Many students think: “If a figure is enlarged k times, the area and … · 2016. 1. 20. · The...

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The over-use of proportionality/linearity in geometry Many students think: “If a figure is enlarged k times, the area and volume are enlarged k times as well”

Transcript of Many students think: “If a figure is enlarged k times, the area and … · 2016. 1. 20. · The...

Page 1: Many students think: “If a figure is enlarged k times, the area and … · 2016. 1. 20. · The over-use of proportionality ... • Etudier l’ampleur et la persistance de l’illusion

The over-use of

proportionality/linearity in geometry

Many students think: “If a figure is enlarged k times,

the area and volume are enlarged k times as well”

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Geometry

“If a figure is enlarged k times, the area and volume

are enlarged k times as well”

11

k2k k3k

… the area enlarges k² times and the volume k³

times

x

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1

k2k k3k

1k

k3

1k

k2

Geometry

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How much does the gnome weigh ?

SECONDARY SCHOOL PUPILS’

ILLUSION OF LINEARITY

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How much does a gnome weigh ?

Human Gnome

180 cm 15 cm

70 000 gr 40,5 gr

SECONDARY SCHOOL PUPILS’

ILLUSION OF LINEARITY

: 12

: 123

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How much does a human weigh ?

Human Gnome

180 cm 15 cm

518 400 gr 300 gr

SECONDARY SCHOOL PUPILS’

ILLUSION OF LINEARITY

× 12

× 123

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Plan triparti de recherche

• Etudier l’ampleur et la persistance de l’illusion de la linéarité dans le contexte de l’agrandissement et de la réduction de figures géométriques semblables par le biais de tests collectifs

• Interviewer de façon individuelle un groupe restreint d’élèves et analyser leurs processus de raisonnement dans ce contexte

• Realiser un « design experiment » à fin de rémedier cette phénomène de l’illusion de la linéarité

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Apercu

• Introduction

• Tests collectifs

• Interview individuel

• Design experiment

• Conclusions

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Problème proportionel et non-

proportionel

• Proportionel: « Pour creuser un fossé autour d’un champ carré de 100 m de côté, le fermier Gustave a besoin d’environ 4 jours. Combien de jours lui faut-il, environ, pour creuser un fossé autour d’un champ carré dont le côté mesure 300 m ? »

• Non-proportionel: « Pour fertiliser un champ carré de 200 m de côté, le fermier Charles a besoin d’environ 8 heures. Combien d’heures, environ, lui prendra la fumure d’un champ carré dont le côté mesure 600 m ? »

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Résultat 1

• 12-13 ans: seulement 2 à 7 % de réponses

correctes aux questions non-proportionnelles

• 15-16 ans: seulement 17 à 22 % de réponses

correctes aux questions non-proportionnelles

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Résultat 2

• Meilleures résultats dans les cas de figures

régulières (carré, cercle)

que

• dans les cas de figures irrégulières (par exemple la

carte de la Belgique).

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Example of circular and irregular

non-proportional problem

• Circular figure: You need approximately 400

grams of flower seed to lay out a circular flower

bed with a diameter of 10 m. How many grams…

• Irregular figure: On a map of Belgium in an atlas

the distance from Genk to Tongres is

approximately 2 cm while the area of Belgium is

approximately 250 cm…2

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Résultat 3

• La démarche de résolution des élèves n’est guère

influencée ni par la consigne de faire un dessin

pour chaque question, ni même par les dessins qui

leur sont présentés

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Example of self-made drawings with

low and high representational quality

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Ready-made picture of square

problem

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Résultat 4

• Sans aide metacognitive: 12 % des problèmes

non-proportionnels ont été résolus

• Avec aide metacognitive: pas de augmentation

significative: 18 % des problèmes non-

proportionnels ont été résolus

Two pupils, Wim and Steve,

give a different solution to a

problem… Who is right, Wim

or Steve?

