlinesomagnificencecouldbepartlyseen.CalvertVauxwasinchargeofarchitecturalplanningforCentralParkinNewYorkwithFrederickLawOlmsted.RichardMorrisHunt,proclaimedthe“DeanofAmericanArchitecture”byhiscontemporaries,introducesanimperialscaleandclassicalstyletoarchitecturaldesign.

47

JohnTschirch.MarbleWall.Photograph,2016.ThehighwallofMarbleHousescreensmostofthemainbuildingfrompublicview,offeringatemptingglimpseatthegrandeurbeyond.

JohnTschirch.Beaulieu.Photograph,2016.ThelowbrickwallofBeaulieuallowsforaviewacrossthegroundstothemainhouse.

48

MatthewDripps,N.Y.andB.I.Tilley,Newport.OchrePoint,fromMapoftheCityofNewport,1859.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety

L.J.RichardsandCo.,Springfield,Ma.OchrePointfromCityAtlasofNewport,1907.CourtesyofthePreservationSocietyofNewportCounty.OchrePointevolvedfromawindsweptmeadowtoahighlycultivated,formallyorganizedenclaveofsummerhousesinthelasthalfofthe19thcentury.

49

UnknownArtist.AerialView.Photograph,circa1940.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.ClarendonCourt(1903,)inthelowerpartofthephoto,andMiramar(1915),intheupperpartofthephoto,imposedaclassicalgrandeuronthelandscapewithformalforecourtsandgeometricallydesignedgardensinspiredby17thcenturyFrenchparterres.GrandiosehousesasamajorpresenceinNewport’surbanscenographyelicitedbothpraiseandcensurefromarchitecturalcriticsandsocialobserversalike.HenryJameswroteahighlyprescientobservationofboththebuiltandnaturalenvironmentwhenhevisitedin1906.Heknewthecitywell,havingspenthisyouthinNewport.Itwas,forhim,notmerelyacollectionofstreets,buildingsandscenery,butapoignantplaceofmemorytouchinglydescribedas,“…athousanddelicatesecretplaces,deartothedisinterestedrambler,smallmild‘points’andpromontories,farawaylittlelonelysandycoves,rock-setlily-sheetedponds,almosthidden,andshallowArcadiansummer-hauntedvalleys,withtheseajustoversomestonyshoulder:awholeworldthatcalledouttothelongafternoonsofyouth.”41

41James.p.345.

50

Theauthorlongedfortheidyllofarememberednaturalparadiseinthefaceofthenewer,larger,granderAmericathatconfrontedhimonhisjourneybacktohishomelandintheearly1900s.James’smusingsdwellednotonlyonthelandscape,butthebuildingswithinit.HeviewedthemasadistillationofhisfullmelancholyatthestateofAmericanarchitecture,socialnormsandculturallifeashewrote,“…thankstothepilers-onofgold,thefortune,thehistoryofitsbeauty:thatitnowbristleswiththevillasandpalacesintowhichthecottageshavenowturned…itwasmosttouchingofalltogobacktodimmestdays,suchasnowappearanti-deluvian,whenocean-drives,engineeredbylandscapeartistsandliterallymacadamizedalltheway,werestillinthelapoftime.”42

ArtistUnknown.Postcard,circa1905.PrivateCollection.ThemythofalostparadisepermeatesJames’sobservations.Heusedthecityinitsentirety,bothitsnaturalandmanmadefeatures,asametaphorforthestateofAmericanculture.Ashewanderedtheoldtownandthenewergildeddistricts,heabandonedlongingsforthepastandturnedinsteadtocriticismofthepresentandforebodingsforthefuture,releasingthefullweightofhispropheticpowersonthegildedrealmsofBellevueAvenueandOchrePoint.“Thewhiteelephants,asonemaycallthem,allcryandnowool,allhouseandnogarden,makenow,forthreeorfourmiles,abarelyinterruptedchain,andIdaresayIthinkofthembest,andofthedistressful,inevitablewastetheyrepresentTheplaceitselfwasmorethanever,tothefancy,likesomedimsimplifiedghostofasmallGreekislandwheretheclearwallsofsomepillaredporticoorpavilion,perchedafar,lookedlikethosetemplesofthegods,andwhereNature,depriveofthateaseinmerelymassingherselfonwhich‘AmericanScenery,’aswelumpittogether,toaptto42Ibid.p.346.

51

dependforitseffect,mighthaveshownapipingshepherdonahillsideorattachedamythicimagetoanypointofrocks.Whatanidea,originally,tohaveseenthisminiaturespotofearth,wherethesea-nymphsofthecurvedsands,atworst,mighthavechantedbacktotheshepherds,amerebreeding-groundforwhiteelephants!”43ThelandscapeJamessolovedandthemonumentalbuildingshesodespisedbecameatouchstoneformanyonthedebateaboutthemeaningofart,cultureandsocietyasthenationbaskedinthehighnoonofitsAmericanRenaissance.Newport’snaturalsettingandartisticheritagepromptednostalgiaforanimaginedpast.Thefuture,however,couldbeassubjectiveasthepast,opentoequallyromanticwhimsandhopes.Newport’sturnofthecenturyopulencesparkedvirulentreaction.Fearlessinhisjudgment,Jamesboldlydecreedthefateofgildedhousesandtheskylineofexcesstheyimposedontheurbanscene.“Theyarequeerandconsciousandlumpish-someofthem,aswithanairofthebrandishedproboscis,reallygrotesque-whichtheiravertedownersrousedfromawitlessdreamwonderwhatintheworldistobedonewiththem.Theanswertowhich,Ithink,canonlybethatthereisnothingtobedone,nothingbuttoletthemstandtherealways,vastandblankforremindertothoseconcernedofthewitlessness,andpeculiarlyawkwardvengeancesofaffrontedproportionanddiscretion.”44Jamescraftedaninsightful,poignantportraitinterweavinghistoricalandemotionalmemory,keenobservationandcontemporarycriticismashepredictedadoomedfutureforthegildedcity.OtherartistsapproachedNewportintheirownwayandwithdifferentskillsets.Ineachcase,thecityinspiredandmotivatedthemtoaddressitsmythicpast,glamorouspresentanduncertainfuture.In1912,F.LauristonBullardextolledthevirtuesofthecolonialquarteranddoubtedthevalueofthegildedcityashewrote,“…nowhereelseinAmericadoromance,beautyandfashionsocombineandconspiretowintheaffectionsandtodazzletheimagination…Boththeislandandthetown…alikecharmtheimaginativevisitorbytheiroddmixingofoldandnew,andbythestorieswhichhistoryandtraditionassociatewiththewharvesandstreetsandquaintdoorways…tomanythechiefcharmofNewportwillbetherealizationoftheromanticandhistoricasactuallivingpresences,pervadingthewholeplace,broodingovertheglitteringpresentfortheoldhouses,lookingoncalmlyandundisturbedatallthatwealthhaswroughtofluxuryanddisplay.45FrederickLawOlmsted,Jr.tookaverydifferentapproachthanmanywritersandpainters,whotendedtofocusonthemoodandatmosphereoftheplace.Olmstedhadatasktoperform.43Ibid.p.354.44Ibid.p.354.45F.LauristonBullard,HistoricSummerHauntsfromNewporttoPortland,(Boston:Little,BrownandCompany,1912),pp.1-3.

52

EngagedbytheNewportImprovementAssociation,heembarkedonanurbanstudyintegratingpastwithpresentandfuture.In1913,heproducedAPlanfortheImprovementofNewportincorporatingbothaestheticandfunctionalvalues.46Thecharacterofentirestreetscapesanddistrictsaswellastheneedsoftransportationmanagementweresensitivelycombinedinacomprehensivestudy,thefirstbymanyarchitectsandurbanplannersthroughoutthe20thcenturywhoattemptedtobalancetherisingtensionsbetweenpreservinghistoricintegrityandallowingformodernamenities.

