Manualstuary Epa

Volunteer Estuary MonitoringA Methods Manual

Second Edition

U.S. Environmental Protection AgencyOffice of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds

Volunteer Monitoring (4504T)1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW

Washington, DC 20460Phone: 202-566-1200

Fax: 202-566-1336E-mail: [email protected]

The Ocean Conservancy2029 K Street, NW

Suite 500Washington, DC 20006

Phone: 202-429-5609Fax: 202-972-0619

Web: www.oceanconservancy.org

Volunteer Estuary MonitoringA Methods Manual

Second Edition

Ronald L. Ohrel, Jr.The Ocean Conservancy

Kathleen M. RegisterClean Virginia Waterwaysand Longwood University

COVER PHOTOS:Top row (l to r): The Ocean Conservancy, K. Register, The Ocean Conservancy, R. OhrelRow 2 (l to r): K. Register, S. Schultz, Weeks Bay Watershed Project, K. RegisterRow 3 (l to r): L. Monk, The Ocean Conservancy, S. Schultz, E. ElyRow 4 (l to r): T. Monk, The Ocean Conservancy, The Ocean Conservancy, R. Ohrel

This document was prepared under Cooperative Agreement #CX825019-01-3 from the U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency (EPA), Office of Wetlands, Oceans and Watersheds to The Ocean Conservancy.Second Reprint 2006, ©2002 The Ocean Conservancy.

NOTICE:This document has been reviewed in accordance with U.S. Environmental Protection Agency policy and approvedfor publication. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.

Printed on recycled paper using soy-based inks.

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Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual

Acknowledgements

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Project Officer: Joseph N. Hall, IIThe Ocean Conservancy Project Director: Seba B. SheavlyEditors and Primary Contributors:

Ronald L. Ohrel, Jr., The Ocean ConservancyKathleen M. Register, Clean Virginia Waterways and Longwood College

Proofreader: Elaine HruskaDocument Design and Graphics (except where indicated): Critical Stages

The author of the first edition of this document in 1993 was Nina A. Fisher.

The Ocean Conservancy is the nation's leading nonprofit organization dedicated solely to protectingocean environments and marine life in all its abundance and diversity. As part of a cooperativeagreement with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), The Ocean Conservancy conducteda series of train-the-trainer workshops on monitoring estuary environments. Workshop attendeesprovided valuable comments on the first edition of this manual, which helped guide the revision. Wethank them for their time and input.

In addition, the following estuary monitoring experts and volunteer monitoring program coordinatorscontributed significantly to this project by submitting case studies and other information:

Charles Barr, The Ocean Conservancy; Peter Bergstrom, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service(Chesapeake Bay Field Office); Eve Brantley, Weeks Bay Watershed Project; Amber Cornell,Adopt A Beach; Carol Elliott, Alliance for a Living Ocean; Eleanor Ely, The Volunteer Monitor;Jon Graves, Portland State University; Holly Greening, Tampa Bay Estuary Program; KerryGriffin, Tillamook Bay National Estuary Project; Linda Hanson, Washington State Departmentof Health; Paul Heimowitz, Oregon State University Extension Sea Grant; Philip L. Hoffman,Tampa BayWatch, Inc.; Harold G. Marshall, Ph.D., Old Dominion University; Lisa Monk, TheOcean Conservancy; Stacey Moulds, Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay; Bob Murphy, Alliancefor the Chesapeake Bay; Seba B. Sheavly, The Ocean Conservancy; and Esperanza Stancioff,University of Maine Cooperative Extension. Portions of this document were excerpted andadapted from other authors, which are referenced in each chapter.

The editors also wish to thank the reviewers who offered valuable comments on this document:

Cathy Barnette, Dauphin Island Sea Lab/Alabama Department of Economic and CommunityAffairs; Charles Barr, The Ocean Conservancy; Peter Bergstrom, U.S. Fish and WildlifeService (Chesapeake Bay Field Office); Beth Biermann, The Ocean Conservancy; EleanorBochenek, Ph.D., New Jersey Sea Grant; Eve Brantley, Weeks Bay Watershed Project; DavidBuckalew, Ph.D., Longwood College; Barry Burgan, EPA; Diane Calesso, EPA Region 2; KimDonahue, Chesapeake Bay Foundation; Carol Elliott, Alliance for a Living Ocean; Eleanor Ely,The Volunteer Monitor; Joe Farrell, Delaware Sea Grant; Iraida Garcia, Jobos Bay NationalEstuarine Research Reserve; Holly Greening, Tampa Bay Estuary Program; Dominic Gregorio,California State Water Resources Control Board; Kerry Griffin, Tillamook Bay National EstuaryProject; Joseph N. Hall, II, EPA; Paul Heimowitz, Oregon State University Extension Sea Grant;Mark Kutnink, EPA Region 9; George Loeb, EPA; Harold G. Marshall, Ph.D., Old Dominion

Acknowledgements

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Acknowledgements

University; Alice Mayio, EPA; Gerri Miceli, Gordon Research Conferences; Clara Mojica,Ph.D., Jobos Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve; Lisa Monk, The Ocean Conservancy;Bob Murphy, Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay; Paul Pan, EPA; Jonathan Phinney, Ph.D.,American Society of Limnology and Oceanography; Dominic Roques, California State WaterResources Control Board; Tamara Saltman, EPA; Kathleen Sayce, ShoreBank Pacific;Donald Schulz, Surfrider Foundation (Huntington/Seal Beach Chapter); Seba B. Sheavly, TheOcean Conservancy; Linda Sheehan, The Ocean Conservancy; Frederick Short, Ph.D.,University of New Hampshire; Esperanza Stancioff, University of Maine CooperativeExtension; Edward Stets, EPA; Terry Tamminen, Environment Now; Marie-FrancoiseWalk, Massachusetts Water Watch Partnership; Robert Warren, Columbia River Estuary StudyTaskforce (CREST); and Karen Font Williams, Oregon Department of Environmental Quality.

Finally, we would like to thank those individuals and organizations who provided photographs forinclusion in this document:

Peter Bergstrom, Gerrit Carver, Eleanor Ely, Maine Department of Marine Resources, LisaMonk, Tim Monk, Bob Murphy, The Ocean Conservancy, PhotoDisc, Ronald Ohrel, M.Redpath, Kathleen Register, Sheila Schultz, Tillamook Bay National Estuary Project andBattelle Marine Science Lab, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, University of MaineCooperative Extension, and Weeks Bay Watershed Project.

Acknowledgements continued

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Table of Contents

Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................iiiTable of Contents.............................................................................................................................vExecutive Summary .......................................................................................................................xi

Chapter 1: IntroductionWhere Would Estuaries Be Without Volunteer Monitors? ...........................1-1About the Manual..........................................................................................1-1Purpose of the Manual ..................................................................................1-2Organization of the Manual ..........................................................................1-2How to Use the Manual ................................................................................1-4References and Further Reading ...................................................................1-4

Chapter 2: Understanding Our Troubled EstuariesOverview .......................................................................................................2-1The Science ...................................................................................................2-2The Problems.................................................................................................2-5The Solutions.................................................................................................2-8References and Further Reading .................................................................2-14

Chapter 3: Planning and Maintaining a Volunteer Estuary Monitoring ProgramOverview .......................................................................................................3-1Establishing Goals and Objectives................................................................3-2Insurance, Safety, and Liability—Risk Management ...................................3-6Paying for the Program—The Financial Side...............................................3-7Promoting the Program—Working with the Media....................................3-12References and Further Reading .................................................................3-15

Chapter 4: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining VolunteersOverview .......................................................................................................4-1Recruiting Volunteers ....................................................................................4-2Training Volunteers .......................................................................................4-3Retaining Volunteers ...................................................................................4-11References and Further Reading .................................................................4-14

Chapter 5: Quality Assurance Project PlanningOverview .......................................................................................................5-1The Importance of High Quality Data ..........................................................5-2What Is a Quality Assurance Project Plan? ..................................................5-2Why Develop a QAPP?.................................................................................5-3Basic Concepts ..............................................................................................5-4Quality Control and Assessment .................................................................5-10Developing a QAPP ....................................................................................5-13Elements of a QAPP ...................................................................................5-17References and Further Reading .................................................................5-22

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Table of Contents

Chapter 6: Sampling ConsiderationsOverview.......................................................................................................6-1Four Critical Questions.................................................................................6-2References and Further Reading...................................................................6-7

Chapter 7: In the FieldOverview.......................................................................................................7-1Fun in the Field.............................................................................................7-2Before Leaving Home...................................................................................7-3Safety Considerations....................................................................................7-3What to Bring................................................................................................7-9Locating Monitoring Sites, or How Do I Get There from Here?...............7-10Making Field Observations: Visual Assessments.......................................7-12Helpful Field Measurements.......................................................................7-14How to Collect Samples..............................................................................7-15The Data Form............................................................................................7-17References and Further Reading.................................................................7-18

Chapter 8: Data Management, Interpretation, and PresentationOverview.......................................................................................................8-1After Data Collection: What Does it Mean?.................................................8-2Data Management.........................................................................................8-2Data Interpretation.........................................................................................8-7Data Presentation.........................................................................................8-10References and Further Reading.................................................................8-18

Unit One: Chemical Measures

Chapter 9: OxygenOverview.......................................................................................................9-1Why Monitor Oxygen?.................................................................................9-2Dissolved Oxygen (DO)................................................................................9-2

Sampling Considerations..........................................................................9-4How to Monitor Dissolved Oxygen..........................................................9-7

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)........................................................9-14Sampling Considerations........................................................................9-14How to Measure Biochemical Oxygen Demand....................................9-15

References and Further Reading.................................................................9-16

Chapter 10: NutrientsOverview.....................................................................................................10-1Why Monitor Nutrients?.............................................................................10-2Sampling Considerations.............................................................................10-5How to Monitor Nutrients...........................................................................10-8Special Topic: Atmospheric Deposition of Nutrients................................10-11References and Further Reading...............................................................10-13

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Table of Contents

Chapter 11: pH and AlkalinityOverview.....................................................................................................11-1Why Monitor pH and Alkalinity? ...............................................................11-2pH................................................................................................................11-2

Sampling Considerations........................................................................11-3How to Measure pH Values....................................................................11-5

Total Alkalinity ............................................................................................11-6Sampling Considerations........................................................................11-7How to Measure Alkalinity .....................................................................11-7

References and Further Reading...............................................................11-10

Chapter 12: ToxinsOverview.....................................................................................................12-1Toxins in Estuaries......................................................................................12-2Why Monitor Toxins?.................................................................................12-2The Role of Toxins in the Estuary Ecosystem............................................12-3Sampling Considerations.............................................................................12-7Atmospheric Deposition of Toxins.............................................................12-8References and Further Reading.................................................................12-8

Unit Two: Physical Measures

Chapter 13: TemperatureOverview.....................................................................................................13-1Why Monitor Temperature?........................................................................13-2Sampling Considerations.............................................................................13-2How to Monitor Temperature......................................................................13-3References and Further Reading.................................................................13-5

Chapter 14: SalinityOverview.....................................................................................................14-1About Salinity.............................................................................................14-2Sampling Considerations.............................................................................14-3How to Measure Salinity.............................................................................14-5References and Further Reading.................................................................14-7

Chapter 15: Turbidity and Total SolidsOverview.....................................................................................................15-1Why Measure Turbidity and Total Solids?.................................................15-2Sampling Considerations.............................................................................15-3How to Measure Turbidity..........................................................................15-7How to Measure Total Solids....................................................................15-10References and Further Reading...............................................................15-10

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Chapter 16: Marine DebrisOverview.....................................................................................................16-1Why Monitor Marine Debris?.....................................................................16-2Sampling Considerations and Options........................................................16-5How to Conduct a Marine Debris Cleanup.................................................16-7References and Further Reading...............................................................16-13

Unit Three: Biological Measures

Chapter 17: Bacteria: Indicators of Potential PathogensOverview.....................................................................................................17-1Why Monitor Bacteria?...............................................................................17-2The Bacterial Indicators..............................................................................17-4How Effective Are the Indicators?..............................................................17-6Bacterial Sampling and Equipment Considerations...................................17-6In the Field: Collecting Water Samples for Bacterial Analysis..................17-8In the Lab: Analytical Methods.................................................................17-10Which Method and Which Medium Should You Use?.............................17-14References and Further Reading...............................................................17-19

Chapter 18: Submerged Aquatic VegetationOverview.....................................................................................................18-1Why Monitor SAV?.....................................................................................18-2Sampling Considerations.............................................................................18-4How to Groundtruth..................................................................................18-10References and Further Reading...............................................................18-14

Chapter 19: Other Living OrganismsOverview.....................................................................................................19-1Why Monitor Other Living Organisms?.....................................................19-2Macroinvertebrates......................................................................................19-2

Shellfish Sampling Considerations.........................................................19-5How to Collect Shellfish.........................................................................19-5

Phytoplankton..............................................................................................19-7Sampling Considerations......................................................................19-10How to Monitor Phytoplankton............................................................19-12Special Topic: Chlorophyll Collection for Lab Analysis.....................19-16

Non-Indigenous Species............................................................................19-16Sampling Considerations......................................................................19-18How to Monitor Non-Indigenous Species............................................19-19

References and Further Reading...............................................................19-22

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Table of Contents

Appendices

Appendix A: Sample Data Forms...............................................................................................A-1Appendix B: Resources...............................................................................................................B-1Appendix C: Equipment Suppliers..............................................................................................C-1

Glossary and Acronyms...........................................................................................................GA-1Index.............................................................................................................................................I-1

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Executive Summary

This manual focuses on volunteer estuary monitoring. As concern over the well-being of theenvironment has increased during the past couple of decades, volunteer monitoring has become anintegral part of the effort to assess the health of our nation’s waters. Government agencies, oftenstrapped by financial limitations, have found that volunteer programs can provide high-quality, reliabledata to supplement their own water quality monitoring programs.

It may seem obvious, but should nonetheless be stated: without individual volunteers who committheir time and energy to the effort, there would be no volunteermonitoring pr ograms. As peoplelearn more about how an estuary functions and come to recognize its signs of distress, their concern forits future is increased. So too is their commitment to its protection.

Thus, volunteer monitoring of estuaries has grown significantly from the early programs that monitoredonly a few simple parameters. As these monitoring programs have developed, so has the interest of theEnvironmental Protection Agency (EPA), which has supported volunteer monitoring since 1987. TheEPA sponsors national symposia on volunteer monitoring, publishes a newsletter for volunteers, hasdeveloped guidance manuals and a directory of volunteer organizations, and provides technical supportto volunteer programs. Through these efforts, the EPA hopes to foster the interest and support of stateand other agencies in these programs.

The EPA developed this manual as a companion to three other documents:

• Volunteer Water Monitoring: A Guide for State Managers;

• Volunteer Lake Monitoring: A Methods Manual; and

• Volunteer Stream Monitoring: A Methods Manual.

This document presents information and methodologies specific to estuarine water quality. Both theorganizers of volunteer programs and the volunteers themselves should find it of use.

The first eight chapters of the manual deal with typical issues that a new or established volunteerestuary monitoring program might face:

• understanding estuaries, what makes them unique, the problems they face, and the role ofhumans in solving the problems;

• establishing and maintaining a volunteer monitoring program;

• working with volunteers and making certain that they are well-positioned to collect water quality data safely and effectively;

• ensuring that the program consistently produces data of high quality; and

• managing the data and making it available to data users.

Executive Summary

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Executive Summary

The remaining chapters focus on several water quality parameters that are important in determiningthe health of an estuary. These chapters are divided into three units, which characterize theparameters as measures of the chemical, physical, or biological environment of the estuary.

The significance of each parameter and specific methods to monitor it are detailed in a step-by-stepfashion. The manual stresses proper quality assurance and quality control techniques to ensure thatthe data are useful to state agencies and any other data users.

References are listed at the end of each chapter. Appendices containing additional resources are alsosupplied. These references should prove a valuable source of detailed information to anyoneinterested in establishing a new volunteer program or a background resource to those with alreadyestablished programs.

Chapter1Introduction

The inspiration for this manual comes from the people who are dedicated to

monitoring estuaries and the environment around them. The people who create

volunteer monitoring programs and the people who serve as volunteer monitors

care deeply about their estuaries, are concerned about their watersheds, and want

the opportunity for more community involvement.

Photos (l to r): S. Schultz, T. Monk, S. Schultz

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Chapter 1: Introduction

The inspiration for this manual comes fromthe people who are dedicated to monitoringestuaries and the environment around them.The people who create volunteer monitoringprograms and the people who serve asvolunteer monitors care deeply about theirestuaries, are concerned about theirwatersheds, and want the opportunity for morecommunity involvement.

Estuary volunteer monitoring programs givemen, women, and children a pricelessopportunity to intimately know the manyspectacular riches of the estuarineenvironment. As people learn more about howan estuary functions and come to recognize itssigns of distress, their concern for its future isincreased. So too is their commitment to itsprotection. The fact is, we will take care ofsomething when we value it.

Volunteer estuary monitoring programs can

create citizen leaderswho work to reducepollution, increaseeducation, and bettermanage our coastalareas, all with thepurpose of protectingsome very specialplaces.

By donating theirtime and talents to amonitoring program,volunteers offer apriceless, enduringlegacy to the future. Weare collectively responsible for thepreservation our natural world for the futuregenerations of people, animals and plants thatcall an estuary “home.”■

Where Would Estuaries Be Without Volunteer Monitors?

About the Manual

Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: A MethodsManual is a companion document toVolunteer Water Monitoring: A Guide forState Managers, published in 1990 by theU.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).The guide describes the role of volunteermonitoring in state programs and details howmanagers can best organize and administerthese monitoring programs. This manualfocuses on the concepts and plans developedby the EPA guide and places them in a nuts-and-bolts context specifically for volunteerestuary monitoring programs.

Two other EPA documents are also closelyallied with this manual: Volunteer LakeMonitoring: A Methods Manual(1991) and

Volunteer StreamMonitoring: A MethodsManual (1997).Together, these manualsprovide guidance onvolunteer water qualitymonitoring in much ofour nation’s watersheds.

This is the secondedition of VolunteerEstuary Monitoring: A Methods Manual.It updates informationand adds new topicsthat have emerged since the first manual wasintroduced in 1993. ■

Estuaries support a vast array of wildlife. Somemake estuaries their lifelong homes, whileothers can be seen only during certain times of the year or during particular periods of their lives (photo by S. Schultz).

Estuaries are homes for wildlife, food suppliers,gateways of commerce, and cultural mainstays.They are also imperiled. Volunteer monitorshelp preserve our estuarine resources (photo by S. Schultz).

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Organization of the Manual

The overriding purpose of Volunteer EstuaryMonitoring: A Methods Manualis to serve as atool for volunteer leaders who want to launch anew estuary monitoring program or enhance anexisting program. In the process, the manualshows how volunteer groups can collectmeaningful data to assess estuarine health.

The manual is not intended to mandate newmethods or override those currently beingused by volunteer monitoring groups. Instead,

it presents methods that have been adaptedfrom those used successfully by existingvolunteer estuary monitoring programsthroughout the United States. The manualdescribes methodologies and techniques formonitoring water quality parameters, startingand maintaining a volunteer estuarymonitoring program, working with volunteers,ensuring high quality data, and analyzing andpresenting the data following collection. ■

Purpose of the Manual

This manual is organized into 19 chapters.Chapters 1-8 provide information aboutestuaries, volunteers and volunteer monitoringprograms, and ensuring and managing data ofhigh quality. Chapters 9-19 address specificwater quality variables that volunteermonitoring programs may elect to measure.These chapters are grouped into chemical,physical, and biological units. Finally,appendices supply additional information.

A summary of the manual’s contents isprovided here.

Chapter 1: Introduction The introduction outlines the purpose of

this manual and its relationship to otherdocuments published by the EPA. It alsoprovides information about how and by whomthe manual should be used and explains plansfor making updated materials available in thefuture. Finally, the introduction summarizesthe contents of the manual.

Chapter 2: Understanding Our TroubledEstuaries

This chapter introduces the concept of anestuary and summarizes the major problemsplaguing our nation’s estuarine waters. It also

discusses the reasons for monitoring estuarinewater quality and how monitoring data canultimately help provide solutions to thesediverse problems.

Chapter 3: Planning and Maintaining aVolunteer Estuary Monitoring Program

This chapter covers the basics of planning,implementing, and maintaining a volunteermonitoring program so that it yields credibledata that will identify problems and assesstrends. Included in this chapter arediscussions on establishing goals, liability andother risk management issues, and obtainingfinancial support. This chapter also presentsguidance on developing a user-friendly dataform and working with the media to promoteyour program activities.

Chapter 4: Recruiting, Training, andRetaining Volunteers

This chapter discusses how to recruit, train,and retain top-notch volunteers. It summarizespotential sources of volunteers and providesdetailed information for volunteercoordinators on training techniques that areproven to produce knowledgeable andenthusiastic volunteers.

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Chapter 5: Quality Assurance ProjectPlanning

This chapter addresses one of the mostdifficult issues facing volunteer monitoringprograms: data credibility. It details theimportance of developing a quality assuranceproject plan (QAPP) and summarizes thesteps involved.

Chapter 6: Sampling ConsiderationsThis chapter reviews four critical questions

that a volunteer program must address beforetaking a single water sample: (1) Whatparameters will the program monitor? (2)How will the selected paratmeters bemonitored? (3) Where will the parameters bemonitored? (4) When will they be monitored?

Chapter 7: In the FieldThis chapter addresses what happens when

volunteers leave their homes for themonitoring sites. It makes points about safety,the right use of equipment, finding themonitoring sites, making general observationsabout the site, collecting data, and completingthe data form.

Chapter 8: Data Management,Interpretation, and Presentation

This chapter discusses the elements of avolunteer program that take place aftervolunteers collect their data. It introduces datamanagement tools, discusses datainterpretation, and gives suggestions formaximizing the distribution of your data.

Unit One: Chemical MeasuresThis unit describes several water quality

parameters that may be included in volunteermonitoring programs. Water quality variables

highlighted include oxygen (Chapter 9),nutrients (Chapter 10), pH and alkalinity(Chapter 11), and toxins (Chapter 12). Thechapters supply information on samplingconsiderations and guidance on monitoring.

Unit Two: Physical MeasuresThis unit provides monitoring guidance for

water quality variables that representmeasures of the estuary’s physicalenvironment. Temperature (Chapter 13),salinity (Chapter 14), turbidity and total solids(Chapter 15), and marine debris (Chapter 16)are included.

Unit Three: Biological MeasuresLiving organisms can be useful indicators

of estuarine health. This unit includesinformation about monitoring bacteria asindicators of potential pathogens (Chapter17), submerged aquatic vegetation (Chapter18), and other biological parameters,including macroinvertebrates, plankton, andnon-indigenous species (Chapter 19).

AppendicesSeveral appendices, referred to throughout

the manual, are also included. These sectionsprovide sample data forms (Appendix A),additional resources not listed in the chapters(Appendix B), and information on equipmentsuppliers (Appendix C). A glossary andacronyms section as well as an index are alsoincluded.■

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Intended AudienceThis manual is intended to be a resource for

leaders of volunteer estuary monitoringprograms. Such programs may be managed byenvironmental groups, educationalinstitutions, or government agencies.

Individual volunteers will also find thismanual to be a valuable resource, althoughsome components may not apply to them.Volunteer leaders may elect to photocopy anddistribute portions of the manual to volunteersas educational supplements, trainingreinforcement, or background materials.

Is the Manual the Answer to All EstuarineMonitoring Needs?

Certainly not! It would be impossible toprovide monitoring methods that areuniformly applicable to all estuaries or allvolunteer programs throughout the UnitedStates. Factors such as geographic region,program goals and objectives, and programresources will all influence the specificmethods used by each group. This manual,therefore, urges volunteer programcoordinators to work hand-in-hand with stateand local water quality professionals or otherpotential data users in developing andoperating a volunteer monitoring program.

This manual is only one resource forvolunteer programs. Many other resources areavailable from government agencies andvolunteer monitoring programs. Some arelisted at the end of individual chapters and inAppendix B.

A Lot of Help from Our FriendsSome portions of this manual draw

heavily from other resources. The editorswish to give these sources their duerecognition and have listed them at the endof each applicable chapter, separate fromother references.

Updates to the ManualThis manual is available in hard copy and

on the Internet. It is anticipated that periodicupdates will be made. While the updates willbe included in future print versions, they willalso be made available for downloading fromthe Internet. By making updates available onthe Internet, it is anticipated that volunteergroups can access new information soonerthan having to wait for a new print version ofthe manual. ■

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1990. Volunteer Water Monitoring: A Guide for State Managers. EPA 440/4-90-010. August. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 78 pp.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1991. Volunteer Lake Monitoring: A MethodsManual. EPA 440/4-91-002. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 121 pp.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1997. Volunteer Stream Monitoring: AMethods Manual.EPA 841-B-97-003. November. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 211 pp.

References and Further Reading

How to Use the Manual

Chapter2Understanding Our Troubled Estuaries

To say that estuaries are valuable resources is a gross understatement. They are

among the most productive natural environments in the world and among the most

sought-after places for people to live. Estuaries support major fisheries, shipping,

and tourism. They sustain organisms in many of their life stages, serve as migration

routes, and are havens for threatened and endangered species. Associated wetlands

filter pollutants, dissipate floodwaters, and prevent land erosion.

Photos (l to r): U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, R. Ohrel, Weeks Bay Watershed Project, R. Ohrel

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Chapter 2: Understanding Our Troubled Estuaries

To say that estuaries are valuable resources is a gross understatement. They are

among the most productive natural environments in the world and among the most

sought-after places for people to live. Estuaries support major fisheries, shipping, and

tourism. They sustain organisms in many of their life stages, serve as migration

routes, and are havens for threatened and endangered species. Associated wetlands

filter pollutants, dissipate floodwaters, and prevent land erosion.

Yet, despite their value, estuaries are in trouble.

Nearly half of the U.S. population lives in coastal areas, which include the shores

of estuaries. Unfortunately, this increasing concentration of people is upsetting the

natural balance of estuarine ecosystems and threatening their integrity. Pollution,

habitat destruction, overfishing, wetland loss, and the introduction of non-indigenous

species are among the consequences of many human activities.

As concern over the well-being of the environment has risen during the past several

decades, so has the interest in gathering information about the status of estuaries.

Government agencies have limited funds for monitoring. As a result, volunteer

monitoring has become an integral part of the effort to assess the health of our

nation’s waters. Designed properly, volunteer programs can provide high-quality

reliable data to supplement government agencies’water quality monitoring programs.

This chapter discusses our troubled estuaries. The estuarine environment is

described and several problems relating human activities to estuarine degradation are

investigated. Finally, the role of volunteer monitoring in identifying, fixing, or

preventing problems is examined.

Overview

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What Is an Estuary? Unlike many features of the landscape that

are easily described, estuaries are transitionalzones that encompass a wide variety ofenvironments. Loosely categorized as the zonewhere fresh and salt water meet and mix, theestuarine environment is a complex blend ofcontinuously changing habitats. To qualify asan estuary, a waterbody must fit the followingdescription:

“a semi-enclosed coastal body of water whichhas free connection with the open sea andwithin which sea water is measurably dilutedwith fresh water derived from land drainage”

(Pritchard, 1967).

The estuary itself is a rather well-definedbody of water, bounded at its mouth by theocean and at its head by the upper limit of thetides. It drains a much larger area, however, andpollutant-producing activities near or intributaries even hundreds of miles away maystill adversely affect the estuary’s water quality.

While some of the water in an estuary flowsfrom the tributaries that feed it, the remaindermoves in from the sea. When fresh and saltwater meet, the two do not readily mix. Freshwater flowing in from tributaries is relativelylight and overrides the wedge of more densesalt water moving in from the ocean. Thisdensity differential often causes layering orstratification of the water, which significantlyaffects both circulation and the chemical profileof an estuary.

Scientists often classify estuaries into threetypes according to the particular pattern ofwater circulation (Figure 2-1):

• Highly Stratified Estuary

The layering between fresh water from thetributaries and salt water from the ocean ismost distinct in this type of estuary, althoughsome seawater still mixes with the surfacefreshwater layer. To compensate for this“loss” of seawater, there is a slow butcontinual up-estuary movement of the saltywater on the bottom.

• Moderately Stratified Estuary

In this intermediate estuary type, mixing offresh and salt water occurs at all depths. Withthis vertical mixing, salinity levels generallyincrease toward the estuary mouth, althoughthe lower layer is always saltier than theupper layer.

• Vertically Mixed Estuary

In this type of estuary, powerful mixing bytides tends to eliminate layering altogether.Salinity in these estuaries is a function of thetidal stage. This tidal dominance is usuallyobserved only in very small estuaries.

The Science

Fresh Water

0

0

10

10

20

20

30

30

Flood Tide Ebb Tide

Highly Stratified Estuary

Vertically Mixed Estuary

Moderately Stratified Estuary

Sea Water

Figure 2-1.Three typesof estuaries: highlystratified, moderatelystratified, and verticallymixed (adapted fromLevinton, 1982).Numbers refer to salinityin parts per thousand.

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Rivers flow in a single direction, flushingout sediments and pollutants. In estuaries,however, there is a constant balancing actbetween the up-estuary saltwater movementand down-estuary freshwater flow. Rather thanquickly flushing water and pollutants throughits system, an estuary often has a lengthyretention period. Consequently, waterbornepollutants, along with contaminated sediment,may remain in the estuary for a long time,magnifying their potential to adversely affectthe estuary’s plants and animals.

Other factors also play a role in thehydrology of an estuary. Basin shape, mouthwidth, depth, area, tidal range, surroundingtopography, and regional climate combine tomake each estuary unique.

Why Are Estuaries Important?Estuaries are critical for the survival of many

species. Tens of thousands of birds, mammals,fish, and other wildlife depend on estuarinehabitats as places to live, feed, and reproduce.They provide ideal spots for migratory birds torest and refuel during their journeys. Manyspecies of fish and shellfish rely on the shel-tered waters of estuaries as protected places tospawn, giving estuaries the nickname “nurseriesof the sea.” Hundreds of marine organisms,including most commercially valuable fishspecies, depend on estuaries at some point dur-ing their development.

Besides serving as an important habitat forwildlife, the wetlands that fringe many estuariesperform other valuable services. Water drainingfrom upland areas carries sediments, nutrients,and other pollutants. But as the water flowsthrough wetlands, much of the sediments andpollutants are filtered out. This filtration processcreates cleaner and clearer water, which bene-fits both people and marine life. Wetland plantsand soils also act as natural buffers between theland and ocean, absorbing floodwaters and dis-sipating storm surges. This protects uplandorganisms as well as valuable real estate fromstorm and flood damage. Salt marsh grasses,mangrove trees, and other estuarine plants alsoprevent erosion and stabilize the shoreline.

Among the cultural benefitsof estuaries are recreation,scientific knowledge,education, and aestheticvalue. Boating, fishing,swimming, surfing, and birdwatching are just a few of thenumerous recreationalactivities people enjoy inestuaries. They are often thecultural centers of coastalcommunities—focal pointsfor commerce, recreation,history, customs, andtraditions. As transition zonesbetween land and ocean,estuaries are invaluablelaboratories for scientists andstudents, providing countlesslessons in biology, geology,chemistry, physics, history,and social issues. Estuariesalso provide a great deal ofaesthetic enjoyment for thepeople who live, work, orrecreate in and around them.

Finally, the tangible and direct economicbenefits of estuaries should not be overlooked.Tourism, fisheries, and other commercialactivities thrive on the wealth of naturalresources that estuaries supply. Protectedestuarine waters also support important publicinfrastructure, serving as harbors and ports vitalfor shipping, transportation, and industry. Someattempts have been made to measure certainaspects of the economic activity that dependson America’s estuaries and other coastal waters.For example:

• Estuaries provide habitat for more than75 percent of America’s commercial fishcatch and for 80-90 percent of therecreational fish catch (National SafetyCouncil’s Environmental Center, 1998).Commercial and recreational fishingcontribute about $4.3 billion annually tothe U.S. economy, while related marineindustries add another $3 billionannually (ANEP, 1998).

Commercial and recreational activities inestuaries generate billions of dollars for localeconomies (photo by USEPA).

Wetlands, like this one in Virginia, providemany valuable services. They removepollutants, absorb floodwaters, dissipatestorm surges, stabilize shorelines, and serve as habitat for many organisms (photo by R. Ohrel).

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• Nationwide, commercial andrecreational fishing, boating, tourism,and other coastal industries providemore than 28 million jobs. Commercialshipping alone employed more than50,000 people as of January 1997(National Safety Council’sEnvironmental Center, 1998).

• There are 25,500 recreational facilitiesalong the U.S. coasts—almost 44,000square miles of outdoor public recreationareas (NOAA, 1990). The averageAmerican spends 10 recreational days onthe coast each year. In 1993, more than180 million Americans visited ocean andbay beaches—nearly 70 percent of theU.S. population. Coastal recreation andtourism generate $8 to $12 billionannually (National Safety Council’sEnvironmental Center, 1998).

In short, estuaries provide us with a wholesuite of resources, benefits, and services.Some of these can be measured in dollars andcents; others cannot. Estuaries areirreplaceable natural resources that must bemanaged carefully for the mutual benefit ofall who enjoy and depend on them.

Where Land Meets OceanYou may have heard the saying, “We all

live downstream.” This is a rather simplestatement intended to bring attention tocomplex, intertwined processes affectingwater quality. Estuaries are the intermediarybetween oceans and land (Figure 2-2);consequently, these two factors influence theirphysical, chemical, and biological properties.

Estuaries are part of a larger collection ofgeographic features that make up a watershed,an area that drains surface bodies of water.

Importance of EstuariesHABIT AT: Tens of thousands of birds, mammals, fish, and other wildlife depend onestuaries.

NURSERY: Many marine organisms, most commercially valuable fish species included,depend on estuaries at some point during their development.

PRODUCTIVITY : A healthy, undisturbed estuary produces from four to ten times theweight of organic matter produced by a cultivated cornfield of the same size.

WATER FIL TRATION: Water draining off upland areas carries a load of sediments andnutrients. As the water flows through salt marsh peat and the dense mesh of marsh grassblades, much of the sediment and nutrient load is filtered out. This filtration process createscleaner and clearer water.

FLOOD CONTROL: Porous, resilient salt marsh soils and grasses absorb floodwaters anddissipate storm surges. Salt marsh-dominated estuaries provide natural buffers between theland and the ocean. They protect upland organisms as well as billions of dollars of humanreal estate.

ECONOMY: Estuary-dependant activities—recreation, shipping, fishing, and tourism—generate billions of dollars each year.

CULTURE: Native Americans and early settlers depended on productive estuaries forsurvival. Sheltered ports were essential for the transfer of goods and information from othercontinents. Today, estuaries support a way of life valued by many.

(Excerpted from NERRS Web site: http://inlet.geol.sc.edu/nerrsintro.html.)

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Watersheds generally include lakes, rivers,wetlands, streams, groundwater rechargeareas, and the surrounding landscape, inaddition to estuaries.

Tributaries flow downstream through thewatershed for up to hundreds of miles. Intheir journey, they pick up materials thatwash off the land or are discharged directlyinto the water by land-based activities.Eventually, the materials that the tributariesaccumulate are delivered to estuaries.

The types of materials that eventually enteran estuary largely depend on how the land isused. Undisturbed forests, for example, willdischarge considerably fewer pollutants thanan urban center or cleared agricultural field.Surrounding land uses and land use decisions,then, can have significant effects on anestuary’s overall health. ■

ESTUARY

OCEAN

Figure 2-2. Estuaries are transitional zonesbetween land and theocean (redrawn from EPAWeb site: http://www.epa.gov/owow/oceans/factsheets/fact5.html).

Changes to the coastal landscape have hadserious implications for estuarine health.Estuaries are bombarded by several pollutantsources, and their impacts can be severe.

Pollutant SourcesWherever there is human activity, there is

usually a potential source of pollutants. Table 2-1 and Figure 2-3 summarize some commonestuarine pollutants and their potential sources.

Estuarine pollution is generally classified aseither point source pollution or nonpointsource pollution. Point source pollutiondescribes pollution that comes from adiscernible source, such as an industrialdischarge or wastewater treatment plant. Pointsource pollution is usually identified as comingfrom a pipe, channel, or other obviousdischarge point. Laws regulate point sources,with limits placed on the types and quantities ofdischarges to estuaries and other waterways.

Nonpoint source pollution (NPS), on theother hand, comes from a variety of diffuse

sources that do not havea single discharge point.Examples includestormwater runoff fromurban areas, marinaoperations, farming,forestry, and constructionactivities; faulty orleaking septic systems;and atmosphericdeposition originatingfrom industrialoperations or vehicles. NPS pollution, which isoften hard to identify and quantify, is generallymore difficult and expensive to regulate andcontrol than point source pollution.

Pollutant ImpactsMany of our nation’s more than 100

estuaries are also under siege. Historically,estuaries and other waterbodies have been thereceptacles for society’s wastes. Humansewage, industrial byproducts, and runoff

The Problems

Point sources deliver pollutants to estuariesthrough a pipe or other discharge point. Here, thepipe is located under a pier (photo by R. Ohrel).

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from farming operationsdisappeared as they mixed withreceiving waters and washed intothe nation’s fragile estuaries.

Over the past several decades,however, the signs of estuarinedecline have become increasinglyapparent. Many fish and shellfishpopulations hover near collapse.Although we have recognized theproblems and have generally

reduced the pollutants entering our waters, thesheer numbers of people living near the coastscontinue to stress our estuaries, lagoons, andother coastal waters.

No coastal areas, estuaries included, areimmune to the threat of pollution; they allshare common problems. Many are oftensubject to seasonal depletion of dissolvedoxygen, particularly in their deeper waters.Accelerated eutrophication—a condition in

which high nutrient concentrations stimulateexcessive algal blooms, which then depletedissolved oxygen as they decompose—oftenthreatens the character of the natural system.

Across the country, estuaries are vulnerableto assault from a wide variety of toxicsubstances, which menace the health ofhumans and wildlife. While sources of thesesubstances may be relatively scarce in themore pristine areas surrounding an estuary,industrialized areas often lead to “hot spots”in the adjacent estuary, with toxinsconcentrating in the water, sediment, andlocal aquatic plants and animals. Stormwaterrunoff from urban and rural areas can alsodeliver toxic materials to estuaries. Metals,pesticides, and automotive fluids arefrequently washed from lawns, agriculturalfields, parking lots, marinas, and a myriad ofother sources to estuarine waters.

Bacterial contamination is yet another

Table 2-1. Common pollutants and impacts associated with selected coastal land uses (adapted from USEPA, 1997; Maine DEP, 1996; USEPA, 1993).

Possible Impacts

Reduced water clarity, smothered benthic habitat, toxicity to organisms,excessive algal growth, reduced dissolved oxygen, water temperature changes

Possible introduction of pathogens, reduced water clarity, smothered benthichabitat, excessive algal growth, reduced dissolved oxygen, water tempteraturechanges

Reduced water clarity, smothered benthic habitat, water temperature changes

Reduced water clarity, smothered benthic habitat, impacts on pH and alkalinity

Reduced water clarity, smothered benthic habitat, impacts on pH and alkalinity,toxicity to organisms

Reduced water clarity, excessive algal growth, reduced dissolved oxygen/higherbiochemical oxygen demand, water temperature and pH changes, possibleintrouction of pathogens

Reduced water clarity, smothered benthic habitat, excessive algal growth,reduced dissolved oxygen, water temperature changes, toxicity to organisms

Reduced water clarity, smothered benthic habitat, excessive algal growth,reduced dissolved oxygen/higher biochemical oxygen demand, watertemperature changes, toxicity to organisms, possible introduction of pathogens

Reduced water clarity, smothered benthic habitat, excessive algal growth, reduceddissolved oxygen/higher biochemical oxygen demand, toxicity to organisms

Excessive algal growth, reduced dissolved oxygen/higher biochemical oxygendemand, water temperature changes, possible introduction of pathogens

Excessive algal growth, reduced dissolved oxygen/higher biochemical oxygendemand, toxicity to organisms, possible introduction of pathogens

Source

Cropland

Grazing land

Forestry

Mining

Industrial/commercialdischarge

Sewage treatment plants

Construction

Urban runoff

Lawns/golf courses

Septic systems

Marinas/boat usage

Common Pollutants

Sediments, nutrients,pesticides

Fecal bateria, sediments,nutrients

Sediments

Acid discharge, sediments

Sediments, toxins

Nutrients, suspendedsolids, fecal bacteria

Sediments, toxins,nutrients

Sediments, nutrients,metals, petroleumhydrocarbons, bacteria

Toxins, nutrients,sediments

Fecal bacteria, nutrients

Toxins, nutrients, bacteria

Improperly managed construction sitescan clog estuaries with tons ofsediments (photo by R. Ohrel).

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problem prevalent in many estuaries.Inadequately treated sewage released to theestuary threatens recreational water users andcontaminates local shellfish. States oftenmonitor shellfish or the waters overlyingshellfish beds for bacterial contamination,occasionally shutting down contaminated areasto recreational and commercial fishermen untilbacteria numbers drop to safe levels.

Sediments from construction sites,agricultural activities, forestry operations, anddredging activities, among other sources, canbe another concern. Sediments washing intoestuaries or resuspended from dredging cancarry a host of additional environmentalproblems with them. These sediments covercritical benthic, or bottom, habitat fornumerous species and smother plants andanimals. They cloud waters, preventingsunlight from reaching submerged plants.Metals and other toxic materials arefrequently attached to sediments, and it isoften through this affiliation that toxicmaterials are delivered to the estuary.Attached to sediments, they make their way tothe benthic zone, where they accumulate

within organisms and become introduced tothe food web. Under certain environmentalconditions, toxins may also be released fromsediments into the water column.

Other areas suffer from large quantities ofmarine debris. Storm sewers, combined seweroverflows, and carelessly dropped litter areamong the sources of these eyesores. Marinedebris found on estuarine shorelines andunderwater pose a health hazard to marineanimals and humans.

Whether the problems are unique to oneestuary or common to many, several haveworsened over recent decades. Simulta-neously, however, the interest of a fewconcerned citizens has grown into a nation-wide awareness that the environment is anecessary national priority.

Along with this growing recognition, themeans to assess the health and status of ournation’s waters has also evolved. Whilescientists provided many early clues to thedeterioration of estuarine water quality,citizens have become important contributorsin the long-term effort to identify and addresswater quality problems. ■

AgriculturalRunoff

WastewaterTreatmentPlant

Animal/PetWaste

Ground Water

GolfCourses

Marinas

Urban RunoffIndustrialFacilities

SepticSystems

WasteFacilities

Air Deposition

Forestry

Lawn Fertilizing

Dredging

RecreationalActivities

Figure 2-3.Potential sources of estuarine pollution.

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Clarifying and characterizing the problemsunique to an estuary help clear the path towardpotential solutions. The first step in solvingeach problem is defining it. One should ask:

• Is there a problem?

• If so, how serious is it?

• Does the problem affect only a portionof the estuary, or the entire body ofwater?

• Does the problem occur sporadically,seasonally, or year-round?

• Is the problem a naturally occurringphenomenon, or is it caused by humanactivities?

The Importance of MonitoringA systematic and well-planned monitoring

program can identify water quality problemsand help answer the questions critical to theirsolutions. Useful monitoring data willaccurately portray the current chemical,physical, and biological status of the estuary.This type of information, collectedsystematically over time, can establish arecord of water quality conditions in anestuary.