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Résultat 5• L’ énoncé « valeur manquante » : Pour fertiliser

un champ carré de 200 m de côté, le fermier Charles a besoin d’environ 8 heures. Combien d’heures, environ, lui prendra la fumure d’un champ carré dont le côté mesure 600 m ? : 23 % de réponses correctes

• Questions formulées sous forme de « comparaisons » : Le fermier Charles a fertilisé aujourd’hui un champ carré. Demain, il doit fertiliser un champ carré dont le côté est trois fois plus grand. Combien de fois plus de temps lui faudra-t-il pour fertiliser ce champ ? : 41 % de réponses correctes

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Résultat 6

• Quand les prestations des élèves ont été

améliorées grâce à l’une ou l’autre forme d’ aide

offerte, ceci allait chacque fois de pair avec des

prestations moins bonnes pour les questions

“habituelles” proportionelles

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Aperçu

• Introduction

• Tests collectifs

• Interview individuel

• Design experiment

• Conclusions

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Étude par interviews

• Déroulement des interviews et constatations

principales

• Quatre grandes catégories de processus de

raisonnement

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Problème

Un peintre de publicité a

besoin de 6 ml de peinture

pour peindre le petit Père

Noël sur une vitre.

Il doit peindre le grand

Père Noël sur une autre

vitre. Combien de peinture

lui fallait-il ?

Hauteur:

56 cmHauteur:

168 cm

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Problème

Sûrement

fausse

Probablement

fausse

Aucune

idée

Probablement

correcte

Sûrement

correcte

20153

Correct2

Questions

Pourquoi ?

Sûr ?

38

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Problème

Questions

Correct2

INDICE 1

38

Nous avons donné ce problème

aux élèves d’une autre école. Voici

leurs réponses …

Réponse Pourcentage d’élèves

18 ml 41%

54 ml 41%

autres 18%

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Problème

Questions

Correct2

INDICE 1

38

INDICE 2

36

Correct2

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Problème

Questions

Correct2

INDICE 1

38

INDICE 2

36

Un élève m’a explique que si le

dessin est trois fois plus grand,

alors aussi la largeur est multipliée

par 3, donc on a besoin de 3 x 3 = 9

fois plus de peinture …

Correct2

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Problème

Questions

Correct2

INDICE 1

38

INDICE 2

36

Correct2

Correct14

INDICE 3

22

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Problème

Questions

Correct2

INDICE 1

38

INDICE 2

36

Correct2

Correct14

INDICE 3

22

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Problème

Questions

Correct2

INDICE 1

38

INDICE 2

36

Correct2

Correct14

INDICE 3

22

INDICE 4

13

Correct9

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Problème

Questions

Correct2

INDICE 1

38

INDICE 2

36

Correct2

Correct14

INDICE 3

22

INDICE 4

13

Est-ce que tu peux calculer les aires des

deux rectangles et les comparer ? …

Correct9

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Problème

Questions

Correct2

INDICE 1

38

INDICE 2

36

Correct2

Correct14

INDICE 3

22

INDICE 4

13Correct

5

FIN

8

Correct9

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Étude par interviews

• Déroulement des interviews et constatations

principales

• Quatre grandes catégories de processus de

raisonnement

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Quatre éléments d’explication

complémentaires

• Caractère intuitif du modèle linéaire

• Application consciente et voulue du modèle linéaire

• Lacunes dans les connaissances géométriques

• Habitudes et convictions inappropriées sur la

résolutions de problèmes de maths

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Over-use of proportionality

Linearity is such a suggestive property of relations that

one readily yields to the seduction to deal with each

numerical relation as though it were linear.

(Freudenthal, 1983)

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Quatre éléments d’explication

complémentaires

• Caractère intuitif du modèle linéaire

• Application consciente et voulue du modèle linéaire

• Lacunes dans les connaissances géométriques

• Habitudes et convictions inappropriées sur la

résolutions de problèmes de maths

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Habitudes et convictions

inappropriées sur la résolutions de

problèmes de maths• il vaut mieux se baser sur des formules que sur des

dessins ;

• il vaut mieux se tenir à sa première idée ;

• on ne peut utiliser que les informations mentionnées explicitement dans l’énoncé ;

• les problèmes mathématiques n’ont rien à voir avec la réalité ;

• lorsqu’on a utilisé toutes les données de l’énoncé, on est dans le bon ;

• pour la résolution d’un problème, on attend de l’élève qu’il effectue une ou quelques opérations standard.