ViewofMaryStreet,1913.APlanfortheImprovementofNewport,1913.FrederickLawOlmsted.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.Olmstedanalyzedstreets,buildingsandvegetationasessentialelementsincreatingalivableurbanenvironment.

46FrederickLawOlmsted,APlanfortheImprovementofNewport,RI.AReportPreparedfortheNewportImprovementAssociation,1913.

53

ViewofWashingtonStreet,1913.APlanfortheImprovementofNewport,1913,FrederickLawOlmsted,Jr.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.Olmstedprovidedaseriesofphotographsofthestreetsandtreecanopyofthe18thcenturydistrictswithrecommendationsoncareandconservationoflivingmaterial.Henotedthattheurbanforestwastheresultnotoflargescalecivicplantingbutofprivatehomeownerscultivatingtreesontheirownproperties.Olmstedalsodevisedschemesformajorthoroughfares,includingawidenedThamesStreetandtheconversionofBathRoad,leadingfromtheheartoftowntoEaston’sBeach,intoabroadavenuetoaddressincreasingtrafficcongestion.Healsocreatedaplanforaparkontheharbor,anovelideaatatimewhencommercialactivityoccupiedthewaterfrontandlittleaestheticvaluehadbeenattributedtothearea.Intheintroductiontothereport,Olmstedassessedbothpositiveandnegativeaspectsoftheurbanfabricandoutlinedthefeatureshebelievedmadethecityaviableurbanentity.“IwasimpressedanewwiththepicturesquecharmofNewport.Thisiscertainlynotastartlingdiscoveryoranoriginalobservation,butIwanttomakeitclearthatIdonotsayitlightly…thispicturesquequalityofthecityisaman-madeaffair,eventhoughbasedonfavorablenaturalopportunitiesandeventhoughnotdeliberatelyplanned.Itsloss,ifitistobelost,willjustascertainlybeduetotheactionandtheneglectofthepeopleofthecity.”4747Olmsted,p.6.

54

PlanfortheexpansionofThamesStreet.PlanfortheImprovementofNewport,RI.FrederickLawOlmsted,Jr.1913.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.OlmstedadvocatedforthewideningofThamesStreetandthecreationofawaterfrontpark.OlmstedtreatedNewportasacompleteartisticandlivingentityinaholisticapproachtourbanplanningthatvaluedhistoriccharacter.Hisfamilywerewellacquaintedwiththecity,havingmadeamajorcontributiontotheappearanceofNewport’slandscapesovermanydecades.FrederickLawOlmstedSr.haddesignedMortonPark(c.1885)andthegroundsfortheRichardMorrisHuntdesigned“BuskHouse”(1891)onOceanDrive.Hissons,asthefirmofOlmstedBrothers,completedoverthirtyprojectsinNewport.Oneoftherecommendationsinthe1913studywasthewideningofBathRoadtoserveasafittingentryontoEaston’sBeach.SenatorGeorgePeabodyWetmore,aformerGovernorofRhodeIslandandtheownerofChateau-sur-MerinNewport,wasanardentsupporteroftheexpansionoftheroad,whichhesaidcouldbe,“aboulevardofgreatpublicusefulnessandbeauty.”48WiththecooperationofestateownersalongBathRoad,SenatorWetmoreassistedintheacquisitionoflandforexpansion.HethenengagedtheOlmstedfirmin1916foritsdesignandspecifications.49By1921,theimprovedBathRoadwascomplete.SenatorWetmoreandhisfellowcitizensfinallyhadtheirgrandboulevardfromtheseasidetothecity.5048HollyCollins.“RitesofPassage:TheWetmoresofChateau-sur-Mer,”(ThePreservationSocietyofNewportCounty,2002),p.44.BathRoadwaswidenedfromEaston’sBeachtoMiddletonAvenue,abouthalfwaytoBellevueAvenue.SenatorWetmorewasanadvocateforthewideningofBathRoadasearlyas1911.HealsocommissionedtheOlmstedfirmtoworkonlandscapedesignsforhisNewportestate,Chateau-sur-Mer,intheperiod1915to1918.49RhodeIslandHistoricalSociety,Mss798Box16.50AtlasofNewport,Jamestown,MiddletownandPortsmouth,RI,SanbornMapCo.,NewYork,1921,Plate3.

55

UnknownArtist.BathRoad.Photograph,circa1900.PhotographCourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.StreetcartracksledtoFirstBeach.TheroadwaswidenedfromEaston’sBeachtotheintersectionofBellevueAvenueintheperiod1916to1921.TheroadwasrenamedMemorialBoulevardin1946.Duringurbanrenewalinthelate1960s,thestreetcartrackswereremovedandtheboulevardwasextendedtolinkupwithAmerica’sCupAvenuealongtheharbor.

SanbornMapandPublishingCo.AtlasofNewport,Jamestown,MiddletownandPortsmouth,RI.,1921.CourtesyofthePreservationSocietyofNewportCounty.DetailofBathRoadexpansionfromEaston’sBeach,ontheright,toEdgarCourt,ontheleft.

56

Intheyearsbetween1890and1914,thebuildingsandstreetscapesofBellevuereflectedanenthusiasticembraceofhistoricalstylesandamonumentalscaleinkeepingwiththisconfidentandexpansiveerainAmericanlife.Atitsglitteringapogee,Newportpresenteditselfasabeaconofself-assuranceinthefutureatthedawnofanewcentury.Manyobserversalsovieweditasanexampleofthedoubleedgedswordofexcess,soaptlyexpressedbyareporterin1900.“EverythinginNewportismeasuredbythescaleofmillions.Eventheflowerspreachthegospelofwealth.Naturemadeitthemostbeautifulsummerresortintheworld;manhasmadeitamonumenttohiscolossalvanity.Butithasthemeritofbeingabeautifulandmagnificentmonument.”51Bothcelebratedandcondemned,thisgildedcitybecameatouchstoneofdebateaboutthenatureofwealthandopulenceinAmerica.HenryJamespredictedimpendingdoomwhileFrederickLawOlmstedJr.’sImprovementPlanattemptedtodirectthefutureinasensitiveredesignforpartsofNewportinordertocreateamorelivable,modernandaestheticallypleasingenvironment.Olmsted’sproposalswouldpreoccupyNewportfortherestofthe20thcentury.Somecametofruition.Someneverdid,butmostofhisideasremainrelevant.Whilerecognizingavenerablepastandaglamorouspresent,Newport’sresidentsandtheartists,architectsandplannerswhocametorecordandreimaginetheplaceduringtheGildedAgewereontheedgeofaprecipice,forgreatchangeswereabouttooccurthatwouldreordertheWorld.51“MagnificentNewport,”Munsey’sMagazine,1900.