If reliable historical data exist forcomparison, current monitoring data can alsodocument changes in the estuary from the pastto the present. These data may serve as a

Examples of Water Quality Degradation• The Petaluma River, a tributary to San Francisco Bay, has experienced seasonal algal blooms, low oxygen

levels, and fish kills resulting from municipal waste discharges.

• Low dissolved oxygen levels are problematic in Corpus Christi Bay and Galveston Bay in Texas and in MobileBay, Alabama. Low oxygen levels are especially prevalent where wastewater discharges and surface runoff goto areas that are poorly flushed or have little circulation.

• In 1990, nitrogen levels in Sarasota Bay, Florida, were estimated to be three times greater than predevelopmentlevels.

• Pollution from surface runoff has been implicated in nearly 30 percent reduction in seagrass coverage thatoccurred in the Indian River Lagoon, Florida, between 1970 and 1990. If no action is taken, it is estimated thatpollution from surface runoff will increase by more than 30 percent by the year 2010 due to increasing humanpopulation.

• Runoff from the land contributes more than 50 percent of nitrogen loadings to Maryland’s coastal bays, with 50percent of these loadings coming from agricultural feeding operations (primarily poultry), which make up lessthan one percent of the watershed.

• A citizen-based water quality sampling effort in Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts, reports that nine of the Bay’s 30embayments experience poor water quality (primarily from nutrient over-enrichment) during the summermonths. Another eight embayments are in transition from good to poor water quality. At least 50 percent of allthe embayments have shown a slight to moderate decline in water quality during four years of monitoring.

• From mid-July through September each year, up to half of Long Island Sound in New York experiencesdissolved oxygen levels insufficient to support healthy populations of marine life. Nitrogen loads are estimatedto be more than twice those of pre-colonial times with 57 percent of the nitrogen entering the Sound each yearattributable to human activities.

(Source: ANEP, 1998.)

The Solutions

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warning flag, alerting managers to thedevelopment of a water quality problem. Or, onthe positive side, data comparisons may indicateimprovements in estuarine water quality.

Thus, monitoring programs can perform avariety of functions. The most effectivemonitoring program, however, resolves the useof the data early on so that the program designbest addresses the defined problems. Mostcitizen monitoring programs serve to:

• supplement federal, state, and localmonitoring efforts;

• educate the public;

• obtain data from remote areas;

• obtain data during storms or other uniqueevents;

• bring a problem area to light; and/or

• document the illegal discharge of waste.

Citizen monitoring data, collected accuratelyand systematically, can be an importantsupplement to data collected by professionals.Accurate data often have far-reaching uses thatthe organizers may not have anticipated at theoutset of their program. Indeed, these data havethe potential to influence management actionstaken to protect the waterbody. Further uses ofthe data include:

• providing a scientific basis for specificmanagement decisions and strategies;

• contributing to the broad base ofscientific information on estuaryfunctions and the effects of estuarypollution;

• determining multiyear water qualitytrends;

• documenting the effect of nonpoint andpoint source pollutants on water quality;

• indicating to government officials thatcitizens care about their local waterways;

• documenting the impacts of pollutioncontrol measures; and

• providing data needed to determinepermit compliance.

Assessing water quality should not be con-ducted purely for the sake of monitoring itself.Ultimately, the protection and restoration of anestuary’s wildlife, natural functions, and compat-ible human uses is of greatest concern. To restorean estuary, we must ensure that water qualityconditions remain within the optimal range forthe health and vitality of native species. As scien-tists discover the ideal habitat conditions for eachspecies, monitoring data will be instrumental injudging how often conditions are suitable for thesurvival and propagation of these species.

Measures of Environmental Health and Degradation

Estuaries are complex systems with a largeassortment of habitats, animal and plantspecies, and physical and chemical conditions.As a result, there are dozens—perhapshundreds—of monitoring parameters beingused to evaluate the health of estuaries.Several parameters describe the basicchemical, physical, and biological propertiesof an estuary. These traits determine theestuary’s fundamental nature. They form, inessence, the ABCs of estuarine water qualityand set the stage for selecting theenvironmental parameters that will indicateestuarine health.

Warning: It’s All Connected!Simply measuring a chemical concentration or locating a particularorganism does not necessarily tell the full story of an estuary’s health.Several factors may interact to influence your data.

To facilitate discussion of different monitoring parameters, thisMethods Manual addresses monitoring topics according to chemical,physical, or biological properties. However, it is important torecognize that one environmental parameter may influence another(Figure 2-4). Temperature, for example, largely governs the rate ofchemical reaction and biological activity. The pH affects the solubilityof certain chemicals in the water. Nutrient concentrations influencealgal growth, which ultimately affects dissolved oxygenconcentrations. Turbidity controls the amount of sunlight that canreach underwater plants.

Chapter 7 describes several environmental factors that couldinfluence your monitoring results.

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Chemical Measures

Chemical parameters are the main focus ofmany volunteer estuary monitoring programs,which concentrate on pollutants that arrive intheestuary from point and nonpoint sources(e.g., nutrients, toxins). Other chemicalmeasurements serve as indicators of problems.Low dissolved oxygen concentrations, forexample, can be disastrous for many estuarineorganisms.

Unit 1 highlights some of the commonestuarine chemical monitoring parameters andtechniques.

Physical Measures

Some parameters are neither biological norchemical in nature; they represent measures ofthe physical environment. Sediment andmarine debris are examples of natural andmanmade materials, respectively, that canaffect estuarine organisms’living environmentand health.

Unit 2 discusses some measures of thephysical environment employed by manyvolunteer estuary monitoring programs.

Biological Measures

Living organisms can reveal a great dealabout an estuary’s health. In some cases, theirpresence can be a good sign. For example, thewidespread distribution of submerged aquaticvegetation (SAV) can suggest that turbidity orexcessive nutrients may not be problems inthe area. Other organisms, however, can becauses of concern. High bacteria levels canindicate the presence of pathogens in thewater—a potential human health risk. Thepresence of non-indigenous species canthreaten native organisms and disrupt adelicate ecological balance.

Biological monitoring is discussed ingreater detail in Unit 3.

Peculiarities of Volunteer EstuaryMonitoring

You may be thinking, “I know how tomonitor streams, so I know how to monitorestuaries.” In many respects, you are correct.Basic monitoring techniques are similar forstreams, lakes, rivers, and estuaries. However,estuaries have several, often unique,

N+T

AtmosphereFresh-saltwater transition(maximum turbidity zone)

Point sourcessewage treatmentplants (N + T)

Nonpoint sourcesfarm & urban runoff,groundwater (S + N + T)

Plankton

Die offFilterfeeders

Sediment (S)

Nutrients (N)

Toxic pollutants (T)Sediment sink

Sedimentabsorption & transport

SuspendedS + N + T

DissolvedN + T

Lighter freshwater

Heavier seawater

Resuspension

Settling

ReleaseUptake

Man

N + T in food chain

Figure 2-4.Schematic diagram of physical, chemical, and biological processes interacting in estuaries (redrawnfrom USEPA, 1987).

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properties that must be considered whenconducting monitoring efforts. As onevolunteer leader wrote, “Estuary monitoringcan be characterized as a mixture of river andlake monitoring techniques—liberally salted”(Green, 1998).

Two main influences that make estuarymonitoring unique are tides and salinity.Volunteers are strongly recommended to learnproper techniques for monitoring in anestuarine environment.

Tides

Estuaries differ from streams and lakes inseveral respects. First and foremost, they aresubject to tides and the accompanying mixingof salt and fresh water. Any successful estuarymonitoring program must take into accountthe tidal stage when scheduling trainingsessions and sampling times. Tidal stages canmean the difference between using a boat and trudging across mudflats to get to asampling spot.

The fact that high tide occurs at differenttimes in different parts of the estuaryundeniably complicates scheduling. Somemonitoring groups schedule sample collectionfor low and high tides at each station on eachmonitoring date—which translates intodifferent sampling times for each location!

Estuaries are complex, with a wide varietyof environments that are constantly changing.When the tide is rising, incoming salt waterdoes not mix uniformly with fresh water.Fresh water is lighter (less dense) than saltwater and tends to stay nearer the surface. Theresult is layering, or stratification , whichmay necessitate sampling at several depths—particularly for dissolved oxygen, nutrients,plankton, and salinity. On the other hand,tides of sufficient magnitude are effectivemixers of estuarine waters and may breakdown stratification.

Tide charts are readily available and shouldbe a standard part of any programcoordinator’s tool kit. Programs studyinghighly stratified estuaries or estuaries withtidal ranges over a few feet may want to

measure tidal stage. Even if tidal stage dataare not included at the beginning of thesampling effort, the National Oceanic andAtmospheric Administration (NOAA)publishes tide tables for most of the U.S.This information can be obtained andapplied after the fact, if the monitoringstation is reasonably close to one of thepublished tide table sites.

Salinity

Salinity, the concentration of salts inwater, isn’t usually monitored in streams,rivers, or lakes, unless there is a connectionwith salt water or concerns about excessivewinter season road salting. Salinity changeswith the tides and the amount of fresh waterflowing into the estuary. It is often the majordeterminant of what lives where.

Salinity is often a factor in monitoring manykey water quality variables. For example:

• To properly calibrate most dissolvedoxygen meters, knowledge of salinityconcentration is necessary.

• If you are interested in converting thedissolved oxygen concentration topercent saturation (the amount ofoxygen in the water compared to themaximum it could hold at thattemperature), you must take salinity intoaccount. As salinity increases, theamount of oxygen that the water canhold decreases.

• If you use a meter to measure pH, thetechniques are the same whether you aretesting salt or fresh water. However, ifyou use a colorimeter, you must use acorrection factor (available from themanufacturer) to compensate for theeffects of salinity.

• Although macroinvertebrates (e.g.,insects, worms, shellfish, and otheranimals that lack a spinal column) livein estuaries, using them as indicators ofecosystem health is more problematicthan in streams. Estuaries support

Barnegat Bay in New Jersey(photo by S. Schultz).

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different invertebratecommunities than freshwatersystems, and many of thekey freshwater indicators arenot present in estuaries. Inaddition, collection is moredifficult, given the tidalfluctuations and the muddybottom. Finally, dataanalysis tools for relatingmacroinvertebratecommunities to ecosystem

health have not been as well developedfor estuaries as for streams.

The Human ElementAs mentioned previously, a number of

estuary health problems can be traced to humanactivities. Humans also hold the key to findingtheir solutions. Many organizations andindividuals are working to restore and protectestuaries, and volunteer monitoring is oneessential aspect of the effort.

Each player has a different role in volunteermonitoring efforts, but all must work together toensure efficient use of time, resources, and data.

The Role of Government Organizations

On the federal, state, and local levels, amyriad of government agencies are involved involunteer estuary monitoring. Each governmentlevel has a different degree of involvement,summarized below:

• FederalSeveral federal agencies and programs areinvolved to some degree in volunteer estuarymonitoring. The U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency (EPA), for example, hassupported volunteer monitoring since 1987.The EPA has sponsored national symposia onvolunteer monitoring, publishes a newsletterfor volunteers, developed guidance manualsand a directory of volunteer organizations,and provides technical support to thevolunteer programs (see Appendix B forresources).

The EPA also administers the National EstuaryProgram (NEP). Unlike traditional regulatoryapproaches to environmental protection, theNEPtargets a broad range of issues andengages local communities in the process.

The NEPencourages local communities toresponsibly manage their estuaries. Each NEPis made up of representatives from federal,state, and local government agencies, as wellas members of the community—citizens,business leaders, educators, and researchers.These stakeholders work together to identifyproblems in the estuary, develop specificactions to address those problems, and createand implement a formal management plan torestore and protect the estuary.

To help in their tasks, NEPs work withvolunteer groups and federal, state, and localagencies to gather critical data about theirestuary. Many NEPs host informationalworkshops for volunteer monitors.

Another federal program interested involunteer data is the National EstuarineResearch Reserve System (NERRS), whichis administered by the National Oceanic andAtmospheric Administration (NOAA).NERRS sites monitor the effects of naturaland human activities on estuaries to helpidentify methods to manage and protectcoastal areas. Volunteer groups are oftenengaged to help collect valuable data aboutestuarine health.

• StateDepending on the state, several agencies maybe involved with volunteer estuarymonitoring. Agencies responsible for waterquality, coastal and/or environmentalmanagement, fish and wildlife, public health,and other areas have shown interest insupplementing the data they regularly collectwith information gathered by volunteers. State agencies play a major role in volunteerefforts. Many offer training opportunities,provide sampling equipment, and compileand distribute volunteer data. Occasionally,state laboratories may offer their services toprocess samples.

Various land uses, including agricultural,residential/urban, forestry, mining, andmarinas, can be sources of estuarine pollution (photo by Weeks Bay Watershed Project).

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Some states are reluctant to fully use volun-teer data, which can be a sore point with vol-unteer groups. To remedy such conflicts,many states establish quality assurance/quali-ty control (QA/QC) requirements (seeChapter 5) to ensure that volunteer data canbe used. They may also train volunteergroups on setting up a quality assurance pro-ject plan (QAPP). States can also work withvolunteer groups to identify data needs, keysampling sites, and formats for submittingdata. Such cooperation maximizes monitor-ing efficiency and data usefulness.

• LocalLocal agencies can get involved with volun-teer monitoring in a number of ways. Whenconsidering development plans, they can usevolunteer data to assess baseline water qualityconditions and follow estuarine health as thedevelopment proceeds. Data can also be usedto identify especially sensitive areas, whichcan then be designated for special protection.

Volunteer data can also be helpful for locat-ing local pollutant sources. For example,local governments are primarily responsiblefor septic system permitting, inspections,maintenance, and enforcement. Particularlyin rural areas where septic systems are com-mon, local agencies may not have enoughstaff to sample for bacteria and other indica-tors of failing systems. By working with vol-unteer groups, local agencies are tapping intoa valuable resource.

The Role of Non-Government Organizations

With few exceptions, non-government orga-nizations do the bulk of hands-on volunteermonitoring program planning and implementa-tion. Such organizations can include environ-mental, school, community, and civic groups.Their membership is comprised largely of localcitizens.

A major responsibility of non-governmentgroups is to work with government agenciesand other non-government organizations.Collaboration is important to coordinate moni-toring activities and identify priority areas in

the estuary. By coordinating with other organi-zations, volunteer monitors can also improvethe likelihood that groups other than their ownwill utilize their data. For example, by workingtogether with state agencies to develop a QAPPand determine which data the agencies are mostinterested in, volunteer organizations canbecome a valuable partner in estuary monitor-ing efforts.

Of course, the volunteer organization mayelect to gather other data that may not be highon government agencies’priority lists. Thisinformation still has value! It can be used toguide local management decisions, educate thepublic, establish a baseline, and serve as an earlywarning of potential water quality problems.

Besides working with government agencies,non-government organizations do grassrootswork. Among other things, they:

• recruit, train, and motivate volunteers;

• supervise monitoring activities;

• procure monitoring equipment;

• raise funds to support monitoring efforts; and

• work with local media to inform the publicof their activities and findings.

The Role of Individuals

It may seem obvious, but should nonethelessbe stated: Without individual volunteers whocommit their time and energy to the effort,there would be no volunteermonitoring programs.

Besides actually monitoring the estuary, vol-unteers are valuable resources for other reasons.They generally monitor close to their homesand are familiar with the area. Because of theirknowledge of local land uses, environmentalissues, and history of the monitoring area, vol-unteers can provide valuable anecdotal informa-tion that can help explain data.

Individual volunteers can also assist with other non-monitoring activities, such as fundraising, writing press releases, educating the public, and helping with admin-istrative work.

Chapter 4 goes into greater detail about therole of volunteers in monitoring programs. ■

A volunteer takes aSecchi disk readingfrom Puget Sound(photo by E. Ely).

Portions of this chapter were excerpted and adapted from:

Green, L. 1998. “Let Us Go Down to the Sea—How Monitoring Changes from River to Estuary.”The Volunteer Monitor10(2): 1-3.

National Estuarine Research Reserve System (NERRS) Web site: http://inlet.geol.sc.edu/ nerrsintro.html

National Estuary Program (NEP) Web site: http://www.epa.gov/owow/estuaries/about1.htm

Other references:

Association of National Estuary Programs (ANEP). 1998. Preserving Our Heritage, Securing OurFuture: A Report to the Citizens of the Nation.Washington, DC. 49 pp.

Levinton, J. S. 1982. Marine Ecology. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 526 pp.

Maine Department of Environmental Protection (DEP). 1996. A Citizen’s Guide to CoastalWatershed Surveys. 78 pp.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). 1990. Estuaries of the United States:Vital Statistics of a Natural Resource Base. U.S. Department of Commerce, National OceanService.

National Safety Council’s Environmental Center. 1998. Coastal Challenges: A Guide to Coastal andMarine Issues. Prepared in conjunction with Coastal America. Web site: http://www.nsc.org/ehc/guidebooks/coasttoc.htm

Pritchard, D. W. 1967. “What Is an Estuary: A Physical Viewpoint.” In: Estuaries. G. H. Lauff (ed.).American Association for the Advancement of Science. Publication No. 83. Washington, DC. 757pp.

Stancioff, E. 1994. “Changing Tides: Special Challenges of Estuary Monitoring.” The VolunteerMonitor 6(2).

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1987. The State of the Chesapeake Bay, SecondAnnual Monitoring Report. Chesapeake Bay Program, Annapolis, MD.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1993. Guidance Specifying ManagementMeasures for Sources of Nonpoint Pollution in Coastal Waters. EPA 840-B-92-002. January.Office of Water, Washington, DC.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1997. Volunteer Stream Monitoring: A MethodsManual. EPA 841-B-97-003. November. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 211 pp.

Web site:

Restore America’s Estuaries: http://www.estuaries.org/estuarywhat.html

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Chapter3Planning and Maintaining a VolunteerEstuary Monitoring Program

Establishing goals, objectives, timelines, and strategies are important steps in

creating an estuary monitoring program. People starting a monitoring program must

also face questions about liability and other risk management issues. Another

important component to a successful program is ongoing financial support. Finally,

the program should be promoted regularly throughout the community.

Photos (l to r): G. Carver, K. Register, PhotoDisc, K. Register

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Chapter 3: Planning and Maintaining a Volunteer Estuary Monitoring Program

Volunteer data contributes in many important ways to our understanding of the

magnitude and extent of estuarine impairment. Therefore, it is important to ensure

that a volunteer monitoring program is effectively and efficiently designed.

Planning, implementing, and maintaining a volunteer monitoring program requires

organization, time, resources, and dedication. However, the payoffs can be great.

A well-organized, properly maintained volunteer monitoring program can yield

credible water quality data that will enhance capabilities to identify problems,

assess trends, and find solutions to water quality problems. The basic ingredients

for success are outlined in this chapter.

Establishing goals, objectives, timelines, and strategies are important steps in

creating an estuary monitoring program. People starting a monitoring program

must also face questions about liability and other risk management issues. Another

important component to a successful program is ongoing financial support.

Finally, the program should be promoted regularly throughout the community. All

of these topics are reviewed in this chapter.

Overview

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Benefits of PartneringPartnering with data users when planning a monitoring project has several benefits. Examples areprovided below:

• Their input on sampling parameters and methodologies will improve the likelihood that theywill accept and use your data.

• The participation of regulatory agencies in the process will better ensure that they will beresponsive to potential problems identified by the data.

• They can guide data management practices to maximize their access to the data (e.g., usingcompatible databases, reporting methods, etc.).

• They can help interpret the data.

No step is more critical in the planningprocess than establishing the goal or goals ofyour estuary monitoring program. Every phasethat follows will depend upon this initial deci-sion. These all-important goals are best deter-mined by the people who will be using the vol-unteer data. Once the program is established,volunteers can also help shape future goals. So,the first step is to identify the people and orga-nizations that will use your data.

Identifying Data Uses and Users The best-designed volunteer monitoring pro-

grams always begin with a clear understandingof how the data will be used (see Chapter 5 formore information). Potential data users shouldbe identified and asked to serve on the project’splanning committee. This committee will devel-op and articulate a clear purpose for the use ofthe data. The committee should include mem-bers of the scientific research community, localand regional officials who will play a part inresource policymaking, representatives of othermonitoring groups, and citizen leaders who arepotential volunteer monitors or who representgroups from which volunteers will be recruited.

Determining Goals and Planning for Quality

In addition to understanding who will use thevolunteer data, the broad overall goals for the

program should be determined. Is the primarygoal to collect data that will supplement gov-ernment monitoring? Or is the main goal of theprogram to educate the public? For a list ofcommon program goals, see page 3-5.

Determining the goals of the program goeshand-in-hand with creating a plan that candeliver the level of data needed. As you will seein Chapter 5, many of these early decisions willplay a critical role in developing a qualityassurance project plan (QAPP). This plan con-tains details on all the methods you expect yourvolunteers to use. Careful planning ensures thatyour data will be consistent and of the desiredlevel of quality.

The perception that amateurs cannot collectgood quality data is the most common reasonprofessional water quality managers decline totake advantage of volunteers as a resource.However, by preparing a QAPPand adhering toits elements, your volunteers will produce “dataof known quality” that meet the stated dataquality objectives of your program.

After establishing primary goals, the plan-ning committee should go on to answer, indetail, the following questions:

• What are the major problems and priorities in the specific estuary or sam-pling area?

Planning an effective monitoring project

Establishing Goals and Objectives

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requires that you learn everything you canabout potential monitoring sites by contactingprograms and agencies that might alreadymonitor in your area. As you identify the mostcritical problems of the estuary, include theperceptions and values of community leaders,residents, and community organizations.Selection of priorities will help you determinewhat water quality parameters you need tomonitor.

• What sampling parameters or conditionswill you monitor to characterize the statusof the estuary? What methods or protocolswill you use for collecting and analyzingsamples? How will you pick your samplingsites, and how will you identify them overtime?

An important part of developing amonitoring program is selecting monitoringsites, parameters to be monitored, and amonitoring schedule. Also, there aresometimes several different methods or

protocols that can be used to monitor eachparameter. Considerations on selecting the“what, how, where, and when” to monitor canbe found in Chapter 6.

•How large a monitoring program should beattempted?

What is the capacity of the planning com-mittee to raise funds and organize a program?Do you have the skills, staff time, financialresources, and community support needed toreach your program’s goals? If not, the plan-ning committee may need to improve its orga-nizational capacity by creating or strengtheningrelationships with community leaders, environ-mental interest groups, and community agenciessuch as local conservation districts and colleges.

Alternatively, your organization may need torevisit its goals to set something more realistic.Always keep in mind that small programs donewell are far better than larger efforts done poor-ly. Small programs that are well-run can growover time.

Prospective Users of Volunteer Data:• state environmental protection or management agencies

• state conservation and recreation agencies

• state and local health departments

• water quality analysts

• land use planners

• fisheries biologists

• environmental engineers

• educational institutions, including elementary, middle, and high schools

• state, regional, and local park staff

• local government planning and zoning agencies

• university researchers

• environmental groups

• soil and water conservation districts

• U.S. Geological Survey

• U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

• National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

• Soil Conservation Service

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• How will volunteers be recruited and trained,and how often will they receive refreshercourses?

As you develop your new estuary monitoringprogram, you will need to determine who willrecruit and train the volunteers. The initial train-ing of the volunteers is a crucial part of devel-oping a water quality monitoring program.Without such training, usable, high-quality datacannot be obtained, and volunteers will soongrow frustrated. In addition to initial training,refresher courses for volunteers should beplanned. Some practical considerations on suc-cessfully recruiting, training, and retaining vol-unteers can be found in Chapter 4.

• How will you manage your data and ensure that your data are credible? How will the results of the program be presented?

Understanding how the data will be used willlead you to answers about how the data will bemanaged and how reports will be generated tobest fit users’needs. Choosing a data manage-ment approach early on in program develop-ment is critical if the hard work of the volun-teers is to be meaningful. To take informationfrom data sheets and convert it to somethingthat makes sense to your audience requires sev-eral elements, which are summarized inChapter 8.

Not only is it important to manage and pre-sent data according to users’needs, but everyvolunteer monitoring group should also addressearly in the planning process how the dataanalysis will be communicated back to the vol-

unteers, who should see the tangible benefits oftheir work. This requires planning, since thedata may need to be summarized and somegeneral conclusions prepared for a non-techni-cal audience. Chapter 5 provides more informa-tion on this topic.

• How should the program be evaluated? Whatoutcomes will you measure to determine ifyour program is“successful”?

Success, especially at the beginning of a pro-ject, can be measured in many ways. The firsttime your volunteers take to the field and col-lect samples can rightfully be considered a suc-cess. Proving that it can be done is an extreme-ly important step. Later, success may be mea-sured by whether your data is used in local landuse decisions or leads to actions that improvethe health of the estuary.

Ongoing evaluation of the program is critical.The planning committee should meet periodi-cally to evaluate the program, update objec-tives, and refine the monitoring process. Youmay decide to improve on sampling techniques,site selection, lab procedures, or any of theother elements of your monitoring projectdesign. These periodic reviews should helpensure that the volunteer monitoring programwill continue to produce high quality and usefuldata for those who require information concern-ing the estuary.

Be sure to document the important contribu-tions of the monitoring group to communityleaders, legislative bodies, and the community.This may help establish program credibilitywith funders and aid volunteer recruitmentefforts. ■

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Common Goals of Citizen Monitoring Programs:• To supplement water quality data collected by professional staff in water quality agencies and scientific institutions.

• To educate the public about water quality issues.

• To build a constituency of citizens to practice sound water quality management at a local level and build publicsupport of water quality protection.

• To obtain data from remote areas during storms or during unique events in the watershed.

• To increase awareness about a problem in the estuary, such as the documentation of illegal discharges into the water.

• To establish baseline conditions where no prior information exists.

• To determine water quality changes through time.

• To identify current and emerging problems, such as pollution sources, habitat loss, or the presence of non-indigenous species.

Designing a Data Collection FormMost monitoring data, including those collected by volunteer programs, are stored and managed by computer. Data usersand the database manager should be involved in the development of the data collection form to be sure that it clearlyidentifies the information to be collected and that the information can be easily and accurately entered into the database.Consideration should also be given to the ease with which the form can be filled out and understood by the volunteers.

Several suggestions for consideration when developing a data collection form are as follows:

• Print the form on waterproof paper, if possible.

• Keep it simple for volunteers to fill out.

• If many of your volunteers are over 40 years of age, consider using larger type sizes (12 point and larger).

• If possible, keep your data form to one side of an 8 1/2” x 11” piece of paper so that it can fit on a clipboard.

• Ask your volunteers for input on how the form can be improved.

• Remind volunteers that pencils are best when filling out the forms.

• Always include the full address and contact phone numbers of your program.

• On the back of the form, include:

– emergency phone number and notes about safety;

– a chart showing the expected ranges for each parameter that is tested (this can help volunteers verify that they are usingthe monitoring equipment correctly or determine whether their chemicals need to be examined for accuracy);

– steps to remember for collecting the sample or data; and

– an identification key of organisms (e.g., phytoplankton, SAV or macroinvertebrates).

• Specify on the form what units should be reported with the data. For example, if Secchi depth is measured incentimeters, then put “cm” on the line where volunteers write their Secchi depth data.

• Include on the data form any equations needed to convert measurements. This will minimize the chance of error.

• Put a reminder that a value of zero should not be reported. Remind volunteers to report the value as less than thelowest value that can be read with the equipment (Miller, 1995). For example, if the range of a test is 0-1 mg/l, thesmallest increment is 0.01 mg/l, and the test result is zero, report the value as “less than 0.01 mg/l” or “<0.01 mg/l.”

Appendix A contains several examples of data forms.

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Questions of insurance, safety, and liabilityare always important considerations whenstarting any program that will placevolunteers in the field. Insurance issues arerarely the favorite topic of volunteermonitoring programs. In fact, many programsmay not be fully aware of what theirinsurance policies cover. Some may not evenhave liability insurance.

If people are confused about issues ofinsurance, safety, and liability (collectivelytermed risk management), there is goodreason; this whole field is a tangle. To makematters worse, laws differ dramatically fromstate to state. For example, the interpretationand validity of waivers depends to a largedegree on what state you are in. Workers’compensation is another case in point: somestates allow volunteers to be covered whileothers do not.

So, what is a volunteer monitoringorganization to do? The following sectionsoffer answers to some of the most commonquestions. This is basic information; volunteergroups are encouraged to seek legal adviceregarding any risk management issues.

Liability Insurance Liability insurance protects you if you are

sued. The most common type is “generalliability,” which covers most bodily injuryand property damage claims. A liability policycovering an organization does not necessarilycover its volunteers in case they are suedpersonally. You can get your organization’sliability coverage extended to your volunteers,but beware: once volunteers are added to thelist of insured, they are excluded fromcollecting medical benefits under the policy ifthey are injured. A general liability contractprotects the organization against claimsbrought by a third party, and once a volunteeris listed as an “insured” he or she is no longera third party. In other words, you cannot sueyourself for damages.

Individual volunteers can also get liability

coverage under their own homeowners’policies. It is especially important for each ofyour organization’s board of directors to dothis, since by law they can be held personallyliable for damages caused by the organization.Note, however, that most homeowners’policies do not provide protection if someonesues you for a purely financial loss.

Injuries to Volunteers How can you protect your volunteers in

case they are injured “on the job”? In somestates, volunteers can be covered by workers’compensation; call your state Department ofEmployment for information about applicablelaws and the cost of covering volunteers. Ifworkers’compensation is unavailable or veryexpensive, your organization may want to buya separate accident and injury policy forvolunteers. For a “supplemental” policy (onethat takes effect only after the individual’sown medical coverage is exhausted), the costis usually only a few dollars per year pervolunteer. Another option is to includevolunteers in the medical payments portion ofyour general liability policy; however, thedollar amount of medical coverage in suchpolicies is usually fairly limited.

Insurance Through Partnering Teaming up with a partner who has good

coverage is popular among volunteermonitoring groups. In some cases, volunteerssign a partner’s form, after which they arecovered by workers’compensation. This iseasier and less expensive to do in some states.

For programs associated with a university,participants may be considered universityvolunteers and covered by the university’sinsurance policy. Student monitors may alsobe organized under a larger umbrellaorganization that affords coverage. The BoyScouts of America, for example, has adivision known as Explorer Posts, whichallow boys and girls to participate. Each Post

Insurance, Safety, and Liability—Risk Management

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focuses on a specific activity (in this case, thewater monitoring project). The group mustabide by all Explorer Post regulations, andparticipants are eligible for low-cost insurancecoverage through the Boy Scouts.

Waivers A carefully worded waiver can protect you if

you are sued for negligent (unintentional) acts.Waivers are best suited for adults; those signedby minors (persons under 18) usually do nothold up in court.

It is important to make sure your waiverclearly spells out all the risks involved in anactivity. Because states interpret waivers differ-ently, it is impossible to design a standard formthat can be used in all jurisdictions. Consult alawyer for the best wording to use in your state.

Risk Reduction Prevention, as always, is the best medicine.

Volunteers should be trained to look for andavoid hazards at sampling sites, to use thebuddy system, and to take appropriate precau-tions when handling chemical reagents. Aboveall, monitoring groups should stress that volun-teer safety is always more important than thedata and that volunteers should never put them-selves at risk to obtain a measurement. SeeChapter 7 for a discussion of volunteer safety.

Equipment InsuranceVolunteer groups may also wish to consider

insuring their monitoring equipment for damage.This is especially true for expensive gear. ■

Paying for the Program—The Financial Side

Volunteer monitoring is cost-effective, butnot free. Depending on the equipment andmonitoring methods you choose, outfitting ateam of monitors can cost several hundreds orthousands of dollars. Paying a salary (eitherpart- or full-time) to one or more volunteercoordinators is also a critical component tomany water quality monitoring programs.Dedicated staff members are needed to ensureprogram continuity, train volunteers, managedata, and ensure that data quality goals arebeing met. The following sections offerguidelines for finding the funds that will helpyour program to grow and flourish.

Funding SourcesFundraising is an important component of

running a successful volunteer monitoringprogram. Without funding to cover programcosts, a program simply could not exist. Theprincipal sources of funding for volunteermonitoring programs are government fundsand private contributions.

Government Funds and Support

Federal grants are sometimes available topublic or nonprofit non-governmentalorganizations to initiate and maintain citizenmonitoring programs. Usually, these funds aredistributed through grants given by the state.National Estuary Programs are eligible forcombined federal and state funds to supportresearch and public participation projects thatcan include volunteer monitoring. Somefederal funding for volunteer monitoringprograms is also routed to state universitiesfrom the National Oceanic and AtmosphericAdministration (NOAA) Sea Grant Programand the Coastal Zone Management Program.

State and local funding sources may alsoexist to implement and maintain volunteermonitoring programs. Some state funding isdistributed only to state agencies, while otherprograms provide funding to private organiza-tions. Call your state and local agencies thatare responsible for water quality, coastal,and/or environmental management to learn

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about resources and support they offer to volun-teer monitoring programs.

States vary in the amount of support theyoffer to volunteer monitoring programs. Forexample, in Oregon, interested citizens aretrained in water quality monitoring techniquesby the Oregon Department of EnvironmentalQuality and supplied with all necessary equip-ment. Alabama has an extensive statewide mon-itoring effort that offers training, equipment,and quality assurance procedures throughAlabama Water Watch, which is supported bystate and federal funds. Other states may notprovide equipment, but offer valuable assis-tance in developing quality assurance projectplans and in selecting monitoring sites.

Private Funds and Support

Private contributions to fund your programcan come from corporate sponsorships, founda-tion grants, individual contributions, fundraisingevents, civic organizations, board members, andeven the program volunteers.

Foundations

Grants from foundations are very importantfor volunteer monitoring programs throughoutthe United States, and many resources listsources of foundation grants.

A great way to begin your funding search isby visiting Web sites. One site run by TheFoundation Center (http://fdncenter.org/) com-piles information on more than 37,500 activeU.S. private foundations and corporate givingprograms. This resource, and others like it, canhelp you identify appropriate funders. Ask yourlocal library or university if they have directo-ries of foundations that you can review. Be sureto read the description of each foundation care-fully to learn if their funding goals are a goodmatch for your program.

Check also to see if your state has a nonprofitstatewide organization devoted to water qualityor environmental issues. Many of these organi-zations provide research grants and offer fund-ing that is available only within the state.

What’s in a Budget?Budgets for volunteer water quality monitoring programs include some or all of thefollowing:

• staff salaries and fringe benefits;

• equipment and refilling chemical supplies;

• laboratory analysis;

• office overhead (phone, postage, duplicating, etc.);

• data management (software program, data entry, storage and retrieval);

• data analysis (including cost of a statistical software package);

• travel expenses (to train volunteers, perform quality assurance checks, attend local andregional conferences, and promote the program);

• printing costs for annual reports and newsletters; and

• other expenses (conferences, Web site maintenance, etc.).

(Adapted from USEPA, 1990.)

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Local Sponsors

To find the initial funding that is needed tostart a volunteer monitoring project, manygroups also seek local supporters to underwritepostage, printing, and equipment purchases.The first step in this process is to identifypotential donors through research. Talk to theleaders of other local nonprofits and ask themabout their supporters. While some nonprofitsmay not want to let you know where they gettheir funding, others will be willing to give youhelpful sources. Make a list of all the people,local businesses, and other organizations thatshare an interest in the water quality of the estu-ary.

Prepare a brief, focused statement outliningwhat the volunteer estuary monitoring programhopes to accomplish. Make appointments tomeet with prospective supporters, and let themknow how their support will benefit the com-munity. Ask for a specific amount of funding.Corporations have to be convinced that part oftheir advertising budget should be spent onyour program, so be sure to let them know howyou will acknowledge their support.

Keep in mind that local sponsors may fundwhat is important to them and their employees.If their employees can and want to participatein the project, the employer is more likely tohelp fund the project.

Special Events

Another fundraising strategy is to plan a spe-cial event. In addition to raising funds, thisapproach can generate publicity about your vol-unteer monitoring program, help educate thecitizens in the estuary watershed, and recruitnew volunteers. In fact, many events may focusless on fundraising than on gathering new sup-porters.

Special events can take a great deal of effortto plan, so be sure this goal is achievable. Somespecial event ideas include: a concert on abeach, a festival or fair, a dinner with a guestspeaker, or an auction of donated items. Localbusinesses, newspapers, and radio stations areimportant partners to line up early in the plan-

ning process. The publicity offered by localmedia will help ensure good attendance foryour event (see “Promoting the Program—Working with the Media” in this chapter formore information). Also consider “tagging”your fundraising event onto an established com-munity event. For example, if your communityhas an annual festival, your group could planone aspect of the festival and keep the pro-ceeds.

Board Members

In addition to contributing time, professionalknowledge, and expertise, the board membersof some volunteer organizations are alsoresponsible for giving and getting financial sup-port. If your program decides to have a boardand if fundraising is to be one of the boardresponsibilities, prospective board membersneed to understand this expectation.

Membership Support

There are pros and cons to having a dues-paying membership as part of your monitoringprogram. On one hand, the people who livenear the estuary and in its watershed are ofteninterested in the water quality data that will begenerated; as a result, they may be willing tohelp financially support your volunteer moni-toring program. But maintaining membershiprecords will take time and effort on the part ofprogram staff. All donors must be thankedpromptly, and records must be kept so thatmembers can be billed when their membershipshave expired. Members will also expect to bekept informed of program accomplishments,which might require the development of anewsletter or Web site.

In-Kind Donations

Many people and companies cannot con-tribute cash to your program, but would be will-ing and able to lend their support with in-kindgifts. In-kind donations of goods and servicescan offer tremendous support to a volunteermonitoring program. A graphic designer candonate time and expertise to develop a

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brochure. A local printer or truck company candonate printing or hauling services. Individualvolunteers can also assist with other non-moni-toring activities, such as fundraising, writingpress releases, educating the public, and doingadministrative work.

Other volunteer monitoring programs can beanother source of valuable support. Severalnon-government organizations around the U.S.conduct volunteer estuary monitoring (see Elyand Hamingson, 1998), and have gained knowl-edge and skills that they can share with newerprograms. Conversations with these other envi-ronmental, school, community, and civic groupscan greatly shorten your learning curve.

Writing a Successful ProposalWhen writing a funding proposal, make your

project sound exciting and focus the projectdescription so that it appeals to the funder.Written proposals are sometimes the onlyopportunity you will have to present your pro-gram to funders. It is your chance to show themthat your organization is credible, has a strongstructure, and will be a valuable asset. Fundersneed to be convinced that your program will besuccessful and worth the investment. They wantto feel as if they will be part of a successfulproject that will lead to tangible results.

Make sure that the proposal is professional

and complete, and that it “sells” the importanceof the project. A successful proposal shouldcontain the following:

• cover letter (brief summary of the project,amount of funding requested, signature oftop staffer, and contact person’s name andphone number);

• introduction (description of organization,mission, population served, why yourorganization is best suited to do the pro-ject);

• project goal (and how it fits in with yourmission);

• project objectives (specific measurablesteps to meet the goal);

• request (specific dollar amount requested); and

• expected results.

When presenting a funding proposal:

• read the foundation’s or grant’s guidelinescarefully and follow them exactly;

• ask for the right amount (know the foun-dation’s limits);

• be succinct;

• do not misrepresent a “partnership” orexaggerate any aspect of your goals; and

Fundraising Is About Relationships To develop funding, develop relationships. Fundraising is a long-term process; you need tobuild a relationship that benefits all involved. Establishing relationships with multiple funderswill help you to ensure that you are not too dependent on one funding source.

After identifying funding sources, make personal contact with them. Call the contact person ata funding organization and ask a few questions about how your proposal can be targeted tothe organization’s funding goals. Your best chance to receive funding will be fromorganizations whose philanthropic philosophies match your program goals. For example, ifpotential funders are mainly interested in education, then highlight the educational aspects ofyour water quality monitoring project.

In order to survive as an economic entity, integrate fundraising into everything you do as anorganization. Your program volunteers can also be valuable fundraising assets, as they canpromote the program with others in the community.

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• highlight the expertise that the programleaders bring.

It is critical to make your issue relevant andunderstandable to funders. Be careful to uselayperson’s terms in your writing, and do notassume that the person reading your proposalknows acronyms or technical terms. After youhave written your proposal, ask someone whois unfamiliar with your program’s goals to readthe proposal. If your reader is unclear about anyaspects of your proposal, your prospective fun-der will likely be unclear as well; a rewrite isnecessary.

Keep Funders Happy!No matter what your source of funding, it isimportant to keep your supporters happy!Remember: The same people who makedecisions to support your program need tofeel that their support is appreciated.

Be sure to acknowledge and thank your fun-ders every time they provide any support.Keep them informed about the progress ofthe program and invite them to attend yourreceptions, banquets, workshops, trainingsessions, or demonstrations. Companies,foundations, and individuals often hope toincrease their visibility within the communi-ty in return for their cash or in-kind dona-tion. You can acknowledge their support byincluding their names and/or logos in pressreleases, brochures, reports, or even T-shirtsmade for the volunteer monitors. Make sureto get approval from the funders beforeusing their names or logos; some donors pre-fer to remain anonymous.

Forming PartnershipsBeing part of a partnership with other organi-

zations can help your chances of getting agrant. Funders like to see that your program isin a partnership, as this shows that your pro-gram is supported by others in the community.Partnerships also convey that the expertise ofmany people will be contributing to the pro-

gram. Many foundations like regional effortsand prefer to make larger grants, so partneringwith other groups to make joint applications isvery beneficial.

Some funders require nonprofit tax status[called 501(c)3 status] from the InternalRevenue Service. Obtaining this tax status is animportant step for a nonprofit group, but theprocess can be lengthy and requires a fee of upto $500. If you do not have this tax status, thenmaybe you can partner with a group that doeshave it.

Partnerships have additional benefits. A vol-unteer program should look for other groups inthe area doing similar projects in adjacent orcomplimentary waterways. Partnering withthese groups could lead to cost savings on sup-plies (buying in bulk is cheaper than buying insmall volumes) or hiring consultants or staff(one person could work on several projects).

Your monitoring program can also gainstrength by taking advantage of opportunitiesprovided by government agencies. Severalagencies are involved in volunteer estuary mon-itoring on the federal, state, and local levels.Federal agencies, such as the U.S.Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), sup-port volunteer monitoring by sponsoring sym-posia on volunteer monitoring, publishingnewsletters, and developing guidance manuals(see references at the end of each chapter and inAppendix B).

Another federal program interested in assist-ing volunteer monitoring programs is theNational Estuarine Research Reserve System(NERRS), which is administered by theNational Oceanic and AtmosphericAdministration (NOAA). Also, learn if yourestuary is part of the National Estuary Program(NEP). This program, administered by the EPA,targets a broad range of estuary-related issuesand engages local communities in the process.NEPs work with volunteer groups and federaland state agencies to gather critical data abouttheir estuary. Many NEPs host informationalworkshops for volunteer monitors and supportvolunteer groups in other ways. ■

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Now that you have clearly established theprimary goal or goals and know the programpriorities, your challenge is to meet your objec-tives by focusing your resources and mobilizingthe community. Publicizing a volunteer moni-toring program through the television, radio, ornewspaper media is an effective, cost-efficientmethod to reach citizens in the watershed. Therewards of successful press coverage can behigh as the public will learn about the estuaryand the efforts of your group.