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Apercu

• Introduction

• Tests collectifs

• Interview individuel

• Design experiment

• Conclusions

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Principes de design du programme

• Variation de méthodes d’instruction: travail individuel et en petit groupes, discussions en classe, projets, …

• Inspiré sur l’enseignement « réaliste » des maths: partir de contextes riches, construire le savoir sur les bases des connaissances et des stratégies informelles des élèves, …

• Utiliser des représentations multiples: dessins, schèmes, graphs, tableaux, formules, mots, …

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Méthode

• Sujets: élèves de 13-14 ans

• Thème: les longeurs, périmètres, aires et volumes de figures géometriques semblables

• Pretest, posttest, test de retention avec groupe expérimental en groupe contrôle

• Un cours de 10 leçons

• Tests collectifs, questionnaires, observation

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Design

Pretest Posttest (6 months)Retention

test

Experim.

group

10 exper.

lessons

Control

group

Regular

lessons

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Example 1: Similitude

Quelle réproduction est meilleure ?

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Dessin A Dessin B

Hauteur dessin … mm … mm

Diagonale … mm … mm

Hauteur

armoire

… mm … mm

… … mm … mm

Example 2: Proportionalité/linéarité

Page 43: Many students think: “If a figure is enlarged k times, the area and … · 2016. 1. 20. · The over-use of proportionality ... • Etudier l’ampleur et la persistance de l’illusion

Est-ce qu’une bouteille de 1,5 l a la

même forme qu’une boiteille de 0,5 l?

Quand on enlève les étiquettes des

bouteilles, on observe que l’étiquette

de la petite bouteille mesure 5 cm sur

20 cm.

La grande étiquette a une hauteur de

7,3 cm. Quelle est la largeur ?

Example 3: Croissance

proportionnelle du périmètre

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C’est l’anniversaire de Anne. Sa mère fait des crêpes.

Elle utilise des formats divers de poêles.

Anne propose à sa copine : « tu peux choisir entre

- deux grandes crêpes (diamètre de 30 cm)

- trois crêpes normales (diamètre de 20 cm)

- six petites crêpes (diamètre de 15 cm)”

Sa copine raisonne : “Je pense que je prendrai six

petites, parce que c’est le plus : 6 15 cm = 90”

Example 4: Croissance

quadratique de l’aire

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Un fructiculteur vend deux sortes de pommes. Une

sorte a un diamètre de 6 cm et coûte € 0.10, l’autre a un

diamètre de 9 cm et coûte € 0.15. Quelle sorte faut-il

choisir pour faire de la compote de pommes ?

La semaine prochaine, le fructiculteur vend ces deux

sortes à un autre prix. Maintenant, les pommes de 6 cm

coûtent € 1,00 par kilo, en celles de 9 cm coûtent € 1,20

par kilo. Quelle sorte choisit-on maintenant ?

Example 5: Croissance cubique de

la volume

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Quelle est la longueur d’une ceinture d’un gnome?

Combien de tissu faut-il pour faire une jupe ?

Combien de café peut-on servir dans une tasse ?

Example 6: Projet “Le

Gnome”

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Hypothèses pour le groupe de

controle

pre post retention

TEST

% C

OR

RE

CT

AN

SW

ER

S

nonproportionalproblems

proportionalproblems

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Résultats du groupe de contrôle

0

25

50

75

100

prétest posttest test de

rétention

TEST

% R

EP

ON

SE

S C

OR

RE

CT

ES

non-proportionnel

proportionnel

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Hypothèses pour le groupe

experimental

pre post retention

TEST

% C

OR

RE

CT

AN

SW

ER

S

nonproportionalproblems

proportionalproblems

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0

25

50

75

100

prétest posttest test de

rétention

TEST

% R

EP

ON

SE

S C

OR

RE

CT

ES

non-proportionnel

proportionnel

Résultats du groupe experimental

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Aperçu

• Introduction

• Tests collectifs

• Interview individuel

• Design experiment

• Conclusions

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Summary of the results

After teaching experiment: strong overgeneralisations!

application of non-linear strategies to linear

items (solved well before)

Still strategy choices based on superficial problem

characteristics

“mindless” application of learnt strategies

lots of new errors appeared

Non-linearity was counter-intuitive for many students

Some students continued reasoning proportionally

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Conclusion

Did we break the illusion of linearity?

successful for only some students

superficial problem-solving continued

new errors originate

performance decrease for some problems (i.e.

proportional ones)

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Implications for educators

• For students to develop adaptive expertise in

proportional problems in arithmetic and geometry,

it is essential that they acquire the habit of

explicitly and systematically questioning whether

proportionality is the most appropriate

mathematical model for the situation at hand.