57

MODERNISMMEETSPRESERVATION:1920-70The20thcenturybroughtdramaticchangetoNewport.WorldWarIandtheGreatDepressionalteredthesocialandeconomicconditionsofthenationanderodedtheunquestionedpositionoftheveryrichwhocreatedNewport’sgildedresortenclave.TheriseofModernisminarchitectureandurbanplanningdealtadeath-blowtothehistoricismandromanticismthatunderpinnedthecharacterofcity’surbangeography.Increasingphysicaldecaymarredthedowntownharborarea.The19thcenturysummervillascametobeviewedbymanyasrelicsofacorruptarchitecturalmethodologybasedonexcessivehistoricornament.Taste,inaplaceforcenturiesattheforefrontoftasteandfashion,hadseemedtoturnitsbackonNewport.Modernistprinciplesofsocialandarchitecturalregenerationstruckattheheartofthecityasaviableentity.UrbanrenewalandpreservationbecametwoapproachestorevitalizingNewport,bothwiththesharedvisionofsavingthecity,butwithverydifferentmethods.IsolatedonthetipofAquidneckIsland,timemighthavepassedNewportbyexceptforthearrivaloftheautomobile.Sincethe1860s,travelersapproachedthecitybytrainorferrywithonlytheStoneBridgeinthenortheasterncorneroftheislandjoiningPortsmouthtothemainlandatTiverton.TheopeningoftheMt.HopeBridgein1927connectedBristolwithAquidneckIsland,allowingforincreasedtrafficfromallpointsnorth.Duringthe1920s,Newportstillenjoyedaperiodofpeaceandrelativecontentment,itsoldquartermellowedthroughtime,thetreecanopyfullymatured,theharborbustlingwithbusinessandthegreatsummerhousesstillfullyoccupied.Theplacewasready,yetagain,toberecordedbyanartist.Combiningkeenobservationskillswithromanticyearning,thewriterThorntonWilderportrayedNewportduringthedecadeasacityofcomplexhistoricalandculturallayers.InTheophilusNorth,setin1926,Wilder’syoungheroisintroducedtotheninecitiesofNewport.TheFirstcityexhibitsthevestigesoftheearliestsettlerscontainingtheenigmaticStoneTower;theSecondcityisthesplendid18thcenturytownwithmemoriesofWashington,RochambeauandRevolutionaryglory;theThirdcitycontainedwhatremainofaprosperousseaportalongthewharvesanddocksofThamesStreet;theFourthcitybelongstotheArmyandNavy;theFifthcitywasinhabitedsincetheearly19thcenturybyintellectualsandartists;theSixthcityisfortheveryrich,theempirebuilders,aplaceforfashionandcompetitivedisplay;theSeventhcityswarmswitharmiesofservants;theEighthcityofparasitesisdependentontherich,filledwithfortune-hunters,aspirantstosocialprominence,andpryingjournalists;theNinthcityisamiddleclasstown,busywithitsownlifeandtakinglittlenoticeoftheothereightcities.52WilderdistillsthesocialandandphysicalnuancesofNewportinaperiodbeforedepressionandwarwouldtaketheirtoll.Drawntothecity’sseductiveatmosphereandnaturalcharms,likesomanybeforehim,Wilder’snovelisalsorepletewithhisabilitytoinfusetheplacewithatenderhumanityashischaracterswalkthestreetsandliveouttheirambitions,fearsandhopesamidcenturiesoldbuildings.WilderwroteTheophilusNorthin1973.Thus,itwasalreadyforhimaplaceofmemoryasherecalledthecityandcreatedheroes,heroines,villains,andalltheimperfecttypesin-between,withthebenefitofhindsight.52ThorntonWilder.TheophilusNorth.(NewYork:Harper&Row,1973.)pp.15-16.

58

CityAtlasofNewport,1907.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.Plate#7illustratesthepresenceofdistinctlydifferentsocialandeconomicworlds,soinsightfullynotedbyThorntonWilderinhisnovel,TheophilusNorth.ThedenselybuiltneighborhoodbetweenThamesandSpringStreetshouseddomesticservantsandtheworkersinlocalbusinesses.SummerestatesofthewealthyoccupylargelotsofopenspaceintheareabetweenSpringStreetandBellevueAvenue.

59

TheadventofWorldWarIIforeverchangedtheenchanting,manylayeredcityobservedbyJames,Olmsted,Wilderandothers.NewportwitnessedincreasedactivityastheprimarynavalbasefortheNorthAtlanticFleet.Theoncepastoralnorthwesternsectionofthecity,overlookingNarragansettBay,developedquicklywithmilitarysupportbuildingsandresidentialdevelopmentsatParkHolmandTonomyHill,initiallyservingashousingforconstructionworkersandtheirfamilies.53AquidneckIslandwouldnolongerbetheisolatedcoastalretreatofasmallpopulationofworkersandsummerresidents.Mid-20thcenturyprogressconnectedittothewiderworld.

UnknownArtist.ThamesStreet,atthecornerofLongWharf.Photograph,circa1950.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.

53“Newport’sDecadeofProgress,1940-1950.”TenthAnnualReportoftheHousingAuthorityoftheCityofNewport,RhodeIsland.July29,1950.ParkHolmwascompletedin1940andTonomyHillin1941.

60

The18thcenturyquartersufferedeconomicdeclinewhilethesummerhousesofBellevueAvenueandOceanDrive,manystilloccupied,neverreturnedtotheirprewaropulence.Thismoodofdecaypervadedinthe1944article,“LifeVisitsaFadingNewport,”“…theystandinstatelyrowsalongBellevueAvenueinNewport,RI,once‘thericheststreetintheworld.’SincethepassingoftheGildedAgethatthesehousesymbolize,twowars,alongdepression,highincometaxesandashortageofservantshavedimmedNewport’ssplendor.Thedoorsofthesevillaswillneverbeopenedagain.”54LifeMagazineappearedtojustifyHenryJames’s1906predictionthatthegreathouses,the“whiteelephants,”wouldsomedaystandvastandblank.Anewsocialorderandmodernistaestheticshadarrivedinfullforceuponthescene.Financially,oldstructureswerelargelyseenaseconomicburdens.Culturally,thehistoricalrevivalstylesandornamentaldetailsofNewport’sarchitecturallegacywereviewedasmanifestationsofadecadentpastrepresentingaslavishadmirationforsocialhierarchyandtheprivilegeofthefew.Modernity,withitsemphasisonefficiencyandminimalism,hadnotimeforthepicturesqueeffectssooftencelebratedinearlierdecades.

UnknownArtist.ProvidenceJournalBulletin.12November1951.Thepowerfulappealofurbanrenewal,modernarchitectureandsuperhighwaysisevidentinthismid-20thcenturycartoon.54LifeMagazine,“LifeVisitsaFadingNewport,”16October1944.

61

Decayanddevelopmentspurredontwomovements:historicpreservationandurbanrenewal.Bothhadthesameobjectiveinmind,tosaveNewport.Bothhaddifferentvisionsforwhatitmeanttorescuethecityandhowitwouldbeimplemented.AgroupofconcernedcitizensformedThePreservationSocietyofNewportCountyin1945andOperationClapboardin1964.Theseprivateinitiativesfocusedontheaestheticandhistoricsignificanceofindividualbuildingswiththeaimofpreservingthe18thcenturyquarter.TheNewportRedevelopmentAuthority,establishedbytheRepresentativeCouncilinDecemberof1949,lookedattheentirecity,assessingbothitsphysicalassetsanditseconomicandsocialchallenges.Theseandmanyotherorganizationsandcitizenswouldparticipateinwhatcanonlybedeemedbothadanceandaboxingmatch.Sometimestheycooperated;oftentimesnot.Thissituationrepeateditselfinnumerouscitiesacrossthenation,wherehistoryandrenewalworkedatcrosspurposes.55Clearanceofdistrictsidentifiedas“slums”becameoneofthemostcontroversialaspectsofurbanrevitalizationfromthe1940sthroughthe1960s.Preservationistsbasedtheirworkonseeingthearchitecturalsignificanceandbeautybeneaththedecayofhistoricareas.Theplannersofurbanrenewalenvisionedmodern,lightfilledcommunitieswithimprovedtrafficconditionsandpublicservices.Therewasnoplaceforwhattheyviewedasdecrepitbuildings.ThedebatebetweenslumclearanceandpreservationinNewportplayedoutinthelocalpressthroughoutthe1950s.TheNewportDailyNewsreported,“SlumClearanceStepsSuggested,”publishingthesuggestionsofthecityplanningtechnician,AlbertEdwards,which“dealtchieflywithinadequatestreetsandcongestion.Hesaidtherewasgoodhousingbutmostofitwasold.”56

ArtistUnknown.DivisionStreet.Photograph,circa1940.PhotographCourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.18thcenturyhouseswerenotappealingtomanyintheeraofmid-20thcenturymodernism.55JaneJacobs,TheDeathandLifeofGreatAmericanCities,(NewYork:RandomHouse,1961).Jacobs’bookonthehumanandphysicalcharacterofcitieswasseminalininspiringthepopulistmovementtocurbtheexcessesofurbanrenewal.56NewportDailyNews,May18,1951