Working with the media requires logisticalplanning. Create a communications strategythat is an integral part of the monitoring pro-gram; make communications a priority andallow time to prepare press releases and meetpress contacts.

People are interested in reading or hearingabout their local environment—it is a quality-of-life issue to readers. Yet getting the press topay attention to a volunteer monitoring programis sometimes a challenge. Reporters look for the“big story,” but many of our current environ-mental woes are accumulative problems fromwhat we do on a daily basis and have done foryears. Onetime specific events, such as a seweroverflow, will usually receive coverage and canbe good opportunities to include informationabout the bigger problems of water pollution.

Many reporters want to write about communitygroups and environmental issues, but their firstand most pressing concerns are breaking news.

Press ReleasesTo help get the word out about your

program, press releases are priceless! A pressrelease is a one- or two-page document thatinforms newspaper and electronic mediaabout your program and its goals, findings,upcoming events, need for volunteers, andother topics of interest. Writing one pressrelease and sending it to many local newsoutlets is a cost-efficient and effective methodto inform the community about your program.

As you write a press release, know whatyou want to say, whom you want to reach,and what you want the reader or viewer to“take away.” Think about why the health ofthe estuary is important to the readers orviewers.

To increase chances of getting an article ina newspaper, do your best to write the storyfor the reporter. A well-written press releasestands a better chance of getting publishedwithout many modifications, thereby reducingthe likelihood that your message getspresented incorrectly. You have to anticipate

Promoting the Program—Working with the Media

Some Funding ChallengesMany funders insist that all grants go toward direct project expenses and will not allow anymoney to go to administrative or overhead costs (e.g., rent, phone bills, electricity). This restric-tion can be a challenge, given that there are administrative overhead costs associated with run-ning any program. There are other terms you can use in your budget instead of “administrative”;for example, you may use phrases like “contacting volunteers” and “program developmentcosts” to cover some phone calls, photocopying, etc. Developing a partnership with other like-minded groups can also help defray some of these overhead costs.

Some grants are paid on a reimbursement basis. For new monitoring groups, this necessitatesfinding a source of money to pay the bills while waiting for the reimbursements.

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how the press would present the topic. Framethe issue the way a journalist would, andthink about what would be their lead. Give tothe press the “who, what, where, when, why,and how.” Remember: You often have toeducate reporters and inform them why theyshould care about your issue.

Make it easy for reporters to contact you ifthey have questions or want to interview you.At the top of the press release, provide acontact person for the press to call for moreinformation. You may also want to include atthe end of the press release a contact nameand number for the public to use (this may bea different number from the press contact).

The timing of press releases is important.Press releases are best sent to newspapersabout two weeks before the event to allowphotographers and writers to be scheduled.Television stations should receive your pressrelease one to two weeks prior to the event. Itis best to mail or fax press releases, then callthe reporter to see if he or she has any follow-up questions. Take time to call reporters andgive them “background” information aboutyour organization.

When writing a press release, it helps tohave a bold, recognizable masthead on yourstationery. For other professional touches,contact a local advertising agency to learn if itwould donate the time of its professional staffto assist you. Also, check with your locallibrary for books with specific examples ofmodel press releases.

Press ConferencesA press conference should be

an organized event that hasbeen well thought out anddelivers specific news. In otherwords, press conferences musthave substance. If yourprogram has discovered anissue that is of interest to thecommunity or if findings fromyour volunteer monitors haveled to a significant event, holda press conference. For goodvisuals, invite the press tocover a real activity (not aposed shot) and let volunteersknow that they will bephotographed. Also, preparegood charts or graphics toshow the data you havecollected. Local maps showing waterconditions are also effective. Pressconferences that merely announce upcomingevents are seldom attended by busy reporters,and if the reporters show up and aredisappointed by the lack of content, they maynot come again to more “worthy” pressconferences.

The timing and location for a pressconference are important. Early in the day ispreferred, as it allows plenty of time for TVstations to edit the tape before the noon andevening news broadcasts. Choose a place thathas good visuals, such as a location along awaterbody that you have been studying or atyour headquarters where volunteers can beshown working in the background. ■

When working with the media, always beprepared for an interview. Have yourfacts together and use humor, analogies,and inspiration whenever possible (photoby PhotoDisc).

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• Develop long-term professional and personal relationships with reporters, editors, andproducers at your local news stations and newspapers. Reporters value contacts withreliable, credible non-government groups like volunteer monitoring programs.

• Write a short fact sheet about your program.

• Create media materials that are clear, concise, and understandable to the general public.Edit and format materials so that reporters under deadline can read them quickly andeasily.

• Localize. Make the issues into stories that address the local community.

• Use humor, analogies, and inspiration in your interviews.

• Include graphics, charts, and visuals, which draw the attention of reporters.

• Highlight citizen and student involvement.

• People are more interesting than facts, and animals are more interesting than people. Useanimals, protesting citizens, or interested students as a “hook” with the press.

• Write a short summary of your group’s findings (two pages with one visual aid) and sendit out with a press release.

• If a reporter wants information over the phone, ask if you can return the call in fiveminutes. Take those five minutes to write down the major points you want to make, thencall the reporter back. This way, you will be focused on the two or three most importantpoints you want to make in the interview.

• Know reporters’deadlines. They tend to be busiest in the afternoon trying to meetdeadlines, so call them in the morning.

• Always cover the important details: who, what, when, where, why, and how.

• Give good directions to the event or field site.

• Explain the topic in simple terms. Avoid terms like “nonpoint source pollution”; instead,show how people and animals will be impacted.

• Be flexible in scheduling the media. Understand that “late-breaking” stories may requireyou to reschedule an interview.

• Designate spokespeople and have them practice their communication skills.

• Always say the full name of your organization—not an acronym. In fact, avoid usingacronyms altogether, since most people are unfamiliar with them and will not understandwhat you are talking about.

• Remember that television stations have broader geographical areas of interest thannewspapers.

• Plan to have interesting visuals, an articulate spokesperson, and video to illustrate apoint. These are required if you want to get television coverage.

Tips for Working Successfully with the Media:

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Ely, E. 1996. “Are You Covered?” The Volunteer Monitor8(1).

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1997. Volunteer Stream Monitoring: AMethods Manual. EPA 841-B-97-003. November. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 211 pp.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1990. Volunteer Water Monitoring: A Guidefor State Managers. EPA 440/4-90-010. August. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 78 pp.

Other references:

Chabot, W. 1999. “Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: Media, Outreach, Publicity.” In: MeetingNotes—U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation(CMC) workshop: Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: Wave of the Future. San Pedro, CA:February 22-24, 1999.

Courtmance, A. 1999. “Fundraising.” In: Meeting Notes—U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop:Volunteer EstuaryMonitoring: Wave of the Future.Toms River, NJ: April 14-16, 1999.

Ellett, K. 1993. Introduction to Water Quality Monitoring Using Volunteers. 2nd ed. Alliance forthe Chesapeake Bay. Baltimore, MD. 26 pp.

Ely, E. and E. Hamingson. 1998. National Directory of Volunteer Environmental MonitoringPrograms.5th ed. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Wetland, Oceans, andWatersheds. EPA-841-B-98-009. Web site: http://yosemite.epa.gov/water/volmon.nsf.

Finch, B. 1999. “Media, Outreach, Publicity.” In: Meeting Notes—U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: VolunteerEstuary Monitoring: Wave of the Future. Mobile, AL: March 17-19, 1999.

Fritz, P. 1999. “Fundraising.” In: Meeting Notes—U.S. Environmental Protection Agency(USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: Volunteer Estuary Monitoring:Wave of the Future. Toms River, NJ: April 14-16, 1999.

Hines, M. 1999. “Media, Outreach, Publicity.” In: Meeting Notes—U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: VolunteerEstuary Monitoring: Wave of the Future. Astoria, OR: May 19-21, 1999.

Hubbard, M. 1999. “Media, Outreach, Publicity.” In: Meeting Notes—U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: VolunteerEstuary Monitoring: Wave of the Future. Astoria, OR: May 19-21, 1999.

Jordan, B. 1999. “Media, Outreach, Publicity.” In: Meeting Notes—U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: VolunteerEstuary Monitoring: Wave of the Future. Mobile, AL: March 17-19, 1999.

Larson, J. 1999. “Fundraising.” In: Meeting Notes—U.S. Environmental Protection Agency(USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: Volunteer Estuary Monitoring:Wave of the Future. Toms River, NJ: April 14-16, 1999.


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Moore, K. 1999. “Media, Outreach, Publicity.” In: Meeting Notes—U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: VolunteerEstuary Monitoring: Wave of the Future. Toms River, NJ: April 14-16, 1999.

Rodgers, E. 1999. “Media, Outreach, Publicity.” In: Meeting Notes—U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: VolunteerEstuary Monitoring: Wave of the Future. Toms River, NJ: April 14-16, 1999.

Steiner Blore, V. 1999. “Fundraising.” In: Meeting Notes—U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: Volunteer EstuaryMonitoring: Wave of the Future. Astoria, OR: May 19-21, 1999.

Sterling, J. 1999. “Fundraising.” In: Meeting Notes—U.S. Environmental Protection Agency(USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: Volunteer Estuary Monitoring:Wave of the Future. San Pedro, CA: February 22-24, 1999.

Tamminen, T. 1999. “Fundraising.” In: Meeting Notes—U.S. Environmental Protection Agency(USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: Volunteer Estuary Monitoring:Wave of the Future. San Pedro, CA: February 22-24, 1999.

Thompson, D. 1999. “Fundraising.” In: Meeting Notes—U.S. Environmental Protection Agency(USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: Volunteer Estuary Monitoring:Wave of the Future. Astoria, OR: May 19-21, 1999.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (USEPA) 1991. Volunteer Lake Monitoring: A MethodsManual. EPA 440/4-91-002. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 121 pp.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (USEPA) 1992. Proceedings of Third National Citizens’Volunteer Water Monitoring Conference. EPA 841-R-92-004. Washington, DC. 183 pp.

Web sites:

Fundraising Information

Catalogue of Federal Domestic Assistance: http://www.gsa.gov/fdac

Environmental Grantmaking Foundations—Resources for Global Sustainability:http://www.environmentalgrants.com

The Foundation Center: http://www.fdncenter.org/. Phone: 212-620-4230.

Foundations and Grantmakers Directory: http://www.foundations.org/grantmakers.html

GrantsNet: http://www.hhs.gov/grantsnet

River Network: http://www.rivernetwork.org/library/libsou.cfm

Chapter4Recruiting, Training, and RetainingVolunteers

Volunteers are the basic ingredient of a successful volunteer monitoring program.

These citizens bring more than just manpower to the monitoring program—they

also bring a passion to understand, protect, and/or restore the estuary. Trained

volunteers can serve an irreplaceable role as community educators as they

conduct their monitoring duties and share their knowledge with others.

Photos (l to r): K. Register, E. Ely, R. Ohrel, The Ocean Conservancy

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Chapter 4: Recruiting, Training, and Retaining Volunteers

Not surprisingly, volunteers are the basic ingredient of a successful volunteer

monitoring program. These citizens bring more than just manpower to the

monitoring program—they also bring a passion to understand, protect, and/or

restore the estuary. Trained volunteers can serve an irreplaceable role as

community educators as they conduct their monitoring duties and share their

knowledge with others.

Although states monitor water quality and other environmental parameters of

estuaries, there are limits to the coverage they can provide. Volunteers can

supplement this work by monitoring in areas where officials are not sampling.

State officials can then use this information to screen for areas of possible

contamination, habitat loss, or other conditions that impact the health of the

estuary.

This chapter discusses how to recruit, train, and retain top-notch volunteers.

Overview

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As you recruit volunteers, it is helpful tounderstand what motivates people to donatetheir time and energy to a volunteer effort.Citizens may commit not only because oftheir conviction in the merits of the cause, butalso because they will personally benefit fromthe experience. Many people volunteer forservice reasons; they believe in the cause andwant to help. Others hope for new friendshipsand enjoy the social interaction with like-minded individuals. People are also interestedin personal and career growth, and enjoymeaningful work that gives them new skillsand knowledge.

In addition to reasons why people initiallyvolunteer for a project, there are importantreasons why they continue with the programyear after year—recognition, respect, and asense of accomplishment. Volunteers mustfeel that their efforts are appreciated andrecognized, that the group respects their skills,and that their work produces results. Keepthese motivational factors in mind as youcreate your recruitment materials and as youdevelop a plan to recognize the efforts oflong-term volunteers.

Before you recruit volunteers, you must firstknow how many the program requires in its“start-up” phase. For example, if you haveenough monitoring equipment for 10 teams ofvolunteers and each team is to be comprised of2 or 3 people, then your recruitment goalshould be 20 to 30 volunteers. Some programsstart with a small number of people who areinvited personally to serve as volunteermonitors. Later, as the program grows andneeds more assistance, all interested citizenscan be invited to join the effort.

A first step in finding volunteers is toidentify all organizations and individuals inthe area who might want to participate in theproject. Likely groups include civic associa-tions, watershed associations, environmentaladvocacy groups, and government agencies.Individuals interested in volunteering mightbe waterfront property owners or commercial

and recreational users of the estuary. Retiredcitizens and disabled individuals can makeoutstanding volunteers. Schools in thewatershed are also potential sources ofvolunteers. Speak with teachers at localelementary, middle, and high schools,community colleges, and universities.

Strive to recruit volunteers from a widerange of backgrounds. This diversity helpsestablish the credibility of the program,ensures cooperation within the community,and provides the bonus of educating a greatervariety of citizens in the community.

Certain types of individuals or groups maybe more suitable than others for yourparticular project. If a primary goal of yourmonitoring program is education, thenintegrating students and youth groups intoyour program will help meet that goal.However, if your goal is year-round datacollection using expensive and preciseequipment, retired citizens may be moresuitable and reliable. Some programs report afailure to integrate students and youth groupsinto long-term monitoring programs becauseof the commitment required and the need forsummertime sampling.

Many towns and cities have volunteercenters or “hotlines” which serve to connectpotential volunteers with programs. Inquirewith towns located within the monitoring areato see if such volunteer centers exist. Otherways to reach potential volunteers are throughyour program Web site or sites managed bylocal communities. Local newspapers oftenwill publish a “call for volunteers” as acommunity service.

A press release to local newspapers is aneffective method to let the public know ofyour need for volunteers. See Chapter 3 forinformation on working with the media topublicize your program and its need forvolunteers. An attractive brochure or flierdescribing the overall volunteer monitoringprogram can also be an effective recruitmenttool.

Recruiting Volunteers

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Whether you promote by using a pressrelease, brochure, or other method, be sure toinclude information on the objectives of theprogram and describe the benefits to thevolunteer and to the estuary. Also explainwhat will be expected of recruits. Potentialvolunteers will need to know:

• monitoring site locations;

• project duration and length ofcommitment required;

• sampling frequency;

• required equipment (e.g., car, boat,sampling gear, etc.); and

• volunteer qualifications, if any (keep inmind that setting specific volunteerqualifications will limit participation inthe program, possibly below aneffective minimum level).

Short slide presentations that describe theprogram and show some of the samplingequipment and techniques can be a veryeffective recruitment tool. This will make iteasier for potential volunteers to determine ifthey would be interested in volunteering andif they are capable of carrying out theactivities requested of them. ■

A successful monitoring program requireswell-trained volunteers. Few other aspects ofthe program are more important, so adequatetime and money should be budgeted annually.Without volunteer training, usable, high-qualitydata cannot be obtained and volunteers willsoon grow frustrated. Proper training providesthe common ground necessary for a well-designed and scientifically valid data collectioneffort. Your program’s volunteer coordinatorplays an important, key role in the success ofthe entire effort.

Training citizen volunteers is timeconsuming and demanding. Nevertheless,successful training sessions are key to a long-term and effective monitoring program. It iswell worth the effort to devote this time to thevolunteers.

Introductory training ensures that allvolunteers learn to collect and analyzesamples in a consistent manner. This trainingwill also introduce new volunteers to theprogram and its objectives, and will create apositive social climate for the volunteers.Such a climate enhances the exchange ofinformation among participants and thevolunteer coordinator. Training provides the

volunteer with the criticalinformation necessary to “do thejob right.”

Continuing education andretraining sessions, in which thevolunteer coordinator reintroducesstandard methodologies andpresents new information,equipment, data results, orinformative seminars, are alsoextremely useful. Such sessions:

• reinforce proper procedures;

• correct sloppy or imprecisetechniques;

• facilitate resolution ofequipment or logisticsproblems;

• allow volunteers to askquestions after familiarizingthemselves with the fieldtechniques;

• encourage a “team effort” attitude;

• make experienced volunteers feelintegral to the program by encouraging

Training Volunteers

A volunteer collects a sample forbacteria testing. Practicing samplingtechniques in the field is an effectiveway to reinforce what is learned inthe classroom (photo by E. Ely).

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them to supply valuable feedback to theinstructors; and

• provide educational opportunities to theparticipants.

Volunteer training can be divided into threebroad categories. Each has a differentpurpose, but together they should complementone another and make the training programwell-rounded.

The categories are:

• introductory trainingto describe theprogram, teach standard methods, andmotivate the volunteers;

• quality assurance and quality control(QA/QC) trainingto ensure consistencyand reliability of data collection; and

• motivational sessionsthat encourageinformation exchange, identifyproblems, and provide a socialatmosphere for participants.

Although the different sessions will vary incontent, the procedures necessary to presentthe material are fairly constant. Volunteertraining may be broken down into fiveseparate steps, which are described below.

Step 1: Describing the Volunteers’ DutiesPrior to citizen involvement, the program

manager must develop a detailed blueprint ofeach volunteer monitoring task. This “jobdescription” spells out in sufficient detailevery step a volunteer must complete to col-

Volunteers receive samplinginstructions aboard a boat inCalifornia’s Los Angeles River (photo by R. Ohrel).

Sample Job Description: Volunteer Monitoring CoordinatorThe Volunteer Monitoring Coordinator has the following responsibilities:

• In consultation with state agency personnel and other interested parties,determine which waterbodies and which parameters in these waterbodieswill be monitored.

• Recruit volunteers for each project. This will involve contacting interestedgroups, elected officials, and possibly businesses and industries in the area.

• Make arrangements for a place to conduct a training session and arrange atime to suit a majority of volunteer monitors. Train any volunteers who areunable to attend the training session.

• Keep in close touch with individuals at the beginning of project. Answerany questions volunteers may have. Read over each data sheet as it comesin and contact any monitors who seem to be having trouble. Send refillreagents and replacement equipment upon request.

• If required, enter all data in a suitable computer filing system. Carry outdocumentation and verification on the data. Provide plots of data tomonitors and to data users. Carry out preliminary data interpretation. (Otherstaff or volunteers may carry out these management activities. If so, thevolunteer monitoring coordinator will assume an advisory role.)

• Provide feedback to participants and data to users. This will involve writingprogress reports and articles for publication in the program newsletter.

• Plan for and carry out quality control sessions.

• Prepare quarterly reports for the sponsoring agency.

(Excerpted and adapted from USEPA, 1990.)

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lect data for each parameter. The job description standardizes the data col-

lection process and ensures that each volunteersamples in a consistent and acceptable manner.Consistency allows for comparisons of one sec-tion of an estuary to another section or betweenestuaries. Additionally, when the samplingmethods are consistent, managers can more eas-ily identify data outside the norm and evaluatewhether they result from unusual conditions orfaulty collection techniques.

There are some critical questions that need tobe answered as you create standard operatingprocedures (SOPs), or written protocols to beused by the volunteers for each parameter thatyour program will monitor. The questionsinclude what water quality parameters are to betested and what level of quality is required foreach parameter sampled. These questions arediscussed in detail in Chapters 3, 5, and 6.

Many programs provide their volunteers witha handbook or manual that has been writtenspecifically for their program and details theprogram SOPs. This written description pro-vides each volunteer with a readily availablereference that clearly describes how to samplewhile serving as a reminder of the correctmethodology. Additionally, it helps to minimizethe number of times the volunteer coordinatorhas to answer the same questions. Throughoutthe handbook, safety should be stressed (seeChapter 7 for information on volunteer safety).

The handbook should include the steps foreach sampling task. Many of the sampling pro-tocols summarized in this manual are suitableas basic task descriptions. The author of yourprogram handbook can excerpt the descriptionsfrom these chapters and embellish them withinformation unique to your program and its datacollection tools and methods. A separate proto-col should be drafted for each major parameterbeing measured.

Volunteer coordinators can also use theirhandbook to:

• recruit new volunteers;

• evaluate the ability of volunteers tocomplete the monitoring tasksaccurately; and

• assist new programsin developing theirown protocols.

Writing the monitoringtasks provides volunteercoordinators with theopportunity to fullyevaluate the job at handand improve potentiallytroublesome areas. Oncethe handbook is com-pleted, volunteer coordinators and a fewvolunteers should test and refine the protocolsunder field conditions. Volunteer coordinatorsand key volunteers should reevaluate thehandbook regularly—especially as themonitoring program expands to include moreenvironmental parameters.

Step 2: Planning the Training With a completed volunteer handbook,

training sessions can be designed. Usually,programs will find that group sessions are themost cost-effective means of training thevolunteers. In some situations, however,individual instruction may be the only feasibleoption.

Group sessions are preferred for all trainingclasses because they are generallyinexpensive, efficient, encourage interactionamong the volunteers, and foster enthusiasmfor the program. The training sessions shouldbe scheduled according to the needs andavailability of your volunteers. If yourvolunteers are mainly people who workduring the day, schedule training sessions inthe evenings or weekends. A better optionwould be to offer a variety of training timesand let your volunteers pick the time that fitsbest into their schedules.

Training sessions are also the ideal time tooutfit each new volunteer with a complete setof the required sampling equipment.Established volunteers may require additionalequipment, blank data sheets, and refills ofthe reagents for their analysis kits.

Volunteers review laboratory techniques (photoby The Ocean Conservancy).

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If each volunteer isexpected to monitor manyparameters, the instructormay need to schedule morethan one session. Too muchinformation presented at asingle session mayoverwhelm and eventuallydiscourage the volunteers.

Training volunteers forfield sampling ideally takesplace in the field. Groupfield trips, either for

advanced training or special educationalsessions, are wonderful means of motivatingvolunteers while teaching them additionalskills. Furthermore, problems that might notarise during training conditions in a classroom

may emerge under less predictable fieldconditions. Most volunteers are quiteenthusiastic about getting onto the water orseeing a new area of the estuary and theyoften approach their sampling with renewedenthusiasm after participating in a field trip.

When volunteers live over a widelyscattered area, require assistance for a specialproblem, or are unable to attend a groupsession because of work or family obligations,a volunteer coordinator may need to meetwith them individually. One-on-one training iscertainly more time consuming andexpensive, but it allows the instructor to focuson the particular problems or needs of a singlevolunteer. In return, this individual attentionmay help maintain the volunteer’s dedicationto the program.

Training Sessions A training session agenda should include:

• A presentation on goals and objectives of the project. The presentation should includethe reasons for monitoring, historical information on the estuary, the problems it faces,expected uses of the volunteer data, and how the project will benefit volunteers, thecommunity, and the state. Let volunteers know how the monitoring program will makedifferences in the region and throughout the watershed.

• A review of what is expected of the participants including how long the trainingsession will last and the proposed length of the entire volunteer effort.

• Distribution of all equipment, a general explanation of its use, and a discussion of whatequipment is particularly fragile, what constitutes equipment abuse, the replacementpolicy and cost, and the return of equipment at the end of the project.

• A thorough overview of all necessary safety requirements.

• An overview of the monitoring procedures, preferably with an accompanying slideshow.

• A demonstration of proper use of monitoring equipment and sampling techniques. Thetrainer should demonstrate the proper methods and then circulate among theparticipants as they practice the procedures.

• An overview of proper preparation of samples for shipment.

(Excerpted and adapted from Ellett, 1993.)

A volunteer coordinator reviews instructionswith a team of volunteers (photo by K. Register).

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Unlike schoolchildren who are trained by adult teachers, adults require a different tact whenit comes to education. If some or all of your program volunteers are adults, then the trainerneeds to appreciate the learning process for adults and design training programs accordingly.Four pertinent characteristics of adult learners are listed below, accompanied by suggestedways to address them during the training process.

• Adults are mature and need to control their learning.

Traditional classroom learning gives the teacher the power while the student is passive,but adult training should allow the students to have a key role in directing the learningprocess. When beginning a training session, present your objectives and session agenda tothe volunteers. Give them an opportunity to discuss and adjust the plan. Get to know yourvolunteers before or during the training. Find out why they are participating in themonitoring program and try to design their “job” to satisfy their interests.

• Adult learning r equires a climate that is collaborative, respectful, mutual, and informal.

Adults bring vast personal experiences to the learning process. It is essential that thetrainer recognize and use this experience. Minimize lectures. Retention is increased whenwe become actively involved in the learning process. Training sessions should be paced toallow time for volunteers to hear about the monitoring program, perform the techniquesthemselves, and then reflect on the learning by asking and answering questions. Provideopportunities for group work. Use your experienced volunteers to mentor newervolunteers. Reinforce your instructionby designing problem-solving exercises for groupsto work on. Traditional classroom teaching assumes that students learn well by listening,reading, and writing, but in reality people have a variety of learning styles. Some peoplelearn best through logic and problem solving; others prefer to learn through pictures,charts, and maps. Some work best on their own, while others work best in groups.Learning styles are very individualized, and group exercises can be designed to provide avariety of learning environments. Encourage volunteers to share experiences andexpertise, and provide them with additional learning materials.

• Adults need to test theirlearning as they go along, ratherthan receive backgroundtheory and general information.

Adults need clear connections between content and application so that they can anticipatehow they will use their learning. Start your training session with kits and techniques, andsave the lecture on ecology for later. Let them know how their data will be used, and askthem what they think needs to be done to improve the estuary. Have them discuss how themonitoring will help them achieve project and personal goals. Provide time in the trainingto discuss how the volunteers will use their new knowledge. Remember that whenvolunteers are in the field, curious onlookers may ask them questions about what they aredoing and why. Use role-playing to build their confidence so that they can educate theircommunities about the resources they are monitoring. Use other volunteers as trainers,and provide opportunities for volunteers to take on new challenges.

Understanding Adults as Learners

(continued)

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• Adults expect performance improvements to result from their learning.

Adult learning needs to be clearly focused in the present and be “problem centered” ratherthan “subject centered.” Help volunteers evaluate your training and their ownperformance. Train volunteers in groups. Encourage them to set goals for themselves andthen mentor each other to achieve those goals.

(Excerpted and adapted from Kerr, 1997.)

Step 3: Presenting the Training A well-conceived plan for instruction along

with simple handouts is key to a usefultraining presentation. Instructors should makethe most effective use of participants’time.Volunteers, like most students, appreciate awell-organized and smoothly paced class.Four major steps constitute an effective andlively training session: preparation,presentation, demonstration, and review.

Preparation

Preparation for class is critical. Thesampling protocols provide a basic frameworkfor the initial training session. With the basicinformation in hand, the instructor must thentailor the lesson to the audience. Theinstructor should try to anticipate thoseportions of the lesson that may causeconfusion and be prepared to clarify theseareas. Volunteers should be invited to askquestions throughout the session.

Instructors should make appropriate use ofaudiovisual materials to enhance thepresentation. All equipment should be in theroom at the start of the session, in goodworking condition, and ready for use. Slidesof the estuary and of volunteers in action area good teaching device and tend to hold anaudience’s attention.

Presentation

Knowing the material thoroughly andhaving the information well-organized arecritical to an effective presentation. Ensure asuccessful session by using these tips:

• Be enthusiastic about the subject!Enthusiasm inspires dedication.

• Establish a good rapport with theaudience.

• Get the audience involved in the talkand keep the presentation lively.

• Utilize visual aids.

• Speak loudly enough to be heardthroughout the room and enunciateclearly.

• Be humorous.

• Use eye contact.

• Encourage questions and comments.

• Use anecdotes throughout thepresentation.

• Maintain good posture and positivebody language.

Volunteers with no background in sciencemay require additional explanation orassistance so that they understand theimportance of high quality data collectionmethods and the proper use of scientificequipment. Although separate sessions forexperienced and untrained volunteers arepreferable, some instructors may elect to havea single session with experienced volunteershelping those who are new to the program.

If the pace drags because one or twovolunteers are slow, the rest of the volunteersmay quickly become annoyed and bored.Slower students may require individualizedattention at a later date.

(Understanding Adults . . . continued)

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Demonstration

Two types of demonstration are effectivetraining tools: one in which the instructorshows the techniques to the volunteers andanother in which the students practice theoutlined procedures under the watchful eye ofthe instructor. An effective teacher canincorporate both into a training session.

The instructor should demonstrate thesampling protocols. Viewing the execution ofa procedure is more meaningful than simplyreading the instructions. Once the volunteersare familiar with the techniques, they can thenrepeat the procedures under the tutelage of theinstructor. These practice sessions can takeplace in the field or classroom and givevolunteers the confidence to transfer thesenewly learned skills to their own monitoringsite.

Review

A good learning session should end with areview of the material. Summarizingreinforces the salient points and assists thevolunteers in retaining the information. As inthe training exercise, volunteers should beinvited to ask questions during the review. Atthe close of the session, the instructor caninform participants about upcoming eventsand future training opportunities and reiteratethe importance of citizen monitoring and datacollection.

Step 4: Evaluating the Training High quality data reflect successful

volunteer training. To ensure that the sessionsare effective and successful, include writtenevaluations as an integral part of the trainingprocess. While an instructor may feel that thesessions are adequate, only the volunteersknow how much they have learned andretained.

Evaluation of the training should include anassessment of:

• training techniques and style;

• information presented;

• classroom atmosphere; and

• use of handouts and audiovisual aids.

Volunteers may provide feedback at the endof the sessions. The true test of an effectivesession, however, is how well the volunteersperform in the field. A follow-up evaluationform, sent to participants after a few weeks ofsampling, may pinpoint any weaknesses in thepresentation.

Members of the monitoring program mayalso want to accompany volunteers into thefield and examine their sampling techniquesas they work unassisted. Such spot checks canidentify areas in which the volunteers areencountering difficulties. It is important toexplain to volunteers that these observationsessions are an important part of the qualitycontrol that is needed for high quality data.

If large numbers of volunteers areexperiencing problems in carrying out thesampling protocols, you may want to revisethe format of the training sessions or have anew instructor take over. The evaluationprocess should be ongoing to ensure that allthe sessions consistently meet a high standard.

Step 5: Follow-Up Training/ProvidingMotivation and Feedback

While the initial training sessions aredesigned to give volunteers all the basic skillsto successfully complete their sampling,training does not stop there. Follow-upadvanced training sessions, either throughone-on-one interaction or with a group ofvolunteers, is imperative to keep volunteersenthusiastic, motivated, and collecting gooddata. In some monitoring programs, volunteercoordinators conduct site visits shortly afterthe training session in order to spend timewith each volunteer personally. In addition tobuilding a closer relationship between thevolunteer and the coordinator, these visits cananswer questions about the monitoringprotocol.

One focus for advanced training sessionsshould be quality control (QC), which isextremely important in all monitoring

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programs. The challenge of volunteerprogram managers is to carry out QCexercises that assess the precision andaccuracy of the data being collected, but arealso fun and interesting for the volunteers.Experienced volunteer coordinatorsrecommend turning these quality controlsessions into educational and socialopportunities for the volunteers, while makingsure that volunteers understand why QC isimportant. For more on QC, see Chapter 5.

The first QC session should be held about3-4 months after sampling begins to makesure that all monitors are sampling andanalyzing in a consistent fashion and toanswer any questions. Thereafter, two QCsessions should be held each year if samplinggoes on year-round. If sampling is carried outon a seasonal basis, training sessions for newmonitors and retraining for program veteranscan be held at the beginning of the samplingperiod, with a QC session scheduled for themiddle of the season.

Volunteers should be expected to attend allscheduled sessions. If a volunteer cannotattend at least one session a year, thevolunteer coordinator (or a trained assistant)should make a site visit and evaluate thesampling procedures of the volunteer.

Quality control exercises should be asinteresting as possible. As two options,attendees can:

• carry out the tests on the same watersample with their own equipment theway they do it at their site, filling outand submitting a data collection formwith their results; or

• read and record results from previouslyset up laboratory equipment and kits,similar to a classroom laboratorypractical exam.

Data collection forms with the recordedresults are submitted independently. Theresults can then be compared to determinebias. Results from these sessions also measurehow well the group members perform andhow precisely they measure the characteristicsand constituents required.

In addition to ongoing training sessions thatstress quality control, monitoring programsshould offer individualized training tovolunteers who require it. Though less timeefficient than training a group of people, it hasmany other benefits. For example, anindividual session:

• permits the volunteer to ask questionsparticular to a site;

• allows the instructor to solve specificproblems in the field;

• indicates to the volunteer that his/herdata are important;

• gives the instructor feedback on trainingeffectiveness;

• enhances communication between thevolunteer coordinator and the volunteer;

• motivates the volunteer; and

• provides a forum for introducing newmethods.

Continuous communication with volunteersis critical. In addition to going into the fieldwith specific volunteers, the volunteercoordinator should also consider phoningother volunteers who may not require face-to-face contact. A phone call lets volunteersknow that the volunteer coordinator isinterested in their progress and gives them anopportunity to ask questions. Informalgatherings, such as potluck dinners and slideshows, also give volunteer coordinators anopportunity to check on the progress of theparticipants and answer questions.Newsletters or updates by way of e-mail arealso excellent ways to keep volunteersinformed.

The success of the program is highlydependent on maintaining volunteermotivation and enthusiasm. An apatheticvolunteer will likely not collect good data andmay drop out of the program. The nextsection provides suggestions for retainingvolunteers. ■

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Finding qualified volunteers and trainingthem takes work, so losing volunteers on aregular basis can be a drain on resources.Your group should have a plan to ensure thatvolunteers continue to feel that supportingyour efforts are worth their time. Show themthat the benefits of volunteering outweigh thecosts. Satisfied volunteers will becomeadvocates for your mission and will helprecruit additional support. Successfulmonitoring programs devote significantresources to activities designed to motivatetheir volunteers.

CommunicateKeep direct lines of communication open at

all times using the telephone, personalmemos, and/or some form of newsletter.Some monitoring groups use e-mail or Websites to keep volunteers informed. Be easilyaccessible for questions and requests. Givevolunteers a phone number where they canalways leave a message, then respond to callspromptly. Ask for their advice on generaladministrative issues, bring them into the

proofreading process, and help them developa sense of shared ownership of the program.

Recognize the EffortGive volunteers praise and recognition—it

is the psychological equivalent of a salary!Recognize their accomplishments through

awards, letters of appreciation, publicity, andcertificates. If at all possible, recognize theexpertise of experienced volunteers byencouraging them to shoulder increasedresponsibilities such as becoming teamleaders or coordinators, carrying out moreadvanced tests, or helping with data analyses.Also, as you keep the local media abreast ofthe findings of the monitoring effort, be sureto include the names of key volunteers.

Offer Educational OpportunitiesProvide volunteers with educational

opportunities so that they can continue to“grow.” Have meetings and regularworkshops where guest speakers can explainenvironmental sampling techniques or provide

Backup MonitorsA program should have a backup monitor policy in place to assure data collection continuity.A backup volunteer can sample at a site when the primary monitor is sick, on vacation, orfor some other reason unable to sample.

The backup should be trained as rigorously as the primary volunteer so that the data meethigh quality standards. Many programs have strict backup policies in place, withrequirements similar to the following:

• The backup monitor must be trained by the volunteer coordinator and attend aminimum of one quality control session every six months.

• The backup volunteer must be familiar with all the sites that he or she will monitor.

• The backup may monitor at any site but must use the proper data sheet and the kitassigned to the primary volunteer of the site.

Retaining Volunteers

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information on environmental policiespertinent to the sampling effort.

Use the Data Your Volunteers CollectNothing discourages volunteers more than

seeing that their data are not being used.Simple analyses and attractive displays ofvolunteer data should be prepared and sent tovolunteers as well as to the data users. A Website is an excellent place to present volunteerdata.

Keep volunteers informed about all uses oftheir data. If they are contributing to a long-term database, prepare annual data summariesshowing the current condition of the estuarycompared to its previous condition. If the dataare used for acute problem identification, sendthe volunteers information on areas whereproblems have been identified. If the data arebeing used to supplement state reports, sendvolunteers copies of the report. These actions

will foster continued interest in the programand serve to educate and inform thevolunteers about the conditions of the estuary.For more information on using data, seeChapter 8.

Be Flexible, Open, and Realistic Start with a small program that you can

easily handle. Synchronize the monitoringperiod to coincide with the period you cancommit to supporting the volunteers. Whenstarting a program, be frank about the chancesfor continued support and inform the group ifresources disappear, or might disappear soon.Work with the strengths and interests of yourvolunteers and search for ways to make themost of your available resources. Talk withvolunteer coordinators of similar programselsewhere to learn new ways to handleobstacles. ■

Tips on Volunteer Motivation and IncentivesSuccessful monitoring programs have developed many methods to motivate both new andlong-term volunteers. The following are tips and hints for increasing volunteer participationand keeping volunteers motivated:

• Remember that you are competing with other organizations for volunteersand their time.

• Volunteers need a sense of fulfillment. Match volunteer interests and skills withappropriate jobs. Invite top volunteers to take on leadership responsibilities.Experienced volunteers can become “captains” to help with training and organization.Create different “layers” of volunteers.

• Make person-to-person contact.

• Make it easy.

• Make it fun (for example, send a thank-you note saying, “You are a lifesaver!” and include some Lifesavers candy).

• If recruiting volunteers from schools or colleges, the key is getting a committedteacher to help coordinate.

• Tell volunteers “what’s in it for them.” Inform them about local water quality problemsand their ownership in the problems/solutions. Show the human connection, and howtheir efforts are helping to solve problems.

(continued)

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• Present certificates to volunteers when they complete technical training in monitoring procedures.

• Be prepared for your volunteers. Have training sessions organized and equipment ready.

• Don’t sign up volunteers if you don’t have work or equipment for them.

• Recruit and train backup volunteers. Some programs recommend having threevolunteers per team, plus backup volunteers.

• Re-certify volunteers every year.

• Get emergency contact information for all volunteers.

• Recognize that volunteers know their communities. Encourage them to share whatthey have learned with schools, press, etc.

• Conduct regular orientation and training sessions.

• Know that some volunteers have skills beyond serving as monitors (e.g., graphicdesign, public relations, making other contacts). Ask them what other talents theywould be willing to share.

• Have your own liability waivers and keep in mind that some state parks, etc. requirethat their waivers also be signed. (See Chapter 3 for more information on waivers.)

• Keep equipment in backpacks, boxes, or fabric tote-bags for volunteers to use.

• Build into your volunteer program the capacity for feedback and true volunteerinvolvement.

• Reward volunteers after work sessions, sampling seasons, or other milestones with a party or other celebration, canoe trips, certificates, etc.

• Show volunteers and board members the impact their efforts have made by takingthem on boat trips or field trips.

• Some communities sponsor awards, banquets, and other events to recognizeoutstanding volunteers. Nominate your volunteers for these honors.

• Thank the volunteers, then thank them again.

(Excerpted and adapted from Calesso, 1999; Closson, 1999; Davies, 1999; Fitzgibbons, 1999; Gerosa,

1999; and Sims, 1999.)

(Tips. . . continued)


Ellett, K. 1993. Introduction to Water Quality Monitoring Using Volunteers. 2nd ed. Alliance for theChesapeake Bay, Baltimore, MD. 26 pp.

Kerr, M. 1997. “Designing Effective Adult Training.” In: Proceedings of Fifth National VolunteerMonitoring Conference—Promoting Watershed Stewardship.Aug. 3-7, 1996. University ofWisconsin-Madison. Madison, WI. EPA Office of Water, Washington, DC. EPA 841-R-97-007.Web site: http://www.epa.gov/owow/monitoring/vol.html

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1990. Volunteer Water Monitoring: A Guide forState Managers. EPA 440/4-90-010. August. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 78 pp.

Other references:

Calesso, D. 1999. “Volunteer Training, Motivation, Incentives.” In: Meeting Notes—U.S.Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop:Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: Wave of the Future. Toms River, NJ: April 14-16, 1999.

Closson, J. 1999. “Volunteer Training, Motivation, Incentives.” In: Meeting Notes—U.S.Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop:Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: Wave of the Future. Astoria, OR: May 19-21, 1999.

Cook, J.S. 1989. The Elements of Speechwriting and Public Speaking. MacMillan PublishingCompany. New York. 242 pp.

Davies, B. 1999. “Volunteer Training, Motivation, Incentives.” In: Meeting Notes—U.S.Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop:Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: Wave of the Future.Astoria, OR: May 19-21, 1999.

Ely, E. 1992. “Training and Testing Volunteers.” The Volunteer Monitor4(2): 3-4.

Fitzgibbons, J. 1999. “Volunteer Training, Motivation, Incentives.” In: Meeting Notes—U.S.Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop:Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: Wave of the Future. Mobile, AL: March 17-19, 1999.

Gerosa, A. 1999. “Volunteer Training, Motivation, Incentives.” In: Meeting Notes—U.S.Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop:Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: Wave of the Future. San Pedro, CA: February 22-24, 1999.

Sims, G. 1999. “Volunteer Training, Motivation, Incentives.” In: Meeting Notes—U.S.Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop:Volunteer Estuary Monitoring: Wave of the Future. Mobile, AL: March 17-19, 1999.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1991. Volunteer Lake Monitoring: A MethodsManual.EPA 440/4-91-002. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 121 pp.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1997. Proceedings of Fifth National VolunteerMonitoring Conference-Promoting Watershed Stewardship. Aug. 3-7, 1996. University ofWisconsin-Madison. Madison, WI. EPA Office of Water, Washington, DC. EPA 841-R-97-007. Web site: http://www.epa.gov/owow/monitoring/vol.html.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1997. Volunteer Stream Monitoring: A MethodsManual. EPA 841-B-97-003. November. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 211 pp.

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Chapter5Quality Assurance Project Planning

While information about an estuary’s health is valuable, many government

agencies, universities, and other groups are reluctant to use volunteer data.

Why? Volunteer monitoring organizations sometimes overlook a critical fact:

reliable data means everything. Unless data are collected and analyzed using

acceptable methods, potential users are less likely to employ the data. A quality

assurance project plan (QAPP) is vital to overcoming this obstacle.

Photos (l to r): Tillamook Bay National Estuary Project and Battelle Marine Science Lab, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

5-1


Chapter 5: Quality Assurance Project Planning

While information about an estuary’s health is valuable, many government

agencies, universities, and other groups are reluctant to use volunteer data. Why?

Volunteer monitoring organizations sometimes overlook a critical fact: reliable

data means everything. Unless data are collected and analyzed using acceptable

methods, potential users are less likely to employ the data. A quality assurance

project plan (QAPP) is vital to overcoming this obstacle.

This chapter examines the elements of a QAPP. In the process, it reviews basic

concepts that must be understood before developing any QAPP.

For comprehensive instructions and useful examples for creating a QAPP, along

with a sample QAPPform, the reader should refer toThe Volunteer Monitor’s

Guide to Quality Assurance Project Plans(USEPA, 1996).

Overview

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Although the goals and objectives ofvolunteer projects vary greatly, virtually allvolunteers hope to educate themselves andothers about water quality problems andthereby promote a sense of stewardship forthe environment. Many projects, in fact,establish these as their goals. Such projectsmight be called primarily education-oriented.