• To this end, educators should provide a variety of

proportional and non-proportional problems to be

juxtaposed and discussed.

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Content

1. Proportionality/linearity: some terminology

2. Proportionality/linearity: representations

3. Proportionality/linearity: properties

4. Proportionality/linearity in the curriculum

5. Proportionality/linearity: solution strategies

6. Additive reasoning errors

7. The over-use of proportionality/linearity in

arithmetic word problem solving

8. The over-use of proportionality/linearity in

geometry

9. Proportional reasoning in school and real life

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9. Proportional reasoning in school

and real life

• Word problems as excercises in realistic mathematical

modeling

• Ascertaining studies

• Intervention studies

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The mathematical modeling cycle

Verschaffel et al. (2000)

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The mathematical modeling cycle (cont)

Verschaffel et al. (2000)

Word

problem

Answer

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Two types of word problems:

S- vs. P-items

• Standard problems (S-items): can be solved

straightforwardly and unquestionably by applying

the most obvious arithmetic operation(s) with the

given numbers

• Problematic problems (P-items): the match

between the problem situation and the arithmetic

operation(s) is not straightforward but unclear,

dubious, questionable, debatable,…

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Examples of P-items

• Rope: A man wants to have a rope long enough tostretch between two poles 12 meters apart, but heonly has pieces of rope of 1,5 meters long. Howmany of these would he need to tie together tostretch between the poles?

• Planks: Steve has bought 4 planks of 2.5 meterseach. How many planks of 1 meter can he saw outof these planks?

• Friends: Carl has 5 friends and Georges has 6friends. Carl and Georges decide to give a partytogether. They invite all their friends. All friendsare present. How many friends are there at theparty

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Examples of P-items from Greer’s

(1993) and Verschaffel et al.’s

(1994) test

- Runner: John’s best time to run 100 m is 17

seconds. How much time will it take him to

run 1 km?

- Flask: A cone-shaped flask is being filled from

a tap at a constant rate. If the depth of the

water is 2,4 cm after 10 seconds, about how

deep will it be after 30 seconds?

- Christmas: A shop sells 312 christmas cards in

December. How many will he sell during

January, February and March?

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Two types of reactions:

NRs vs. RRs

• Non-realistic reaction (NR): if a P-item was

answered in the predictable routine-based way

(i.e., straightforward proportional reasoning)

without any further adaptation, consideration or

comment

• Realistic reaction (RR):

• If the answer given indicated that realistic

considerations had been taken into account, or

• If a comment was added to a non-realistic answer

indicating that the student was aware of the modeling

complexity

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NR and RR to the runner item

• Item: “John’s best time to run 100 m is 17

seconds. How much time will it take him to run 1

km?”

• NR:

• “100 x 17 = 170 sec”

• RR:

• “It is impossible to answer precisely what John’s best

time will be”

• “A bit more than 170 sec because John will get tired

after a while”

• 100 x 17 = 170 sec plus may-be another 60 sec because

he will get tired”

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Effects of altering the problem

presentation

• Providing a general warning (“metacognitive

alert”)

• Enriching the problem with a representational

drawing

• Enriching the problem with a textual clarification

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Verschaffel et al. (2000, 2008)

• Little or no effect of general

warning at the start of the test

• No effect of representational

drawings (even not when the

realistic modelling issue was

highlighted)

• Only a small positive effect of the

textual articulation of the realistic

modelling in the text itself (from

20 to 35 % realistic responses)

“Attention, the test contains

non-routine problems that are

not as simple as they seem and

may require unsual answers”

“Think about the amount of

rope that is needed to tie the

ropes together and to tie

them to the poles.”

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• Every problem is solvable and makes sense.

• There is a single, correct, and precise numericalanswer to every word problem.

• This answer can be obtained by performing(known) mathematical operations with thenumbers in the problem,

• The text contains all the information needed; noinformation extraneous to the problem should, andeven may, be sought.

• Violations of one’s knowledge about the everydayworld should be ignored.