62

ArtistUnknown.LongWharfandMarketSquare.Photograph,1966.ProvidenceJournalBulletin.ThePreservationSocietyofNewportCountyhaddifferentopinionsofhousingdescribedas“old,”commissioninganinventoryofhistoricstructuresbyAntoinetteDowning,whofocusedonthe18thcenturyquarter,andVincentJ.Scully,Jr.,workingon19thandearly20thcenturyarchitecture.FundedbytheVanBeurenfamily,thestudyresultedinTheArchitecturalHeritageofNewport,RhodeIsland,1640-1915(1952),alandmarkpublicationraisingawarenessofthecity’snationallysignificantbuildings.Newportwasfoundtohaveoneofthelargestcollectionsof18thcenturywoodenhousesinNorthAmerica,19thcenturyShingleStylearchitectureofexceptionalqualityandBeauxArtssummerhousesbythenation’sleadingarchitects.TheappendixincludedaradicalinterventionfortherestorationofClarkeStreet,whichproposedthedemolitionofallbuildingsafter1840.Theselaterstructureshadfilledintheonceopengardensofthecolonialerahouses.Lateradditionsto18thcenturyhouseswerealsotoberemovedinordertorestorethebuildingstotheiroriginalcondition.57Althoughneverimplemented,theplanreflectedthetendencybymid-20thcenturypreservationiststovalueoneeraoveranother.Evenhistoricpreservationistsdid,attimes,wishtoknockthingsdown.

57Downing,pp465-67.

63

Theevolvingnatureofhistoricpreservationanditschangeinfocusfromindividualbuildingstoentirehistoricdistrictscametotheforefrontinthe1960s.Newport’spreservationistsfocusedonsavingColonialarchitectureinthe1940sand1950s.Intheearly1960s,theywereforcedtoconfrontpotentialdestructioninthe19thcenturycity.Circumstancesdemandedabroaderviewofthecityandallofitsbuiltheritage.In1960,thePreservationSocietycommissionedareportfromthefirmofTunnard&HarristoaddresswiderangingchallengestoNewport’shistoricintegrity.Thefinalreportreflectedthelatestphilosophiesonurbanplanningandpreservation,reflectingbackonOlmsted’sImprovementPlanof1913andproposingevenmorefarreachingpreservationaction.“Inpreservationplanningtoday,wemustseebeyondtheboundariesofallNewporttoincludethegreat19thcenturyestatesandtherockycoastlineoftheIsland’stip.TimeshavechangedsinceOlmstedcouldpointtothe‘ostentatious’sideofNewport-anewgenerationseesthese‘palaces’oftheearlycaptainsofindustryartifactseminentlyworthsaving…Topreservetheseaspartofaplanforpresentdayliving,educationandinstitutionalusesalmostasimportantaspreservationplanningistothecolonialseaport…theconservationofnaturalsceneryisalsovital.Olmsted’ssuggestionsforAlmy’sPondwentunheeded;nowtheverycoastline-Newport’sincomparablerockyshore-isthreatenedbyspotdevelopment.”58

Tunnard&Harris.DesignforaparkinfrontofTrinityChurch.Drawing,1960.TheplannersproposedclearingtheneighborhoodaroundTrinitychurchtocreateanopenspaceinfrontofthechurchaffordingaviewtotheharbor.Integratinglandscape,buildingsandurbanplanninginoneharmoniouspreservationschemewasvisionary,atestamenttoTunnard&Harris’ssensitivitiestonatureandhuman-made

58Tunnard&Harris,APreservationPlanningReportonNewport,RhodeIsland,January,1960,p.2.

64

structures.Theirwarningswereprophetic.Shortlyafterthecompletionoftheirreport,athreatofgrandproportionsconfrontedNewport’sgildedcity.In1962,TheElms(1901),oneofthemostopulentofGildedAgeestatesfamedforitsarchitectureandelaborategardens,wentontheauctionblock.Purchasedbyadeveloper,theestatefaceddemolitiontomakewayforpossiblecommercialdevelopmentintheheartoftheresidentialBellevueAvenuecorridor.Preservationistsandprivatecitizens,alarmedatthesituation,organizedtosaveTheElms.ClevelandAmorywrote“TheBattleforModernNewport”intheNewYorkTimesMagazineattheheightofthecontroversy,stating,“…Newport’sArmageddon,inotherwords,hadcome.WhicheverwayTheElmsblew,Newportwastofollow.”59BulldozersandwreckingballsdidnotdestroyTheElms,itsthirteenacresofgroundsoritsmagnificent18thcenturyFrenchstylestoneandcastironfenceliningBellevueAvenue.ThePreservationSocietyacquiredtheestatein1962andopeneditasahousemuseum,beginningatrendtowardssavingendangered19thand20thcenturyproperties.

59ClevelandAmory,“TheCrucialBattleforModernNewport,”TheNewYorkTimesMagazine,September2,1961.

65

UnknownArtist.AerialViewofTheElms.Photograph,circa1945.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.TheneardestructionofTheElmspromptedamajorefforttoestablishahistoricdistrictordinance.AfterthreeyearsofcampaigningbythePreservationSocietyandotherorganizations,thecitydeclaredbyordinanceinJanuaryof1965thecreationoftheNewportHistoricDistrict,encompassingtheHistoricHillandPoint,andaHistoricDistrictCommissionforoversight.60Justaspreservationistscelebratedthisvictory,thegreatestupheavaltothecityscapewasabouttotakeplace.InFebruaryof1965,thecitycounciladoptedanurbanrenewalplandevelopedbytheBostonfirmofIzadore,Candeub,Flessig&AdlyAssociates,whichincludedafourlanehighwayalongthewaterfrontthatwouldcometobeknownas

60OrdinanceoftheCouncil,No.416Chapter149,27January1965.CityofNewport,RhodeIsland.Alsosee,HollyCollins,“ThePreservationSocietyofNewportCounty:TheFoundingYears,1945-1965,”(ThePreservationSocietyofNewportCounty,2006),pp.44-47.

66

America’sCupAvenue.61SincethenewlyestablishedHistoricDistrictdidnotincludeareafromThamesStreeteasttotheharbor,thelandwasopenforredevelopment.Historicpreservationandurbanrenewalnowhadtoco-exist,neitherbeingentirelytriumphant.In1966,Newportreceivedfederalfundingforurbanredevelopment.TheNewportDailyNewsstated,“theNewportareawasmarkedprincipallybycondemnationofproperty,demolitionofbuildings,diggingupofstreets,allconverselyleadingofananticipatedhealthyandprosperousfuture.”62Newspapersreporteddailyontheconflictbetweenthelargescaledemolitionsofurbanplannersandthepreservationistscallforprotectionofhistoricstructures.Mostofthe18thand19thcenturycommercialwaterfrontbuildingsfromLongWharftothePerryMillonThamesStreetwerecleared.Onewriterproclaimed,“Newportsearchedforreasonslastweekforthedisappointmentwhichhaddroppedonitswaterfrontredevelopmentprojectwiththeforceofawreckingball.”63OnthePoint,historicgroupsurgedthatMarshStreetbeusedasthenewaccessroadtoGoatIslandratherthanBridgeStreet,withitsrichcollectionofcolonialhouses.Theyweresuccessful.Preservationprevailed.

UnknownArtist.BridgeStreet.Photograph,circa1965.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.

61“CouncilfortheRenewalPlan.”NewportDailyNews,24February1965.62“1966:ThePaceQuickensinNewport,”NewportDailyNews,31December196663“AmidtheRubble,NewportAsksWhy,”ProvidenceJournal,21April1968.