Other projects seek a more active role in themanagement of local water resources andtherefore strive to collect data that can beused in making water quality managementdecisions. Common uses of volunteer datamight include local planning decisions (e.g.,identifying where to route a highway); localpriority setting (e.g., determining whichseagrass beds require restoration); screeningfor potential pollution problems (which mightthen be investigated more thoroughly bywater quality agencies); and providing datafor state water quality reports (which mightthen be used for statewide or national prioritysetting). Projects doing this type ofmonitoring are called primarily data-oriented.

One of the most difficult issues facing data-oriented volunteer monitoring programs today

is data credibility. Some potential users ofvolunteer data mistakenly believe that onlyprofessionally trained scientists can conductsampling and produce accurate and usefulresults. Potential data users are often skepticalabout volunteer data—they may have doubtsabout the goals and objectives of the project;how volunteers were trained; how sampleswere collected, handled, and stored; or howdata were analyzed and reports written. Givenproper training and supervision, however,dedicated volunteers CAN collect highquality data that is:

• consistent over time throughout theproject’s duration, regardless of howmany different monitors are involved incollecting the data;

• collected and analyzed usingstandardized and acceptable techniques;and

• comparable to data collected in otherassessments using the same methods.

The quality assurance project plan is a keytool in breaking down this barrier ofskepticism. ■

The Importance of High Quality Data

What Is a Quality Assurance Project Plan?

The QAPPis a document that outlines theprocedures necessary to ensure that collectedand analyzed data meet project requirements.It serves not only to convince skeptical datausers about the quality of the project’sfindings, but also to record methods, goals,and project implementation steps for currentand future volunteers and for those who maywish to use the project’s data over time.

Volunteer monitoring projects must adoptprotocols that are straightforward enough forvolunteers to master, yet sophisticated enoughto generate data of value for resourcemanagers. This delicate and difficult path

cannot be successfully navigated without aQAPPthat details a project’s standardoperating procedures (SOPs) in the field andlab, outlines project organization, andaddresses issues such as trainingrequirements, instrument calibration, andinternal checks on how data are collected,analyzed, and reported. Just how detailedsuch a plan needs to be depends to a largeextent on the goals of the volunteermonitoring pr oject. For example, if you wantto use your data to screen for problems so thatyou can alert water quality agencies, you mayneed only a basic plan. If, however, you want

5-3



your data to support enforcement, guidepolicy decisions, or survive courtroomscrutiny, then a detailed plan is essential(Mattson, 1992).

Developing a QAPPis a dynamic,interactive process that should ideally involvequality assurance experts, potential data users,and members of the volunteer monitoringproject team. The process is most effectivewhen all participants fully contribute theirtalents to the effort, know their individualresponsibilities for developing the QAPP, andunderstand the group’s overall purpose andgoals.

While it is a challenging and somewhatdifficult process, the successful developmentand institution of a QAPPcan be extremelyrewarding. This chapter encourages andfacilitates the development of volunteerestuary QAPPs by presenting explanationsand examples. Readers are urged to consultthe resources listed at the end of this chapterand to contact their state or U.S.Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)regional quality assurance staff for specificinformation or guidance on their projects. ■

Why Develop a QAPP?

The QAPPis an invaluable planning andoperating tool that should be developed in theearly stages of the volunteer monitoringproject.

Any monitoring program sponsored by EPAthrough grants, contracts, or other formalagreement must have an approved QAPP. Thepurpose of this requirement is to ensure thatthe data collected by monitoring projects areof known and suitable quality and quantity.

Even if a volunteer monitoring project doesnot receive financial support from governmentagencies, the coordinating group should stillconsider developing a QAPP. This isespecially true if it is a data-oriented projectand seeks to have its information used bystate, federal, or local resource managers. Fewwater quality agencies will use volunteer dataunless methods of data collection, storage,and analysis have been documented.

Clear and concise documentation ofprocedures also allows newcomers to theproject to quickly become familiar with themonitoring, using the same methods as thosewho came before them. This is particularlyimportant to a volunteer project that may see

volunteers come and go, but intends toestablish a baseline of water qualityinformation that can be compared over time.

Finally, written procedures in a QAPPcanhelp ensure volunteer safety (Williams, 1999).Field safety requirements can be made part ofstandard operating practices, and propertraining for equipment operation—a keyelement in any QAPP—takes user safety intoaccount. ■

QAPPs and STORETAn updated, user-friendly version of EPA’snational water and biological data storageand retrieval system, STORET, is nowavailable. With STORET, volunteerprograms can “feed” data to a centralizedfile server which permits national dataanalyses and through which data can beshared among organizations. A specific set ofquality control measures is required for anydata entered into the system to aid in datasharing. For more information, see the EPAWeb page at www.epa.gov/storet.

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The coordinator of a volunteer monitoringprogram is likely to be involved in manyaspects of project planning, sample collection,laboratory analysis, data review, and dataassessment. The coordinator should beconsidering quality assurance and qualitycontrol in every one of these steps.

Quality assurance (QA)refers to theoverall management system that includes theorganization, planning, data collection, qualitycontrol, documentation, evaluation, andreporting of your group’s activities. QAprovides the information you need to ascertainthe quality of your data and whether it meetsthe requirements of your project. It alsoensures that your data will meet definedstandards of quality with a stated level ofconfidence.

Quality control (QC) pertains to theroutine technical activities in a project. Thepurpose of QC is, essentially, error control.Since errors can occur in the field, thelaboratory, or the office, QC must be part ofeach of these functions and should include:

Internal quality control: a set of measuresthat the project undertakes among its ownsamplers and within its own lab to identify andcorrect analytical errors. Examples include:

• lab analyst training and certification;

• proper equipment calibration anddocumentation;

• laboratory analysis of samples withknown concentrations or repeatedanalysis of the same sample; and

• collection and analysis of multiplesamples from the field.

External quality control: a set of measuresthat involves both laboratories and peopleoutside of the program. Measures mayinclude:

• performance audits by outsidepersonnel;

• collection of samples by people outsidethe program from a few of the samesites and at the same time as thevolunteers; and

• splitting some of the samples foranalysis at another lab.

Together, QA and QC help you to producedata of known quality, enhance the credibilityof your group in reporting monitoring results,and ultimately save time and money.However, a good QA/QC program is onlysuccessful if everyone consents to follow itand if all project components are available inwriting. The QAPPis the written record ofyour QA/QC program.

When formulating a QAPP, severalmeasures will help to evaluate sources ofvariability and error and thereby increaseconfidence in the data. These measures areprecision, accuracy, representativeness,completeness, comparability, and sensitivity.

PrecisionPrecisionis the level of agreement among

repeated measurements of the same parameteron the same sample or on separate samplescollected as close as possible in time andplace (Figure 5-1). It tells you how consistentand reproducible your methods are byshowing how close your measurements are toeach other. It does not mean that the sampleresults actually reflect the “true” value, butrather that your sampling and analysis aregiving consistent results under similarconditions.

Precision can be measured by calculating thestandard deviation, relative standard deviation(RSD), or the relative percent difference(RPD). Examples of each calculation areshown in Tables 5-1, 5-2, and 5-3.

The standard deviation (Table 5-1) is used

Basic Concepts

Inaccurate and Precise

Accurate and Precise

Accurate and Imprecise

Inaccurate and Imprecise

Figure 5-1.Accuracyand precision.

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to describe the variability of your data pointsaround their average value. In case you’re abit put off by the math in Table 5-1, youmight be happy to know that many calculatorscan calculate standard deviation for you! Verysimilar data values will have a small standarddeviation, while widely scattered data willhave a much larger standard deviation.Therefore, a small standard deviationindicates high data precision.

The RSD, or coefficient of variation (Table

5-2), expresses the standard deviation as apercentage. This measurement is generallyeasier for others to understand. Similar tostandard deviation, your measurementsbecome more precise as the RSD gets smaller.

When you have only two replicate samples,determine precision by calculating the relativepercent difference (RPD) of the two samples(Table 5-3). Again, the smaller the relativepercent difference, the more precise yourmeasurements will be.

Table 5-1.Example calculation of standard deviation. A low value for standard deviation indicates high precisiondata. (Adapted from USEPA, 1996.)

The Volunteer Estuary Monitoring Project wants to determine the precision of its temperatureassessment procedure. They have taken 4 replicate samples:

Replicate 1 (X1) = 21.1°CReplicate 2 (X2) = 21.1°CReplicate 3 (X3) = 20.5°CReplicate 4 (X4) = 20.0°C

To determine the Standard Deviation (S), use the following formula:

where Xi = measured value of the replicate; X–

= mean of replicate measurements; n = numberof replicates; and ∑ = the sum of the calculations for each measurement value—in this case,X1 through X4.

First, figure out the mean, or average, of the sample measurements. Mean = (X1 + X2 + X3 +X4) ÷ 4. In this example, the mean is equal to 20.68°C.

Then, for each sample measurement (X1 through X4), calculate the next part of the formula.For X1 and X2, the calculation would look like this:

(21.1 - 20.68)2 = (-0.42)2 = 0.1764 = 0.05884-1 3 3

For X3, the calculation would be 0.0108; and for X4, it would be 0.1541.

Finally, add together the calculations for each measurement and find the square root of thesum: 0.0588 + 0.0588 + 0.0108 + 0.1541 = 0.2825. The square root of 0.2825 is 0.5315. So, the standard deviation for temperature is 0.532 (rounded off).

S = ∑ (Xi-X)

2n

i=1 n-1

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AccuracyAccuracy is a measure of confidence in a

measurement (Figure 5-1; Table 5-4). As thedifference between the measurement of aparameter and its “true” or expected valuebecomes smaller, the measurement becomesmore accurate. Repeated measurements thatresult in values at or near the “true value”would be considered accurate and precise.

Measurement accuracy can be determinedby comparing a sample that has a knownvalue, such as a standard reference material or

a performance evaluation sample, to avolunteer’s measurement of that sample.Increasingly, however, some scientists,especially those involved with statisticalanalysis of measurement data, have begun touse the term “bias” to reflect this error in themeasurement system and to use “accuracy” asindicating both the degree of precision andbias. For the purpose of this document, theterm “accuracy” will be used to describe howclose a measurement is to a standard value orthe true value.

If we use the same measurements as in the standard deviation example (Table 5-1), we candetermine the Relative Standard Deviation (RSD), or coefficient of variation, using thefollowing formula:

RSD= S x 100X̄

where S = standard deviation, and X–

= mean of replicate samples.

We know that S = 0.5315 and that X–

= 20.68. So, the RSD = 2.57. This means that our measurements deviate by about 2.57%.

If the project had only two replicates (21.1oC and 20.5

oC, for example), we would use the

Relative Percent Difference (RPD)to determine precision, using the following formula:

RPD=(X1 - X2) x 100(X1 + X2) ÷ 2

where X1 = the larger of the two values, and X2 = the smaller of the two values. In thisexample, X1 = 21.1

oand X2 = 20.5

o. The calculation would look like this:

RPD=(21.1 - 20.5) x 100 = 60.00 = 2.88(21.1 + 20.5) ÷ 2 20.8

So, in this example, the RPD between our sample measurements is 2.88%.

Table 5-2. Example calculation of relative standard deviation (RSD). A low RSD value indicates high precisiondata. (Adapted from USEPA, 1996.)

Table 5-3. Example calculation of relative percent difference (RPD). A low RPD indicates high precision data.(Adapted from USEPA, 1996.)

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For many parameters such as Secchi depth,no standard reference or performanceevaluation samples exist. In these cases, thetrainer’s results may be considered thereference value to which the volunteer’sresults are compared. This process will helpevaluate if the volunteer measurements arebiased as compared to the trainer’s.

If you are monitoring biological conditionsby collecting and identifying specimens,maintaining a voucher collection is a good

way to determine if your identificationprocedures are accurate. The vouchercollection is a preserved archive of theorganisms that your volunteers have collectedand identified. An expert taxonomist can thenprovide a “true” value by checking theidentification in the voucher collection. Inaddition to preserved specimens, thecollection may involve photography ormicroscopy.

Attendance at QC training sessions is required for Volunteer Estuary Monitoring Project fieldteams. In the field, monitors use a pH kit, which covers a full range of expected pH values.During a recent training session, the monitors recorded the following results when testing apH standard buffer solution of 7.0 units:

7.5 7.2 6.5 7.07.4 6.8 7.2 7.46.7 7.3 6.8 7.2

In this example, the volunteer coordinator may wish to evaluate accuracy in two ways:

Group Accuracy

To determine the accuracy of the full group of volunteers, the coordinator can compare theaverage of all sample values to the true value, according to the equation:

Group accuracy = average value–true value

In this case, the average of these measurements is equal to 7.08 units. Since we know that thereference or “true” value is 7.0 units, the difference between the average pH value is “off” orbiased by + 0.08 units. The volunteer program’s QAPPshould specify whether this level ofaccuracy is satisfactory for the data quality objectives of the project.

Individual Accuracy

While the average pH value calculated above is 7.08 units, a quick scan reveals that severalmeasurements are up to 0.5 units from the true value. Such individual differences from thetrue value may not fall within an acceptable limit of accuracy, but they are somewhat“hidden” when the group accuracy is calculated. Simply calculating the group accuracy couldoverlook particularly erroneous data that should be addressed.

To assess the accuracy of individual measurements, the coordinator should use the followingequation:

Individual accuracy = individual value –true value

The possible cause(s) of individual accuracy values that do not fall within the program’sQAPPshould be determined and remedied.

Table 5-4. Example calculations of accuracy. (Redrawn and adapted from USEPA, 1996.)

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It is important to note that the relationshipbetween a voucher collection and accurateidentification cannot be expressed numericallyin your QAPP. Rather, the QAPPshouldindicate that you have a voucher collectionand describe how it is used to evaluateidentification accuracy in your program.

RepresentativenessRepresentativenessis the extent to which

measurements actually depict the trueenvironmental condition or population you areevaluating. The questions asked in yourQAPPwill be the guide for defining whatconstitutes a representative sample.

A number of factors may affect therepresentativeness of your data. Are yoursampling locations indicative of thewaterbody? Data collected just below a pipeoutfall, for example, is not representative ofan entire estuary. Similarly, a sample collectedin August is not representative of year-roundconditions. Other potential errors, such as labmistakes, data entry errors, or the use of thewrong type of sample container, may alsoaffect data representativeness.

CompletenessCompletenessis a measure of the number

of samples you must take to be able to use theinformation, as compared to the number ofsamples you originally planned to take. Sincethere are many reasons why your volunteersmay not collect as many samples as planned(e.g., equipment failure, weather-relatedproblems, sickness, faulty handling of thesamples), as a general rule you should try totake more samples than you determine youactually need. This issue should be discussedwith your QAPPteam and by peer reviewersbefore field activities begin.

Completeness requirements can be loweredif extra samples are factored into the project.The extra samples, in turn, increase thelikelihood of more representative data.

Completeness is usually expressed as apercentage (Table 5-5), accounting for thenumber of times that the volunteers did notcollect data. An 80-90 percent rate ofcollection is usually acceptable.

Table 5-5.Example calculation of completeness. (Adapted from USEPA, 1996.)

The Volunteer Estuary Monitoring Project planned to collect 20 samples, but because ofvolunteer illness and a severe storm, only 17 samples were actually collected. Furthermore, of these, two samples were judged invalid because too much time elapsed between samplecollection and lab analysis. Thus, of the 20 samples planned, only 15 were judged valid.

The following formula is used to determinePercent Completeness (%C):

%C = vT

x 100

where v = the number of planned measurements judged valid, and T = the total number ofmeasurements.

In this example, v = 15 and T = 20. In this case, percent completeness would be 75 percent.Notice that this percent completeness does not fall within the usually accepted range of 80-90percent.

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ComparabilityComparability is the extent to which data

from one study can be compared directly toeither past data from the current project or datafrom another study. For example, you may wishto compare two seasons of summer data fromyour project or compare your summer data setto one collected ten years ago by state waterquality scientists. The key to data comparabilityis to follow established protocols or standardoperating procedures. Comparing data alsorequires you to consider the conditions underwhich the samples were collected, including,for example, the season, time of day, and adja-cent land uses.

Using standardized sampling and analyticalmethods, units of reporting, and site selectionprocedures helps ensure comparability.However, it is important to keep in mind thatsome types of monitoring rely heavily on bestprofessional judgment and that standard meth-ods may not always exist.

SensitivitySensitivity refers to the capability of a

method or instrument to discriminate betweendifferent measurement levels. The more sensi-tive a method is, the better able it is to detectlower concentrations of a water quality vari-able.

Sensitivity is related to detection limit, thelowest concentration of a given pollutant thatyour methods or equipment can detect and

report as greater than zero. Readings that fallbelow the detection limit are too unreliable touse in your data set. Furthermore, as readingsapproach the detection limit (i.e., as they gofrom higher, easier-to-detect concentrations tolower, harder-to-detect concentrations), theybecome less and less reliable. Manufacturersgenerally provide detection limit informationwith their high-grade monitoring equipment,such as meters; however, volunteer groupsshould test the equipment themselves—usingstandards of progressively lower concentra-tions—to understand where the meter ormethod begins to have unacceptable accuracy.

Preassembled monitoring kits also usuallycome with information indicating the mea-surement rangethat applies. The measure-ment range is the range of reliable measure-ments of an instrument or measuring device.For example, you might purchase a kit that iscapable of detecting pH between 6.1 and 8.1.If acidic conditions (below 6.0) are a problemin the waters you are monitoring, you willneed to use a kit or meter that is sensitive tothe lower pH readings.

Because all projects have different goals, datausers and uses, capabilities, and methods, thereare no universal levels of precision, accuracy,representativeness, completeness, comparabili-ty, and sensitivity that are acceptable for everymonitoring project. You should consult youradvisory panel, data users, support laboratory,and peer reviewers to determine acceptance cri-teria for your monitoring project. ■

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Contamination is a common source of errorin both sampling and analytical procedures.QC samples help you identify when and howcontamination might occur and assess theoverall precision and accuracy of your data.The decision to accept data, reject it, or acceptonly a portion of it should be made afteranalysis of all QC data.

For most projects, there is no set number offield or laboratory QC samples which must betaken; the general rule is that 10 percent of allsamples should be QC samples. Anyparticipating laboratory must also run its ownQC samples. For a new monitoring project oranalytical procedure, it is a good idea toincrease the number of QC samples (up to 20percent) until you have full confidence in theprocedures you are using.

Several different types of QC andassessment measures are presented below(USEPA, 1996; USEPA, 1997).

Internal ChecksInternal checks are performed by the project

field volunteers, staff, and lab.

Field Blanks

A field blank (also known as a trip blank) isa “clean” sample, produced in the field, usedto detect analytical problems during the wholeprocess (sampling, transport, and labanalysis). To create a field blank, take a cleansampling container with “clean” water (i.e.,distilled or deionized water that does notcontain any of the substance you areanalyzing) to the sampling site. Othersampling containers will be filled with waterfrom the site. Except for the type of water inthem, the field blank and all site samplesshould be handled and treated in the sameway. For example, if your method calls for theaddition of a preservative, this should beadded to the field blank in the same manneras the other samples. When the field blank is

analyzed, it should read as being free of theanalyte (parameter being tested) or, at aminimum, the reading should be a factor of 5below all sample results.

Negative and Positive Plates (for Bacteria)

A negative plate results when the bufferedrinse water (the water used to rinse down thesides of the filter funnel during filtration) hasbeen filtered the same way as a sample. Thisis different from a field blank in that itcontains reagents used in the rinse water.There should be no bacteria growth on thefilter after incubation. Bacteria growthindicates laboratory contamination of thesample.

Positive plates result when water known tocontain bacteria (such as wastewater treatmentplant influent) is filtered the same way as asample. There should be plenty of bacteriagrowth on the filter after incubation. It is usedto detect procedural errors or the presence ofcontaminants in the laboratory analysis thatmight inhibit bacteria growth.

Field Replicates

Replicate samples are obtained when two ormore samples are taken from the same site, atthe same time, using the same method, andindependently analyzed in the same manner.When only two samples are taken, they aresometimes referred to as duplicate samples.These types of samples are representative ofthe same environmental condition and can beused to detect the natural variability in theenvironment, the variability caused by fieldsampling methods, and laboratory analysisprecision.

Lab Replicates

A lab replicate is a sample that is split intosubsamples at the lab. Each subsample is thenanalyzed using the same technique and theresults compared. They are used to test the

Quality Control and Assessment

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precision of the laboratory measurements. Forbacteria, they can be used to obtain anoptimal number of bacteria colonies on filtersfor counting purposes.

Spiked Samples

Spiked samples are samples to which aknown concentration of the analyte of interesthas been added. Spiked samples are used tomeasure accuracy. If this is done in the field,the results reflect the effects of preservation,shipping, laboratory preparation, and analysis.If done in the laboratory, they reflect theeffects of the analysis procedure. The percentof the spike material that is detected in thesample is used to calculate analyticalaccuracy.

Calibration Blank

A calibration blank is deionized waterprocessed like any of the samples; it is thefirst “sample” analyzed and is used to set theinstrument to zero. A calibration blank is alsoused to check the measuring instrumentperiodically for “drift” (the instrument shouldalways read “0” when this blank is measured).It can also be compared to the field blank topinpoint where contamination might haveoccurred.

Calibration Standards

Calibration standards are used to calibrate ameter. They consist of one or more “standardconcentrations” (made up in the lab tospecified concentrations or provided by anynumber of supply houses—see Appendix C)of the indicator being measured, one of whichis the calibration blank. Calibration standardscan be used to calibrate the meter beforerunning the test, or they can be used toconvert the units read on the meter to thereporting units (e.g., converting absorbance tomilligrams per liter).

Helpful HintIn addition to being used for metercalibration, standard reference material (inthe form of solids or solutions with acertified known concentration of pollutant)can be used to check the accuracy of aprocedure and the freshness of the reagents(chemicals) in test kits. If a known standardsolution is tested and gives the correctconcentration test result, the reagents areworking properly and the procedure isbeing followed correctly.

External Checks Non-volunteer field staff and a lab (also

known as a “quality control lab”) performexternal checks. The results are comparedwith those obtained by the project lab.

External Field Duplicates

An external field duplicate is a duplicatesample collected and processed by anindependent (e.g., professional) sampler orteam at the same place and the same time thatthe volunteers collect and process theirregular water samples. It is used to estimatesampling and laboratory analysis precision.

Split Samples

A split sample is one that is divided equallyinto two or more sample containers and thenanalyzed by different analysts or labs. Theresults are then compared.

Samples should be thoroughly mixed beforethey are divided. Large errors can occur if theanalyte is not equally distributed into the twocontainers. A sample can be split in the field,called a field split, or in the laboratory—a labsplit. The lab split measures analytical preci-sion, while the field split measures both analyti-cal and field sampling precision. Split samplescan also be submitted to two different laborato-ries for analysis to measure the variability inresults between laboratories independentlyusing the same analytical procedures.

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Outside Lab Analysis of Duplicate Samples

Either internal or external field duplicatescan be analyzed at an independent lab. Theresults should be comparable with thoseobtained by the project lab.

Knowns

The quality control lab sends samples forselected indicators, labeled with theconcentrations, to the project lab for analysisprior to the first sample run. These samplesare analyzed and the results compared withthe known concentrations. Problems arereported to the quality control lab.

Unknowns

The quality control lab sends samples to theproject lab for analysis for selected indicators,prior to the first sample run. The concen-trations of these samples are unknown to theproject lab. These samples are analyzed andthe results reported to the quality control lab.Discrepancies are reported to the project laband a problem identification and solvingprocess follows.

Table 5-6 shows the applicability ofcommon quality control measures to severalwater quality variables covered in thismanual. ■

Table 5-6.Common quality control measures and their applicability to some water quality parameters. (Adapted from USEPA, 1997.)

Dissolved Nutrients pH Total Temp. Salinity/ Turbidity Total BacteriaOxygen Alkalinity Conductivity Solids

X X X X XX

X X X X X X X X XX X X X X X X Xb

X X XX X X

Xa X X X X

X X X X X X XX X X X X X X

X X X X X X XX X X X X X XX X X X X X X

Internal ChecksField blanksNeg./ pos. platesField replicatesLab replicatesSpiked samplesCalibration blankCalibration standard

External ChecksExt. field duplicatesSplit samplesOutside lab analysisKnownsUnknowns

a—using an oxygen-saturated sampleb—using subsamples of different sizes

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Developing a QAPPis a dynamic, interactiveprocess. Seek as much feedback as possiblefrom those who have gone before you in theQAPPdevelopment process. You will be invest-ing a substantial amount of time and energy, butdon’t be discouraged: the person who writes theQAPPis usually the one who ends up with themost technical expertise and monitoringinsights. Your efforts will pay off in a livingdocument that helps current and future volun-teers, staff, and data users understand exactlyhow your project works.

The purpose of this section is to discuss thesteps a volunteer monitoring program mighttake in preparing a QAPP(Table 5-7). It is rec-ommended that you consult your data users,such as the state or county water quality agency,regarding their QAPPrequirements. In fact,many states have prepared QAPPs that, if adopt-ed by your group, can save a great deal of time.If you are receiving EPA grant or contractmoney to conduct your monitoring, you mustalso submit your QAPPto EPA for approval.Working with water quality agencies, EPA, andother potential data users to develop your QAPPincreases the likelihood that your data will actu-ally be used to make management decisions.

Table 5-7.Steps to develop a QAPP(USEPA, 1996).

Step 1: Establish a QAPP TeamPull together a small team of 2-3 people

who can help you develop the QAPP. Includerepresentatives from groups participating inthe monitoring project who have technicalexpertise in different areas of the project.

Take time to establish contact with yourstate, local, or EPA quality assurance officeror other experienced volunteer organizations.Remember: If you are receiving any EPAfunding through a grant or contract, EPA mustapprove your QAPP. However, even if EPAapproval isn’t needed, you can consult withEPA representatives for advice; they mayhave resources that can help you. Ask yourcontacts if they will review your draft plan.

Step 2: Determine the Goals andObjectives of Your Project

Why are you developing this monitoringproject? Who will use its information, andhow will it be used? What will be the basisfor judging the usability of the data collected?If you don’t have answers to these questions,you may flounder when it comes time to putyour QAPPdown on paper.

Project goals could include, for example:

• identifying trends in an estuary todetermine if non-indigenous speciesoccurrences are on the rise;

• monitoring in conjunction with thecounty health department to be sure abeach is safe for swimmers;

• monitoring the effectiveness of asubmerged aquatic vegetation (SAV)restoration project; or

• teaching local high school studentsabout water quality.

Write down your goal. The more specificyour project’s goal, the easier it will be todesign a QAPP. Identify the objectives foryour project—that is, the specific statementsof how you will achieve your goal. For

Developing a QAPP

1. Establish a QAPPteam.2. Determine the goals and objectives of

your project.3. Collect background information.4. Refine your project.5. Design your project’s sampling,

analytical, and data requirements.6. Develop an implementation plan.7. Draft your standard operating

procedures and QAPP.8. Solicit feedback on your draft SOPs

and QAPP.9. Revise your QAPPand submit it for

final approval.10. Begin your monitoring project.11. Evaluate and refine your QAPP.

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example, if your project’s goal is to monitoran SAV restoration project, your objectivesmight be to collect three years of data on SAVbeds, turbidity, algae, and nutrients, and todevelop yearly reports for state water qualityand fish and wildlife agencies.

Each use of volunteer data has potentiallydifferent requirements. Knowing the use ofthe collected data will help you determine theright kind of data to collect and the level ofeffort necessary to collect, analyze, store, andreport the data.

While sophisticated analyses generally yieldmore accurate and precise data, they are alsomore costly and time consuming. One shouldclosely examine the program budget whenforming the data quality objectives. Decisionsregarding the ultimate objectives must alwaysstrike a balance between the needs of the datausers and the fiscal constraints of the program(Figure 5-2). If the program’s main goal is tosupplement state-collected data, for example,the extra expense may be worthwhile.Programs with an educational or participatoryfocus can often use less sensitive equipment,analyses, or methodologies and still meet theirdata objectives.

Step 3: Collect Background InformationAs you learn more about the area you are

choosing to monitor, you will be better able todesign an effective monitoring project. Beginby contacting programs and agencies thatmight already monitor in your area. Talk tothe state water quality agency, the countyand/or city environmental office, local

universities, and neighboring volunteermonitoring programs. Ask about theirsampling locations, the parameters theymonitor, and the methods they use.

If those groups are already monitoring inyour chosen area, find out if they will sharetheir data, and identify what gaps exist thatyour project could fill. If no monitoring isongoing, find out what kind of data your localor state agencies could use (if one of yourgoals is that these agencies use your data),where they would prefer you to locate yoursampling sites, and what monitoring methodsthey recommend. Government agencies arenot likely to use yourdata unless it fills agap in their monitoring network and wascollected using approved protocols.

A watershed survey can help you set thefoundation for your monitoring projectdesign. This is simply a practical investigationof how the watershed works, its history, andits stressors. For information on conducting awatershed survey, consult the USEPA (1997)and Maine DEP(1996) references listed at theend of this chapter.

Step 4: Refine Your ProjectOnce you have collected background

information for your project and coordinatedwith potential data users, you may find itnecessary to refine your original goals andobjectives. You might have found, forexample, that your state already monitorsSAV and algae in your estuary. In that case,your project might better examine nutrientinputs from tributaries or other parameters.

DQOs

Time &Money

DataUncertainty

LessResources

MoreUncertainty

DQOs

DataUncertainty

Time &Money

MoreResources

LessUncertainty

Figure 5-2.Thebalancing act of dataquality objectives.Volunteer programsmust balance dataquality needs withfinancial limitations,understanding that asdata quality becomesmore important, theresources necessary toget the data are likely toincrease. (Adapted fromUSEPA, 1987.)

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Don’t hesitate to reevaluate your projectgoals and objectives. Now is the best possibletime to do so-before you invest time, money,and effort in equipment purchases, training,grant proposals, and QAPPdevelopment.

Step 5: Design Your Project’s Sampling,Analytical, and Data Requirements

Once you feel comfortable with your pro-ject’s goals and objectives and have gatheredas much background information as possible

on the area you will be monitoring, it is timeto focus on the details of your project.Convene a planning committee consisting ofthe project coordinator, key volunteers,scientific advisors, and data users, along withyour QAPPteam. This committee shouldaddress the following questions:

• What parameters or conditions will youmonitor, and which are most importantto your needs? Which are of secondaryimportance?

• How good does your monitoring dataneed to be?

• How will you pick your sampling sites,and how will you identify them overtime?

• What methods or protocols will you usefor sampling and analyzing samples?

• When will you conduct the monitoring?

• How will you manage your data andensure that your data are credible?

As a general rule, it is a good idea to startsmall and build to a more ambitious project asyour volunteers and staff grow moreexperienced.

Step 6: Develop an Implementation PlanDecide the particulars—the who’s and

when’s of your project. Determine who willcarry out the individual tasks such asvolunteer training, data management, reportgeneration, assuring lab and field qualityassurance, and recruiting volunteers. If yousend your samples to an outside lab, choosethe lab and specify why you chose it.

Set up schedules for when you will recruitand train volunteers, conduct sampling andlab work, produce reports, and report back tovolunteers or the community.

Step 7: Draft Your Standard OperatingProcedures and QAPP

Now is the time to actually write yourstandard operating procedures (SOPs) anddevelop a draft QAPP. SOPs are the details onall the methods you expect your volunteers to

A Word About MetadataThe term metadata is loosely defined as“data about data.” It is information thathelps characterize the data that volunteerscollect. Metadata answer who, what,when, where, why, and how about everyfacet of the data being documented(USGS Web site). This information willhelp others understand exactly how thedata was obtained.

Most shared datasets require metadata.This helps users of the data—who may beunfamiliar with the monitoring site—understand the details behind the data.

Examples of metadata include (fromWilliams, 1999):

• name of organization;

• name of the estuary;

• monitoring station identificationnumber;

• monitoring site location;

• site elevation;

• latitude, longitude;

• source describing how latitude andlongitude were determined; and

• date and time of collection.

Volunteer leaders—especially those whowant to share their data with governmentand other organizations—should includemetadata on their field data sheets andemphasize the importance to volunteers ofrecording this information.

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use. They can serve as the project handbookyou give your volunteers. There are manySOPs already available for sampling andanalytical procedures—check with your statewater quality agency or other volunteermonitoring groups for pointers. Wherepossible, adapt your procedures from existingmethods and modify them as needed to fityour project objectives. Be sure to referenceand cite any existing methods and documentsthat you use in your project.

You should append your SOPs to yourQAPPand refer to them throughout the QAPPdocument. Your written plan can be elaborateor simple, depending on your project goals.

Step 8: Solicit Feedback on Your DraftSOPs and QAPP

Your next step is to get the draft reviewedby people “in the know.” These include stateand EPA regional volunteer monitoringcoordinators and quality assurance officersand any other potential data users. Ask forfeedback and suggestions from as manysources as possible. Expect their reviews totake up to two or three months (times willvary). In addition, expect some resistancefrom some reviewers who might beoverburdened with other duties. Don’t beoffended by this; instead, call back areasonable time after submitting your planand inquire if you should submit the draftelsewhere for review.

While waiting for comments, you should tryout your procedures with volunteers on a trialbasis. Don’t plan to use the data at this earlystage; data users generally will not acceptyour data until the QAPPhas been approvedand accepted. Rather, use this opportunity tofind quirks in your plan.

Step 9: Revise Your QAPP and Submit Itfor Final Approval

Based on the comments you receive, youmay have to revise your QAPP. This couldinvolve simply being more specific about

existing methods and quality controlprocedures in the plan, or actually modifyingyour procedures to meet agency requirements.

Once you have revised or fine-tuned yourQAPP, submit it to the proper agency forformal approval. If you are developing aQAPPsimply to document your methods andare not working in cooperation with a state,local, or federal agency, you do not need tosubmit a QAPPfor review and approval.

Step 10: Begin Your Monitoring ProjectOnce you’ve received formal approval of

your QAPP, your monitoring project canbegin. Follow the procedures described inyour QAPPto train volunteers and staff,conduct sampling, analyze samples, compileresults, and develop any reports.

Step 11: Evaluate and Refine Your Projectover Time

As time goes on, you may decide toimprove on sampling techniques, siteselection, lab procedures, or any of the otherelements of your monitoring project design.Project evaluation should occur during thecourse of your project rather than after theproject or a sampling season is completed.

If you make any substantive changes toyour QAPP, document them and, if necessary,seek approval from the appropriate agency. Aphone call to your quality assurance officialcan help you determine if the changes requirea new QAPP. Also, always be prepared forformal audits or QC inquiries from data usersduring the course of your project.

Ongoing experience may require smallchanges to the QAPP. These can be madewithout having to rewrite the entire plan, aslong as the original reviewers approve thechanges. One helpful way to make changeswithout rewriting the entire plan is to have thepages individually dated; changes to thedocument can then be made on a page-by-page basis. ■

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A QAPPhelps your group determineresponsibilities, training, methods, equipmentand other resources needed to ensure that dataquality is good enough to meet its intendeduse. This section discusses the 24 elements ofa QAPP(Table 5-8), which can guide theQAPPteam as it determines whether allnecessary aspects are covered.

It is very likely that not all elements willapply to your project, and other elements maybe required that are not addressed here. Theseissues should be discussed with your QAPPteam and any group who will be approving

your QAPP. If EPA must approve your QAPPand your project does not require all 24elements, you should indicate in your QAPPwhich elements you will not be including.This will make review and approval of yourQAPPfaster and easier.

Readers should refer to the document, TheVolunteer Monitor’s Guide to QualityAssurance Project Plans(USEPA, 1996—see“References and Further Reading” in thischapter) for useful examples of developing aQAPP. The document also includes a sampleQAPPform.

Elements of a QAPP

Project Management (elements 1-9)1. Title and Approval Page2. Table of Contents3. Distribution List4. Project/Task Organization5. Problem Identification/Background6. Project/Task Description7. Data Quality Objectives for Measurement Data8. Training Requirements/Certification9. Documentation and Records

Measurement/Data Acquisition (elements 10-19)10. Sampling Process Design11. Sampling Methods Requirements12. Sample Handling and Custody Requirements13. Analytical Methods Requirements14. Quality Control Requirements15. Instrument/Equipment Testing, Inspection, and Maintenance Requirements16. Instrument Calibration and Frequency17. Inspection/Acceptance Requirements for Supplies18. Data Acquisition Requirements19. Data Management

Assessment and Oversight (elements 20-21)20. Assessments and Response Actions21. Reports

Data Validation and Usability (elements 22-24)22. Data Review, Validation, and Verification Requirements23. Validation and Verification Methods24. Reconciliation with Data Quality Objectives

Table 5-8.Elements of a QAPP(USEPA, 1996).

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Element 1: Title and Approval PageYour title page should include the

following:

• title and date of the QAPP;

• names of the organizations involved inthe project; and

• names, titles, signatures, and documentsignature dates of all appropriateapproving officials, such as projectmanager, project QAofficer, and if theproject is funded by EPA, the EPAproject manager and QAofficer.

Element 2: Table of ContentsA table of contents should include section

headings with appropriate page numbers and alist of figures and tables.

Element 3: Distribution ListList the individuals and organizations that

will receive a copy of your approved QAPPand any subsequent revisions. Includerepresentatives of all groups involved in yourmonitoring effort.

Element 4: Project/Task OrganizationIdentify all key personnel and organizations

that are involved in your program, includingdata users. List their specific roles and re-sponsibilities. In many monitoring projects,one individual may have several respon-sibilities. An organizational chart is a goodway to graphically display the roles of keyplayers.

Element 5: Problem Identification/Background

In a narrative, briefly state the problem yourmonitoring project is designed to address.Include any background information such asprevious studies that indicate why this projectis needed. Identify how your data will be usedand who will use it.

Element 6: Project/Task DescriptionIn general terms, describe the work your

volunteers will perform and where it will takeplace. Identify what kinds of samples will betaken, what kinds of conditions they willmeasure, which ones are critical, and whichare of secondary importance. Indicate howyou will evaluate your results—that is, howyou will be making sense out of what youfind. For example, you may be comparingyour water quality readings to state or EPAstandards, or comparing your submergedaquatic vegetation (SAV) evaluations to state-established reference conditions or historicalinformation.

Include an overall project timetable thatoutlines beginning and ending dates for theentire project as well as for specific activitieswithin the project. The timetable shouldinclude information about samplingfrequency, lab schedules, and reportingcycles.

Element 7: Data Quality Objectives forMeasurement Data

Data Quality Objectives (DQOs) are thequantitative and qualitative terms used todescribe how good your data must be to meetthe project’s objectives. DQOs for waterquality variables should address precision,accuracy, representativeness, completeness,comparability, and sensitivity (see “BasicConcepts” in this chapter for a discussion ofthese terms).

If possible, provide information on DQOsin quantitative terms. Since it is important todevelop a QAPPprior to monitoring, it maynot be possible to include actual numbers forsome of the water quality measurementvariables within the first version of thedocument. You will need, however, to discussyour goals or objectives for data quality andthe methods you will use to make actualdeterminations after monitoring has begun.DQOs should be given for each parameteryou are measuring and in each “matrix” (i.e.,substance you are sampling from, such as

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water or sediment). A table is the easiest wayto present quantitative DQOs (see Table 5-9).

In some types of monitoring, particularlymacroinvertebrate monitoring and habitatassessment, some data quality indicators cannotbe quantitatively expressed. In that case, youcan fulfill this requirement of the QAPPby cit-ing and describing the method used and by pro-viding as many of the data quality indicators aspossible (e.g., completeness, representativeness,and comparability) in narrative form.

DQOs should be set realistically. The volun-teer program should closely examine its budgetwhen forming its DQOs. Decisions regardingthe ultimate objectives must always strike a bal-ance between the needs of data users and thefiscal restraints of the program (Figure 5-2).

Element 8: Training Requirements/Certification

Identify any specialized training orcertification requirements your volunteers willneed to successfully complete their tasks.Discuss how you will provide such training,who will conduct the training, and how youwill evaluate volunteer performance.

Element 9: Documentation and RecordsIdentify the field and laboratory information

and records you need for the project. Theserecords may include raw data, QC checks,field data sheets, laboratory forms, andvoucher collections. Include information onwhere and for how long records will bemaintained. Copies of all forms to be used inthe project should be attached to the QAPP.

Element 10: Sampling Process DesignOutline the experimental design of the

project including information on types ofsamples required, sampling frequency,sampling period (e.g., season), and how youwill select sample sites and identify them overtime. (Adiscussion on how to selectmonitoring sites can be found in Chapter 6.)Indicate whether any constraints such asweather, seasonal variations, or site accessmight affect scheduled activities and how youwill handle those constraints. Include sitesafety plans. In place of extensive discussion,you may cite the sections of your program’sSOPs that detail the sampling design of theproject.

Parameter Method/Range Units Sensitivity Precision Accuracy

Temperature thermometer °C 0.5°C ±1.0°C ±0.2°C-5.0° to 45°C

pH wide-range colorimetric standard pH units 0.5 units ±0.6 units ±0.4 unitsfield kit

3.0 to 10.0 units

Salinity hydrometer parts per thousand 0.1 ppt ±1.0 ppt ±0.82 ppt(ppt)

Dissolved Winkler titration mg/l 0.2 mg/l ±0.9 mg/l ±0.3 mg/lOxygen 1 to 20 mg/l

Limit of Secchi disk meters 0.05m NA NAVisibility

Table 5-9.Sample Data Quality Objectives (DQOs) for a volunteer estuary monitoring program. (Adapted from USEPA, 1990 and USEPA, 1996.)

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Element 11: Sampling MethodsRequirements

Describe your sampling methods. Includeinformation on parameters to be sampled,how samples will be taken, equipment andcontainers used, sample preservation methods,and holding times (time between takingsamples and analyzing them). If samples arecomposited (i.e., mixed), describe how thiswill be done. Describe procedures fordecontamination and equipment cleaning.Most of this information can be presented in atable or you may also cite any SOPs thatcontain this information.

Element 12: Sample Handling andCustody Requirements

Sample handling procedures apply toprojects that bring samples from the field ormonitoring site to the lab for analysis,identification, or storage. These samples shouldbe properly labeled in the field. At a minimum,the sample identification label should includesample location, sample number, date and timeof collection, sample type, sampler’s name, andmethod used to preserve the sample.

Describe the procedures used to keep track

of samples that will be delivered or shipped toa laboratory for analysis. Include any chain-of-custody forms and written procedures thatfield crews and lab personnel should followwhen collecting, transferring, storing,analyzing, and disposing of samples andassociated waste materials.

Element 13: Analytical MethodsRequirements

List the methods and equipment needed forthe analysis of each parameter, either in thefield or in the lab. If your program usesstandard methods, cite these (see, forexample, APHA, 1998). If your program’smethods differ from the standard or are notreadily available in a standard reference,describe the analytical methods or cite andattach the program’s SOPs.

Element 14: Quality Control RequirementsList the number and types of field and

laboratory quality control samples yourvolunteers will take (see “Quality Control andAssessment” earlier in this chapter). Thisinformation can be presented in a table. If youuse an outside laboratory, cite or attach thelab’s QA/QC plan.

What Is a Performance Based Measurement System (PBMS)?Volunteer monitors may hear increased discussion about a fundamentally different approach toenvironmental monitoring, known as a “performance based measurement system,” or PBMS.Rather than requiring that a prescribed analytical method be used for a particular measure-ment, PBMS permits any method to be used provided that it demonstrates an ability to meetrequired performance standards. In other words, PBMS conveys “what” needs to beaccomplished, but not prescriptively “how” to do it.