Students’ beliefs about word problems

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Looking for an explanation: the

traditional mathematics classroom

culture

• The nature of the problems with which pupils areconfronted on a day-by-day basis in mathematicslessons and tests

• The way in which these problems are conceivedand handled in the current classroom practice andculture by the teacher (in assessment, ininstruction…)

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The nature of the problems

• Phrased as semantically impoverished, stereotyped verbal vignettes.

• Are undoubtedly solvable.

• Contain key words and other kinds of hints that help to identify the operation(s)-to-perform.

• Include no non-relevant information.

• Ask for a single, precise numerical answer.

• Do not require and sometimes even do not allow to look outside the problem statement for additional (real-world) information.

• May contain unrealistic assumptions (stated as preconditions) or lead to unrealistic outcomes.

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Problems may contain unrealistic

assumptions

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John’s best time to run 100 m is 17 s. How long will it

take him to run 1 km?

Answer A:

10 x 17 s = 170 s

Score: …

Answer B:

100 x 17 s = 1700 s

Score: …

Answer C:

100 + 17 = 117 s

Score: …

Answer D:

It is impossible to give a

precise answer

Score: …

Handling of RRs and NRs in assessment

by (pre-service) teachers (Verschaffel et

al., 1997)

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Handling of RRs and NRs in assessment

by (pre-service) teachers (Verschaffel et

al., 1997)

Results

More 1-scores (= totally correct) and fewer 0-scores (= totally incorrect) for the NR than for the RR to the 7 P-items !

So, by their scoring, teachers reward NRs and discourage RRs…

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Examples of design experiments

• Verschaffel, L., & De Corte, E. (1997). Teaching realistic mathematical modeling in the elementary school. A teaching experiment with fifth graders. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 28, 577-601.

• Verschaffel, L., De Corte, E., Lasure, S., Van Vaerenbergh, G., Bogaerts, H., & Ratinckx, E. (1999). Design and evaluation of a learning environment for mathematical modeling and problem solving in upper elementary school children. Mathematical Thinking and Learning, 1, 195-230.

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Major pillars of the instructional

programs• More realistic and challenging tasks, which do involve

some, if not most, of the characteristics and complexities of real modeling tasks

• A variety of teaching/learning activities, including expert modeling, small-group work, and whole-class discussion

• A classroom climate that is conducive to the development of the genuine modeling view and of the accompanying beliefs

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Overall conclusion of the design

studies

“[…] application and modeling capability can be

learnt, and according to the above-mentioned

findings has to be learnt, but at a cost, in terms of

effort, complexity of task, time consumption, and

reduction of syllabus in the traditional sense.”

(Niss, 2001, p. 8)

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Barriers for the implementation of the

genuine modeling perspective (Niss,

2001)

• The curriculum pressure to cover the traditional

“content” (i.e., classes of word problems)

• The difficulty to change the current assessment

culture (“What you test is what you get”) and to

design and apply adequate assessment tools

• The demands on the preparation and support of the

teachers -- mathematically, pedagogically, and

personally

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Realistic mathematical modeling:

Educational implications

• Textbook authors and teachers should enrich their

set of proportional application problems with

genuine modeling tasks that invite, and even force,

children to use their mathematical and real world

knowledge in an in integrative way, when trying

to make sense of and solve real-life application

problems, with a view to develop a disposition

towards genuine mathematical modeling

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A realistic modeling task about

proportionality (Lesh & Doerr,

2003)

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A realistic modeling task about

proportionality (Lesh & Doerr,

2003)

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Recommended publications

• Degrande, T., Van Dooren, W., & Verschaffel, L. (2014).

How do Flemish children solve ‘Greek’ word problems?

On children’s quantitative analogical reasoning in

mathematically neutral word problems. Mediterranean

Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 13(1-2),

57-74.

• Van Dooren, W., De Bock, D., & Verschaffel, L. (2010).

From addition to multiplication … and back. The

development of students' additive and multiplicative

reasoning skills. Cognition and Instruction, 28(3), 360-

381.

• Verschaffel, L., & Educational Committee of the EMS

(2015). Solid findings: students’ over-reliance on linearity.

Newsletter of the European Mathematical Society, nr. 95,

51-53.

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The end…

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81Beyond Flatland in Primary Mathematics Education | Dynamic Data Modelling

• Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences

Interpreting graphs: A piece of cake?

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Examples