67

Thestreetscapesof18thcenturyhousesthroughouttheHillandPointneighborhoodsdidpresentaremarkablepreservationchallengeandopportunity.Theserelativelycompactbuildingswerenotwellsuitedformuseumorcommercialuseandtheywereinareasofsevereblight.TheoriginalColonialerastreetsalsopresentedproblemsasreportedbyTunnard&Harrisin1960.“TheColonyHouseandBrickMarket,comingaftertheplanwasset,makeafocalpointforWashingtonSquare,butasquareinnameonly.Instead,thetown’simportantbuildingsarescattered,presentlyamostinterestingurbanscene,and,atthesametime,achallengetotheingenuityofthosewhoaretryingtopreserveit…surroundingsofcommercialblightaretheruleratherthantheexceptioninNewport.64Theuseoftheword“blight”hadnegativeimplicationsforitidentifiedmanyvernacular19thcenturybuildingsasacceptablefordemolitionwhen,infact,theyformedasignificanturbancore.Onlylandmarkbuildingsandcolonialperiodresidencesseemedworthyofpreservation.Theresultofplacingsuchavaluesystemonwhatwastobepreservedandthemodernistemphasisonefficiencyandaccessbyautomobileproducedanenvironmentwheretheoriginalstreetscapeswereopentoradicalredesign.From1966to1970,urbanrenewalproducedthefourlanehighwayknownasAmerica’sCupBoulevard,causedthedestructionofthewestsideofThamesStreetfromLongWharftoMemorialBoulevard,thecreationofPerrottiParkontheharbor,andtheconstructionofnewbuildingsonthewharves.Thegreatestchangewasthereorientationfromtheoriginaleast-westaccessofcolonialsidestreetsbringingpedestriansandtraffictowardstheharborandwharves.Instead,America’sCupBoulevardseveredthathistoriclinkbyitsnorth-southorientation.Inthesameperiodofthelate1960s,muchoftheColonialquarterwasrevitalizedthroughhistoricpreservation.ThesetwooftenconflictingforcesofurbanrenewalandpreservationprofoundlylefttheirmarkonthestreetsofNewport.

64TunnardandHarris,p.2.

68

UnknownArtist.AerialViewofTrinityChurch.Photograph,1967.CourtesyoftheCityofNewport.TheconstructionofAmerica’sCupAvenuebeganin1966afterdemolitionofbuildingsalongthewaterfront.ThehousestothewestofTrinityChurchweremovedinthelate1960sandearly1970stomakewayforthecreationofQueenAnneSquareparkbytheNewportRestorationFoundation.ThehistoricstreettotheleftofTrinityChurchdisappearedtomakewayforthepark.

69

TheconstructionoftheNewportBridge,from1966to1969,alsohadamajorimpactonthecity.ThechairmanoftheRhodeIslandTurnpike,BridgeAuthority,FrancisG.Dwyer,stated,“Newport’sfutureisassured…itisinapositiontocompetewithotherareasindevelopingitstouristandrecreationindustry.”65TheJamestownferryceasedoperationwiththeopeningoftheNewportBridge,endingthehundredsofyearsofpedestriantrafficonthewharves.Abridgeaccessroadandmajorrotarybisectedthenorthwesternareaofthecity.Progressprevailedinnewroads,buildingsandanewbridge,buttheoldstillhaditsplace.BrianJones,whoreportedfrequentlyontheentireredevelopmentprocess,capturedthebattlebetweenoldandnewashewrote,“Newport’suniquecollectionofoldbuildings,havingsurvivedtheRevolutionaryWar,nowappeartobeoutlastingthe20thcenturyurgetotearthemdown.”66Modernthoroughfaresandhistoricbuildingsmayhavebeenatoddswithoneanother,buttheyformedthebasisofNewport’snextincarnationasaplaceofmajortourism,festivalsandleisurepursuits.Initsthreecenturiesofdevelopment,Newporthadneverbeensoradicallyalteredasinthelate1960swhenitwasdirectlylinkedtothemainlandandalargeportionofthewaterfrontdemolishedforredevelopment.

Meservey.ThamesStreetandWharves.Photographcirca1950.CourtesyofthePreservationSocietyofNewportCounty.Theimagedepictsthewaterfrontareademolishedin1966tomakewayforAmerica’sCupAvenue.Houses,shopsandwarehousesofthe18thand19thcenturieslinethestreetsofthisdenselybuiltupdistrict.LongWharfandthePointDistrictaretotheupperrightofthephotograph.GoatIslandisinthedistance.65“BridgeisDedicated,OpentoTraffic,”NewportDailyNews,28June1969.66“TideTurnsforHistoricNewport,”ProvidenceJournal,31March1968.

70

AtlasoftheCityofNewport,1876.CourtesyoftheNewportHistoricalSociety.TheentirezonewestofThamesStreet(bottomportionofthemap),withtheexceptionofthebuildinglistedas“CityHall”atthecornerofLongWharf,wasdemolishedin1966tomakewayforAmerica’sCupAvenue.The“CityHall”wastheoriginalBrickMarketbuiltbyPeterHarrisonin1763.PerrottiParkreplacedtheworkingwaterfront.TheopengreenparkextendsfromtheformerwharvesofWilliamSherman(onthefarleft)toHenryBull(rightsideofmap).

71

ArtistUnknown.AerialViewofThamesStreet.Photograph,1965.ProvidenceSundayJournal.OutlinedinablackandwhitedottedlineisthewaterfrontareadesignatedfordemolitiontomakewayfortheconstructionofAmerica’sCupBoulevardindicatedinwhite.Demolitionbeganin1966.

72

ArtistUnknown.AerialViewofSt.Mary’sChurchonSpringStreet.Photograph,1950.ProvidenceJournalBulletin.ThehousesalongLevinStreet,totheleftofthechurch,weredemolishedduringthecreationofthetwolaneMemorialBoulevardinthe1960s.

AtlasoftheCityofNewport,1907.CourtesyofthePreservationSocietyofNewportCounty.HousesonthenorthsideofLevinStreet,aboveSt.Mary’sChurchontheleftsideofthemap,weredemolishedinthemid-1960stocreatethefourlaneMemorialBoulevard,whichcontinuedeastward,incorporatingBathRoad,seeninthelowerrightcornerofthemap.ThenewMemorialBoulevardconnectedAmerica’sCupAvenueonthewaterfrontwithEaston’sBeach.

73

THELANDMARKCITY:1965TOTODAYThestoryofNewportsincetheestablishmentoftheHistoricDistrictin1965encompassestheincreaseinthenumberofprivatehouserestorations,theopeningofhistoricsitestothepublicandthemovementtosafeguardthecity’scenturiesoldtreecanopy.Historyandpreservationappeartobetriumphant.Willhistorycontinuetodeterminethefutureinaplacesoreveredforitsstoriedpastandnationallyimportantarchitecturalheritage?Whatperiod,ifany,shouldbeassignedthegreatestsignificanceandattention?Preservation,likeurbanrenewal,alsohasitsownprejudices.Thecolonialtownhadbeencelebratedsincethemid-19thcenturyandthefocusofattentionduringmid-20thcenturypreservationefforts,buttheVictorianandGildedAgedistrictswerealsoofimportanceandfinallycametotheforeinthelate1960safterseriousthreatsofdestruction.Preservationdidprevail.Newportcelebrateditsacknowledgedpositionasatreasuryoflandmarkbuildings,landmarkdistricts,aTreeCityUSAandanarboretum.History,heritageandhorticulturepervadetheplace.Topossessacompellingheritageisagifttomostcities,but,beware,foritcanalsobeaprison.Thebestphysicalassetsshouldcertainlybemaintained,however,nothingcanremainstatic.Beingfrozenintimedoesnogood.Someagesareheroicanddefineacity,butonecannotvalueonlyamuchheraldedage.Theentirelengthandbreadthofacityisbestrememberedandvalued.ThearticulationofwhatconstitutedasignificantheritageandapproachestoitsmaintenanceformedthecoreoftheHistoricHillUrbanRenewalProjectSurveyandReportof1970.AntoinetteDowning,ChairmanoftheRhodeIslandHistoricalandPreservationCommission,servedaseditorwithagroupofhistoriansandplanners.Astheteamassessedthedistrict,theirfindingsreflectedanewapproachtohistoricareas.“Aninterestinpreservingnotonlysinglebuildingsbutthetotalenvironmenthasincreased,theimpracticalityoftransformingcitiesintomuseumtownshasbecomeincreasinglyapparent…thearbitrarydesignationofarchitecturalandhistoricvaluetoaspecificperiodhasbeenincreasinglychallengedandprogramsplannedtorestoreanentirecitytoasingleperiod(Williamsburg)cannotforcontemporaryconceptsbejustified.Removalofalllaterbuildingsfalsifieshistory,freezingthetownintoamuseumatmosphereanddestroyingthestoryofitsevolvingdevelopment...67ThereportemphasizedtheimportanceofviewingNewportnotonlyasacollectionofafewimportanthistoricstructures,butasanentireurbanentitywithmanycomplexlayersofstreetscapes.ThorntonWilder’sromanticviewofNewport’sninecitiesdidnotexistonlyinfictionbutbecamearealityrecognizedbypreservationists.Duringthecourseofthe1960sand1970s,manyofthoseneighborhoodsimmortalizedasthe“ninecities”inTheophilusNorth67ArchitecturalQualityandHistoryoftheBuildingsoftheHistoricHillUrbanRenewalProject,Newport,RI.Oct1970.PreparedfortheRedevelopmentAgencyofNewportundercontractwithOldportAssociationInc.,AntoinetteDowning,editor,Dr.OsmundR.Overby,ProjectSupervisor,HABS,NewportProjects1968&70andBradfordE.Southworth,SupervisingPlanner,RIStatewidePlanningProgram.pp.2-4.