Under PBMS, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) would specify:

• questions to be answered by monitoring;

• decisions to be supported by the data;

• the level of uncertainty acceptable for making decisions; and

• documentation to be generated to support this approach.

EPA believes that this approach will be more flexible and cost-effective for monitoringorganizations. Volunteer groups should check with their data users (e.g., state water qualityagencies) to determine acceptable performance based methods.

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QC checks for biological monitoringprograms can be described in narrative form,and, if appropriate, should discuss replicatesample collection, cross checks by differentfield crews, periodic sorting checks of labsamples, and maintenance of voucher andreference collections. Describe what actionsyou will take if the QC samples reveal asampling or analytical problem.

Element 15: Instrument/EquipmentTesting, Inspection, and MaintenanceRequirements

Describe your plan for routine inspectionand preventive maintenance of field and labequipment facilities. Identify what equipmentwill be routinely inspected, and what spareparts and replacement equipment will be onhand to keep field and lab operations runningsmoothly. Include an equipment maintenanceschedule, if appropriate.

Element 16: Instrument Calibration andFrequency

Identify how you will calibrate samplingand analytical instruments. Includeinformation on how frequently instrumentswill be calibrated, and the types of standardsor certified equipment that will be used tocalibrate sampling instruments. Indicate howyou will maintain calibration records andensure that records can be traced to eachinstrument. Instrument calibration proceduresfor biological monitoring programs shouldinclude routine steps that ensure equipment isclean and in good working order.

Element 17: Inspection and AcceptanceRequirements for Supplies

Describe how you determine if supplies,such as sample bottles, nets, and reagents, areadequate for your program’s needs.

Element 18: Data AcquisitionRequirements

Identify any types of data your project usesthat are not obtained through your monitoringexercises. Examples of these types of datainclude historical information, informationfrom topographical maps or aerial photos, orreports from other monitoring groups. Discussany limits on the use of this data resultingfrom uncertainty about its quality.

Element 19: Data ManagementTrace the path of your data, from field

collection and lab analysis to data storage anduse. Discuss how you check for accuracy andcompleteness of field and lab forms, and howyou minimize and correct errors in calcula-tions, data entry to forms and databases, andreport writing. Provide examples of forms andchecklists. Identify the computer hardwareand software you use to manage your data.

Element 20: Assessments and ResponseActions

Discuss how you evaluate field, lab, anddata management activities, organizations(such as contract labs), and individuals in thecourse of your project. These can includeevaluations of volunteer performance (e.g.,through field visits by staff or in laboratoryrefresher sessions); audits of systems (e.g.,equipment and analytical procedures); andaudits of data quality (e.g., comparing actualdata results with project quality objectives).

Include information on how your projectwill correct any problems identified throughthese assessments. Corrective actions mightinclude calibrating equipment morefrequently, increasing the number of regularlyscheduled training sessions, or reschedulingfield or lab activities.

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Element 21: ReportsIdentify the frequency, content, and

distribution of reports to data users, sponsors,and partnership organizations that detailproject status, results of internal assessmentsand audits, and how QAproblems have beenresolved.

Element 22: Data Review, Validation, andVerification Requirements

State how you review data and makedecisions about accepting, rejecting, orqualifying the data. All that is needed here isa brief statement of what will be done and bywhom.

Element 23: Validation and VerificationMethods

Describe the procedures you use to validateand verify data. This can include, forexample, comparing computer entries to fielddata sheets; looking for data gaps; analyzing

quality control data such as chain of custodyinformation, spikes, and equipmentcalibrations; checking calculations; examiningraw data for outliers or nonsensical readings;and reviewing graphs, tables, and charts.Include a description of how detected errorswill be corrected and how results will beconveyed to data users.

Element 24: Reconciliation with DataQuality Objectives

Once the data results are compiled, describethe process for determining whether the datameet project objectives. This should includecalculating and comparing the project’s actualdata quality indicators (precision, accuracy,completeness, representativeness, andcomparability) to those you specified at thestart of the project and describing what willbe done if they are not the same. Actionsmight include discarding data, setting limitson the use of the data, or revising the project’sdata quality objectives. ■


Much of this chapter was excerpted and adapted from:

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1996. The Volunteer Monitor’s Guide toQuality Assurance Project Plans. EPA 841-B-96-003. September. Web site:http://www.epa.gov/OWOW/monitoring/volunteer/qappcovr.htm


Other references:

Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay. 1987. Quality Assurance Project Plan for the CitizenMonitoring Project. Chesapeake Bay Citizen Monitoring Program. Baltimore, MD. 94 pp.

American Public Health Association (APHA), American Water Works Association, and WaterEnvironment Federation. 1998. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water andWastewater. 20th ed. L.S. Clesceri, A.E. Greenberg, A.D. Eaton (eds). Washington, DC.

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Ely, E. (ed.) 1992. The Volunteer Monitor. “Special Topic: Building Credibility.” 4(2). 24 pp.

Maine Department of Environmental Protection (DEP). 1996.A Citizen’s Guide to CoastalWatershed Surveys.78 pp.

Mattson, M. 1992. “The Basics of Quality Control.” The Volunteer Monitor4(2): 6-8.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1987. Data Quality Objectives Workshop,Washington, DC.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1988. Guide for the Preparation of QualityAssurance Project Plans for the National Estuary Program. EPA 556/2-88-001. Washington,DC. 31 pp.


U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1995. Bibliography of Methods for Marineand Estuarine Monitoring.EPA 842-B-95-002. April. Office of Water, Washington, DC.

Williams, K. F. 1999. “Quality Assurance Procedures.” In: Meeting Notes—U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: VolunteerEstuary Monitoring: Wave of the Future.Astoria, OR: May 19-21, 1999.

Web sites:

Metadata Information:

Federal Geographic Data Committee: http://www.fgdc.gov/metadata/

U.S. Geological Survey: http://geology.usgs.gov/tools/metadata/tools/doc/faq.html#1.1

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Chapter6Sampling Considerations

In the very early stages of developing any volunteer estuary monitoring program,

four important decisions must be made: what environmental parameters to

monitor, how the parameters will be measured, where monitoring sites will be

located, and when monitoring will occur.

Photos (l to r): Tillamook Bay National Estuary Project and Battelle Marine Sciences Lab, K. Register, R. Ohrel, R. Ohrel

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Chapter 6: Sampling Considerations

In the very early stages of developing any volunteer estuary monitoring

program, four important decisions must be made. Program leaders, with input

from their volunteers, must decide what environmental parameters they will

monitor, how the parameters will be measured, where monitoring sites will be

located, and when monitoring will occur.

This chapter discusses some considerations that should be taken into account

when making these decisions.

Overview

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Previous chapters laid thegroundwork for developingand operating a volunteerestuary monitoring program.Discussions focused on theneed for volunteer programsto understand why it isnecessary to collect data,how the data will be used,and who will use it.Involving potential datausers in programdevelopment is essential.

There are many additionalcomponents to the development of an overallmonitoring program and its quality assuranceproject plan (QAPP). Most revolve aroundfour fundamental questions:

• What parameters will the volunteer pro-gram monitor?

• How will the selected parameters bemonitored?

• Where will monitoring sites be located?

• When will monitoring occur?

While the questions may seem basicenough, they can hardly be overlooked orbrushed aside. Clear and concise answers tothese simple yet focused questions will formthe backbone of your monitoring program,providing the foundation upon which theprogram will rest.

Over time, it will be valuable to reevaluateyour answers to ensure that the goals andobjectives of the program are still being met.Such evaluations may reveal a need forprogram adjustments.

What to Monitor? Selecting SamplingParameters

What aspects of the estuary should yourvolunteer program monitor? There are manyoptions from which to choose, but ultimately

the parameters should be selected to helpcharacterize the health of your estuary. Byassessing the problems—and potentialproblems—facing the estuary, it shouldbecome clear which parameters will be mostimportant to monitor. Of course, the costs(time and money) associated with monitoringwill factor into your decision.

There are several common water qualityparameters that volunteer programs measure(see Ely and Hamingson, 1998). Theseinclude:

• water temperature;

• turbidity or transparency;

• dissolved oxygen;

• pH;

• salinity; and

• nutrients.

As techniques are mastered and monitoringskills improve, many volunteer groups go onto include additional parameters to theirmonitoring repertoire, including:

• fecal coliform and other indicator bacteria;

• chlorophyll;

• sulfates;

• pesticides;

• metals;

• changes in water color following stormevents;

• effects of erosion and sediment controlmeasures;

• habitat conditions and availability;

• macroinvertebrates;

• condition and abundance of fish andbirds; and

• phytoplankton, submerged aquatic vege-tation (SAV) and shoreline plants.

Four Critical Questions

Many field test kits require the monitor tocompare the colors of a prepared water sample with a standard (photo by K. Register).

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Helpful HintWhen deciding what water quality variablesto monitor, consider the needs of your datausers. They can help you select the variablesthat most effectively detect potentialproblems in the estuary. In addition to yourdata users, also consult with the following:

• state, federal, and regional environmen-tal quality agencies;

• municipal governments;

• county planning offices;

• wastewater treatment plants;

• local nonprofit environmental groups;

• university and college environmentaldepartments (e.g., environmental sci-ence, oceanography, civil engineering,hydrology, biology); and

• middle and high school teachers.

How to Monitor? Selecting MonitoringMethods and Equipment

An important question for any monitoringprogram concerns monitoring methods andequipment. As you will see in later chapters,there are usually two or more ways to monitorany water quality parameter.

Your selection of methods and equipmentwill be based partly on data accuracy require-ments and cost. For a state water quality agencyto accept volunteer-generated data, for example,the data must be collected using state-approvedmethods and equipment. If the purpose of themonitoring is to “screen” for potential prob-lems, you may purchase less expensive and per-haps less accurate or precise equipment.

Electronic meters (powered by batteries) areavailable to measure many different water qual-ity parameters, including pH, dissolved oxygen,conductivity, salinity, temperature, total dis-solved solids, and biochemical oxygen demand.Many meters will test for two or more of theseparameters. Meters can provide quick and accu-rate data, but they require frequent calibrationand regular maintenance to ensure proper func-

tioning. They can also be expensive, rangingfrom $300 to $5000, depending on the numberof functions, accuracy, range, and resolution ofthe instrument. Nevertheless, meters may provecost-effective, especially when a large numberof samples need to be analyzed.

Field test kits measure many of the samewater quality parameters as meters and tend tobe much less expensive, but pollutant detectionlevels can be unacceptable to some data users.Again, part of the decision to use meters orfield kits will depend on the quality of data thatyour program is trying to achieve. In somestates, the data from volunteers using field kitswill be accepted, while in other states, the datawill be considered valuable only as a “screen”for potential problems.

Some Tips on KitsSuppose you intend to use inexpensive fieldkits that rely on a visual color comparisonusing a “color wheel” or “color comparator.”How would you go about shopping for themost suitable kits? Here are a fewsuggestions:

• Look for reagents that produce a blue orgreen color; the human eye is better atperceiving the density of blue or green.

• Look for less toxic reagents (e.g., sali-cylate versus Nessler for ammonia, zincrather than cadmium for nitrate).

• Look for kits that report the lowest pos-sible concentration range, relying on theoption of diluting the sample if the con-centration is too high (make sure youhave the equipment for making dilu-tions—a small syringe without needle,distilled water, and a dedicated jar).

• Look for reagents in liquid form ratherthan powder—it is often tedious towrestle with powder packets, especiallywith wind that may blow and scatterthe powder.

(Excerpted and adapted from Katznelson, 1997.)

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Where to Sample? Selecting MonitoringLocations

Volunteer program leaders must determinethe geographic location where monitoringefforts will provide the most usefulinformation. After monitoring sites areselected, a decision must be made aboutwhere in the water column volunteers willcollect their samples.

Picking Monitoring Sites

Selecting representative sampling sites isone of the most important elements in settingup a monitoring effort. In any type of waterquality monitoring, basic information aboutthe area of interest is essential for the programmanager to consider before selectingmonitoring sites. Several things to considerare listed in the box below.

Considerations for Selecting Monitoring SitesBackground Information

• Obtain a map of the watershed with all areas that drain into the estuary identified and a bathymetric map ofthe estuary showing depth information.

• Gather reports and/or data that supply general information on the estuary.

• Check with your state water quality agency and other monitoring groups to learn their monitoring sitelocations. Monitoring at the same sites monitored by other groups can help provide trend data; monitoringdifferent sites can improve coverage of the entire estuary.

• Collect information on adjoining estuaries if there are plans to conduct data comparisons.

• Compile data on current and past activities in the basin that could affect pollutant levels (e.g., locations ofwastewater treatment plants, areas of urban or agricultural runoff, new development sites).

• Investigate sites in areas of known or suspected pollution.

Decision-Making

• Determine whether there is a real need for data to be collected from the area, thereby ensuring the immediate useof data collected.

• Consider whether you have a sufficient pool of volunteers to monitor the site in the manner and time required.

• Consider sites where there may be little or no data (e.g., areas near land targeted to be developed) to establishbaseline conditions.

• Consider how long data will need to be collected at the site in order to be useful. For example, several years ofdata collection may be necessary to make justifiable conclusions about water quality trends.

Verification

• Confirm that you will have safe, physical, and legal access to the site(s).

• If the monitoring effort requires the collection of water samples, verify that the site is underwater at all times,including low tide.

• Ensure that sampling sites are representative of the estuary and its watershed, if your goal is to assess overallestuary health (e.g., a site immediately downstream of a bridge is not likely to be representative of overall estuaryconditions).

• Confirm that volunteers can precisely relocate the site.

(Adapted from USEPA, 1990, and Stancioff, 1996.)

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Site location will depend a great deal on thepurpose of data collection. If, for example, theprogram is attempting to pinpoint troublespots in the estuary, the manager shouldcluster monitoring sites where point andnonpoint pollution sources enter the water. Tohelp ensure the data’s scientific validity,volunteers should monitor sample locationsboth upstream and downstream from thepollutant inflow point, as well as at the pointof entry, to provide comparative data.

Some programs may wish to obtain baselinedata that, over several years, will reveal waterquality trends. Rather than concentrating on afew critical sites, this type of program shouldchoose a sufficient number of sites scatteredthroughout the estuary or in the area ofinterest that will paint a representative pictureof water quality status over time.

Deciding Where to Sample in the WaterColumn

Monitors must consider that water qualityparameters are always changing. At any giventime, conditions at the surface may not be thesame as those at the bottom. For most citizenmonitoring programs and most water qualityparameters, however, samples taken from theestuary’s surface will suffice. These sampleswill provide a reasonably accurate indicationof water quality in the vicinity of thesampling site. For more sophisticated studiesin which water quality parameters throughoutthe water column are of interest, volunteersmay need to collect samples using a standardwater sampler at precise depths.

The stratification of the estuary may alsoinfluence where samples are taken in thewater column. For instance, a well-stratifiedestuary may require surface, intermediate, andbottom water samples or a complete profile tofully characterize the status of different waterquality variables in its waters. A reasonablywell-mixed estuary, however, or one in whichthe monitoring sites are located only inshallow waters (where stratification oftenbreaks down) may require only a singlesurface sample at each site.

While tidal range (the difference betweenhigh and low tides) is negligible in someestuaries, programs studying areas with largeswings in tides will have to consider thiseffect. Tides strong enough to cause mixingmay weaken the stratification in the estuary.This effect is particularly apparent duringspring tides (the highest tides of the month).By mixing the upper and lower layers, forexample, the tides allow nutrients trapped inbottom waters to mix upward and oxygenfrom the surface to move down.

When to Sample? Selecting the Right Time

The timing of most sampling efforts willdepend largely on the goals of the monitoringprogram, accessibility of the site, weather,number of monitors, and the water qualityvariables to be measured. The time of day andseason can significantly affect your results. Inaddition, the maximum holding time for eachsample and the sampling frequency necessaryto get the right information can influencewhen samples will need to be collected(Dates, 1992).

Time of Day

Sampling results can fluctuate dramatically,depending on the time of day that samples arecollected. For example, during the day aquaticplants utilize sunlight for photosynthesis,releasing oxygen as a byproduct. At night, theplants respire, consuming oxygen. As a result,dissolved oxygen levels can rise and fallsignificantly, especially in areas with denseaquatic vegetation. Under thesecircumstances, oxygen concentrations arelowest at sunrise and highest in the afternoon.

The time of day will also influence wheremany organisms will be found in the watercolumn. Zooplankton, for example, migratefrom deeper water to the surface at night tofeed, while many fish species travel dailythroughout the water column in search offood.

The time of day has other impacts onmonitoring. A common tool for measuring

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water clarity is the Secchi disk. One conditionfor its optimal use is that the disk be usedwhen the sun is directly overhead. (The diskcan be used at other times during the day, butthis would result in less than optimal results;see Chapter 15). To comply with thiscondition means that there is a small windowof opportunity for which monitoringconditions are ideal.

Because of these daily considerations, it isoften helpful to select consistent samplingtimes for many water quality parameters.However, ideal sampling times may alsodepend on tides, which could expose nothingbut mud where there had been water only afew hours earlier. Tidal stages vary from dayto day.

Time of Year

Environmental conditions change with theseasons, and monitoring results can reflectthose variations. For example, nutrient andpesticide concentrations in estuaries varyconsiderably from season to season. Morerunoff enters the estuary during wet weatherperiods, delivering pollutants and fresh water.Consequently, pollution concentrations can behigher and salinity lower at these times. Whenrunoff occurs, higher estuarine concentrationscorrespond to times of the year whenfertilizers and pesticides are most commonlyapplied on land (USGS, 1999).

On the other hand, dry weather periodsmean less runoff to the estuary. Highersalinity and lower pollutant levels may marksuch dry periods. The same observation maybe made in colder climates during the winter,when snow remains on land and the springthaw is months away.

The seasons have a profound influence onseveral other water quality measures,particularly dissolved oxygen. For example:

• cold water retains dissolved oxygen bet-ter than warmer water;

• increased plant activity in the warmermonths has a strong influence on dailyoxygen concentrations;

• vertical temperature gradients in theestuary—usually greater during thesummer months—hinder oxygen diffusion; and

• seasonal storms help mix estuarinewaters.

Seasonal sampling may also be influencedby program objectives. If your program isinterested in determining whether the estuaryis safe for swimming, for example, it is bestto sample when people are most likely to bein the water. For this purpose, it isunnecessary in most places to sample duringthe winter.

Finally, there is the practicality issue.Seasons may influence the level of volunteerparticipation. Will enough volunteers bewilling to go out in freezing weather or undera scorching sun to collect samples?

Holding Time

Consider the maximum duration that asample can be held before it is tested. Manybacteria samples must be chilled and sent to alaboratory for testing within six hours.Because of the stringent holding timerequirements, sampling during weekends andevenings—when most laboratories areclosed—may not be a good idea for somewater quality measures.

Frequency

Like most issues of timing, samplingfrequency usually depends on the goals of themonitoring effort. For example, if you aremonitoring to detect pollution from pointsources, very frequent sampling—daily oreven hourly—is usually necessary. On theother hand, some biological parameters,which indicate estuarine conditions over longperiods of time, need to be sampled only acouple of times each year (usually the springand fall).

Sampling frequency may also bedetermined based on atmospheric or otherevents. It is often useful to have volunteers

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available to collect data during or after largestorms as long as the program manager deemsit safe to sample. Such data is ofteninvaluable to state managers who may beunable to mobilize forces quickly enough tocapture such events. Storm data gives asnapshot of how severe wind and precipitationaffect the status of water quality variables in

the water. The occurrence of extraordinaryevents, such as fish kills or “crab jubilees”(phenomena characterized by crabs crawlingonto the land because of low oxygenconcentrations in the water), can also triggeradditional monitoring efforts to determine thecause of the events. ■

Dates, G. 1992. “Study Design: The Foundation of Credibility.” The Volunteer Monitor4(2): 1, 13-15.

Ely, E. and E. Hamingson. 1998. National Directory of Volunteer Environmental MonitoringPrograms.5th ed. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Wetland, Oceans, andWatersheds. EPA-841-B-98-009. Web site: http://yosemite.epa.gov/water/volmon.nsf.

Stancioff, E. 1996. Clean Water: A Guide to Water Quality Monitoring for Volunteer Monitors ofCoastal Waters.Maine/New Hampshire Sea Grant Marine Advisory Program and Universityof Maine Cooperative Extension. Orono, ME. 73 pp.


U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). 1999. The Quality of Our Nation’s Waters—Nutrients andPesticides. USGS Circular 1225. 82 pp.


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Chapter7In the Field

Being in the estuarine environment has great appeal for many volunteers. The key

for any program leader is to maintain volunteer interest while ensuring the quality

of data. To meet these goals, the program leader must recognize that several

elements go into the collection of estuary data. Failure to consider these elements

can cause problems for volunteers and program managers.

Photos (l to r): Weeks Bay Watershed Project, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, E. Ely, K. Register

7-1


Chapter 7: In the Field

Being in the estuarine environment has great appeal for many volunteers. The

key for any program leader is to maintain volunteer interest while ensuring the

quality of data. To meet these goals, the program leader must recognize that

several elements go into the collection of estuary data. Failure to consider these

elements can cause problems for volunteers and program managers.

Previous chapters discussed planning a volunteer monitoring program,

establishing a quality assurance project plan, and general sampling considerations.

This chapter reviews several topics applicable when volunteers travel into the

estuary to collect and analyze samples. It includes discussions of safety, supplies

and equipment, locating the sampling site, making observations about the site,

collecting data, and completing the data collection form.

Overview

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As discussed in Chapter 4, volunteers havedifferent reasons for getting involved with anestuary monitoring program. One commonmotive is the opportunity to be outside, on thewater, helping the estuary. Many volunteerslook forward to going, as scientists say, “intothe field” to collect and analyze watersamples. For them, being in the field is anenjoyable experience.

While being in the field is more often thannot an entertaining experience for allinvolved, volunteer leaders need to be awareof several potential pitfalls. Sampling errorscan compromise data quality. Disappointed or

angry volunteers can return, after hours ofmucking around, with no data because theydiscovered too late that their equipment wasnot operating properly. Data interpretationmay be hampered because volunteers fail tocomplete data forms properly. Volunteerinjuries, while uncommon, must always be inthe back of every leader’s mind.

With proper planning and training, themonitoring leader can avoid these problems.A bit of forethought before sending volunteersto monitoring sites can ensure volunteersafety, data quality, and fun in the field. ■

Fun in the Field

Preliminary Steps for Field SamplingThe following steps generally apply when monitoring most estuary water quality variables. Elaboration on thesesteps is provided throughout this chapter. These are not the only necessary steps, however. Additional steps shouldbe taken for each water quality parameter. Refer to each respective chapter for details.

STEP 1: Prepare for the field Before proceeding to the monitoring site, the volunteer should confirm sampling date and time, understand safetyprecautions, check weather conditions and verify directions to the monitoring site.

STEP 2: Check equipment The volunteer should also ensure that all necessary personal gear and sampling equipment are present and in workingorder. Results may be inaccurate if the volunteer has to improvise because a sampling device or chemical bottle hasbeen left behind.

STEP 3: Confirm proper sampling locationThe volunteer should have specific directions for locating a sampling site. If unsure whether he or she is in the correctspot, the volunteer should record a detailed description of where the sample was taken so that it can be compared to theintended site later.

STEP 4: Record preliminary observations and field measurements The volunteer should record general field observations and measurements (e.g., potential pollution sources, indicators ofpollution, presence and apparent health of wild and domestic animals, water color, debris or oil, algal blooms, air temper-ature, weather conditions, etc.) once at the site. This information is valuable when it comes time to interpret your results.

Record any condition or situation that seems unusual. Descriptive notes should be as detailed as possible.

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Chapter 4 detailed volunteer training,emphasizing safety, proper monitoringtechniques, and quality assurance/qualitycontrol procedures. No volunteer should beginmonitoring until properly trained.

Before heading out to sample for the firsttime, the volunteer should select a samplingtimetable that fits into his or her personalschedule. Adherence to the sampling scheduleis ideal, but program managers shouldrecognize that occasionally scheduledsampling days and times will be missed dueto weather, illness, holidays, vacations, etc. Ifpossible, a makeup date should be arrangedwithin two days on either side of the originaldate or a trained backup volunteer shouldsubstitute for an unavailable volunteer.

The volunteer should confirm the sampling

date and time with the program manager andlaboratory (if samples are being sent for labanalysis) each time before going out to collectsamples. This is especially true if the samplesneed to be analyzed in a laboratory within aparticular timeframe.

The volunteer, in collaboration with theprogram manager, should also characterize thecollection site with a written description, map,and accompanying photograph. Thisinformation serves as an initial status reportwith which to compare any future changes ofthe site. Use a global positioning system unit,nautical map, or topographic map todetermine the latitude and longitude of thesite. Maps and photographs may be availablefor your area (see Appendix C). ■

Before Leaving Home

Safety Considerations

Safety is one of the most criticalconsiderations for a volunteer monitoringprogram and can never be overemphasized.All volunteers should be trained in safetyprocedures and should carry with them a setof safety instructions and the phone numberof their program coordinator or team leader.

The following are some basic commonsensesafety rules for volunteers:

• Develop a safety plan. Find out thelocation and telephone number of thenearest telephone and write it down, orhave a cellular phone available. Locatethe nearest medical center and writedown directions for guiding emergencypersonnel from the center to yoursite(s). Have each member of thesampling team complete a medical formthat includes emergency contacts,insurance information, and relevant

health information such as allergies,diabetes, epilepsy, etc.

• Listen to weather reports. Never gosampling if severe weather or highwaves are predicted or if a storm occurswhile at the site. Training shouldinclude information on the appropriatecircumstances for both proceeding withand waiving data collection. Ifvolunteers elect to go out in poorconditions, they should be aware of therisks and always take proper safety gear(particularly if proceeding by boat). Noone should go out on the water duringthunderstorms or high wave conditions.

• Always monitor with at least onepartner (teams of three or four are best).Let someone know where you will be,when you plan to return, and what to doif you don’t return at the designatedtime.

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• Have a first aid kit handy (see box, page7-5). Know any important medicalhealth conditions of volunteers (e.g.,heart conditions or allergic reactions tobee stings). It is best if at least one teammember has current first aid/CPRtraining.

• Dress properly. In cold weather, bringlayered clothing, gloves, and boots. Inwarm weather, dress to avoid sunburn,insects, jellyfish, and brambles. Alwaysbring goggles and latex gloves (or somealternative gloves for those allergic tolatex). Wear hunter’s orange duringhunting season.

• Bring water and snacks.

• If you drive, park in a safe location. Besure your car doesn’t pose a hazard toother drivers and that you don’t blocktraffic.

• Put your wallet and keys in a safe place,such as a floatable, watertight bag thatcan be kept in a pouch strapped to yourwaist.

• Never cross private property without thepermission of the landowner. A betteroption, depending on the project’sobjectives, might be to sample at publicaccess points (e.g., public parks). Takealong a card identifying you as avolunteer monitor.

• Watch for irate dogs, farm animals, andwildlife (particularly snakes, ticks,hornets, and wasps). Know what to do ifyou get bitten or stung.

• Watch for poison ivy, poison oak,sumac, and other types of vegetation inyour area that can cause rashes andirritation.

• Do not walk on unstable riverbanks.Disturbing these banks can accelerateerosion and might prove dangerous ifthe bank collapses. Do not disturbvegetation on the banks.

• Be very careful when walking in theestuary itself. Rocky-bottom areas canbe very slippery and soft-bottom areasmay prove treacherous in areas wheremud, silt, or sand have accumulated insinkholes. Your partner(s) should waiton dry land, ready to assist you if youfall. Wear waders and rubber gloves atsites suspected of having significantpollution problems.

• Never wade in swift or high water.

• Confirm that you are at the proper siteby checking maps, site descriptions,directions, or a global positioningsystem.

• Do not monitor if the site is posted asunsafe for body contact. If the waterappears to be severely polluted, contactyour program coordinator.

• Pay attention to the tidal stage. Don’tget trapped by rising or falling tides.

• If you are sampling from a bridge, bewary of passing traffic. Wear brightorange safety vests and hats and set outorange traffic cones. Never lean overbridge rails unless you are firmlyanchored to the ground or the bridgewith good hand/foot holds.

• Wash your hands with antibacterial soapafter monitoring. Eat nothing until youhave washed your hands.

• If you are using a boat, ensure thathulls, engines, equipment, and trailersare inspected and in good workingorder.

• If at any time you feel uncomfortableabout the condition of the monitoringsite or your surroundings,immediately stop monitoring andleave the site. Your safety is moreimpor tant than the data!

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When using chemicals:

• Know your equipment, samplinginstructions, and procedures beforegoing out into the field. Prepare labelsand clean equipment before you getstarted.

• Keep the sampling equipment cleanbefore and after each use.

• Keep all equipment and chemicals awayfrom small children and animals. Manyof the chemicals used in monitoring arepoisonous. Tape the phone number ofthe local poison control center to yoursampling kit.

• Avoid contact between chemicalreagents and skin, eye, nose, and mouth.Never use your fingers to stopper abottle (e.g., when you are shaking asolution). Wear safety goggles andgloves when performing any chemicaltest or handling preservatives.

• Know how to use and store chemicals.Do not expose chemicals or equipmentto temperature extremes or long-termdirect sunlight (see “Getting the MostOut of Reagents,” page 7-6).

• Any work surface should be kept cleanof chemicals and sponged with cleanwater after the test is complete.

• Know chemical cleanup and disposalprocedures. Wipe up all spills when theyoccur. Return all unused chemicals toyour program coordinator for safedisposal. Close all containers tightlyafter use. Do not put the cap of onereagent onto the bottle of another.Dispose of waste materials and spentchemicals properly (see box, page 7-8).

• When working with bacteria samples,wash your hands between samples andwhen you are finished with testing.Avoid contact with bacterial coloniesafter they have been incubated(Stancioff, 1996). ■

First AidAt a minimum, a first aid kit shouldcontain the following items:

• Telephone numbers of emergencypersonnel (e.g., police, ambulanceservice)

• First aid manual which outlinesdiagnosis and treatment procedures

• Antibacterial or alcohol wipes

• First aid cream or ointment

• Acetaminophen for relieving pain andreducing fever

• Several band-aids

• Several gauze pads 3 or 4 inches square

• 2-inch roll of gauze bandage

• Triangular bandage

• Large compress bandage

• 3-inch wide elastic bandage

• Needle for removing splinters

• Tweezers for removing ticks

• Single-edged razor blade

• Snakebite kit

• Doctor-prescribed antihistamine ofparticipant who is allergic to bee stings

Be sure to carry emergency telephonenumbers and medical information foreveryone participating in field work(including the leader) in case ofemergency.


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Getting the Most Out of ReagentsMost volunteer monitoring programs use chemicals called reagentsto help analyze watersamples. Because the reagents are chemically reactive, they can easily degrade. Testreagents are also very susceptible to contamination under field conditions.

Replacing degraded reagents results in additional expense for the monitoring program. Ifbad reagents are not discovered in time, their use can also lead to erroneous water qualitymeasurements and disappointed volunteers whose hard work in the field is wasted. It istherefore wise—financially and programmatically—to check reagent quality and extendtheir useful life whenever possible.

Reagent EnemiesTemperature

In general, the speed of a chemical reaction doubles with every 10°C increase intemperature. Since reagent decomposition occurs by means of chemical reactions, hightemperatures will speed decomposition.

Sunlight

Many reagents will decompose when exposed to direct sunlight. Reagents containingsilver—commonly found in kits that use a titration method to test chloride or salinity—are especially sensitive to sunlight and will turn black when decomposition occurs due tosunlight exposure. This reagent is supplied in an amber glass, amber plastic, or otheropaque plastic container to protect it from sunlight.

Air

Evaporation can concentrate reagents, a condition which is especially critical for a titrant.Many reagents can also react chemically with oxygen or carbon dioxide in the air.

Contamination

Any foreign material introduced into a reagent bottle can cause test results to be in error.Mold or algae can grow in starch reagents. Other common sources of contamination areinadequate cleaning of equipment that is used to analyze more than one sample andfailure to use a dedicated dropper for each reagent.

(continued)

7-7



Recognizing Bad Reagents One of the easiest ways to tell if a reagent has gone bad is by its appearance. Note thereagent’s color when you first receive it. Over time, look for any changes in color orclarity, or for formation of solids (e.g., a crust on the lip of the bottle, floating particles,or solids settled at the bottom).

If you suspect that a reagent has gone bad, you can test it by using a standard (a solutionof known pollutant concentration). Standards can be purchased from test kitmanufacturers or other chemical companies, or obtained from cooperative laboratories.Most reagents will also have expiration dates printed on their containers.

You can also test your reagents by checking the suspect test kit against another kit thathas fresh reagents, or by cross-checking the kit against another method, such as a meter.

Preventing DegradationThere are many steps you can take in the field to get the most use out of reagents:

• Keep reagent bottles inside test kit during storage.

• Store kits away from heat and sunlight (this includes car trunks!).

• Minimize the amount of reagent exposure to heat and sunlight during testing.

• Do not leave reagent containers open any longer than necessary when performingtests.

• Be sure to place sunlight-sensitive reagents in opaque bottles when replacing orrefilling them.

• Keep reagent bottles tightly capped.

• Use dedicated droppers and dedicated equipment whenever possible.

• Always bring a container to the field for washing equipment between tests.

• Keep reagents in a refrigerator that is not used to store food.

Of course, check expiration dates and replace reagents before they expire.

(Excerpted from McAninch, 1997.)

(Getting the Most . . .continued)

7-8



Dealing with Waste

Waste Liquids:Many water quality monitoring kits produce waste liquids that you cannot pour into theestuary. Read the “Material Safety Data Sheet” that comes with your monitoring equipmentfor specific disposal procedures. Here is one method used to dispose of waste liquids:

• Pour all waste liquids into a separate container, such as a bottle or jug with a screw cap.Beverage containers should not be used forthis purpose, since the contents could bemistaken for a beverage. Containers into which liquid wastes are poured should beclearly labeled with appropriate warnings. It is usually acceptable to mix the waste from all your field tests, but confirm this by reading the “Material Safety Data Sheet”that comes with the monitoring equipment.

• Take the waste container home (don’t dump it outside).

• At home, add kitty litter to the container, cap it tightly, and put it out with the trash.

Some manufacturers’Material Safety Data Sheets will tell monitors to dilute waste liquidsand pour them down the drain if the monitors’homes are served by centralized wastewatertreatment systems. It is recommended that volunteer leaders contact their local wastewatermanagement agency to get exact instructions. It is important to tell the wastewatermanagement agency the names of each chemical used. Never put the waste liquids down the drain if you have a septic system, and never dispose of mercury from a broken thermometerby pouring it down any drain. Many volunteer programs avoid this potential problem by usingalcohol thermometers.

Bacteria Cultures: After counting the colonies that have grown in petri dishes, two methods to safely destroy thebacteria cultures are:

Autoclave

Place all petri dishes in a container in an autoclave. Heat for 15 to 18 minutes at 121oC and ata pressure of 15 pounds per square inch. Throw away the petri dishes.

Bleach

Disinfection with bleach should be done in a well-ventilated area, since it can react withorganic matter to produce toxic and irritating fumes. Pour a 10-25 percent bleach solutioninto each petri dish. Let the petri dishes stand overnight. Place all petri dishes in a sealedplastic bag and throw away.

7-9



Much of the equipment a volunteer will needin the field is easily obtained from either hard-ware stores or scientific supply houses. Otherequipment can be found around the house. Ineither case, the volunteer program should clear-ly specify the equipment its volunteers willneed and where it should be obtained.

Listed below are some basic supplies appro-priate for any volunteer field activity. Muchof this equipment is optional but will enhancethe volunteers’safety and effectiveness.

Safety and Health Supplies

• rubber gloves to guard againstcontamination (warning: some peopleare allergic to latex; ask volunteers ifthey are allergic);

• eye protection;

• insect repellent;

• sunblock;

• small first aid kit (see box, page 7-5);

• flashlight and extra batteries;

• whistle to summon help in emergencies;

• cellular phone;

• refreshments and drinking water;

• personal identification (e.g., driver’slicense);

• compass or Global Positioning Systemreceiver; and

• information sheet with safetyinstructions, site location information,and numbers to call in emergencies(heavily laminated or printed onwaterproof “write in rain” paper, ifpossible).

Clothing

• boots or waders;

• hat;

• foul/cold weather gear;

• extra pair of socks;

• sweater or other warm clothing;

• all-weather footwear; and

• bright-colored snag- and thorn-resistantclothes (long sleeves and pants are best).

Sampling Gear

• sampling equipment—properly calibratedand checked for accuracy—appropriatefor the parameter(s) being measured (mayinclude meters, test kits, etc.);

• water sampler (see “How to CollectSamples” in this chapter);

• sample containers;

• sufficient supply of reagents;

• instruction manual(s) for operatingsampling equipment;

• field data sheets (printed on waterproof“write in rain” paper, if possible);

• clipboard, preferably with plastic cover;

• several pencils (ink runs when it gets wet;soft pencils will write on damp surfaces);

• black indelible ink pens and markers;

• map or photograph of samplinglocation(s);

• compass or global positioning system tohelp find sampling location(s);

• tide chart;

• cooler and ice (blue ice pack preferably);

• tape measure;

• armored thermometer (non-mercurypreferred);

• wash bottles with distilled or deionizedwater for rinsing equipment;

• containers for waste materials (e.g., usedreagents);

• camera and film, to document particularconditions;

What to Bring

Once sites are selected, the managershould mark the sites on a topographic

map or navigational chart. A writtendescription of the sites should be

developed, using landmarksor latitude and longitude

coordinates (Stancioff,1996). Photographs

of the sites canalso be useful tovolunteers.

The managermay also want tocreate a mapshowing thelocation ofvolunteers’homes

if the program relies on citizens sampling fromtheir own dock or pier. This map will illustratewhich areas of the estuary still need coverageand where sites may be too tightly clustered.

Returning to the Same Monitoring SitesOnce the program manager and volunteers

have chosen monitoring sites, quality controldemands that each volunteer sample fromexactly the same location each time. If the siteis off the end of a dock or pier, returning tothe monitoring site is a simple matter. If,however, the volunteer reaches the site byboat, the task becomes more complicated.Some basic methods to ensure that volunteersreturn to the same site are:

Locating Monitoring Sites, or How Do I Get There from Here?

Rocks

Building

Dock

Flag Pole

Figure 7-1.The shoreline landmark method.

7-10



• extra rope/line;

• duct tape, electrical tape, zip ties, sealableplastic bags, and other items for quickrepair and modification of equipment;and

• walking stick of known length forbalance, probing, and measuring.

If monitoring from a boat, volunteers shouldbring the following additional equipment:

• one U.S. Coast Guard-approved personalflotation device for each person aboard (itis recommended that you wear a lifejacket at all times);

• equipment required by state and local law(your state boating administration willhave a list, which usually includes suchitems as a fire extinguisher and bell);

• anchor;

• weighted line to measure depth; and

• nautical chart of area.

Helpful HintPersonal journals kept by volunteers can bevaluable supplements to the informationrecorded on data sheets. Volunteer notes onfield observations and sampling activities cangive feedback on sampling methods, aid datainterpretation, and provide a useful historicrecord to accompany the data. In addition,their insights can help future volunteersunderstand specific nuances of theirmonitoring sites.

The tools, equipment, instruments, andforms that you take into the field will oftendepend on where you are monitoring, yourmonitoring techniques, and the parametersyou are measuring. Additional equipmentneeded for specific chemical, physical, andbiological monitoring procedures included inthis manual are provided in the relevantchapters. ■

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The Shoreline Landmark Method

Landmarks—conspicuous natural ormanmade objects—provide a ready means ofidentifying a specific monitoring site. Oncethe program manager and volunteer haveidentified a permanent site, they shouldanchor the boat and scan the landscape fordistinctive features. Such features can includetall or solitary trees, large rocks, water towers,flag poles, or any other highly visible andidentifiable object.

Two landmarks, in front-to-back alignment,should be chosen. The sight line created bythe landmarks will lead directly back to thesite. The volunteer should then pick anotherset of aligned landmarks onshore about 90degrees from the sight line of the first set. Thetwo sight or bearing lines should intersect atthe boat (Figure 7-1). The volunteer shouldpractice repositioning the boat at this point.

In some cases, volunteers must return tomonitoring sites on a coastal pond, sound, orlagoon located in the middle of a salt marsh orin some other rather featureless landscape. Ifno obvious landmarks are available,volunteers may want to post two sets ofbrightly colored signal flags (Figure 7-2).They should obtain permission from thelandowner before posting the flags.

The Marker Buoy Method

In wind- and wave-protected sections of anestuary, volunteers may want to set buoys tomark the monitoring site (Figure 7-3). Thebuoy should be brightly colored and easilydistinguishable from fishing buoys floating inthe area. The program manager should checkon local and state regulations regarding buoyplacement before using this method.

Although a simple means of marking a site,buoys do not always stay in place; wind,waves, and passersby may move the buoy orremove it entirely. Volunteers should use theshoreline landmark method as a backup toensure that the buoy is correctly positioned.

Global Positioning System (GPS)

In many cases, the lack of adefinitive landmark (e.g., a pier,outfall pipe, or marker buoy) canhinder volunteers from reachingthe right sampling location. Inaddition, monitoring groups usingcertain data management systems(e.g., Geographic InformationSystems; see Chapter 8) may needto report specific geographiclocations, often by latitude andlongitude. In such cases, reportinga location as “across the streetfrom the firehouse” isunacceptable.

While latitude and longitudecan be estimated from a U.S.Geological Survey topographicmap, volunteers might still beguessing about their exactposition. The most accuratemethod for determining position is using aGlobal Positioning System (GPS) receiver.This tool helps to ensure that the volunteer iscollecting samples at the same location timeafter time. As a result,quality control ismaintained.

GPS uses a network ofsatellites to provide userswith, among other things,data about their positionson Earth. With relativeease, users can locate theirlatitude, longitude, andelevation (althoughelevation is usually lessaccurate). The volunteermust be sure to minimizethe blocking of satellitetransmissions by holdingthe receiver away from thebody. Buildings or treescan also causeinterference.

Hole in pole base

Wooden stake

Wire wrappedaround log

HeavyStones

Finishing Nail

2”x 2”pole

Guy Wires

Notches

Tacks

Orange or redflag with edge

rolled

Figure 7-2.Construction of a landmarkflag (adapted from Compton, 1962).

Figure 7-3.The marker buoy. This instrumentmay be used to identify monitoring sites insheltered areas of the estuary.

7-12



A variety of GPS receivers exist. Generally,as a receiver’s accuracy increases, so does itscost. For example, a GPS unit with adifferential antenna can be very accurate, butit tends to be more expensive than a unitwithout the antenna. ■

Helpful HintAccurate GPS receivers can be expensive,but volunteer groups do not always have tobuy them. Some government agencies loanthem out and some GPS receivers can bedonated. A monitoring group may be ableto borrow a receiver to help pinpoint asampling location. Once at the location,they can place a marker to ensure that theycan easily return to the site.

Usually, taking a water sample to obtain awater quality variable concentration is notenough; in fact, it is only part of what isneeded. Once at the monitoring location,volunteers should take a visual assessment,which is simply observing and recording theenvironmental conditions at the site.Volunteers should always be on the lookoutfor environmental clues that might helpexplain the data. A visual assessment of themonitoring site can provide invaluableinformation and make interpretation of otherdata easier and more meaningful. Forexample, if dead fish are floating at the watersurface, they may signal a sudden drop indissolved oxygen (DO) levels, the influx ofsome toxic substance, or disease or infestationof the fish. Unusual visual data are like bait;they should lure you in for furtherinvestigation.

The most value is gained when volunteersassess the same area each time they collectsamples. In this way, the volunteers willbecome the local experts—growing familiarwith baseline estuary conditions and land andwater uses, and being better able to identifychanges over time (USEPA, 1997).

When making a visual assessment of thesite, look for and record information about:

Potential Pollution Sources Several programs have started shoreline or

watershed assessment projects to characterizeland uses and land use changes around anestuary. An assessment can quantify the amountof—and changes in—residential, industrial,urban, agricultural, and forested areas within awatershed. A broader-scope project couldfurther map the location of construction sites,marinas, industrial and municipal discharges,stormwater discharge points, landfills,agricultural feedlots, and any other potentialpollution sources to the estuary.

Such an undertaking also provides theprogram leaders with information that mayprove useful in selecting additional monitoringsites.

Indicators of Pollution Water pollution may not be visually apparent,

so other clues can serve as warning of possiblecontamination. Lesions on fish, for example,suggest the possible presence of toxiccontaminants. Surface foam and scumdownstream from a plant’s discharge could because for concern. Although the discharge couldlie within legal limits, a citizen group may wantto investigate the situation further. Other

Making Field Observations: Visual Assessments

7-13



pollutant indicators include large numbers ofdead fish or other animals, rust-colored oozes,large quantities of floatable debris, and highlyturbid water.

Record all unusual conditions on a datasheet. Descriptive notes should be as detailedas possible. Volunteers should bring suchconditions to the attention of the programleaders so that they can report them to theappropriate authority, if warranted.Monitoring groups which function aswatchdogs may want to follow up with aninvestigation of their own.

Living Resources A simple assessment of the quantity and

type of living resources can round out the setof data taken at one site. Numbers ofwaterfowl, schools of fish, presence orabsence of submerged aquatic vegetationbeds, change in shoreline vegetation, andother information relate directly to the area’swater quality. Fish kills or widespreadshellfish bed die-offs may indicate episodes ofintolerable water quality conditions. Thepresence of birds, pets, sea lions, and cattlemay help explain high bacteriaconcentrations.

Remember, however, that the presence orabsence of a living resource does notdefinitively speak to the estuary’s waterquality. Many animals are migratory and willnot be seen at certain times of the year. Othersmay remain year-round, but become inactiveat times and are difficult to find.

Color We tend to think of pure water as blue, yet

few waterbodies north of the sub-tropics fitthis description. Clean water may have a colordepending upon the water source and itscontent of dissolved and suspended materials.Plankton, plant pigments, metallic ions, andpollutants can all color water (Table 7-1).Even the color of the substrate can cause thewater to take on an apparent color. To assess

color, use one of the established color scalessuch as the Borger Color System or the Forel-Ule Color Scale from scientific supplyhouses.

Oil Slicks Oil slicks are easily recognized by their

iridescent sheen and often noxious odor. Oilmay indicate anything from a worrisome oilspill to bilge water pumped from a nearbyboat. Estimate the size of the slick, ifpossible, and report any spill to localauthorities or the U.S. Coast Guard’s NationalResponse Center (1-800-424-8802).

Weather ConditionsThe weather, recorded at the time of

sampling and for several days beforehand,helps in the interpretation of other data.

Water Surface Conditions Whether calm, rippled, or with waves and

whitecaps, surface water conditions indicatehow much mixing is occurring in the top layerof the estuary. When the surface is placid,very little wind-induced mixing occurs.Waves whipped up by wind, however,indicate substantial mixing and theintroduction of oxygen to the water. Thisinformation may be especially helpful ininterpreting dissolved oxygen data.

Table 7-1.Water colors and their possible causes.

Apparent Color Possible Reason

Peacock blue Light-colored substrate

Green Phytoplankton

Yellow/Brown Peat, dissolved organics

Red/Yellow/Mahogany Algae, dinoflagellates

Myriad colors Soil erosion

Rainbow Oil slick

7-14



Ice Ice cover can affect dissolved oxygen levels

in the water by limiting the interaction ofwater with the atmosphere. In addition, ice inshallow areas may damage submerged aquaticplants and temporarily deprive estuarineanimals and waterfowl of their habitat.

Erosion Evidence of recent erosion, such as a

steeply cut bank, may indicate recent stormactivity or substantial wakes from boats. Ineither case, highly turbid water mayaccompany the erosion. ■

Volunteer monitoring programs shouldconsider including several other parameters intheir suite of regular measurements. Most aresimple to carry out and provide additionalbackground information helpful in the finalanalysis of an estuary’s status. Theseparameters include:

Air Temperature Air temperature can be measured with the

same meter or thermometer used for readingwater temperature. Prior to placing theinstrument in the water sample, allow thethermometer to equilibrate with thesurrounding air temperature for three to fiveminutes; a wet thermometer will give anerroneous air temperature reading. Make surethe thermometer is out of direct sunlight toavoid a false high reading.

Odor Though quite subjective, water odor can

reveal water quality problems that may not bevisually apparent. Industrial and municipaleffluents, rotting organic matter andphytoplankton blooms, and bacteria can allproduce distinctive odors. Raw sewage, forexample, has an unmistakable aroma. Makenote of the odor in the data record anddescribe the smell.

Precipitation Precipitation data help the program manager

determine the possible causes of turbidity anderosion. Turbidity, for instance, generally risesduring and after a rainstorm due to soil runoff.A wind storm (without precipitation), on theother hand, might cause turbidity due tobottom mixing. Precipitation also may helpexplain why nutrient concentrations rise (withrain) or decline (with little rain).

Be sure to place the rain gauge in an openarea away from interference from overheadobstructions and post it more than one meterabove the ground (Figure 7-4). Check thegauge each morning, record the amount ofprecipitation and the time of measurement,then empty the gauge. If the gauge sits after arainfall, evaporation can falsify themeasurement.

Helpful Field Measurements

45 45

1 Meter

Figure 7-4. Rain gauge placement (adapted from Campbell and Wildberger, 1992).

7-15



Tides Programs studying highly stratified

estuaries or estuaries with tidal ranges over afew feet may want to measure tidal stage.Tides of sufficient magnitude are effectivemixers of estuarine waters and may breakdown stratification. Even if tidal stage data

are not included at the beginning of thesampling effort, the National Oceanic andAtmospheric Administration (NOAA)publishes tide tables for most of the U.S., andthis information can be obtained and appliedafter the fact if the monitoring station isreasonably close to one of the published tidetable sites. ■

Units 1-3 in this manual specify samplingand equipment procedures for differentchemical, physical, and biological waterquality parameters. There are, however,several general tasks that apply wheneverwater samples are collected. As always,program managers should consult with theirlaboratory or their sampling equipmentinstructions for exact requirements.

Before Leaving Home: Preparation ofSampling Containers

Reused sample containers and glasswaremust be cleaned and rinsed before and aftersamples are taken. When preparing samplingcontainers for most chemical and physicalwater quality parameters, follow these steps:

1. Wear latex or rubber gloves.2. Wash each sample bottle or piece of

glassware with a brush and phosphate-free detergent.

3. Rinse three times with cold tap water.4. (This step is only for sample containers

and glassware used to monitor nitrogenand phosphorus.) Rinse with 10 percenthydrochloric acid.

5. Rinse three times with deionized water.

Equipment used for bacteria sampling mustbe sterilized in an autoclave, which mayrequire the assistance of a certified lab.

In the Field: Sample CollectionThere are several different water collection

devices available today. They can be used formost water quality analyses in the field orlaboratory.

Surface Samples

Screw-cap bottles and Whirl-pak bags(Figure 7-5) are among the most popular toolsfor collecting water samples near the surface.The following steps should generally be taken(USEPA, 1997):

• Screw-Cap Bottle

1. Using a waterproof pen, label the bottlewith the site number, date, and time.

2. Unscrew the bottle cap immediatelyprior to sampling. Avoid touching theinside of the bottle, its lip, or the cap. Ifyou accidentally touch either, useanother one.

3. Wading: Try to disturb as little bottom sedimentas possible and take care not to collectwater that has sediment from bottomdisturbance. Stand facing against thecurrent or tide (if it can be detected).Collect the sample against the current,in front of you (Figure 7-6). You mayalso tape your bottle to an extensionpole to sample from deeper water.

How to Collect Samples

7-16



Boat: Carefully reach over the side;collect the water sample onthe upcurrent side of the boat.

4. Hold the bottle near its baseand plunge it (openingdownward) below the watersurface (Figure 7-6). If youare using an extension pole,remove the cap, turn thebottle upside down, andplunge it into the water,against the current or tide.Collect the water sample 8-12inches below the watersurface whenever possible.

5. Turn the bottle into the current andaway from you. In slow-moving waters,push the bottle underneath the surfaceand away from you against the currentor tide.

6. Leave a 1-inch air space (except fordissolved oxygen and biochemicaloxygen demand samples), so that thebottle can be shaken just before

analysis. Recap the bottle carefully,remembering not to touch the inside ofthe bottle or its lip.

7. Fill in the bottle number and/or site num-ber on the appropriate field data sheet.

8. If the samples are to be analyzed in thelab, place them in the cooler for transportto the lab.

• Whirl-pak Bag

1. Using a waterproof pen, label the bag withthe site number, date, and time.

2. Tear off the top of the bag along the perfo-ration above the wire tab just prior to sam-pling (Figure 7-5). Avoid touching theinside of the bag. If you accidentally touchthe inside of the bag, use another one.

3. Wading:Try to disturb as little bottom sediment aspossible. In any case, be careful not to col-lect water that contains sediment. Standfacing against the current or tide. Collectthe water sample in front of you.Boat:Carefully reach over the side; collect thewater sample on the upcurrent side of theboat.

4. Hold the two white pull tabs in each handand lower the bag into the water with theopening facing against the current. Openthe bag midway between the surface andthe bottom by pulling the white pull tabs.The bag should begin to fill with water.You may need to “scoop” water into thebag by drawing it through the wateragainst the current and away from you.Fill the bag no more than 3/4 full.

5. Lift the bag out of the water, pouring outexcess sample. Pull on the wire tabs toclose the bag. Continue holding the wiretabs and flip the bag over several timesaway from you to quickly seal the bag.Fold the ends of the wire tabs together atthe top of the bag, being careful not topuncture the bag. Twist them together,forming a loop.

Perforation

Wire Tab

Pull Tab

water flow

water flow

water flow

water flow

Figure 7-5.Whirl-pak bag. Volunteers canbe easily trained to collect water sampleswith these factory-sealed, disposable bags.

Figure 7-6.Taking a water sample. Turn the container into the current or tide andscoop in an upcurrent direction (redrawn from USEPA, 1997).

1

2

3

4

7-17



6. Fill in the bag number and/or site numberon the appropriate field data sheet.

7. If the samples are to be analyzed in thelab, place them in the cooler for transportto the lab.

Samples at Depth

To accommodate at-depth measurements,equipment supply companies produce severaltypes of water samplers designed to collectwater at specific depths through the watercolumn.

Two of the most commonly used samplers incitizen monitoring programs are the Van Dornand Kemmerer samplers (Figure 7-7). Bothsamplers have an open cylinder with stoppers atboth ends. A calibrated line attaches to thedevice and allows the volunteer to lower theunit into the water to a precise depth.

After lowering the unit into the water to theproper depth, the volunteer then releases a“messenger”—or weight—down the line. Whenthe messenger hits the sampler, it trips a releas-ing mechanism and two stoppers seal off theends of the tube.

If sampling routinely takes place from abridge, the manager should install a lighterweight messenger on the sampler. Bewarned, however, that repeated use of thestandard messenger from such heights willeventually damage the unit.

The volunteer should pull the sampler tothe surface and transfer the collected waterinto a sample bottle or—depending on theparameter to be measured—a Whirl-pakbag. Pouring the water from one containerto another can aerate the sample, therebybiasing some results (e.g., for dissolvedoxygen). To avoid aeration, the volunteershould transfer the water using a rubberhose with an attached push valve. With theend of the hose at the bottom of the emptysample container, the volunteer should fillthe bottle to overflowing.

Van Dorn and Kemmerer samplers, theirderivations, and samplers designed forparticular water quality parameters (e.g.,dissolved oxygen) are available fromequipment suppliers (Appendix C). Severalvolunteer groups have also constructedtheir own samplers. ■

KemmererWater Sampler

Van DornWater Sampler

Figure 7-7.Two commonwater samplers: Kemmererand Van Dorn (from APHAet al., 1998).

In several places in this chapter andthroughout the manual, the importance ofvolunteers completing the data form or datasheet is expressed. The forms, when properlyfilled out, provide a set of standardized datauseful to both managers and scientists.Volunteer program leaders are responsible forcontinuously emphasizing that properlycompleted data forms are essential to dataquality. Rarely can a data manager feelcomfortable asking a volunteer about detailsfrom the previous week’s sampling exercise;relying on memory is risky.

Data forms should be easy touse and have space for waterquality data and all informationnecessary to analyze, present,and manage the data. Sampledata forms are provided inAppendix A. As a backup to thedata form, some volunteers maywish to bring a tape recorderinto the field to recordobservations.

While data users and thedatabase manager should be

The Data Form

Volunteers collecting bacteria samples

using an extension pole (photo by Weeks

Bay Watershed Project).

7-18



involved in the development of thedata collection form, considerationshould also be given to the ease withwhich volunteers can fill out andunderstand the form (USEPA, 1990). Ifthe information is not important to theproject, it should not be asked for onthe data form.

One way to better ensure that volunteerscomplete the data forms correctly andcompletely is to involve them in the forms’development. Periodic reviews of the formsshould also be conducted. As volunteers gainexperience with the forms and monitoringsites, they can provide excellent suggestionsfor improving the data forms. ■


Volunteers collecting a watersample from a dock using adissolved oxygen sampler (photo by K. Register).


Maine Department of Environmental Protection (DEP). 1996. A Citizen’s Guide to CoastalWatershed Surveys. 78 pp.


Other references:


Campbell, G., and S. Wildberger. 1992. The Monitor’s Handbook. LaMotte Company,Chestertown, MD. 71 pp.

Compton, R. 1962. Manual of Field Geology. John Wiley and Sons. New York.

Ellett, K. 1993. Chesapeake Bay Citizen Monitoring Program Manual. Alliance for theChesapeake Bay. Richmond, VA. 57 pp.

Ely, E. 1995. “Determining Site Locations.” The Volunteer Monitor7(1).

Lee, V., D. Avery, E. Martin, and N. Wetherill. 1992. Salt Pond Watchers Protocol #1: FieldSampling Manual. Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island. Tech. Rpt. No. 14.27 pp.

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McAninch, T. 1997. “Guarding Against Reagent Degradation.” The Volunteer Monitor9(1).

Stancioff, E. 1996. Clean Water: A Guide to Water Quality Monitoring for Volunteer Monitors ofCoastal Waters. Maine/New Hampshire Sea Grant Marine Advisory Program and Universityof Maine Cooperative Extension. Orono, ME. 73 pp.


U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1997. Introduction to GPS for Field Biologists(TEC7132). Sept.25-26, 1997. Shepherdstown, WV. National Conservation Training Center.

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Chapter8Data Management, Interpretation, and Presentation

Data are like letters of the alphabet: taken individually, they reveal very little. Put

together with a little thought and organization, however, those same letters can tell a

complete story. By highlighting data management, interpretation, and presentation,

this chapter shows how data can be used to tell a story about your estuary.

Photos (l to r): The Ocean Conservancy, L. Monk, The Ocean Conservancy, K. Register

8-1


Chapter 8: Data Management, Interpretation, and Presentation

Volunteer estuary monitoring objectives differ from one program to the next.

Meeting those objectives, however, usually requires similar steps. Regardless of

whether a volunteer program wants to use its data for citizen education or resource

management, the program must make its data understandable to its audience.

Many goals will be unmet if the volunteer program cannot clearly convey what its

data say about the estuary.

Data are like letters of the alphabet: taken individually, they reveal very little. Put

together with a little thought and organization, however, those same letters can tell a

complete story. By highlighting data management, interpretation, and presentation,

this chapter shows how data can be used to tell a story about your estuary.

Overview

8-2



Consider this situation: You have themonitoring equipment. Volunteers are in thefield collecting data. Enthusiasm is high.Everything is going smoothly and it’s time torelax.

But is it really?

As difficult as it may be to accept, theaforementioned situation means one thing:there is much more work to be done. Whatwill you do with the incoming data? Asdiscussed in previous chapters, monitoringorganizations should know the answer to thisquestion before they collect their first sample.These decisions are made, in part, based onthe needs of potential data users, who areparticularly concerned about:

• databases and software used to managethe data;

• procedures followed in order to verifyand check the raw volunteer data;

• analytical procedures employed toconvert the raw data into findings andconclusions; and

• reporting formats.

Knowing how the data will be used shoulddrive the development and everydaymanagement of a volunteer monitoringprogram.

Most programs intend to use their data totell a story about the estuary’s health.Similarly, most volunteers who collect the datawant to know what their information revealsabout the estuary. Without communicating thatdata in a meaningful way to your intendedaudience, the hard work of many volunteersand volunteer leaders could be wasted. To takeinformation from data sheets and convert it tosomething that makes sense to your audiencerequires several elements, which aresummarized in Figure 8-1 and described in theremainder of this chapter. ■

After Data Collection: What Does It Mean?

Data ManagementAs discussed in previous chapters, data

sheets should not only be easy for volunteersto complete, but should also record all desiredinformation about the estuary and thesampling sessions. The volunteer leadercannot overemphasize to volunteers theimportance of careful and accurate datarecording. Incomplete or inaccurate datasheets can cause serious problems when it

comes time to interpret the data. Such prob-lems can damage your program’s credibilityand/or render the data useless, making allworthwhile efforts futile.

Data management is everyone’s respon-sibility. The commitment by volunteers tocollect high quality data must be matched bythe program’s commitment to make theinformation understandable to its volunteersand other data users. From the very earlystages of planning a volunteer monitoringprogram, a sound data management plan mustbe a priority. It should be clear how the datawill be processed, when it will be processedand reported, and who will be responsible foreach task. An attitude of “Let’s just get thedata now and figure out what to do with itData

ManagementData Analysis/Interpretation

DataPresentation

DataCollection

INTRODUCTION

Data Sheet

Figure 8-1.Stepsnecessary to preparedata for presentation.Data tell a story aboutthe estuary.

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later” can lead to wasted time and effort and ahuge data backlog.

Where Does the Data Go?It is difficult to get any meaning from boxes

full of data sheets. The information collectedby volunteers needs to be organized andreadily accessible. Years ago, this may havemeant that the data might be organized inhandwritten tables. This method is still anoption, but a computerized data managementsystem provides a great deal of advantages,especially if the data collection effort isconducted at many sites and/or over a longtime period (Lease, 1995).

Database or Spreadsheet?

Today’s computer software includes avariety of spreadsheet and database packagesthat allow you to organize the data andperform statistical analyses. These optionsmake it easier to detect relationships betweendata points. Spreadsheets are adequate formost data management needs and have theadvantage of being relatively simple to use.Most spreadsheet packages have graphicscapabilities that will allow you to plot yourdata onto a graph of your choice (i.e., bar,line, or pie chart). Examples of commonspreadsheet software packages are Lotus 1-2-3, Excel, and Quattro Pro.

Database software may be more difficult tomaster and usually lack the graphicscapabilities of spreadsheet software. If youmanage large amounts of data, however,having a database is almost a necessity. It canstore and manipulate very large data setswithout sacrificing speed. The database canalso relate records in one file to records inanother. This feature allows you to break yourdata up into smaller, more easily managedfiles that can work together as though theywere one.

The ability to query data is one of the mostsignificant advantages of using a database.For example, the user can search for recordsthat show water temperature exceeding X

degrees over a specified time period, oridentify monitoring sites that have dissolvedoxygen levels between X and Y and the datesof those observations. The questions can besimple or quite complex and the answers oroutput can be organized in a variety of ways.

If you use a database for data storage andretrieval, you may still want to use aspreadsheet or other program with graphicscapabilities. Many spreadsheet and databasesoftware packages are compatible and willallow you to transport data sets back and forthwith relative ease. Specific parts of thedatabase (such as results for a particular waterquality variable from all stations and allsampling events) can then be transported intothe spreadsheet, statistically analyzed, andgraphically displayed. Examples of populardatabase software packages are dBase,Access, FileMaker Pro, and FoxPro.

Designing a Data Management System

Many people are capable of writing theirown programs to manipulate and display data.The disadvantage of using a “homegrown”software program, however, is that if itsauthor leaves the monitoring program, so toodoes all knowledge about how the programworks. Commercial software, on the otherhand, comes with consumer services thatprovide over-the-phone help and instructions,users’guides, replacement guarantees, andupdates as the company improves its product.Most commercial programs are developed toimport and export data in standard formats.This feature is important because if you wantto share data with other programs ororganizations, all you need are compatiblesoftware programs. However, some fileconversions may be more difficult thanadvertised by the software manufacturer. Toavoid potential problems, consult with anygroups, government agencies, or laboratorieswith whom you plan to share data and ensurethat your software packages are compatible(Lease, 1995).

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When designing databases or spreadsheets,always keep in mind what you will ultimatelydo with the data. Will you produce graphs orreports? Will you need to show a map withkey data collection sites? Try to design yourdata management system in a manner that willmake it easy to generate your final product.

Another consideration is who will input thedata and create the final products. As morepeople, and especially volunteers, areinvolved in data entry and management, moreemphasis should be placed on making thesystem easy to use.

Helpful HintEase of data entry is always an importantelement to consider. Here are somesuggestions:

• Design the database or spreadsheetbefore you collect any data—this willhelp in the creation of your data sheets.

• Ideally, the database or spreadsheetinput screen and the field data sheetsused by volunteer monitors should lookalike.

• Design the database or spreadsheet insuch a way that it is readily apparentwhere data should be entered. Data cellscan be highlighted with a special color,for example.

Shared DatabasesGreater efforts are being made to develop data storage systems that facilitate data exchangeamong different monitoring groups. A shared database serves to assimilate all the data beingcollected in a particular region and therefore helps to increase understanding of environmentalconditions. Volunteer organizations are increasingly being encouraged to submit their data tothese shared databases.

To participate in a shared database, the volunteer organization usually must have a qualityassurance project plan (see Chapter 5) that meets the requirements of the group maintainingthe shared database. Using software programs that are compatible with the shared databasemay also be necessary.

Shared databases may be developed for a specific resource (e.g., a river) or as a generalclearinghouse of information. One example of a broad database is the U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency’s (EPA’s) national water and biological data storage and retrieval system,called STORET. With STORET, volunteer programs can submit data to a centralized fileserver which permits national data analyses and through which data can be shared amongorganizations. A specific set of quality control measures is required for any data entered intothe system. For more information, see the EPA Web page at www.epa.gov/owow/STORET/.

Data sharing also occurs at the state level. For example, the Oregon Department ofEnvironmental Quality (DEQ) will accept data from volunteers and load it into an in-housemonitoring database, the Laboratory Analytical Storage and Retrieval (LASAR). These dataare then periodically uploaded to the STORETsystem. The Department has established aRequired Data Elements Policy to enhance the widest use of data collected in Oregon. Visitthe DEQ Web site for contact information and a copy of the policy:http://www.deq.state.or.us/wq/.

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Coding Systems

Any data management system should beflexible enough to meet future needs,especially as data start to accumulate. Aneasily understood coding system will helpsimplify the tracking and recording of data.Codes developed for sample sites, parameters,and other information on field and lab sheetsshould parallel the codes you use in yourdatabase. If you will be sharing yourinformation with a state or local naturalresource agency, you may want your codingsystem to match or complement the agency’ssystem.

Sample Sites

Because sample sites tend to change or growin number over time, it is important to have anaccommodating site numbering system. A goodconvention to follow is to use a site codingsystem that includes an abbreviation of thewaterbody or project plus a site number (e.g.,GOR021 for a site on the Gooms River). Byusing a site abbreviation and three-digit code,999 sites can be created for each project, whichis plenty for most volunteer programs.

Water Quality Parameters

It is also important to develop a codingsystem for each of the water quality parametersyou are testing. These are the codes you willuse in the database or spreadsheet to identifyand extract results. To keep the amount ofclerical work to a minimum, abbreviate withoutlosing the ability to distinguish parameters fromone another. For example, EC could representE. coli bacteria and FC could be the code forfecal coliform bacteria.

Reviewing Data SheetsWriters have editors to look for mistakes in

grammar, punctuation, etc. Similarly,someone should be available to reviewvolunteers’data sheets. Even the bestprofessionals and volunteers can make data

recording mistakes; misplaced decimal points,forgotten calculations, or data valuesaccidentally left blank are entirely possible.

The program coordinator or designated dataanalyst should screen and review the fielddata sheets immediately as they are receivedand before the data are entered into thedatabase or spreadsheet. Waiting to review thedata sheets for discrepancies is not advised;the longer you wait, the more likely it is thatthe person who collected the data will forgetimportant details about the sampling effortthat could clarify any inconsistencies.

When reviewing the data sheets, theprogram coordinator or other designatedperson should ask the following:

• Are the field data sheets complete?

If a person is consistently leaving a sectionof the sheet incomplete, ask why. You maylearn that he or she is unclear about amonitoring procedure or has misunderstoodsome instructions.

• Are the monitoring results very differentfrom what might usually be expected for thesite? If unexpected, are they still within therealm of possibility?

For example, can the kit or technique usedactually produce the reported results? Doesthe monitor offer any possible explanationsfor the results (e.g., a sewage treatment plantmalfunction had been recently reported)? Isthere additional corollary information thatsupports the data (e.g., a fish kill has beenobserved along with the extremely lowdissolved oxygen readings)?

Also check for consistency between similarparameters. For example, total solids andturbidity should track together—if one goesup, so should the other.

• Are there outliers—findings that differ radicallyfrom past data or other data from similar sites?

Values that are off by a factor of 10 or 100should be questioned. Follow up on any datathat seem suspect. If you cannot explain whythe results are so unusual, but they are stillwithin the realm of possibility, you may want to

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flag the data as questionable. Ask anexperienced volunteer or program staff memberto sample at that site as a backup untiluncertainties are resolved, or work to verify thatproper sampling and analytical protocols arebeing followed. Besides suggesting humanerror, monitoring results that are radicallydifferent than usual can indicate a problem withthe monitoring technique or a new and seriousproblem at the monitoring site.

• Are all measurements reported in thecorrect units?

Minimize the chance for error by includingon the data form itself any equations needed toconvert measurements and specify on the formwhat units should be used. Check the math,making sure that the monitor has followed theprogram’s rules for rounding numbers andreporting the appropriate number of decimalplaces. A value of zero should not be reported;instead, report the value as less than the lowestvalue that can be read with the equipment(Miller, 1995). For example, if the range of atest is 0-1 mg/l, the smallest increment is 0.01mg/l, and the test result is zero, report the valueas “less than 0.01 mg/l” or “<0.01 mg/l.”

All field data sheets should be kept on filein the event that findings are brought intoquestion at a later date and to serve as backupin case the computer-entered data are lost.

Helpful HintReviewing data sheets doesn’t only makeyou aware of recording mistakes, but it canalso alert you to problems with your testprocedures. Ideally, results for a particulartest procedure should fall within the middlerange of the test. For example, if a testrange is 0-100 mg/l, most values should fallsomewhere in the middle. If your volunteersare reporting many values of less than 10mg/l, the precision for that test will not bevery good. You may need to switch to amethod having a range of 0-10 mg/l.

(Excerpted and adapted from Miller, 1995.)

Double-Checking Data EntryJust as mistakes can be made recording data

on paper, errors can also be made enteringdata into a computerized database orspreadsheet. This possibility requires that thedata be printed and proofread against theoriginal field data sheets. Preferably, someoneother than the person who entered the datashould serve as proofreader.

As a further check, you can make somesimple calculations to ensure that no errorshave slipped through. For example, if themedian and the mean are very different, anoutlier may be skewing the results. If you findan outlier, check for calculation or data entryerrors. If the unusual data points cannot beexplained by backup information on the fielddata sheets or the comment field in thedatabase, flag the data as questionable untilthey can be verified.

Your database or spreadsheet can also bedesigned to minimize common data entryerrors. One way to reduce error is to restrictacceptable input possibilities to those that arewithin the realistic range of values for aparticular water quality variable. For example,the data program can be made to reject pHdata values greater than 14, since such valuesare not possible. ■

Helpful HintIt is always a good idea to make backups ofany electronic database or spreadsheet.Duplicate files should be made on disk ortape and stored at another site, if possible.To further protect your data from someunfortunate disaster, print and storehardcopies of all data sets and keep theoriginal data sheets.

(Excerpted and adapted from Sayce, 1999.)

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Data Interpretation

While computers are quite helpful inorganizing data, deciphering the story behindthese facts remains a human job. The overallpurpose of data interpretation is to getanswers to your study design questions—thesame questions that originally provoked youto start your monitoring program.

As an example, imagine that you want todetermine where water quality criteria are notbeing met in the estuary. To do this, you mustfirst develop preliminary findings, or objec-tive observations about your data (Dates,1995). By looking at the data, for example,you might be able to identify:

• variables that failed to meet waterquality criteria;

• monitoring sites that regularly failed tomeet the criteria;

• dates on which most or all of the sitesdid not meet the criteria, and theenvironmental conditions (e.g., weather,flow) on those dates;

• sites upstream and downstream of asuspected pollution source that showdifferent monitoring results; and

• changes in one water quality variablethat coincide with changes in another.

Your findings will help you look morecritically at the data. With the facts in hand,you might naturally want to figure out whythe data are what they are, especially if yourfindings reveal that water quality criteria arenot met in certain areas. This will requiremore effort, but is certainly worthwhile: oncereasons for poor water quality are found,solutions can be developed.

Ask yourself questions to help you decidewhether human alterations, natural conditions,and/or data collection processing mistakesmight explain your results.

• Could weather influence your results(e.g., do problem levels coincide withintense rainstorms)?

• Do specific sources explain your results(e.g., can increased bacteria levels beattributed to a wastewater treatmentplant, failing septic system, or a largepopulation of waterfowl or domesticatedanimals)?

• Do changes in one of your indicatorsappear to explain changes in another?For example, high temperatures (causedby a thermal discharge or a heat wave)might explain low oxygen levels.

• Do your visual observations explain anyof your results? Did your samplersreport any strange pipes, constructionactivity, flocks of birds, or dry weatherdischarges from storm drain pipes?

• For multiple years of data, are thereoverall trends? For example, did thesubmerged aquatic vegetation (SAV)community improve or deteriorate overtime? The former could be explained byimproved pollution control; the latter, bynew pollution sources.

• If you are monitoring the impact of apollution source (e.g., a wastewatertreatment plant), are there otherupstream impacts that might beinfluencing and confusing your results?For example, if a dairy farm is locatedimmediately upstream from thewastewater treatment plant that you aremonitoring, it might be difficult tofigure out which source is causing thewater quality problems revealed by yourdata. Alternatively, it could be difficultto determine how the two sourcescombine to cause the problems.

• Could unusual or unexpected data beattributed to contaminated samples orhuman sampling error?

• Did the time of sampling affect yourresults? For example, dissolved oxygenlevels are generally lowest in the earlymorning hours. Sampling for dissolved

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oxygen in the afternoon could overlookthe estuary’s worst-case conditions.

• Could the water quality variable occurin several places throughout theecosystem? For example, if you foundlow levels of phosphorus in the watercolumn, there might be high levels inbottom sediments or plants. Algaeblooms are evidence of nutrientenrichment that may not be apparent inwater samples.

Helpful HintComparing older photos with more recentones from the same location can helpvolunteers understand changing land usesand perhaps help you interpret water qualitychanges.

Summary Statistics Summary statistics describe the basic

attributes of a set of data for a givenparameter. There are many different types ofstatistics that can be used. Program leadersshould consult a standard statistics manual,

their data users, and their qualityassurance project plan todetermine which statisticalmethods are most appropriatefor their data. Two of the mostfrequently used descriptors ofenvironmental data are themeanand standard deviation.They are briefly described here.

Textbook statistics commonlyassume that if a parameter ismeasured many times under thesame conditions, then themeasurement values will berandomly distributed around theaverage with more valuesclustering near the average thanfurther away. In this idealsituation, a graph of thefrequency of each measureplotted against its magnitude

should yield a bell-shaped or normal curve.The mean and the standard deviationdetermine the height and breadth of thiscurve, respectively (Figures 8-2 and 8-3).

The mean is simply the sum of all themeasurement values divided by the number ofmeasurements. Commonly referred to as the“average,” this statistic marks the highest pointat the center of a normal curve (Figure 8-2).

The standard deviation, on the other hand,describes the variability of the data pointsaround the mean. Very similar measurementvalues will have a small standard deviation,while widely scattered data will have a muchlarger standard deviation (Figure 8-3). A highstandard deviation indicates imprecise data(see Chapter 5 for a discussion of precisionand an equation for calculating standarddeviation).

While both the mean and the standarddeviation are quite useful in describingestuarine data, often the actual measures donot fit a normal distribution. Other statisticssometimes come into play to describe thedata. Some data are skewed in one directionor the other, while others might produce aflattened bell shape (Figure 8-4).

Deviation from the normal distributionoften occurs in estuary sampling because theestuary is dynamic, with many factorsinfluencing the condition of its waters. Thevarious methods used to collect data can alsocause non-normal distributions. For example,if volunteers are collecting water quality datain SAV beds (see Chapter 18), the distributionof water quality variables will tend to beskewed toward good water quality becausewater quality has to be of a certain minimumstandard to support the growth of theseunderwater plants.

Another common cause of non-normaldistribution occurs because of detectionlimits. A detection limit marks the boundaryabove or below the concentrations or valuesmeasured by a particular method. Secchidepth measurements, for example, have anupper detection limit determined by waterdepth (i.e., the Secchi depth cannot exceed thewater depth) and a lower limit determined by

Value

Mean

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uenc

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Value

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uenc

y

Figure 8-2. Graphicrepresentation of themean. The mean islocated at the peak of anormal or bell-shapeddistribution curve.

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the smallest increment of measure on therope. Figure 8-5 shows how both low andhigh values may be truncated by thesedetection limits.

Mystery Solved?We might like to think our data will tell us

everything about what is happening in theestuary. In reality, the data may not tell thewhole story—or even part of it. As with anyscientific study, your data may be inconclu-sive, especially if your program has beenmonitoring for only a short time (Dates,1995). Indeed, since the workings of anestuary are complex, it is often difficult todetermine trends for many water qualityvariables (e.g., nutrients) unless themonitoring has occurred over several seasons.In fact, several years’worth of unusual datamay be quite misleading and tell a story verydifferent than the long-term situation.Concluding that you need additionalinformation to better understand the estuary iscompletely acceptable.

On the other hand, anomalous data canindicate problems requiring immediate action.

For example, data showing highturbidity and accompanied byvisual observations ofabnormally cloudy water couldindicate a significant sedimentor nutrient runoff problem frommany possible sources (e.g.,construction sites, farmland,forestry operations, golf courses,etc.). Such information shouldbe brought to the immediateattention of proper authorities forfurther investigation.

Keep in mind that your datashould support your interpretations.Still, your interpretations aresimply your best judgments aboutthe data. Even if you include yourvolunteers, data users, and otherswho are knowledgeable about the estuary inreviewing the data, others may disagree withyour interpretation. That is not atypical.However, as long as your data support yourinterpretation and you have followed areasonable data interpretation process, youshould be able to defend your position. ■

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Figure 8-3.Graphic representation ofthe standard deviation. A small standarddeviation corresponds to a “peaked” fre-quency distribution, while a larger stan-dard deviation corresponds to a more“flattened” distribution.

Figure 8-4.Examples of frequency distributions.Because of the complexity of estuarine systems,deviations to the normal bell-shaped distributioncurve are common.

Figure 8-5.Example of limitations on Secchi depthmeasurements in an hypothetical monitoring program.

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When you feelfully confident thatyou have assembledthe best possiblepicture ofenvironmentalconditions in yourstudy areas, it isyour job to makeothers—yourvolunteers, datausers, local fishingclubs, or any otheraudience—aware ofwhat you found.

Know Your AudienceWhether citizen programs convey

monitoring results in a periodic newsletter,annual report, or by verbal presentation, thekey to rousing and sustaining the interest ofthe audience remains the same. The speakeror writer must determine the interests,background, and level of technicalunderstanding of the target audience andprepare the presentation accordingly.Remember: The burden of communication ison the presenter to convey the information,not on the audience to understand (Sayce,1999).

In presenting data results to volunteers orother interested parties, several points meritconsideration:

• Highly technical or extremely simplisticpresentations bore the audience. Aninformative and lively approach, moldedto the expectations of the audience, willbe far more effective. Simple graphicsoften help make complicated issuesmuch more understandable.

• A presentation should focus on a clearmessage related to your audience’sinterests. Your audience will likely bemore interested in specifics such astrends in water quality, seasonalvariation, quality assurance issues, orthe identification of trouble spots in theestuary rather than an across-the-boardsynopsis of all the monitoring results.

• Data presentations, whether written orverbal, should be both timely andrelevant. Volunteers will maintain ahigher level of interest if they see aquick turnaround of their data intousable and informative graphics andsummaries. Moreover, your nutrientdata won’t have much influence oncommunity decision-makers if you missthe public hearing on a sewer upgradeproject. As mentioned earlier, trendsmay be difficult to determine withlimited data, so one should exercisecaution when implying that data showlong term trends.

• Better understanding on the part of youraudience may lead to more communitysupport, more funding, bettermanagement policies, and greatercitizen involvement.

When presenting data, one of your chiefgoals should be to maintain the attention andinterest of your audience. This is very difficultusing tables filled with numbers. Most peoplewill not be interested in the absolute values ofeach parameter at each sampling site; rather,they will want to know the bottom line foreach site (e.g., is it good or bad) and seasonaland year-to-year trends.

Data Presentation

A project coordinator in Puerto Rico reviews the significance of marine debris data with heryoung volunteers. Presentations should be designed according to the type of audience(photo by L. Monk).

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GraphicsGraphics, when used properly, are excellent

tools to present a great deal of information ina condensed yet understandable format. Theyenliven the presentation, highlight trends, andillustrate comparative relationships. Graphicsinclude flowcharts, maps, and graphs or chartsof the data. Such graphics, along withnarrative interpretation, summary statistics,tables, overheads, and slides, help construct awell-rounded and interesting presentation.

Graphs and Charts

Results summarized from the volunteer-collected data can be displayed in any ofseveral styles of graphs. Choosing the stylethat best conveys the information is criticaland requires careful thought. Although more

sophisticated graphic styles may be requiredto present some data, three basic types areoften used for volunteer monitoring data: thebar graph, pie chart, and line graph.

Bar Graph

The bar graph usessimple columns (Figure8-6). The height ofeach column representsthe value of a datapoint, makingcomparisons of the datarelatively easy.

Modifications can bemade to the standardbar graph for visualappeal. For example,Figure 8-7 shows

Technical vs. Non-Technical AudiencesWhen addressing water quality or planning professionals, you should provide information about:

• the purpose of the study;

• who conducted it;

• how it was funded;

• the methods used;

• the quality control measures taken;

• your interpretation of the results;

• your conclusions and recommendations; and

• further questions that have arisen as a result of the study.

Graphics, tables, and maps may be fairly sophisticated. Be sure to include the raw data in awritten report’s appendix and note any problems encountered.

A report for the general public should be short and direct. It is very important to conveyinformation in a non-technical style and to include definitions for terms and concepts that may beunfamiliar to the layperson. Simple charts, summary tables, and maps with accompanyingexplanations can be especially useful. Include a brief description of the program, the purpose ofthe monitoring, an explanation of the parameters that were monitored, the location of samplesites, a summary of the results, and any recommendations that may have been made.

In any written report or presentation, you should acknowledge the volunteers and the sources offunding and other support.


50

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Figure 8-6. Bar graph.

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turbidity data, as measured by a Secchi disk.In this graphic, depth increases in adownward direction along the vertical axis tosimulate actual water depth. This minorchange from the norm, along with the use ofSecchi disk icons extending down from the“surface,” makes the data easy to understand.

In bar graphs of pH, dissolved oxygen,bacteria, or other water quality variables forwhich a standard value exists, considerinserting a line across the graphic showing thestandard (Figure 8-8). This helps inunderstanding when your results indicateproblems.

Pie Chart

The pie chart (Figure 8-9) is a simple yeteffective means of comparing each categorywithin the data set to the whole. It is best usedto present relational data, such as percentages.The chart’s pie shape, with the pierepresenting the total and the individualwedges representing distinct categories,makes this graphic style popular due to itssimplicity and clarity.

Certain data may be better described by apie chart than others. For example, it can bevery useful for summarizing the compositionpercentages of marine debris found at aparticular site (e.g., the percent of plastic,paper, glass, etc., debris), but not forpresenting dissolved oxygen trends.

Helpful HintIf there are many small percentages in yourpie chart, consider reducing the clutter bygrouping the values together as an “other”category. Identify the items in the “other”slice of the pie elsewhere, especially if youare presenting the information to atechnical audience.

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Figure 8-7. Modification of typical bar graph to illustrate Secchi depth data.

Figure 8-8.Bar graph showing fecal coliform data values and comparing themwith water quality standards.

Figure 8-9. Pie chart.

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Line Graph

A line graph (Figure 8-10) is constructed byconnecting the data points with a line. It canbe effectively used for depicting changes overtime or space. This type of graph places moreemphasis on trends and the relationshipamong data points and less emphasis on anyparticular data point.

Line graphs can also be used to comparetwo water quality variables that may berelated. Figure 8-11, for example, showsdissolved oxygen concentrations and watertemperature. The plot of the two parametersshows that as water temperature increasesthrough the summer, oxygen levels generallydecline. The opposite occurs as coolerautumn temperatures set in.

Maps and Photographs

Displaying the results of your monitoringdata on a map can be a very effective way ofhelping people understand what the datasignify. A map can show the location ofsample sites in relation to features such ascities, wastewater treatment plants, farmland,and tributaries that may have an effect onwater quality. This type of graphic display canbe used to effectively show the correlationbetween specific activities or land uses andthe impacts they have on the ecosystem.Because a map displays the estuary’srelationship to neighborhoods, parks, andrecreational areas, it can also help to elicitconcern for the estuary and strengthen interestin protecting it.

There are different types of maps available.These include:

• topographic maps, which shownatural features and elevations;

• bathymetric maps,which show therelief (deep andshallow portions)on the bottom ofestuaries;

• GeographicInformationSystem (GIS)maps, which arecomputer-gener-ated and can showa variety of features (see box,page 8-14);

• highway or street atlas maps;

• geologic maps;

• soil maps;

• geologic or engineering hazardsmaps;

• flood inundation maps; and

• hand-drawn maps.

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Figure 8-10.Line graph.

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Figure 8-11. Line graph comparing values for two related water quality variables.