74

becameofficiallysanctionedhistoricdistricts.In1976,furtherrecognitioncamewiththeNationalParkServicedesignationoftheNewportHistoricDistrict,theBellevueAvenue-OchrePointCliffsDistrict,andtheOceanDriveDistrictasNationalHistoricLandmarkDistricts.68Historynowloomedlargeinmostcornersofthecity.Heritagetourismbecamebigbusinessandpreservedstreetscapes,fromanintimatecolonialeralanetoaleafyVictorianboulevard,werehighlyvaluedassets.Historicatmospherewasahighlyprizedcommoditybuthowwerepastandpresenttobereconciledwiththefuture?WouldNewportonlyfunctionasamuseumcity?

JohnTschirch.SpringStreet.Photograph,2016.ThequestionofwhethertoturnNewportintoamuseumcityortopromoteitsuseasalivingentitywasgivenimpetusin1968whenDorisDukecreatedtheNewportRestorationFoundation,dedicatedtosavingthecolonialstreetscapesonehouseandoneblockatatime.DorisDukedidnothaveavisionofNewportasanothermodelhistoriccitylikeColonialWilliamsburgwithallbuildingsownedbyoneorganization.SheviewedNewportasaviablecommunityofindependentresidenceswiththeNewportRestorationFoundationservingasacatalystforaction.Identifyingkey18thbuildingsintermsofboththeirhistoryandlocation,theFoundationrestoredthestructuresandleasedthemtotenantswhileretainingcontrolofthefabricandappearanceofthefacades.TherestorationofoneortwobuildingsonablockbytheFoundationspurredrestorationofnearbystructuresbyprivateindividuals.Eventually,over

68NationalRegisterDesignationsandNationalHistoricLandmarkDesignations,withupdates,from1968to2008areondepositattheRhodeIslandHistoricalandPreservationCommissionandtheNationalParkService.

75

eighty-fivecolonialhouseswereacquiredandrestored,maintainingthehistoriccharacterofthestreetscapes.

SchematicrenderingoftheHistoricHill,circa2010.CourtesyoftheNewportRestorationFoundation.ThisrenderingillustratestheimpactoftheNewportRestorationFoundation’suseofindividualbuildingpreservationasacatalystfortherevitalizationofawholedistrict.TheareasinredarepropertiesownedandimprovedbytheNewportRestorationFoundationfromthe1960stothepresent.Thebuildingsinorangearepropertiesrestoredbyprivateowners.DorisDukecreatedQueenAnneSquare,movinghistoricbuildingsandimposinganopengreenspaceonwhathadhistoricallybeenadenselybuiltupneighborhood.

76

IlseBuchertNesbitt.AWinterEveninginNewport.Woodblock,2016.CourtesyofIlseBuchertNesbitt.Themassingandtextureof18thcenturybuildingsandstreetscapesstillinspireIlseBuchertNesbit,whohaslivedandworkedasanartistinNewportsincethemid-1960s.

77

ExceptforthedemolitionofthewaterfrontforAmerica’sCupBoulevardandthedestructionofLevinStreetforMemorialBoulevard,Newportremainedhistoricallyintact.Buildingsrangingfromthe18ththroughearly20thcenturiescontinuedtoberestoredasprivateresidencesandmanyhousemuseumswereaddedtotherosterofvisitorattractions.Heritagetourismbecamebigbusinessasthepastappearedtobethefoundationforaprosperouspresentandfuture.Then,in1974,oneofthemostpoignantmeetingsofthepresentandfutureinteractingwiththepastoccurredwiththecitywideartexhibitionMonumenta.Reflective,sublime,confrontational,theexhibitofferedworksofartandavarietyofmoodsandsettingsasmonumentalmodernistsculptureappearedthroughoutNewport.Historycouldnolongerbeassumedtosolelyreigninitsstreets.Nothingshouldbetakenforgranted,notthepast,presentorthefuture.Thisspirit,inpart,guidedtheorganizersofMonumenta,asexpressedintheintroductiontotheexhibitioncatalogue.“Newportisquiteproperlycelebratedbothforitsscenicbeautyandforitsuniqueensembleofarchitecturalmonuments,thenumerouscolonialhousesandgreatmansionswhichdotthelandscapeandprovidevisibletestimonytoarichandenduringculturalheritage.Thesenseofanelegantpastweighsheavilyonthetown,anditsdedicatedpreservationgroupshavegonetoconsiderabletroubletomakethehistoricpastaccessible,and,infacttokeepitslicklygroomed.Thus,thebaldconfrontationbetweenthisnoblerepositoryofformalNewEnglandcultureandfiftyuncompromising,large-scalesculptures,stampedwiththelookoftheindustrialage,mightbeexpectedtogeneratecertainenvironmentaltensions…Themostpretentiousschemeofcivilizedvaluesmustbeflexibleenoughtoentertainandabsorbnewesthetictruths,orgothewayofthedinosaurinculturalhistory.Monumentadramatizestheinteractionofpastandpresentinadialogueofsculptureandnaturalorarchitecturalsites.”69Conceivedofasaworkofartinitself,andasanidealhistoricfoilformodernsculpture,Newport’sstreetsandshoresplayedhosttotheprominentartistsofthe20thcentury,amongthemAlexanderCalder,BarbaraHepworth,HenryMoore,LouiseNevelsonandClaesOldenburgandBarnettNewman.ChristowrappedtheCoveatKing’sBeachinnylonsailcloth,transformingtheshorelineintoanartformusingplaceasitskeycomponent.AaronSiskind’sphotographscapturethefleetingmomentsofstreetlifeagainstthefixedalwayspresentbackdropofThamesStreet’sbuildings,acombinationofpicturesquecharm,fadedgloryandmoderngrit.Siskindbroughtasensibilitytothesettingthatplayedbetweenthepastandpresent,asstatedintheMonumentaexhibitoncatalogue.“AaaronSiskind’sphotographicessayonNewportasanenvironmentalsoestablishesconnectionswiththeinnovativeartisticpast…Siskind’simagesequenceofNewportlifepitsthemobilityofthestreetagainsthisfamiliar,imperturbablewallandanisolatedpilaster,half-buriedinflakingplaster,timelesswitnessestotheactionwhichpassesbeforethem.”7069SamHunter,ed.,Monumenta,(Newport:MonumentaInc.,1974),p.5.70Ibid.p.5.