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Geographic Information SystemsComputer software systems that allow you to map and manipulate various layers ofinformation (such as water quality data, land use information, county boundaries, or geologicconditions) are known as Geographic Information Systems (GIS). They can vary from simplesystems run on personal computers to sophisticated and very powerful ones that run on largemainframes. For any GIS application, you need to know the coordinates of your samplesites—either their latitude and longitude, or some alternate system. You can also locate yoursites on a topographic map that can be digitized onto an electronic map of the watershed.Once these points have been established, you can link your database to the points on the map,query your database, and create graphic displays of the data.

Powerful GIS applications typically require expensive hardware, software, and technicaltraining. Any volunteer program interested in GIS applications may consider working inpartnership with other organizations such as universities, natural resource agencies, or largenonprofit groups that can provide access to a GIS.

Helpful HintHere are some tips for making your graphics easy to understand:

• Have the graph serve a clear purpose. The information contained in the graph should be relatively easy to interpret andrelate closely to the text of a document or script of a presentation.

• Do not distort the meaning of the data. Graphical representations of the data points should be proportional to eachpoint’s actual value (Figure 8-12).

• Ensure that the labeling of graphics is clear and accurate. A table of the data values should accompany any graph that islikely to be misunderstood.

• Keep the graphic design simple. Complex or tricky graphics often hide the true meaning of the data. Avoid cluttering thegraph with labels, arrows, grids, fill patterns, and other “visual noise” that unnecessarily complicate the graphic. Usesimple fonts that are easy to read.

• Limit the number of graphic elements. A pie chart, for example, should be divided into no more than five or six wedges.Keep the number of superimposed lines on a line graph and the quantity of columns in a bar graph to a minimum.

• Consider the proportions of the chart and the legibility of the type and graphic elements. A horizontal format is generallymore visually appealing, simpler to understand, and makes labels easier to read. The elements should fill the dimensionsof the graph to create a balanced effect. Ensure that the axes are labeled with legible titles and that the tick marksshowing data intervals are not crowded along the axis lines. Avoid cryptic abbreviations whenever possible,remembering that you want your audience to fully understand the information in the graphic.

• Create a title for the chart that is simple yet informative. • Remember that 8 percent of the U.S. population is colorblind. When color-coding results, don’t use both red and green

on the same graphic. You may also use shapes or symbols in addition to color.• Whether you use color, shading, or patterns, be sure that an easy-to-understand data key is included or that the data are

clearly labeled.• If you will need to photocopy color graphics, make sure that the colors are still distinguishable when the graphics are

photocopied in black and white.• Be consistent when comparing data; for example, don’t mix pie charts with bar graphs.

(Portions excerpted and adapted from Schoen et al., 1999.)

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The display map should show principalfeatures such as roads, municipal boundaries,waterways, and other familiar landmarks (e.g.,schools and churches). It should havesufficient detail and scale to show the locationof sample sites and have space for summaryinformation about each site.

When displaying your data on a map,consider the following:

• Keep the amount of informationpresented on each map to a minimum.Do not try to put so much on one mapthat it becomes visually complicatedand difficult to read or understand. Agood rule of thumb is to read the mapwithout referring to the legend. If themap is not easily understood or ifsymbols, lines, and colors are notdistinct from each other, then youshould use another map to display adifferent layer or “view” of the data.For example, if there are several datesfor which you wish to displaysampling results, use one map foreach date.

• Clearly label the map and provide anexplanation of how to interpret it. Ifyou need a long and complicatedexplanation, you may want to presentthe data differently. If you havereached a clear conclusion, state theconclusion on the map. For example,if a map shows that tributaries arecleaner than the mainstem, use thatinformation as the subtitle of the map.

• Provide a key to the symbols that areused on the map.

• Rather than packing lots ofinformation into a small area of themap, use a “blowup” or enlargementof the area elsewhere on the map toadequately display the information.

• Use symbols that vary in size andpattern to represent the magnitude ofresults. For example, a site with afecal coliform level of 10 colonies/100 ml could be a light gray circlewith a 1/16-inch diameter while a sitewith a level of 200 colonies/100 mlwould be a dark gray circle 1/4-inch

14

9

4

pH

8

7

6

5

4Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 4 Site 5

pH

50

40

30

20

10

0

TP(µ

g/l)

AboveTP

(µg/

l)

35

32.5

30

27.5

25Golf Course BelowAbove Golf Course Below

Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 4 Site 5

pH, Gooms Bay pH, Gooms Bay

Total Phosphorous, Gooms Bay Total Phosphorous, Gooms Bay

Figure 8-12. Scale considerations for presenting data. The pH graph in (a) gives the mistaken impression that the results aresimilar at each site. The graph in (b) uses a narrower y-axis scale, thereby doing a better job of showing the significant differencesamong monitoring sites. Changing scales to dramatize insignificant differences (c and d), however, is not recommended.

a) b)

c) d)

8-16



in diameter. Startby finding thehighest andlowest values,assign diametersand patterns tothose values, andthen fill in stepsalong the way.For the aboveexample youmight have fourranges: 0 to 99,100 to 199, 200 to500, and 500+.

Photographs alsoadd great value to your project. Aerial photosof the monitoring sites add a “personaltouch,” allowing citizens to see their housesor favorite fishing spots. This can pique theirinterest in the project.

Ground-level pictures of algal blooms,monitoring sites, and volunteers in action arealso helpful. They are qualitative records ofyour estuary’s health or your monitoringproject and help your audience understandyour project and program’s activities.Compiling a photo library is always a goodidea, especially when last-minute additionsare needed for reports, press releases, displaybooths, and presentations.

Getting the Word OutOn a regular basis, a successful volunteer

estuary monitoring program should report keyfindings to volunteers, data users, and thegeneral public, including the media. Asmentioned previously, state water qualityagencies will require detailed reports, whereasshorter and less technical summaries are moreappropriate for the general public.

The volunteer program should develop astrategy for distributing and publicizingreports. All reports should be subjected to thereview process prescribed by your qualityassurance project plan, and your program’s

leaders should be confident about the data andcomfortable with the statements andconclusions before the report is made public.When your report’s findings and conclusionsare released to the public, you will need to beprepared to respond to questions regarding thedata and your interpretation of that data.

Some ideas for distributing project results andinforming the public include the following:

Written Report

A written document is a good instrument forgetting your information out to a wideaudience. If you have access to a mailing list ofpeople who are interested in your estuary, mailthe report with a cover letter that summarizesthe major findings of the study. The cover lettershould be brief and enticing so that the recipientwill be curious enough to read the report. If youwant people to take some kind of action, suchas supporting the expenditure of public funds toupgrade a sewage treatment plant, you maywant to ask for their support in the cover letter.If you do not have an extensive mailing list,perhaps other organizations that share yourgoals would be willing to supply you with theirlists. Be sure to also send the report to state andfederal agencies; newspapers; radio andtelevision stations; local libraries; colleges anduniversities; research stations; and high schools,if appropriate.

Instead of long technical reports, you maywant to develop fact sheets for publicdistribution. These summaries of your findingsand conclusions should make your pointsquickly and instruct the reader on how to obtainmore information.

Speaking Tour

Develop an oral presentation (with slides,overheads, etc.) that could be offered to groupssuch as the local chamber of commerce, civicclubs, conservation organizations, schools, andgovernment entities. Your presentation couldeven be videotaped for distribution to a wideraudience.

A volunteer distributes information to passersby atan Earth Day event in Washington, DC (photo byThe Ocean Conservancy).

8-17



Public Meetings

Schedule a series of public meetings thathighlight the monitoring program, its findings,and its recommendations. At the meetings,distribute the written report, answer questions,and tell your audience how they can getinvolved. These meetings can also help yourecruit more volunteers.

Be sure to schedule the meetings at timeswhen people are more likely to attend (i.e.,weekday evenings, weekend days) and avoidperiods when people are usually busy or onvacation. Invite the media and publicize themeetings in newspaper calendars; send pressreleases to radio and television stations,newspapers, and other organizations; and askvolunteers to distribute fliers at grocerystores, city hall, etc.

Press Releases and Press Conferences

As explained in Chapter 3, distributing apress release is a cost-effective means ofinforming the public about the results andaccomplishments of your program. Develop amailing list of newspapers, radio andtelevision stations, and organizations thatsolicit articles for publication. Send the newsrelease to volunteers and others who areinterested in publicizing the monitoringprogram.

If your report contains some real news or ifit has led to a significant event (e.g., themayor or city council has recognized thevalue of the report and issued a statement ofsupport), hold a press conference (see Chapter3 for details).

Exhibits

Set up displays at river festivals, countyfairs, conferences, libraries, storefrontwindows, boat ramps, or parks. Exhibits allowyou to show your data to a variety ofaudiences, usually in an informal setting.

Web Sites

Placing data on your program’s Web site orthe sites of project partners can be a usefuland convenient way to make your dataavailable. Almost everyone has access to theInternet and developing a Web page isrelatively easy.

People curious about your project can viewthe Web site for raw data, graphics, photos,and commentary. In addition, postinginformation on the site can save staffresources that would otherwise be spentprinting and mailing the results or explainingresults over the phone.

Once people know where they can findyour data, they can continue to check the sitefor updates.

Other Publicity

Be creative in getting your report andmessage out. Try writing letters to the editoror op-ed articles for local or statewide papers,producing radio feeds (a recording of thegroup’s leader played over the phone to aradio station), issuing media advisories, andeven advertising in publications. ■

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Dates, G. 1995. “Interpreting Your Data.” The Volunteer Monitor7(1).

Lease, F. 1995. “Designing a Data Management System.” The Volunteer Monitor7(1).

Schoen, J., M-F. Walk, and M.L. Tremblay. 1999. Ready, Set, Present! A Data PresentationManual for Volunteer Water Quality Monitoring Groups. Massachusetts Water WatchPartnership. Univ. of Massachusetts, Amherst. Web site: http://www.umass.edu/tei/mwwp/datapresmanual.html.


Other references:

Dates, G., and J. Schloss. 1998. Data to Information: A Guide for Coastal Water QualityMonitoring Groups in New Hampshire and Maine. Univ. of Maine Cooperative Extensionand ME/NH Sea Grant. Waldoboro, ME.

Ely, E. (ed.) 1995. The Volunteer Monitor. “Special Topic: Managing and Presenting Your Data.”7(1).

Hubbell, S. 1995. “Seize the Data.” The Volunteer Monitor7(1).

Miller, J.K. 1995. “Data Screening and Common Sense.” The Volunteer Monitor7(1).

Rector, J. 1995. “‘Variability Happens’: Basic Descriptive Statistics for Volunteer Programs.”The Volunteer Monitor7(1).

River Watch Network. 1995. Program Organizing Guide. River Watch Program of RiverNetwork. Montpelier, VT.

Sayce, K. 1999. “Data Analysis and Presentation.” In: Meeting Notes—U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: VolunteerEstuary Monitoring: Wave of the Future. Astoria, OR: May 19-21, 1999.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1990. Volunteer Water Monitoring: A Guidefor State Managers.EPA 440/4-90-010. August. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 78 pp.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1997. Proceedings—Fifth National VolunteerMonitoring Conference: Promoting Watershed Stewardship.August 3-7, 1996, University ofWisconsin-Madison. EPA 841-R-97-007. Web site: http://www.epa.gov/owow/volunteer/proceedings/toc.html.


Unit OneChemical Measures

Oxygen • Nutrients • pH and Alkalinity • Toxins

Photos (l to r): G. Carver, R. Ohrel, R. Ohrel

Chapter 9Oxygen

Dissolved oxygen concentrations indicate how well aerated the water is, and vary

according to a number of factors, including season, time of day, temperature, and

salinity. Biochemical oxygen demand measures the amount of oxygen consumed in

the water by chemical and biological processes.

Photos (l to r) K. Register, R. Ohrel, R. Ohrel

9-1


Unit One: Chemical Measures Chapter 9: Oxygen

Nearly all aquatic life needs oxygen to survive. Because of its importance to

estuarine ecosystems, oxygen is commonly measured by volunteer monitoring

programs. When monitoring oxygen, volunteers usually measure dissolved oxygen

and biochemical oxygen demand.

Dissolved oxygen concentrations indicate how well aerated the water is, and

vary according to a number of factors, including season, time of day, temperature,

and salinity. Biochemical oxygen demand measures the amount of oxygen

consumed in the water by chemical and biological processes.

This chapter discusses the role of dissolved oxygen and biochemical oxygen

demand in the estuarine environment. It provides steps for measuring these water

quality variables. Finally, a case study is provided.

Overview

9-2


Chapter 9: Oxygen Unit One: Chemical Measures

Of all the parameters that characterize anestuary, the level of oxygen in the water is oneof the best indicators of the estuary’s health. Anestuary with little or no oxygen cannot supporthealthy levels of animal or plant life.

Unlike many of the problems plaguing

estuaries, the consequences of a rapid decline inoxygen set in quickly and animals must moveto areas with higher levels of oxygen or perish.This immediate impact makes measuring thelevel of oxygen an important means ofassessing water quality. ■

Why Monitor Oxygen?

DISSOLVED OXYGEN (DO)Oxygen enters estuarine waters from the

atmosphere and through aquatic plant photosyn-thesis. Currents and wind-generated waves boostthe amount of oxygen in the water by puttingmore water in contact with the atmosphere.

Dissolved Oxygen in the EstuarineEcosystem

DO is one of the most important factors con-trolling the presence or absence of estuarinespecies. It is crucial for most animals and plantsexcept for a small minority that can surviveunder conditions with little or no oxygen.Animals and plants require oxygen for respira-tion—a process critical for basic metabolicprocesses.

In addition to its use in respiration, oxygen isneeded to aid in decomposition. An integral partof an estuary’s ecological cycle is the break-down of organic matter. Like animal and plantrespiration, this process consumes oxygen.Decomposition of large quantities of organicmatter by bacteria can severely deplete thewater of oxygen and make it uninhabitable formany species.

An overload of nutrients from wastewatertreatment plants or runoff from various landuses also adds to the problem. Nutrients fuel theovergrowth of phytoplankton, known as abloom. The phytoplankton ultimately die, fall tothe bottom, decompose, and use up oxygen inthe deep waters of the estuary. Although nutri-ents from human activities are a major cause of

depleted oxygen, low oxygen conditions mayalso naturally occur in estuaries relatively unaf-fected by humans. Generally, however, theseverity of low DO and the length of time thatlow oxygen conditions persist in these areas areless extreme.

DO and nutrients can be connected in anotherway. When oxygen is low, nutrients bound tobottom sediments can be released into the watercolumn, thereby permitting more planktongrowth and eventually more oxygen depletion.Other pollutants may also be released from sedi-ments under low oxygen conditions, potentiallycausing problems for the estuarine ecosystem.

Oxygen availability to aquatic organisms iscomplicated by the fact that its solubility inwater is generally poor. Salt water absorbs evenless oxygen than fresh water (e.g., seawater at10°C can hold a maximum dissolved oxygenconcentration of 9.0 mg/l, while fresh water atthe same temperature can hold 11.3 mg/l).Warm water also holds less oxygen than coldwater (e.g., seawater can hold a dissolved oxy-gen concentration of 9.0 mg/l at 10°C, but thatconcentration drops to 7.3 mg/l when the tem-perature increases to 20°C). Therefore, warmestuarine water can contain very little dissolvedoxygen, and this can have severe consequencesfor aquatic organisms.

Levels of Dissolved Oxygen Although we may think of water as homoge-

neous and unchanging, its chemical constitution

9-3



does, in fact, vary over time. Oxygen levels, inparticular, may change sharply in a matter ofhours. DO concentrations are affected by physi-cal, chemical, and biological factors (Figure 9-1), making it difficult to assess the significanceof any single DO value.

At the surface of an estuary, the water at mid-day is often close to oxygen saturation due bothto mixing with air and the production of oxygenby plant photosynthesis (an activity driven bysunlight). As night falls, photosynthesis ceasesand plants consume available oxygen, forcing DOlevels at the surface to decline. Cloudy weathermay also cause surface water DO levels to dropsince reduced sunlight slows photosynthesis.

DO levels in an estuary can fluctuate greatlywith depth, especially during certain times ofthe year. Temperature differences between thesurface and deeper parts of the estuary may bequite distinct during the warmer months.Vertical stratification in estuarine waters(warmer, fresher water over colder, saltierwater) during the late spring to summer periodis quite effective in blocking the transfer ofoxygen between the upper and lower layers (seeFigure 9-1). In a well-stratified estuary, very lit-tle oxygen may reach lower depths and thedeep water may remain at a fairly constant lowlevel of DO. Changing seasons or storms, how-ever, can cause the stratification to disintegrate,allowing oxygen-rich surface water to mix withthe oxygen-poor deep water. This period ofmixing is known as an overturn .

When DO declines below threshold levels,which vary depending upon the species, mobileanimals must move to waters with higher DO;immobile species often perish. Most animalsand plants can grow and reproduce unimpairedwhen DO levels exceed 5 mg/l. When levelsdrop to 3-5 mg/l, however, living organismsoften become stressed. If levels fall below 3mg/l, a condition known as hypoxia, manyspecies will move elsewhere and immobilespecies may die. A second condition, knownas anoxia, occurs when the water becomestotally depleted of oxygen (below 0.5 mg/l)and results in the death of any organism thatrequires oxygen for survival. Figure 9-2 sum-marizes DO thresholds in estuarine waters. ■

Sewage effluent

Phytoplankton bloomthrives on nutrients

DO from wave action& photosynthesis

Lighter freshwater

Heavier seawater

DO trappedin lighter layer

Decomposition

DO used up bymicroorganism respiration

Nutrients releasedby bottom sediments

DO Consumed

Fish able toavoid hypoxia

Decomposition of organicmatter in sediments

Shellfishunable toescapehypoxia

Dead materialsettles

Runoff

HYPOXIA

Figure 9-1.Physical, chemical, and biological processes that affect dissolvedoxygen concentrations in estuaries. (Redrawn from USEPA, 1998.)

5 mg/l

3 mg/l

0 mg/l

4 mg/l

2 mg/l

1 mg/l

6 mg/l

DO Concentration (mg/l)

Usually required forgrowth and activity

Stressful to most aquaticorganisms

Usually will notsupport fish

hypoxia

anoxia

Figure 9-2. Dissolved oxygen in the water. A minimum DO concentrationof 5 mg/l is usually necessary to fully support aquatic life.

9-4



Chapter 6 summarized several factors thatshould be considered when determiningmonitoring sites, where to monitor in the watercolumn, and when to monitor. In addition to theconsiderations in Chapter 6, a few additionalones specific to oxygen monitoring arepresented here.

When to Sample In estuarine systems, sampling for DO

throughout the year is preferable to establish aclear picture of water quality. If year-roundsampling is not possible, taking samples fromthe beginning of spring well into autumn willprovide a program with the most significantdata. Warm weather conditions bring onhypoxia and anoxia, which pose seriousproblems for the estuary’s plants and animals.Because these conditions are rare during winter,cold weather data can serve as a baseline ofinformation.

Sampling once a week isgenerally sufficient to capture thevariability of DO in the estuary.Since DO may fluctuatethroughout the day, volunteersshould sample at about the sametime of dayeach week. This way,they are less likely to record datathat largely capture dailyfluctuations. Some programs

suggest thatvolunteerssample in themorning neardawn as well asmid-afternoon tocapture the dailyhigh and low DO values.

In some areas,especially largetidal swings canwork to weakenthe stratification

in the estuary. Tidal effects, then, could be aconsideration when collecting and analyzingDO data.

Where to SampleAs mentioned previously, estuary

stratification can have an impact on DO levelsat different depths. Stratification is especiallyevident during the summer months, when warmfresh water overlies colder, saltier water. Verylittle mixing occurs between the layers, forminga boundary to mixing.

Because DO levels vary with depth—especially during the summer—volunteergroups may wish to collect samples at differentdepths. Van Dorn and Kemmerer samplers (seeChapter 7) are commonly used to collect thesekinds of samples. In addition, there are severalwater samplers designed primarily forcollecting DO samples at different depths(Figure 9-3). Appendix C provides a list ofequipment suppliers.

Choosing a Sampling MethodCitizen programs may elect to use either a

DO electronic meter or one of the severalavailable DO test kits (Table 9-1). If thevolunteer group wants its data to be used by state or federal agencies, it is wise toconfer with the appropriate agencybeforehand to determine an acceptablemonitoring method.

Meters

The electronic meter measures DO based onthe rate of molecular oxygen diffusion across amembrane. The results from a DO meter areextremely accurate, providing the unit is well-maintained, calibrated, and the membrane ishandled in accordance with the manufacturer’sinstructions before each use. To properlycalibrate some DO meters, knowledge of thesampling site’s salinity is necessary.

The DO probe may be placed directly into

Sampling Considerations

Figure 9-3.Dissolved oxygen samplers. Many of theseinstruments may also be used to collect samples for theanalysis of other water quality variables.

9-5



the estuary for a reading or into a water sampledrawn out by bucket for a surfacemeasurement. Depending on the length of itscable, a meter may allow monitors to get DOreadings directly from various depths. Somemeters allow volunteers to take both DO andtemperature readings simultaneously.

Though easy to use, a reliable DO meter willlikely cost more than $1,000. It also usesbatteries, which last a long time but must bedisposed of properly. To offset upfront andmaintenance costs, monitoring groups mightconsider sharing equipment (Stancioff, 1996).

Because of the expense, a volunteer programmight be able to afford only one meter.Consequently, only one team of monitors canmeasure DO and they will have to do it at allsites. Dissolved oxygen meters may be usefulfor programs in which many measurements areneeded at only a few sites, volunteers sample atseveral sites by boat, or volunteers plan on running DO profiles (many measurementstaken at different depths at one site).

Test Kits

If volunteers are sampling at several widelyscattered sites, one of the many DO kits on themarket may be more cost-effective. These kitsrely on the Winkler titration method or one ofits modifications. The modifications reduce the

effect of materials in the water, such as organicmatter, which may cause inaccurate results.

The kits are inexpensive, generally rangingfrom $30 to $200, depending on the method oftitration they use. While inexpensive upfront,the kits require reagent refills as the reagentsare used up or degrade over time. Reagents can-not be reused. Unused reagents and waste gen-erated during the performance of tests must bedisposed of properly (see Chapter 7).Volunteers must also take appropriate safetyprecautions when using the reagents, which canbe harmful if used improperly.

Kits provide good results if monitors adherestrictly to established sampling protocols.Aerating the water sample, allowing it to sit insunlight or unfixed (see box, page 9-6, for anexplanation of fixing), and titrating too hastilycan all introduce error into DO results.

For convenience, the volunteer monitors maykeep their kits at home and take them to thesampling site each week. The program managermust provide the monitors with fresh chemicalsas needed. Periodically, the manager shouldcheck the kit to make sure that each volunteer isproperly maintaining and storing the kit’scomponents. At the start of the monitoringprogram, and periodically thereafter if possible,the program manager should directly comparekit measurements to those from a standardWinkler titration conducted in a laboratory. ■

Method Location of CommentsMeasurement

Meter

Test kit (Winklertitration)

Field

Field or Lab

• The meter must be properly calibrated,accounting for salinity.

• The meter is fragile; handle it carefully.

• If measured in lab, the sample is fixed in thefield and titrated in the lab.

• Lab measurement must take place within 8 hoursof sample collection.

Table 9-1.Summary of dissolved oxygen monitoring methods. Depending on the method used, DOmeasurements may be made in the field or in a laboratory(USEPA, 1997).

Reminder!To ensure consistently high quality data, appropriate quality control measures are necessary.See “Quality Control and Assessment” in Chapter 5 for details.

Not all quality control procedures are appropriate for all water quality analyses. Blanks andstandards are not usually used for Winkler DO titrations, due to problems with contaminationby oxygen from the air. To check the accuracy of the procedure, one has at least two options:

• Create an oxygen-saturated sample by shaking and pouring water back and forth throughthe air, then titrate the sample and compare the results to published tables of oxygensolubility versus temperature (salinity must be known to determine oxygen solubility).

• Use a standard solution of potassium bi-iodate to check the accuracy of the titrant(standard solutions can be ordered from chemical supply companies—see Appendix C).The amount of titrant required to make the sample colorless should equal the amount ofpotassium bi-iodate added to the sample, +– 0.1 ml.

(Excerpted and adapted from Mattson, 1992.)

9-6



Titration Titration is an analytical procedure used to measure the quantity of a substance in a watersample by generating a known chemical reaction. In the process, a reagent isincrementally added to a measured volume of the sample until reaching an obviousendpoint, such as a distinct change in color (Figure 9-4).

Volunteers can use titration to assess thequantity of dissolved oxygen at a sampling site.This procedure, known as the Winkler titration,uses iodine as a substitute for the oxygendissolved in a “fixed” sample of water. A fixedsampleis one in which the water has beenchemically rendered stable or unalterable,meaning that atmospheric oxygen will nolonger affect the test result. Iodine stains thesample yellow-brown. Then, a chemical calledsodium thiosulfate reacts with the free iodine inthe water to form another chemical, sodiumiodide. When the reaction is complete, thesample turns clear. This color change is calledtheendpoint.

Since the color change is often swift and can occur between one drop of reagent and thenext, a starch indicator should be added to the solution to exaggerate the color change.The starch keeps the sample blue until all the free iodine is gone, at which time thesample immediately turns colorless. The amount of sodium thiosulfate used to turn thesample clear translates directly into the amount of dissolved oxygen present in theoriginal water sample.

20 ml

Figure 9-4.Titration of areagent into awater sample.

The volunteer on the left is titrating a watersample, while the other volunteer is “fixing”another sample (photo by K. Register).

9-7



How to Monitor Dissolved OxygenGeneral procedures for collecting and

analyzing dissolved oxygen samples arepresented in this section for guidance only; theydo not apply to all sampling methods.Monitors should consult with theinstructions that come with their samplingand analyzing instruments. Those who areinterested in submitting data to waterquality agencies should also consult with theagencies to determine acceptable equipment,methods, quality control measures, and dataquality objectives (see Chapter5).

Before proceeding to the monitoring site andcollecting samples, volunteers should reviewthe topics addressed in Chapter 7. It is criticalto confirm the monitoring site, date, and time;have the necessary monitoring equipment andpersonal gear; and understand all safetyconsiderations. Once at the monitoring site,volunteers should record general siteobservations, as discussed in Chapter 7.

STEP 1: Check equipment.In addition to the standard sampling

equipment and apparel listed in Chapter 7, thevolunteer should bring the following items tothe site for each sampling session:

If using the Winkler method

• large clean bucket with rope (if takingsurface sample or if unable to collectsample directly in DO bottles);

• Kemmerer, Van Dorn, DO sampler, orhomemade sampler (if taking a full DOprofile);

• fully stocked dissolved oxygen kit withinstructions;

• extra DO bottles;

• equipment for measuring temperature andsalinity (necessary to calculate percentsaturation—see page 9-12); and

• enough reagents for the number of sites tobe tested.

If using a meter and probe

• calibrated DO meter and probe withoperating manual (the meter must becalibrated according to themanufacturer’s instructions);

• extra membranes and electrolytesolution for the probe;

• extra batteries for the meter;

• extra O-rings for the membrane;

• extension pole; and

• equipment for measuring temperatureand salinity (necessary to calculatepercent saturation—see page 9-12), if temperature and salinity cannot bemeasured by the meter.

STEP 2: Collect the sample.This task is necessary if the volunteer is

using a DO kit or if a sample is being drawnfor a DO meter (rather than placing the DOprobe directly in the estuary). Chapter 7reviews general information about collecting awater sample.

Although the task of collecting a bottle ofwater seems relatively easy, volunteers mustfollow strict guidelines to preventcontamination of the sample. The citizenmonitor must take care during collection ofthe water; jostling or swirling the sample canresult in aeration and cause erroneous data.Using a bucket to collect the sample increasesthe risk of introducing oxygen to the sample.It is preferable to use a standard DO samplingbottle rather than a simple bucket since awashed and capped bottle is less likely tobecome contaminated than an open container.

9-8



Reminder!The water sample must be collected in sucha way that you can cap the bottle while it isstill submerged. That means you must beable to reach into the water with both armsand the water must be deeper than thesample bottle.

If using a bucket

• Rinse the sample bucket with estuarywater twice before sampling. Rinse andempty the bucket away from thecollection area.

• Drop the bucket over the side of thedock, pier, or boat and allow water fromjust under the surface to gently fill thecontainer until it is about two-thirds full.There should be no air bubbles in thebucket.

• Lift the bucket carefully to the workingplatform.

• If using a DO kit, rinse two DO bottlestwice each with estuary water beforefilling them from the sample bucket.Then, submerge each capped bottle inthe bucket, remove the lid, and slowlyfill. Avoid agitating the water in thebucket to minimize the introduction ofoxygen to the sample.

• While the bottle isstill under water,tap its side toloosen any airbubbles beforecapping and liftingthe bottle from thebucket.

• Check the samplefor bubbles byturning the bottleupside-down andtapping. If you see anybubbles, repeat the filling steps.

If collecting samples directly in bottles

• Rinse two DO bottles twice each withestuary water away from the collectionarea before filling them with the sample.

• Make sure you are positioneddowncurrent of the bottle.

• Submerge each capped bottle in thewater, facing into the current.

• Remove the lid, and slowly fill (Figure 9-5). Avoid agitating the water to minimizethe introduction of oxygen to the sample.

• While the bottle is still under water, tapits side to loosen any air bubbles beforecapping and lifting the bottle from thewater.

• Check the sample for bubbles by turningthe bottle upside-down and tapping. If yousee any bubbles, repeat the filling steps.

If collecting samples from other samplers

• Follow the manufacturer’s instructions.

• Make sure that no air bubbles areintroduced into the sample.

• The sampler should have a mechanismfor allowing the DO bottle to fill from thebottom to the top.

If using a test kit, take the water temperatureby setting the thermometer in the bucket andallow it to stabilize while preparing for the DOtest. Most meters will have a thermometerincluded. The bucket of water used formeasuring DO can also be used for many of theother water quality tests.

Temperature and salinity should also bemeasured to calibrate a DO meter or if thevolunteer group wishes to calculate percentsaturation (see box, page 9-12).

STEP 3: Measure DO.Many citizen monitoring programs use the

“azide modification” of the Winkler titration to measure DO. This test removes interferencedue to nitrites—a common problem in estuarine waters.

Figure 9-5.Taking a water sample for DO analysis.Point the bottle against the tide or current and fillgradually. Cap the bottle under water when full,ensuring that there are no air bubbles in the bottle(USEPA, 1997).

9-9



If using the Winkler method

Gloves should be worn when doing this test.

Part One: “Fix” the sample immediately

• Proceed with the DO test for bothsample bottles by carefully followingthe manufacturer’s instructions. Allowsome of the sample to overflow duringthese steps; this overflow assures that noatmospheric oxygen enters the bottledcontents. After the sample is fixed,exposure to air will not affect theoxygen content of the sample. Becareful not to introduce air into thesample while adding the reagents.Simply drop the reagents into the testsample, cap carefully, and mix gently.

• Once the sample has been fixed in thismanner, it is not necessary to performthe titration procedure immediately.Thus, several samples can be collectedand “fixed” in the field, then carriedback to a testing station or laboratorywhere the titration procedure is to beperformed. The titration portion of thetest should be carried out within 8hours. In the meantime, keep the samplerefrigerated and in the dark.

Part Two: Titrating the sample

• Continue with the titration of bothsamples, again following specificinstructions included with the kit orprovided by the program manager.

• Carefully measure the amount of fixedsample used in titration; this step iscritical to the accuracy of the results.The bottom of the meniscus should reston top of the white line on the titrationtest tube. (Ameniscusis the curvedupper surface of a liquid column that isconcave when the containing walls arewetted by the liquid—see Figure 9-6.)

• Fill the syringe in the test kit, followinginstructions.

• Insert the syringe intothe hole on top of thetest tube and add 1 dropof sodium thiosulfate tothe test tube; swirl thetest tube to mix. Addanother drop of thesodium thiosulfate andswirl the tube. Continuethis titration process onedrop at a time until theyellow-brown solutionin the test tube turns apale yellow. Then pullthe syringe out of thehole (with the remainingsodium thiosulfate) andput it aside for a moment.

• Add starch solution to the test tubethrough the hole on top of the lid,according to directions. Swirl the tube tomix. The solution should turn from lightyellow to dark blue.

• Now put the syringe back into the holeon the test tube. Continue the titrationprocess with the remaining sodiumthiosulfate, until the test tube solutionturns from blue to clear. Do not add anymore sodium thiosulfate than isnecessary to produce the color change.Be sure to swirl the test tube after eachdrop.

• Using the scale on the side of thesyringe, read the total number of units ofsodium thiosulfate used in theexperiment. Each milliliter of thiosulfateused is equivalent to 1 mg/l DO.

• Each volunteer should carry out all stepson two samples to minimize thepossibility of error. The two samples caneither be titrated from the one bottle offixed sample solution or, for betterquality assurance, from two watersamples fixed in the field.

Test Tube ReadHere

Meniscus

Figure 9-6.Measurements should bemade at the bottom of the meniscus.

9-10



• If the discrepancy between the two DOconcentrations is significant, thevolunteer should run a third titration.The program’s quality assurance projectplan should define what difference isconsidered “significant.” Somemonitoring programs stipulate that athird sample must be analyzed if the DOconcentrations of the first two samplesdiffer by more than 0.6 mg/l.

NOTE: Samples with high levels of DO arebrown, while low DO samples are generallypale yellow before the starch indicator isadded. A few minutes after reaching thecolorless endpoint, the sample may turn blueonce again. This color reversion is not causefor concern—it is simply proof of a precisetitration.

Helpful HintIf volunteers are to collect and fix two watersamples at each of their monitoring sites,be sure to provide each monitor with theappropriate number of DO bottles (e.g., 4bottles for 2 monitoring sites, etc.). Thebottles can be permanently marked with sitelocation names. Volunteers will collect andfix the samples in the field, then titrate thesamples within 8 hours. After the DObottles have been emptied and cleaned,they are ready for the next monitoringsession.

If using a meter and probe

• Make sure the unit is calibratedaccording to the manufacturer’sinstructions. Knowledge of salinity isneeded to properly calibrate most meters(Green, 1998).

• After inserting the DO probe into thebucket or placing it over the side of theboat or pier, allow the probe to stabilizefor at least 90 seconds before taking areading.

• With some meters, you should manuallystir the probe without disturbing thewater to get an accurate measurement.

STEP 4: Clean up and submit data.If using the Winkler titration method, make

sure to thoroughly rinse all glassware in thekit and tightly screw on the caps to thereagent bottles. Check to ensure that eachbottle contains sufficient reagents for the nextDO analysis. Properly dispose of wastesgenerated during the performance of tests (seeChapter 7).

If using a laboratory to analyze the samples,deliver the fixed samples and field data sheetsto the lab as soon as possible, as the sampleanalysis must be done within 8 hours.

Make sure that the data sheet is completeand accurate. Volunteers should make a copyof the completed data sheet before forwardingit to the project manager in case the originaldata sheet becomes lost. ■

9-11



Case Study: Dissolved Oxygen Monitoring in New JerseyIn New Jersey, the Alliance for a Living Ocean coordinates the Barnegat Bay Watch MonitoringProgram. Dissolved oxygen testing is one of the more complicated monitoring activities under-taken by program volunteers.

The volunteer monitors use a modified Winkler titration test kit that is user-friendly and has agood degree of accuracy. With each test kit, the monitors receive a test procedure sheet and amonitor’s testing manual. Often, monitors tape a simplified version of the test procedures to theinside of their test kits.

The program provides several tips to minimize any confusion about the test procedure:

• Because the test kit uses five reagents, monitors are encouraged to label the reagent bot-tles as #1, #2, etc.

• It is suggested that the bottles be arranged in numeric order in the test kit. This simplifieslooking for the next reagent.

• Solutions 1, 2, 3, and 5 are each added 8 drops at a time. (Solution #4 is added one dropat a time.) The monitors can mark these reagent bottles with the words “8 drops.” Whenthe monitors’hands are wet or the wind is blowing, it is much easier to read the label on abottle than an instruction sheet.

Many monitors conduct tests from their boats in the Barnegat Bay. These monitors are encour-aged to “fix” the water sample by adding the first three reagents, and then return to land. Onceon shore, volunteers can resume the test, which includes filling a titration tube to exactly 20 mland titrating Solution #4 one drop at a time. In this manner, inaccuracies caused by a rockingboat are avoided.

Monitors are reminded to remove all air bubbles from the water sample by tapping the samplebottle while it is submerged. Monitors also double-check for air bubbles in the sample and thetitration plunger before beginning a test. Air bubbles in the plunger are avoided by depressingthe plunger before drawing up the titration solution. These practices greatly reduce data error.

The program suggests that volunteers perform the dissolved oxygen test several times at homeor in the laboratory before going out in the field. Through practice, they can become familiarwith the order of reagents and what the water sample should look like at each step.

For More Information:Alliance for a Living OceanP.O. Box 95Ship Bottom, NJ 08008Phone: 609-492-0222Fax: 609-492-6216E-mail: [email protected]

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DO saturation, or potential DO level,refers to the highest DO concentrationpossible under the environmental limits oftemperature, salinity (or chlorinity), andatmospheric pressure. As salinity orchlorinity increases, the amount ofoxygen that water can hold decreasessubstantially. For example, at 20°C, 100%DO saturation for fresh water (for whichsalinity and chlorinity are zero) is 9.09mg/l. At the same temperature, 100%saturation for water with 36 parts perthousand (ppt) salinity is 7.34 mg/l.

Table 9-2 summarizes DO saturationlevels for different salinities andtemperatures at sea level. Tables showingsaturation levels in waters of variouschlorinity can be found in APHA (1998).

Percent saturation is the amount ofoxygen in the water relative to the water’spotential DO saturation. It is calculated asfollows:

Percent saturation = measured DOx 100DO saturation

(Excerpted and adapted from Green, 1998.)

Table 9-2.Dissolved oxygen saturationconcentrations (mg/l) in waters of various salinity(ppt) and temperature (°C ) at sea level (adaptedfrom Campbell and Wildberger, 1992, and APHA,1998).Readers are referred to APHA (1998) forDO saturation concentrations using chlorinityinstead of salinity (salinity = 1.80655 xchlorinity).

0.0 14.6 13.7 12.9 12.1 11.41.0 14.2 13.4 12.5 11.8 11.12.0 13.8 13.0 12.2 11.5 10.83.0 13.5 12.7 11.9 11.2 10.54.0 13.1 12.3 11.6 10.9 10.35.0 12.8 12.0 11.3 10.6 10.06.0 12.4 11.7 11.0 10.4 9.87.0 12.1 11.4 10.8 10.2 9.68.0 11.8 11.2 10.5 9.9 9.49.0 11.6 10.9 10.3 9.7 9.2

10.0 11.3 10.6 10.0 9.5 9.011.0 11.0 10.4 9.8 9.3 8.812.0 10.8 10.2 9.6 9.1 8.613.0 10.5 10.0 9.4 8.9 8.414.0 10.3 9.7 9.2 8.7 8.215.0 10.1 9.5 9.0 8.5 8.116.0 9.9 9.3 8.8 8.4 7.917.0 9.7 9.2 8.7 8.2 7.818.0 9.5 9.0 8.5 8.0 7.619.0 9.3 8.8 8.3 7.9 7.520.0 9.1 8.6 8.2 7.7 7.321.0 8.9 8.4 8.0 7.6 7.222.0 8.7 8.3 7.9 7.5 7.123.0 8.6 8.1 7.7 7.3 7.024.0 8.4 8.0 7.6 7.2 6.825.0 8.3 7.8 7.4 7.1 6.726.0 8.1 7.7 7.3 7.0 6.627.0 8.0 7.6 7.2 6.8 6.528.0 7.8 7.4 7.1 6.7 6.429.0 7.7 7.3 7.0 6.6 6.330.0 7.6 7.2 6.8 6.5 6.231.0 7.4 7.1 6.7 6.4 6.132.0 7.3 7.0 6.6 6.3 6.033.0 7.2 6.8 6.5 6.2 5.934.0 7.1 6.7 6.4 6.1 5.835.0 7.0 6.6 6.3 6.0 5.7

Temperature °C Salinity: 0 ppt 9 ppt 18 ppt 27 ppt 36 ppt

Oxygen Saturation Concentration (mg/l)

DO Saturation and Percent Saturation

9-13



Should I pour off any of the water in my sample bottle before I add the reagents?

No. Pouring off some of the water allows space for an air bubble to be trapped when thebottle is capped. When you shake the bottle, this oxygen mixes with the sample and causeserroneously high results. It’s OK for some liquid to overflow as you add the fixing reagents.(If you are concerned about spillage, put the bottle on a paper towel.)

How should I hold the dropper bottles to dispense the reagents?

Hold the dropper bottles completely upside down (i.e., vertical). This ensures a uniform dropsize.

What is meant by saying that the sample is “fixed”?

After the first three reagents are added, the sample is fixed; this means that contact withatmospheric oxygen will no longer affect the test result because all the dissolved oxygen in thesample has reacted with the added reagents. The final titration actually measures iodine insteadof oxygen. Fixed samples may be stored up to 8 hours, if kept refrigerated and in the dark.

What if I spill some of the acid as I am fixing the sample?

As part of the fixing process, acid crystals or liquid are added to the sample. The addition ofthe acid will dissolve the flocculate. You can spill a few acid crystals and not have to startover—but you should be sure to clean up the spill (see Chapter 7). If a few grains of acid donot go into the solution and all the flocculate is dissolved, you may continue the titration.

Sometimes after I add the acid, some brown “dots” remain. Is this OK?

The brown particles should be dissolved before you continue the test. Try shaking the samplebottle again. If this doesn’t work, add one more drop of acid. You may occasionally find thatorganic material or sediment in the sample will not dissolve. This will not affect the test results.

What if my sample is colorless after it’s fixed?

This means there is no dissolved oxygen in the sample. If this happens, you might want totest a sample that you know contains oxygen to make sure that your kit is functioningproperly. One way to do this is to intentionally introduce an air bubble into the watersample, shake well, then fix the sample. You should see a yellow color.

When filling the syringe with the thiosulfate reagent, how far back should I pull the barrel?

The point of the black neoprene tip should be set right at zero. This is extremely important.

What if my syringe runs out of the sodium thiosulfate titrant?

In colder water, the amount of DO may be above 10 mg/l, so you will have to refill thesyringe. For accurate results, fill to 0 mark and add the amount titrated from second syringe-full to the 10 from the first syringe-full.

How much starch solution should I add?

When and how much starch solution is added is not critical to the test. The important thing isthat the sample turns blue.

Common Questions About DO Testing

(Excerpted and adapted from Green, 1997, and Ellett, 1993.)

9-14



Biochemical oxygen demand measures theamount of oxygen that microorganismsconsume while decomposing organic matter;it also measures the chemical oxidation ofinorganic matter (i.e., the extraction ofoxygen from water via chemical reaction).The rate of oxygen consumption in an estuaryis affected by a number of variables, includingtemperature, the presence of certain kinds ofmicroorganisms, and the type of organic andinorganic material in the water.

The Role of Biochemical Oxygen Demandin the Estuarine Ecosystem

BOD directly affects the amount of dissolvedoxygen in estuaries. The greater the BOD, themore rapidly oxygen is depleted. This meansless oxygen is available to aquatic organisms.The consequences of high BOD are the same asthose for low dissolved oxygen: many aquaticorganisms become stressed, suffocate, and die.Examples of BOD levels are provided in Table9-3. Sampling locations with traditionally highBOD are often good candidates for morefrequent DO sampling.