78

AaronSiskind(1903-1991).ImagesofThamesStreet.Photographs,1974.ExcerptfromtheexhibitioncatalogueMonumenta,1974.Thecityasworkofart,asaplaceevokingvariousmoods,asbackdropofthehumancondition.ThesearethecomponentsofSiskind’sNewportphotographs,arichlylayeredentitywherebeauty,ageanddecaylivesidebyside,asintheninecitiesdelineatedbyThorntonWilderinTheophilusNorth.ThesearetheindefinablequalitiesofNewport’sstreets,beyondthepavingstones,thesidewalks,thefineoldbuildings,theoverhangingtreesandseaviews.Allofthesefeatures,bothtangibleandintangible,makeupthecitythathasbeenaculturaltouchstonesinceitsinception.DebatecontinuesaboutwhatNewportshouldbe,howitshouldlookandwhereitshouldventureinthe21stcentury.Discussionoftrafficmanagement,streetsignage,thepresentationofWashingtonSquareandthere-imagingofthehistoricspringsiteattheintersectionofSpringandTouroStreetsexpressresidentsconcernsfortheappearanceandphysicalcohesionofthecity.Thenaturalfeaturesofthecityscapearealsoofinteresttocommunityfocusedorganizations,suchasTheNewportTreeSociety,foundedin1987,whichisdedicatedtopreservingandpropagatingtheurbanforest.ItsworkharkensbacktoOlmsted’s1913ImprovementPlantoincorporatenatureasacriticalfeatureofNewport’shistoricbeautyandpresentdayhealthfulclimate.In2010,TheNewportTreeSocietyestablishedTheNewportArboretum,acitizencenteredmodeloftreeregenerationinacitywheremostoftheurbanforestresidesonprivateland.TheAquidneckIslandLandTrust,organizedn1990,worksinopenspaceconservationtomaintainthenaturalcharacterandlivabilityofNewportanditsenvirons.Landscape,buildings,roadsanddevelopmentallfeatureinthisongoingdebateaboutthepast,presentandfutureinNewport.Thereisalwaysanewinitiative,suchasTaylor&Partners“Plan2004,”whichrevisitedtheissuescreatedbyAmerica’sCupAvenuebyproclaiming,“Itslicednorth-southalongthewaterfront,its98footwidthamputatingthecity

79

functionally,visuallyandpsychologicallyfromtheharborthatgaveitbirth.”71Thus,bothactionandconversationonNewport’surbanidentitycontinues.Newportin2016isarepositoryofhistory,legendsandlorewherethedramatictopographyofrockyshore,covesandvastsearemainomnipresentandbuildingsandstreetsstillofferanarchitecturalpageantoftimespast.Formany,therealityofanhistoricallyintactstreetscapeinspiredone’sdaydreams.IdeasareanchoredinNewport’sbuildingsandstreetsfromthereligiousfreedomandentrepreneurshipoftheColonialperiodandthepicturesquesentimentsandtechnologicaladvancementsoftheVictorianeratotheimperialaspirationsoftheGildedAgeandtheModernisthopesandpreservationistvictoriesofthe20thcentury.Throughalloftheseages,Newportbecameanaccidentalworkofurbanart.Manyforcesdrovetheformationofthecity,someincidental,somebydesign.Thesumisthetotaloftheparts.Itremainsaplaceofmemory,tobepreserved,enriched,interpretedand,mostimportantlyandwithdifficulty,mustbeallowedtoevolveforitisaculturaltouchstonewhereideasbecomereal,wheredreamsaresoughtandfoughtoveralongitsshores,initsbuildingsandonitsstreets.

JohnTschirch.ViewoftheColonyHousefromBarneyStreet.Photograph,2016.Over350yearsofurbanhistoryinonestreet:acolonialerathoroughfarelinedwith18thand19thcenturybuildings,a20thcenturygasstationonthesiteofthespringwhere17thcenturysettlersbuilttheirhousesandanarchitecturallandmarkintheColonyHouse.

71Taylor&Partners.“Plan2004-UrbanDesignforCentralNewport,”2004.

80

THEHISTORICCHARACTEROFNEWPORT’SSTREETS:ASYNOPSISUrbanplanningprinciplesandbuildingtechnologiesofvariousperiodsaremademanifestinNewport’sstreetscapes.Belowareaseriesofphotographstakenbyagroupofvolunteerartistsinthesummerandfallof2016.THAMESSTREET

KatrinaBenner.ThamesStreet.Photograph,2016.Squareandrectangularbuildings,setdirectlyonthestreet,withflatfacadesmarkedonlybywindowframesanddoorlintelscharacterizetheappearanceofthenorthernsectionofThamesStreet.Thesehousesreflectcolonialerapostandbeamconstructionmethods,resultinginrectilinearshapes.Doorframesareinspiredbytheclassicalmotifsofcolumnsandtriangularpediments,asseeninthebuildingtotheleft,asframingelementsfordoorways.Gardenplotsoriginallyseparatedthecolonialeraproperties,whichweresubdividedanddevelopedduringthe19thcentury.Thestructuretotherightofthetancoloredhouseisanexampleofinfillduringtheearly1800s.

81

THEPOINT

Tan-yaMuldoon.ThirdStreet.Photograph,2016.Plannedingridfashion,thePointillustratestherationalorderprizedbytheSocietyofFriends,wholaidoutthedistrictintheearly1700s.Intimateinscale,thePointisaquietneighborhoodofmixedusedwellings,fromsinglehousestoapartments.TheonceopencolonialeragardenswereeventuallyfilledinwithadditionalbuildingsduringtheVictorianageastheOldColonyrailroadranthroughthecenterofthedistrict,bringingindustrialtechnologyandmoreworkersandresidentstothePoint.

82

HISTORICHILL

JohnTschirch.MountVernonStreet.Photograph,2016.AdiverserangeofbuildingtypesandstylesappearsthroughouttheHistoricHill,ameetingplacebetweenthecolonialtownandthe19thcenturydistrictsthatappearedonthecrestofthehill.Thehousedatestothe18thcenturywiththetypicalflatfaçadeandadoorframedbyclassicalhalfcolumnsandtoppedbyatriangularpediment.Theyellowhousetoitsrightismid-19thcenturySecondEmpireFrenchinstylewithaMansardroof.Itwasremodeledinthe1880swithpatternedshingles,bracketsandabaywindowintheQueenAnneRevivalstyle.Thenexthouse(thirdfromtheleft)is18thcenturyfollowedbyaQueenAnneRevivalstylebuildingwithasteepgableandbaywindows.Withcenturiesofarchitecturaldevelopment,theresultingstreetscapeiscomplexcompositionofformsreflectingthe19thcenturyInterestinarchitecturalvarietyandtheabilityofIndustrialtechnologytomakediversebuildingshapesaffordableandattainable

83

SPRINGSTREET

ChadLubertowicz.SpringStreet.Photograph,2016.Theoriginal18thcenturystreetislinedwithearly19thcenturybuildingstotherightandTrinityChurch(1726)totheleftofthephoto.SpringStreetisacombinationofbothcolonial,19thand20thcenturybuildings.

84

WASHINGTONSQUARE

JohnTschirch.ViewofWashingtonSquaretoLongWharf.Photograph,2016.WashingtonSquareisastoryofurbanevolution.Theareawasnotaformallydesignedurbanspace,butbeganasaparadegroundforlocalmilitia.Totherightofthephotoistheparkwhichonceservedastheparadegroundfortroops.Bytheearly1760s.theareatookitspresentformasagrandcivicspacewiththecompletionoftheBrickMarket(1762),seeninthedistance.TotherightoftheBrickMarketbuildingisLongWharfMall,whichservedasathoroughfarefromthe1680suntilurbanrenewalofthelate1960s,whenitwasconvertedintoapedestrianzone.

85

LOWERTHAMESSTREET

JohnTschirch.LowerThamesStreetattheintersectionofFountainStreet.Photograph,2016.ThamesStreetrunsforoveramileparalleltothewaterfront.ThesouthernportionofThamesStreetexperiencedincreaseddevelopmentduringthe19thcenturyasimmigrantgroups,amajorityofthemfromIreland,settledinthearea.Althoughthereareextant18thandearly19thcenturybuildingsinthedistrict,thestreetscapesareprimarilydefinedVictorianhouses,manywithfrontporches.Gabledroofsandporchescreateanatmosphereopentothestreet.

86

LOWERTHAMESSTREETANDTHEWATERFRONT

JohnTschirch.HowardCourt.Photograph,2016.Thestreet,markedbymid-19thcenturyVictorianhouses,retainstheoriginal18thcenturyplanofthoroughfaresterminatingincommercialwharves.Thismodelofurbandesigndefinedtheentirewaterfrontuntilthemid-1960swhenurbandevelopmentresultedinthereorientationofstreetsfromLongWharftoMemorialBoulevard.Theoriginal18thcenturypatternofsidestreetsterminatinginwharvesremainsintactfromMemorialBoulevardtoWellingtonSquare.

87

BELLEVUEAVENUE

JohnTschirch.Chateau-sur-Mer.Photograph,2016.Famedforitssummervillas,BellevueAvenueischaracterizedbywalls,gatesandfences.Chateau-sur-Mer(1852)illustratesthemid-19thcenturyfashionforlowwallsrevealinglushlandscapesoftrees..

88

NickBelong.GatesofTheElms.Photograph,2016.TheElms,completedin1901,haselaborateNeo-classicalstonegatepostsandirongrillework.Modeledafteran18thcenturyFrenchchateaux,TheElmsintroducedclassicalgrandeurandadefinitivearchitecturalpresencetoBellevueAvenue.ThecombinationofmonumentalstoneworkandabundantgreenerycreatedtheluxuriantstreetscapeofGildedAgeBellevueAvenuefrom1890to1914.

89

BIBLIOGRAPHY“AmidtheRubbleNewportAsksWhy.”ProvidenceJournal,21April1968.Amory,Cleveland.“TheCrucialBattleforModernNewport.”NewYorkTimesMagazine,2September1962.Balsan,ConsueloVanderbilt.TheGlitterandtheGold.NewYork:RandomHouse,1953.Bowditch,ErnestW.“TheYear1881attheOffice.”Office-WorkPersonalitiesII,no.10.BowditchFamilyPapers.Salem:EssexInstitute.Braunfels,Wolfgang.UrbanDesigninWesternEurope.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1961.“BridgeisDedicated,OpentoTraffic.”NewportDailyNews,28June1969.Bryant,WilliamCullen.“Newport.”PicturesqueAmerica,1872.Bullard,F.Lauriston.SummerHauntsfromNewporttoPortland.Boston:Little,BrownandCompany,1912.“CouncilfortheRenewalPlan.”NewportDailyNews,24February1965.Collins,Holly.“RitesofPassage:TheWetmoresofChateau-sur-Mer,”Newport:ThePreservationSocietyofNewportCounty,2002.Collins,Holly.“ThePreservationSocietyofNewportCounty1945-1965,TheFoundingYears.”Newport:ThePreservationSocietyofNewportCounty,2008.Downing,AndrewJackson.TheArchitectureofCountryHouses.NewYork:DoverPublicationsInc.,1969.Downing,AntoinetteandScully,VincentJ.Jr.TheArchitecturalHeritageofNewport,RhodeIsland,2nded.rev.NewYork:ClarksonPotter,1967.Downing,Antoinette,ed.“ArchitecturalQualityandHistoryoftheBuildingsofHistoricHillUrbanRenewalProject,Newport,RI.”PreparedfortheRedevelopmentAgencyofNewportUnderContractwithOldportAssociation,Inc.October1970.Dripps,MatthewandTilley,B.I.MapoftheCityofNewport.NewYorkandNewport,1859.Ferree,Barr.AmericanEstatesandGardens.NewYork:MunnandCompany,1904.

90

GaltandHoy.Newport,RI.NewYork,NY,1878.Hopkins,G.M.CityAtlasofNewport,RhodeIsland.Philadelphia,1876.Hopkins,G.M.CityAtlasofNewport,RhodeIsland.Philadelphia,1883.Hunter,Sam,ed.Monumenta.Newport:MonumentaInc.,1974.Jacobs,Jane.TheDeathandLifeofGreatAmericanCities.NewYork:RandomHouse,1961.James,Henry.“TheSenseofNewport.”Harper’sMonthlyMagazine,August1906.Kunstler,JamesHoward.TheGeographyofNowhere:TheRiseandDeclineofAmerica’sMan-MadeLandscape.NewYork:SimonandSchuster,1993.“LifeVisitsaFadingNewport.”LifeMagazine,16October1944.“MagnificentNewport.”Munsey’sMagazine,1900.Mason,GeorgeChamplin.AnnalsoftheRedwoodLibrary.Newport:RedwoodLibraryandAthenaeum,1891.Mumford,Lewis.TheCityinHistory.NewYork:HarcourtInc.,1961.NationalHistoricLandmarkDesignation.NewportHistoricDistrict.18October1968.NationalHistoricLandmarkDesignation.TheBellevueAvenue-CasinoHistoricDistrict.11May1976.NationalHistoricLandmarkDesignation.OchrePoint-CliffsHistoricDistrict.18May1975.NationalHistoricLandmarkDesignation.OceanDrive.16April1984.NewportDailyNews.18May1951.“Newport’sDecadeofProgress,1940-1950.”TenthAnnualReportoftheHousingAuthorityoftheCityofNewport,RhodeIsland.29July1950NicholasEaston,LastWillandTestament,1674.VaultABox82,Folder6.NewportHistoricalSociety.Olmsted,F.LandJ.C.“PlanforSubdivisionofPropertiesinNewport,RIBelongingtoMrs.EdwardKing,Mr.J.H.Glover,Esq.,TheHon.C.S.Bradley,G.GordonKing.”NewportLandEvidenceOffice,PlatBook1.1884.Newport:NewportCityHall.

91

Olmsted,FrederickLaw.ProposedImprovementsforNewport:AReportPreparedfortheNewportImprovementAssociation.1913.OrdinanceoftheCouncil,No.416,Chapter149.27January1965.CityofNewport,RhodeIsland.RecordsoftheColonyofRhodeIslandandProvidencePlantationsinNewEnglandVol.1638-1644.RhodeIslandStateArchives.Providence,RI.RhodeIslandHistoricalSociety.Mss798Box16.RhodeIslandLandEvidencesVol.1.1648-1696.Providence:RIStateArchives.Richards,J.L.andCo.AtlasoftheCityofNewport.Springfield,Ma.,1893Richards,J.L.andCo.AtlasoftheCityofNewport.SpringfieldMa.,1907.SanbornMapandPublishingCo.Newport,RI,1884.SanbornMapandPublishingCo.AtlasofNewport,Jamestown,MiddletownandPortsmouth,RI.,1921.SocietyofFriendsRecordsofRhodeIslandMonthlyMeetings,1701-1739.NewportHistoricalSociety.TaylorandPartnersTownCenterTeam.“Plan-2004,UrbanDesignforCentralNewport,”20October2004.“ThePalaceCottagesofNewport.”Munsey’sMagazine.September1897.“TideTurnsforHistoricNewport.”ProvidenceJournal,31March1968.Tunnard&Harris.APreservationPlanningReportonNewport,RhodeIsland,January1960.vanRensselaer,MarianaGriswold.“AmericanCountryDwellings.”TheCenturyMagazine.May1886.VanRensselaer,MarianaGriswold.“Newport-II.”ForestandGardenI.5December1888.Wilder,Thornton.TheophilusNorth.NewYork:HarperandRow,1971.Woodward,W.McKenzie.“OceanDriveNationalHistoricLandmarkStudy.”RhodeIslandHistoricalandPreservationCommission,2008.

92

Wroth,LaurenceC.TheVoyagesofGiovannidaVerrazzano,1524-1528.NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1970.“1966:ThePaceQuickensinNewport.”NewportDailyNews,31December1966.