Table 9-3.Significant BOD Levels (fromCampbell and Wildberger, 1992).

*Allowable level for individual treatment plantspecified in discharge permit

Sources of BOD include leaves and woody debris; dead plants and animals; animal waste; effluents from pulp and papermills, wastewater treatment plants, feedlots,and food-processing plants; failing septicsystems; and urban stormwater runoff.Although some waters are naturally organic-rich, a high BOD often indicates polluted oreutrophic waters. ■

Type of Water BOD (mg/l)

unpolluted, natural water <5

raw sewage 150-300

wastewater treatment 8-150*plant effluent

BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD)


BOD is affected by the same factors thataffect DO. Chlorine can also affect BODmeasurements by inhibiting or killing themicroorganisms that decompose the organicand inorganic matter in a sample. In somewater samples, chlorine will dissipate within1-2 hours of being exposed to light. Such

exposure often happens during samplehandling or transport. However, if you aresampling in heavily chlorinated waters, suchas those below the effluent discharge pointfrom a wastewater treatment plant, it may benecessary to neutralize the chlorine withsodium thiosulfate (see APHA, 1998). ■

9-15



The standard BOD test is a simple means ofmeasuring the uptake of oxygen in a sampleover a predetermined period of time. Citizenscan easily collect the required water samplesas they monitor the water for other variables.The BOD test does, however, demand aseveral-day period of water storage in thedark to obtain results. Test for BOD using thefollowing steps:

• Collect two water samples from thesame place in the water column (surfaceor at depth) using the water samplingprotocol described earlier for DO. Eachbottle should be labeled clearly so thatthe samples will not be confused. Makesure there is no contact between thesample water and the air.

• Immediately measure the first samplefor DO using either a DO meter or DOkit. Record the time of samplecollection and the water temperature.Place the second sample in a standardBOD bottle. The bottle should be blackto prevent photosynthesis. You can wrapa clear bottle with black electrician’stape, aluminum foil, or black plastic ifyou do not have a black or brown glassbottle.

• Incubate the bottle of untested samplewater at 20oC and in total darkness (toprevent photosynthesis). After 5 days ofincubation, use the same method oftesting to measure the quantity of DO inthe second sample. Because of the 5-day

incubation, the test should be conductedin a laboratory.

• The BOD is expressed in milligrams perliter of DO using the followingequation:

BOD = DO (mg/l) of 1st bottle – DO of 2nd bottle

This represents the amount of oxygenconsumed by microorganisms to break downthe organic matter present in the sample bottleduring the incubation period.

Sometimes by the end of the 5-dayincubation period, the DO level is zero. Thisis especially true for monitoring sites with alot of organic pollution (e.g., downstream ofwastewater discharges). Since it is not knownwhen the zero point was reached, it is notpossible to tell what the BOD level is. In thiscase, it is necessary to collect another sampleand dilute it by a factor that results in a finalDO level of at least 2 mg/l. Special dilutionwater containing the nutrients necessary forbacterial growth should be used for thedilutions. Some supply houses carrypremeasured nutrient “pillows” to simplify theprocess. APHA (1998) describes in detail howto dilute a sample and conduct the BODanalysis.

It takes some experimentation to determinethe appropriate dilution factor for a particularsampling site. The final result is the differencein DO between the first measurement and thesecond after multiplying the second result bythe dilution factor. ■

How to Measure Biochemical Oxygen Demand

9-16





Other references:


Campbell, G., and S. Wildberger. 1992. The Monitor’s Handbook. LaMotte Company,Chestertown, MD. 71 pp.

Ellett, K. 1993. Chesapeake Bay Citizen Monitoring Program Manual.Alliance for theChesapeake Bay. Richmond, VA. 57 pp.

Green, L. 1997. “Common Questions About DO Testing.” The Volunteer Monitor9(1).

Green, L. 1998. “Let Us Go Down to the Sea—How Monitoring Changes from River toEstuary.” The Volunteer Monitor10(2): 1-3.

Mattson, M. 1992. “The Basics of Quality Control.” The Volunteer Monitor4(2): 6-8.

Stancioff, E. 1996. Clean Water: A Guide to Water Quality Monitoring for Volunteer Monitors ofCoastal Waters.Maine/New Hampshire Sea Grant Marine Advisory Program and Universityof Maine Cooperative Extension. Orono, ME. 73 pp.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1998. Condition of the Mid-Atlantic Estuaries.EPA 600-R-98-147. November. Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC. 50 pp.


Chapter10Nutrients

Nutrients—especially nitrogen and phosphorus—are key water quality parameters

in estuaries. Nutrient concentrations vary according to surrounding land use,

season, and geology. Because nitrogen and phosphorus play such important roles

in the estuarine ecosystem, it is not surprising that volunteer groups very

commonly monitor these two nutrients.

Photos (l to r): K. Register, R. Ohrel, The Ocean Conservancy, E. Ely

10-1


Unit One: Chemical Measures Chapter 10: Nutrients

Nutrients—especially nitrogen and phosphorus—are key water quality

parameters in estuaries. Depending on their chemical forms (or species), nitrogen

and phosphorus can have significant direct or indirect impacts on plant growth,

oxygen concentrations, water clarity, and sedimentation rates, just to name a few.

Nitrogen’s primary role in organisms is protein and DNAsynthesis; plants also

use this substance in photosynthesis. Phosphorus is critical for metabolic

processes, which involve the transfer of energy. Because nitrogen and phosphorus

play such important roles in the estuarine ecosystem, it is not surprising that

volunteer groups very commonly monitor these two nutrients.

Nutrient concentrations vary according to surrounding land use, season, and

geology. This chapter discusses factors that the volunteer monitor should consider

when establishing a nutrient monitoring program. Sample monitoring instruments

and techniques are described. Finally, an additional monitoring opportunity for

volunteers—atmospheric deposition—is introduced.

Overview

10-2


Chapter 10: Nutrients Unit One: Chemical Measures

Nutrients are chemical substances used formaintenance and growth that are critical forsurvival. Plants require a number ofnutrients—carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus,oxygen, silica, magnesium, potassium,calcium, iron, zinc, and copper—to grow,reproduce, and ward off disease. Of thesenutrients, nitrogen and phosphorus are ofparticular concern in estuaries for tworeasons:

• they are two of the most importantnutrients essential for the growth ofaquatic plants; and

• the amount of these nutrients beingdelivered to estuaries has increasedsignificantly.

Eutr ophication is a condition in whichhigh nutrient concentrations stimulate ex-cessive algal blooms, which then depleteoxygen as they decompose (Figure 10-1). The organic production can also lead tosediment accumulation. Because of thepotential impacts of nutrients, citizen moni-toring programs often focus on nitrogen andphosphorus as indicators of estuarine health.

Nutrient SourcesNitrogen and phosphorus enter estuaries

from several natural and human-made sources(Figure 10-2). Natural sources of nitrogen andphosphorus in the estuary include:

• fresh water that runs over geologicformations rich in phosphate or nitrate;

• decomposing organic matter andwildlife waste; and

• the extraction of nitrogen gas from theatmosphere by some bacteria and blue-green algae (known as nitrogenfixation).

There are three major manmade oranthropogenic sources of nutrients:atmospheric deposition, surface water, andgroundwater. Atmospheric sources includefossil fuel burning by power plants andautomobiles. Nutrients from these sourcesmay fall to the land or estuary either directlyor along with precipitation. Surface waterinputs include point and nonpoint sourcedischarges: effluent from wastewatertreatment plants, urban stormwater runoff,

lawn and agricultural fertilizerrunoff, industrial discharges, andlivestock wastes. Groundwatersources are primarily underwaterseepage from agricultural fieldsand failing septic systems.

The Role of Nutrients in theEstuarine Ecosystem

Figures 10-3 and 10-4 illustratethe nitrogen and phosphoruscycles, respectively. Althoughnutrients are essential for thegrowth and survival of anestuary’s plants, an excess ofnitrogen and phosphorus maytrigger a string of events thatseasonally deplete dissolved

Why Monitor Nutrients?

Estuary A Estuary B

0 5 10 5 0

DO, mg/l

Figure 10-1.Eutrophication. Estuary B receives more nutrient loads than Estuary A. As aresult, Estuary B experiences more plant production and organic material accumulation.Dissolved oxygen levels are also lower in Estuary B, especially in deeper water, due to thedecomposition of organic matter. (Adapted from Cole, 1994.)

10-3



oxygen (DO) in the water (see Chapter 9). Asstated earlier, an overabundance of suchnutrients can lead to uncontrolled growth ofphytoplankton (minute floating plants) oralgae—these are often referred to as blooms.

Water clouded by thick patches of these tinyplants does not allow sunlight to penetrate tothe bottom. Submerged aquatic vegetation(see Chapter 18) requires light forphotosynthesis; if the plants’fronds (leaves)are covered or if the water is too cloudyduring much of the growing season, theseplants will die.

When algae and phytoplankton die, they aredecomposed by oxygen-consuming bacteria.Especially slow-moving waterbodies withinsufficient mixing may becomehypoxic (lowin oxygen). Under the worst conditions, thebottom waters of an estuary turn anoxic

(without oxygen). Excessive nutrientconcentrations have been linked to hypoxicconditions in over 50 percent of U.S.estuaries. Even coastal ocean areas, such asthe Gulf of Mexico, have been impacted,endangering economically and ecologicallyimportant fisheries (USGS, 1999).

High nutrient concentrations have also beenlinked to harmful or nuisance phytoplanktonblooms—such as “red tides” and “browntides”—some of which produce harmfultoxins (see Chapter 19). Nutrients are alsobelieved to be one cause for the growth of thepotentially toxic dinoflagellate Pfiesteria,found in estuaries along Atlantic coasts(USGS, 1999). These events may result infish and shellfish kills and be harmful tohuman health.

Cars and Factories

Atmosphericdeposition

Inorganic fertilizerrunoff

Natural runoff

Manure runofffrom feedlots

Runoff fromstreets,

lawns, andconstruction lots

Runoff and erosion(from cultivation,

mining, construction,and poor land use)

Discharge of treatedand untreated sewage

from wastewatertreatment plants and

septic systems

Detergents

Figure 10-2.Typical nutrient sources to an estuary.

10-4



Levels of NutrientsNutrient concentrations are always in flux,

responding to changes in:

• precipitation and amount of runoff;

• fertilizer or manure application rates;

• estuary flushing rates;

• water temperature;

• biological activity in the estuary; and/or

• the status of other water qualityparameters.

Figure 10-5 shows significant levels fornutrients in estuarine waters.

Nutrient concentrations are usually greatestduring spring and early summer, when fertilizeruse and water flow from tributaries andirrigation activities are high.

High nutrient concentrations can also bedetected during seasonal low-flow conditions(USGS, 1999). During winter low-flow periods,for example, the lack of land and aquatic plantuptake combined with contributions fromgroundwater can result in high nitrogen levels.Nutrient levels downstream from urban areasmay also be high during low-flow periods. Atthese times, contributions from point sourcescan be greater relative to streamflow, anddilution is less (USGS, 1999).

Nutrient levels also vary among watersheds.Natural features (e.g., geology and soils) andland management practices (e.g., drainage andirrigation) can affect the movement of nitrogenand phosphorus over land, creating local andregional effects on estuarine water quality(USGS, 1999).

Tidal stage may also cause fluctuations innutrient levels, but many volunteer programshave found that “chasing the tides” does notyield enough additional information to makethe effort worthwhile. ■

Normal level of nitrate-nitrogen in unpolluted water

Total phosphorus stimulatesplant growth to surpass naturaleutrophication rates

Total phosphorus contributesto increased plant growth(eutrophication)

<1

0.1

0.03

Nutrient Concentration(mg/l)

PhosphorusNitrogen

Figure 10-5.Significantlevels of nutrients inaquatic systems(Campbell andWildberger, 1992).

Drainageand Wastes

OrganicNitrogen Inorganic

Nitrogen

RemineralizingMicrobes

Detritus DissolvedNitrogen

DenitrifyingBacteria

Animals

OceanExchange

FishingPlankton

Nitrogen-fixingAlgae and BacteriaAir Deposition

Plants

Drainageand Wastes

OrganicPhosphorus

RemineralizingMicrobes

Detritus DissolvedPhosphorus

Animals

OceanExchange

FishingPlankton

OrganicPhosphorus

InorganicPhosphorus

Plants

Figure 10-3. The nitrogen cycle (adapted from USEPA, 1987).

Figure 10-4. The phosphorus cycle(adapted from USEPA, 1987).

10-5



Chapter 6 summarized several factors thatshould be considered when identifyingmonitoring sites, where to monitor in the watercolumn, and when to monitor. In addition to theconsiderations in Chapter 6, a few additionalones specific to nutrient monitoring arepresented here.

When to Sample In setting up a nutrient monitoring plan, the

program manager should ensure that the effortwill continue for several seasons. Since theworkings of an estuary are complex, a mereyear or two of nutrient data is insufficient tocapture the variability of the system. In fact, acouple of years of unusual data may be quitemisleading and tell a story very different fromthe long-term situation (note the variability inFigure 10-6).

Volunteers should sample nutrients on aweekly basis, although biweekly sampling willstill yield valuable information. However,sampling at a small number of sites every weekor two cannot possibly capture the constantlychanging water quality of an entire estuary. Thekey to effective nutrient monitoring is tosample at a sufficiently frequent interval and atenough representative sites so that the data willaccount for most of the inherent variabilitywithin the system. In temperate climates, someprograms have eliminated wintertimemeasurements when aquatic plants are dormantand the effects of nutrients are not so marked.A few measurements during the winter,however, will provide a baseline of nutrientlevels that can be compared to the rest of theyear’s data.

Where to SampleIf the monitoring program is designed to

pinpoint trouble spots in the estuary, theprogram manager should cluster monitoringsites where point and nonpoint sources of

nutrients appear to enter the water. Such sitesmight include an area near the discharge pipeof a wastewater treatment plant or adjacent toan agricultural area where fertilizers are appliedor livestock congregate.

Because nutrient levels often vary withdepth, especially during the summer when theestuary is well-stratified, volunteer groups maywish to collect samples at different depths. VanDorn and Kemmerer samplers (see Chapter 7)are commonly used to collect these kinds ofsamples. In addition, there are several watersamplers designed primarily for collectingsamples at different depths. Appendix Cprovides a list of equipment suppliers.

Special Consideration: The Different Forms of Nutrients

Nitrogen and phosphorus come in manydifferent chemical forms, or species, which aredetermined by a number of environmentalconditions. Measuring each nutrient species canhelp identify its source into the estuary.Therefore, volunteer efforts to measuredifferent nutrient species can providesignificant information to resource managers.

2

1.6

1.2

0.8

0.4

0

Jan 00Jul 99Jan 99Jul 98Jan 98Jul 97Jan 97

Nitri

te a

nd N

itrat

e (m

g/l)

Figure 10-6.Seasonal fluctuations of nitrite and nitrate—two forms ofnitrogen—in a typical mid-Atlantic estuary.


10-6



Nitrogen Forms and Impacts

Although nitrogen makes up about 80 percentof the earth’s atmosphere, it is inaccessible tomost terrestrial and aquatic organisms. Sometypes of bacteria and blue-green algae,however, can “fix” nitrogen gas, converting itto an inorganic nitrogen form—thereby makingit available to other organisms.

In the estuary, nitrogen exists in a variety ofchemical (e.g., ammonium, nitrate, and nitrite)and particulate and dissolved organic forms(e.g., living and dead organisms). Table 10-1summarizes information about differentnitrogen species and their connection tosurrounding land activities.

The quantity and form of nitrogen in thewater can also closely relate to dissolvedoxygen levels. Bacteria are able to convert

nitrogen into different nitrogen species andgain energy from the process. Throughnitrification , some bacteria transformammonium into nitrite and then to nitrate. Thisbiological process consumes oxygen. Whennitrification is inhibited by low dissolvedoxygen conditions, ammonia or nitrite formsof nitrogen may accumulate.

Through denitrification , bacteria convertnitrate to nitrite and then to nitrogen gas. Thisprocess occurs under anoxic conditions andhelps rid the system of excess nitrogen.

Nitrate and urea are highly soluble in water,a characteristic which facilitates their transportto the estuary by runoff. Ammonium is alsosoluble in water; it can be transformed toammonia in low oxygen environments andescape to the atmosphere. All of these nitrogenspecies promote phytoplankton, algae, andbacterial blooms (Phinney, 1999). Certainnitrogen species can have other adverseimpacts. At high concentrations, nitrates aretoxic to eelgrass, and ammonia is toxic to fish(Maine DEP, 1996).

Phosphorus Forms and Impacts

Phosphorus also exists in the water inseveral forms: organic phosphate,orthophosphate (inorganic, dissolvedphosphorus), total phosphorus (dissolved andparticulate), and polyphosphate (fromdetergents). Orthophosphate in the watercomes from fertilizers and is the formcommonly measured. Organic phosphateresults from plant and animal waste.Decomposition of dead plants and animalsalso adds organic phosphorus to the water. Ingeneral, excess phosphates can enter anestuary from water treatment plants, sewage,soils, agricultural fields, animal feedlotoperations, and lawns.

Many phosphorus species attach to soilparticles and are, therefore, transported to theestuary with eroded soil. Especially highphosphorus loads are often delivered duringperiods of high runoff from storms orirrigation activities.

Under oxygenated conditions, phosphate will

Nitrate (NO3–),

Nitrite (NO2–) and

NOx (“nox”)

Ammonium (NH4+)

and unionizedammonia (NH3)

Urea (an organicform of nitrogen)

Nitrogen Species Notes About Possible Species Sources

• Make up 70 percent of total nitrogen inputsfrom groundwater to smaller watersheds inthe Chesapeake Bay

• Make up approximately 15 percent of totalnitrogen found in agricultural fertilizers

• NO2– is generally a short-lived nitrogen

species that is measured in low oxygenenvironments

• NOx from fossil fuel burning makes up atleast 25 percent of atmospheric nitrogeninputs into coastal waters (Paerl andWhiteall, 1999)

• Make up 5.8 percent of total nitrogen inlawn fertilizer

• Make up 20 percent of total nitrogen inagricultural fertilizers

• Primary nitrogen component from animalfeedlot operations (AFOs)

• Makes up 12 percent of total nitrogen inlawn fertilizer

• Makes up 38-45 percent of total nitrogen inagricultural fertilizers

Table 10-1.Examples of nitrogen species and notes about potential sources(adapted from Phinney, 1999).

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form chemical complexes with minerals such asiron, aluminum, and manganese and fall to thebottom sediments. In cases when this nutrient isfound mostly in sediments, water columnconcentrations may not provide a full picture ofnutrient loads and impacts. If the bottom waterin an estuary has no oxygen, however,phosphate bound to the sediments is releasedback into the water. This release can fuel yetanother round of phytoplankton blooms.

Choosing a Sampling Method A dilemma arises for program managers

when deciding upon the appropriate methodfor measuring nutrient levels in an estuary. Onone hand, kits for nitrogen and phosphoruscan be imprecise; on the other, submittingprepared samples for lab analysis is costly andtime consuming. Program managersfrequently arrange to have a college orprofessional lab donate its time and facilitiesto the volunteer effort.

If the data are intended to supplement state orfederal efforts, it is wise to confer with theagency beforehand to determine an acceptablemonitoring method. Whatever sampling methodis chosen, program managers shouldperiodically compare the citizen monitoringdata to duplicate samples analyzed by anothermethod under laboratory conditions.

The following sections provide an overviewof possible nutrient analysis methods, alongwith each method’s advantages and pitfalls.

Test Kits

Several companies manufacture kits foranalyzing the various forms of nitrogen andphosphorus. While the kits are not precise oraccurate when nutrient levels are low, themanager may choose to use them when deemedappropriate given the program’s data objectives.The kits rely on a color comparison in whichthe volunteer matches the color of a preparedwater sample to one in a set of providedstandards. The subjectivity of each volunteer’sdecision as well as ambient light levels willinfluence the results to some degree.

Kits are suitable for identifying majornutrient sources, such as wastewater andanimal feedlots, where levels are generallyhigher than the surface water in the estuary.Areas where concentrations routinely exceedconcentrations of 1 mg/l are good candidatesfor kit analysis.

While the kits are generally easy to use,many state and federal agencies will rejectnutrient data derived from their use becauseof their imprecision and subjective nature. Insome cases, data that are collected from theuse of kits may be helpful as a screening tool.

Spectrophotometer

A spectrophotometer measures the quantityof a chemical based on its characteristicabsorption spectrum. This is accomplished by comparing the collected sample to areference sample, also called a standard.Spectrophotometers are generally quiteaccurate although the instruments areexpensive to purchase and maintain. Programswith ample funds for equipment may want toconsider purchasing this reliable instrument,which costs from $1,000 to $6,000. Becausereagents and standards are required, thevolunteer program will have an addedexpense of a few hundred dollars.

The instrument requires proper maintenanceand precise calibration; therefore, the programmanager or someone familiar with thisequipment must oversee its care and use.

Colorimeter

A colorimeter compares the intensity ofcolor between the sample and a standard inorder to measure the quantity of a compoundin the sample solution.

Cheaper than a spectrophotometer, electriccolorimeters offer citizen programs areasonably priced alternative. They are quiteaccurate, fairly easy to use, and can providedirect meter readout. Colorimeters range inprice from $250 to $2,000.

Like the spectrophotometer, this instrumentcan be used for forms of both nitrogen and

10-8



phosphorus. The colorimeter is a moreaffordable alternative for those programs thatprefer a method less costly than thespectrophotometer and more accurate than thekits.

Similar to a spectrophotometer, acolorimeter requires standard maintenanceand reagents, which must be purchased on aregular basis. The colorimeter providesaccurate data only when properly maintainedand precisely calibrated by a professional.

Laboratory Analysis

Analysis of nutrients by a professionallaboratory is by far the most accurate meansof obtaining nutrient data. Most laboratoriesinstitute strict quality assurance and quality

control methods to ensure consistently reliableresults. A college or professional lab mayoffer its services free of charge to thevolunteer program.

If the program decides to use lab analysis,it must ensure that its volunteers adhere tostrict guidelines while collecting samples.Sloppy field collection techniques will resultin poor data no matter how sophisticated thelab may be. ■

Reminder!To ensure consistently high quality data,appropriate quality control measures arenecessary. See “Quality Control andAssessment” in Chapter 5 for details.

How to Monitor Nutrients

General procedures for collecting andanalyzing samples for nutrients are presented inthis section for guidance only; they do notapply to all sampling methods. Monitorsshould consult with the instructions thatcome with their sampling and analyzinginstruments. Those who are interested insubmitting data to waterquality agenciesshould also consult with the agencies todetermine acceptable equipment, methods,quality control measures, and data qualityobjectives (see Chapter5).

Before proceeding to the monitoring site andcollecting samples, volunteers should review thetopics addressed in Chapter 7. It is critical toconfirm the monitoring site, date, and time; havethe necessary monitoring equipment and person-al gear; and understand all safety considerations.Once at the monitoring site, volunteers shouldrecord general site observations, as discussed inChapter 7. A visual assessment of phytoplanktondensity is particularly recommended to aid nutri-ent data interpretation—nutrient concentrations

in a water sample may be low because phyto-plankton are utilizing the nutrients.


equipment and apparel listed in Chapter 7, thevolunteer should bring the following items tothe site when sampling for nutrients:

Procedure A—Equipment for test kit analysis

• fully stocked nitrogen and phosphoruskits, with instructions for use;

• clean polypropylene sample bottles orscintillation vials (60 ml) (see Chapter 7for details on cleaning reusable samplingcontainers);

• water sampler (if collecting samples fromother than the surface); and

• appropriate type of equipment and waterfor making sample dilutions.

10-9



Procedure B—Equipment for preparing samplefor laboratory analysis

• clean polypropylene sample bottles orscintillation vials (60 mg/l) (see Chapter 7for details on cleaning reusable samplingcontainers);

• filter assembly and supporting equipment(many laboratories require filteredsamples);

• water sampler (if collecting samples fromother than the surface);

• ice cooler with ice packs to keep samplescool and in darkness; and

• properly labeled preservation chemicals.

Sampling Hint:If using a boat to reach the sampling location,make sure that it is securely anchored. It isbest not to bring up the anchor until thesampling is completed since mud (withassociated nutrients) may become stirred intothe water.

STEP 2: Collect the water sample.Volunteers must follow strict guidelines to

prevent contamination of the sample. Forexample, it is preferable to use a standardsampling bottle rather than a simple bucketsince a washed and capped bottle is less likelyto become contaminated than an opencontainer.

Chapter 7 reviews general information aboutcollecting a water sample using a bottle orWhirl-pak bag. Volunteers using bottles shouldbe sure to:

• Rinse the bottle by pushing it into thewater in a forward motion, holding thecontainer by the bottom. This techniquewill keep water contaminated by skin oilsand dirt from entering the mouth. Fill thebottle a quarter full and swish the wateraround the inside, making sure to coverall inside surfaces. Pour out the water onthe down-current side of the boat and

away from the actual sampling site. Rinsethe cap as well.

• After rinsing, push the bottle back intothe water in the same manner to collect asample for analysis.

• Fill the bottle to the shoulder, leaving anairspace. Cap the bottle.

• If the samples are not to be measured thatday, they should be preserved accordingto the requirements specified by the testkit manufacturer, laboratory conductingthe analysis, water quality agency, etc.The preservation technique may varyaccording to the type of nutrient and themethod by which it is measured.

• Store the container in a cold, dark icechest to minimize bacterial activity andphytoplankton growth.

• Filtered samples may require apolypropylene syringe and filter that canbe screwed on. Bottle rinsing should bedone with filtered water before the finalsample is added.

NOTE: Volunteers using test kits may prefer toplace the kit’s test tube or bottle directly into thewater to collect the sample. Eyedroppers arehelpful in filling the test tube to the marked line.

STEP 3: Measure nutrients or preparesample for laboratory analysis.Procedure A—Elements of test kit analysis

• Conduct the test as soon as possible aftercollecting the water sample. As thesample sits, organisms living in the waterwill use up nutrients, changing thenutrient concentrations in the water.

• Before starting the analysis, double-checkthat the bottles, test tube or sample bottle,and any other equipment that will comein contact with the sample are clean.Reagents should be maintained at about20°C to yield the best results.

• Make sure the sample water is wellmixed.

10-10



• Follow the protocol for each nutrient typeas outlined in the instructionsaccompanying the kit.

• Immediately record the results on the datasheet.

Procedure B—Prepare sample for laboratoryanalysis

Volunteers may need to filter the sample,depending on the nutrient species beinganalyzed. This activity removes the particulatenutrient fraction from the dissolved fraction.Individual laboratories may require differentfiltering techniques; therefore, volunteer groupsshould consult with their laboratory todetermine how samples should be filtered.

STEP 4: Clean up and send off data.Volunteers should thoroughly clean all

equipment, whether using the test kit or the lab

preparation method. Follow laboratory or testkit instructions for cleaning. Allow theequipment to air dry before storing it. Ifvolunteers used the filtration technique, theyshould detach the filter unit from the syringe,unscrew it, and clean all parts. The paper filtercan be thrown away.

Properly dispose of wastes generated duringthe performance of tests (see Chapter 7).

Make sure that the data sheet is complete andaccurate. Volunteers should make a copy of thecompleted data sheet before sending it to theproject manager in case the original data sheetbecomes lost.

After preserving the samples, followlaboratory guidelines for packing and shippingthem to the analytical lab. This step should bedone as soon as possible.

Warning!The interpretation of nutrient concentration data must be done with care. While high nutrient levelssuggest the potential for explosive algal growth, low levels do not necessarily mean the estuary isreceiving less nutrient input. Large quantities of nutrients may flow into the estuary and be quicklytaken up by phytoplankton. Zooplankton, in turn, graze upon the phytoplankton. Phosphorus mayalso bind with minerals in the sediment, which settle to the bottom, but may be reintroduced tothe water column under low oxygen conditions.

In this scenario, although water nutrient concentration is low, the quantity of nutrients tied up insediment and biomass (living matter) is high. Chlorophyll analysis is needed to quantify thephytoplankton biomass and interpret the low nutrient concentrations.

10-11



Over the past 30 years, scientists havecollected a large amount of convincinginformation demonstrating that air pollutantscan be deposited on land and water, sometimesat great distances from their original sources.Atmospheric deposition, then, can be animportant contributor to declining estuarinewater quality.

What Is Atmospheric Deposition and HowDoes It Occur?

Nitrogen pollutants released into the air arecarried by wind away from their place of origin.These pollutants come from manmade sourcessuch as fossil fuel burning, industrial processes,cars and other forms of transportation, fertilizer,and the volatilization of animal wastes. Airdeposition can also come from natural sourcesof emissions.

Atmospheric deposition occurs whenpollutants in the air fall on the land or water.Pollution deposited in snow, fog, or rain iscalled wet deposition, while the deposition ofpollutants as dry particles or gases is called drydeposition. Air pollution can be deposited intowaterbodies either directly from the air onto thesurface of the water or through indirectdeposition, where the pollutants settle on theland and are then carried into a waterbody byrunoff.

How Much Water Pollution from NutrientsIs Atmospheric?

Nitrogen is one of the most common airdeposition pollutants, especially in the easternUnited States. Since 1940, human activity hasdoubled the rate of nitrogen cycling through the

global atmosphere, and the rate is accelerating(Vitousek et al., 1997). Depending on thewaterbody and watershed being considered, it isestimated that roughly a quarter of the nitrogenin an estuary comes from air sources (Paerl andWhiteall, 1999). Table 10-2 shows estimatednitrogen sources in the Chesapeake Baywatershed.

In the Chesapeake Bay region, it is estimatedthat 37 percent of the nitrogen entering the bayfrom air sources comes from electric utilities;35 percent from cars and trucks; 6 percent from industry and other large sources of fossilfuel-fired boilers; and 21 percent from othersources such as ships, airplanes, lawnmowers,construction equipment, and trains (Alliance forthe Chesapeake Bay, 1997).

Some other estuaries have also attempted toestimate how much of the nitrogen in theirwater comes from air sources, including bothdirect and indirect deposition (see Table 10-3).

Special Topic: Atmospheric Deposition of Nutrients

Table 10-2.Estimated sources of nitrogen in theChesapeake Bay (Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay, 1997).

*This estimate of air sources includes indirect airdeposition that reaches the bay as runoff from forests,streets, farmland, and anywhere else it is deposited.

Waterborne point sources (e.g.,industry, sewage treatment plants,etc.)

Runoff from land* (e.g., farms,lawns, city streets, golf courses,etc.)

Air sources* (e.g., electric powerplants, vehicles, municipal wastecombustors, etc.)

25%

50%

25%

10-12



What Can Volunteers Do?Presently, atmospheric deposition monitoring

by volunteers is in its early stages. Onepotential procedure that may interest volunteergroups is a passive sampler that measuresammonia concentrations (Greening, 1999). Thesamplers are small disks that are set out forseveral days (up to one week), collected, andthen sent to a laboratory for analysis. The procedure is still being developed and refined.

Another way volunteers can assist withatmospheric deposition monitoring is tomeasure rainfall. Rainfall measurements inwatershed sub-basins are critical in determiningthe contribution of wet deposition to estuarinenutrient concentrations. Precipitationmonitoring can also be instrumental indetermining potential causes for other pollutants(e.g., sediments).

Steps for Monitoring Precipitation

• Place a rain gauge in an open area awayfrom interference from overheadobstructions and more than one meterabove the ground (see Chapter 7). Avoidobstructions making angles greater than45o from the top of the gauge.

• Check the gauge after each rainfall,record the amount of precipitation and thetime of measurement, and then empty thegauge. If the gauge sits after a rainfall,evaporation can falsify the measurement.

• Make sure that the data sheet is completeand accurate. Volunteers should make acopy of the completed data sheet beforesending it to the project manager in casethe original data sheet becomes lost. ■

Bay or Estuary Million Tons of Nitrogen % of Total NitrogenAlbemarle-Pamlico Sounds 9 38-44

Delaware Bay 8 15

Delaware Inland Bays* - 21

Long Island Sound 12 20

Massachusetts Bays* - 5-27

Narragansett Bay* 0.6 12

Sarasota Bay* - 2

Tampa Bay* 1.1 28

Table 10-3.Amount and percentage of nitrogen entering the estuarine systems due to atmospheric deposition(NEPWeb site).

* Indicates measurement of direct deposition to water surface only.

10-13




U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Web site: http://www.epa.gov/owow/oceans/airdep/index.html

Other references:

Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay. 1997. Air Pollution and the Chesapeake Bay. White Paper of theAlliance for the Chesapeake Bay. 16 pp.


Campbell, G., and S. Wildberger. 1992. The Monitor’s Handbook.LaMotte Company, Chestertown,MD. 71 pp.

Cole, G.A. 1994. Textbook of Limnology. 4th ed. Waveland Press, Prospect Heights, IL.

Dates, G. 1994. “Monitoring for Phosphorus or How Come They Don’t Tell You This Stuff in the Manual?” The Volunteer Monitor6(1).


Greening, H. 1999. “Atmospheric Deposition Monitoring.” In: Meeting Notes—U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: VolunteerEstuary Monitoring: Wave of the Future. Mobile, AL: March 17-19, 1999.

Katznelson, R. 1997. “Nutrient Test Kits: What Can We Expect?” The Volunteer Monitor9(1).

Kerr, M., L. Green, M. Raposa, C. Deacutis, V. Lee, and A. Gold. 1992. Rhode Island VolunteerMonitoring Water Quality Protocol Manual.URI Coastal Resources Center, RI Sea Grant, andURI Cooperative Extension. 38 pp.

LaMotte Chemical Products Company. Undated. Laboratory Manual for Marine Science Studies.Educational Products Division, Chestertown, MD. 41 pp.

Maine Department of Environmental Protection (DEP). May 1996.A Citizen’s Guide to CoastalWatershed Surveys.78 pp.

Paerl, H. W., and D. R. Whiteall. 1999. “Anthropogenically-Derived Atmospheric NitrogenDeposition, Marine Eutrophication and Harmful Algal Bloom Expansion: Is There a Link?”Ambio28(4): 307-311.

Phinney, J. 1999. “Nurients and Toxics.” In: Meeting Notes—U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: Volunteer EstuaryMonitoring: Wave of the Future. Astoria, OR: May 19-21, 1999.

Stancioff, E. November 1996. Clean Water: A Guide to Water Quality Monitoring for VolunteerMonitors of Coastal Waters. Maine/New Hampshire Sea Grant Marine Advisory Program andUniv. of Maine Cooperative Extension. Orono, ME. 73 pp.


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U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). 1999. The Quality of Our Nation’s Waters-Nutrients andPesticides.USGS Circular 1225. 82 pp.

Vitousek, P.M., J. Aber, R.W. Howarth, G.E. Likens, P.A. Matson, D.W. Schindler, W.H. Schlesinger,and G.D. Tillman. 1997. “Human Alteration of the Global Nitrogen Cycle: Causes andConsequences.” Issues in Ecology. No. 1, Spring 1997. Ecological Society of America, 15 pp.

Web sites:

Air Deposition

National Estuary Program (NEP): http://www.epa.gov/owow/estuaries/airdep.htm

Chapter11pH and Alkalinity

Every estuary is part of the carbon cycle. Carbon moves from the atmosphere into

plant and animal tissue, and into water bodies. Alkalinity, acidity, carbon dioxide

(CO2), pH, total inorganic carbon, and hardness are all related and are part of the

inorganic carbon complex. There are fascinating interrelationships among these

factors. For example, the amount of carbon dioxide in the water affects (and is

affected by) the pH and photosynthesis.

Photos (l to r): G. Carver, K. Register, R. Ohrel

11-1


Unit One: Chemical Measures Chapter 11: pH and Alkalinity

This chapter discusses two additional chemical parameters of estuaries that are

monitored to increase our understanding of the water’s health: pH and alkalinity.

Since the pH of water is critical to the survival of most aquatic plants and animals,

monitoring pH values is an important part of nearly every water quality

monitoring program. The testing is quick and easy and can establish a valuable

baseline of information so that unanticipated water quality changes can be better

understood.

Testing water samples for total alkalinity measures the capacity of the water to

neutralize acids. This test is important in determining the estuary’s ability to

neutralize acidic pollution from rainfall or wastewater.

Every estuary is part of the carbon cycle. Carbon moves from the atmosphere

into plant and animal tissue, and into water bodies. Alkalinity, acidity, carbon

dioxide (CO2), pH, total inorganic carbon, and hardness are all related and are part

of the inorganic carbon complex. There are fascinating interrelationships among

these factors. For example, the amount of carbon dioxide in the water affects (and

is affected by) the pH and photosynthesis.

Overview

11-2


Chapter 11: pH and Alkalinity Unit One: Chemical Measures

Routine monitoring of a waterbody shouldprovide baseline information about normal pHand alkalinity values. Unanticipated decreasesin pH could be indications of acid rain, runofffrom acidic soils, or contamination byagricultural chemicals. Values of pH outsidethe expected range of 5.0 to 10.0 should be

considered as indications of industrialpollution or some cataclysmic event.Likewise, a long-term database on alkalinityvalues provides researchers with the ability todetect trends in the chemical makeup ofestuary waters. ■

Why Monitor pH and Alkalinity?

pHpH is a measure of how acidic or basic (alka-

line) a solution is. It measures the hydrogen ion(H+) activity in a solution, and is expressed as anegative logarithm. The pH measurements aregiven on a scale of 0.0 to 14.0 (Figure 11-1).Pure water has a pH of 7.0 and is neutral;water measuring under 7.0 is acidic; and thatabove 7.0 is alkaline or basic. Most estuarineorganisms prefer conditions with pH valuesranging from about 6.5 to 8.5.

Values of pH are based on the logarithmicscale, meaning that for each 1.0 change of pH,acidity or alkalinity changes by a factor of ten;that is, a pH of 5.0 is ten times more acidic than6.0 and 100 times more acidic than 7.0. Whenthe hydrogen and hydroxyl ions are present inequal number (the neutral point), the pH of thesolution is 7.

The Role of pH in the Estuarine EcosystemWater’s pH is affected by the minerals dis-

solved in the water, aerosols and dust from theair, and human-made wastes as well as byplants and animals through photosynthesis andrespiration. Human activities that cause signifi-cant, short-term fluctuations in pH or long-termacidification of a waterbody are exceedinglyharmful. For instance, algal blooms that areoften initiated by an overload of nutrients cancause pH to fluctuate dramatically over a few-hour period, greatly stressing local organisms.Acid precipitation in the upper freshwaterreaches of an estuary can diminish the survival

rate of eggs deposited there by spawning fish.Several other factors also determine the pH

of the water, including:

• bacterial activity;

• water turbulence;

• chemical constituents in runoff flowinginto the waterbody;

• sewage overflows; and

• impacts from other human activities bothin and outside the drainage basin (e.g.,acid drainage from coal mines, accidentalspills, and acid precipitation).

Estuarine pH levels generally average from7.0 to 7.5 in the fresher sections, to between 8.0and 8.6 in the more saline areas. The slightlyalkaline pH of seawater is due to the naturalbuffering from carbonate and bicarbonate dis-solved in the water.

The pH of water is critical to the survival ofmost aquatic plants and animals. Many specieshave trouble surviving if pH levels drop under5.0 or rise above 9.0. Changes in pH can alterother aspects of the water’s chemistry, usuallyto the detriment of native species. Even smallshifts in the water’s pH can affect the solubilityof some metals such as iron and copper. Suchchanges can influence aquatic life indirectly; ifthe pH levels are lowered, toxic metals in theestuary’s sediment can be resuspended in thewater column. This can have impacts on manyaquatic species. See Chapter 12 for more infor-mation on toxins. ■

11-3



Chapter 6 summarized several factors thatshould be considered when determining moni-toring sites, where to monitor, and when tomonitor. In addition to the considerations inChapter 6, a few additional ones specific tomonitoring pH are presented here.

When to SampleIt is well-established that levels of pH fluctu-

ate throughout the day and season, and a singlepH measure during the day may not draw avery accurate picture of long-term pH condi-tions in the estuary. Photosynthesis by aquaticplants removes carbon dioxide from the water;this significantly increases pH. A pH readingtaken at dawn in an area with many aquaticplants will be different from a reading taken sixhours later when the plants are photosynthesiz-ing. Likewise, in waters with plant life (includ-ing planktonic algae), an increase in pH can beexpected during the growing season. For thesereasons, it is important to monitor pH values atthe same time of day if you wish to compareyour data with previous readings. It is alsoimportant to monitor pH values over a longperiod of time to provide useful data. The actual time to measure pH will depend on localconditions and the monitoring goals of the volunteer program.

Choosing a Sampling MethodThe pH test is one of the most common

analyses done in volunteer estuary monitoringprograms. In general, citizen programs use oneof two methods to measure pH: (1) the colori-metric method or (2) electronic meters. Bothrequire that measurements be taken in the field,since the pH of a water sample can changequickly due to biological and chemical process-es.

Color comparator (also called “colorimetric”)field kits are easy to use, inexpensive, and suffi -ciently accurate to satisfy the needs of mostprograms. The colorimetric method can also beused with an electronic colorimeter. If very pre-

cise measures arerequired, moreexpensive elec-tronic pH metersprovide extreme-ly accurate read-ings. Test paperstrips to obtainpH are unsuit-able for use inestuarine waterssince they do notprovide consis-tent measure-ments in saltwater. The fol-lowing sectionsdescribe the useof the two com-mon methods.

ColorimetricMethod

Colorimetricmeans “to mea-sure color.” In acolorimetric testmethod, reagentsare added to awater sample,and a reaction occurs which produces a color.The color can be measured visually or electron-ically. This method is not suitable for watercontaining colored materials such as dissolvedorganic compounds or excessive algae. Forwater samples that are colored, a meter is sug-gested.

Visual Method to Measure Color

Field kits cover a range of pH values. Theycost between $15 and $50, depending on therange of pH values to be tested. These kitscome with several color standards built into aplastic housing unit or printed on a card. Afteradding reagents according to the instructions,the volunteer compares the color in the test tube


Lye, sodium hydroxide (NaOH)

Bleach

Ammonia

Milk of Magnesia,soap solutions

Baking sodaSea waterBloodDistilled waterWater

Rain water, urine

Boric acid, black coffee

Tomatoes, grapes

Vinegar, wine, soft drinks, beer,orange juice, some acid rain

Lemon juice

Battery acid

Oven cleaners

Stomach acid

Saliva

14

13

12

11

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

Alka

line

Neut

ral

Acid

ic

Figure 11-1.pH rangescale.

11-4



with the standards to determine the pH value. Ifthe general pH values of the estuary are known,pick a kit that includes these values within itsrange of sensitivity. Some programs prefer touse a wide-range kit that covers pH values from3.0 to 10.0 until the measured range of valuesfor that waterbody has been established. Afterdetermining the actual range over several sea-sons, switch to a narrower range kit for greateraccuracy. Make sure kits have been checkedagainst pH standards.

Electronic Method to Measure Color

An electronic colorimeter measures theamount of light that travels through the reactedsample and converts the measurement to ananalog or digital reading (LaMotte, 1999). Areagent is added to the water sample in a testtube, which is then inserted into the colorimeterfor analysis. Usually electronic colorimeters arecapable of testing multiple water quality para-

meters.

pH Meters

Although more expensive than the colorimet-ric field kits, pH meters give extremely accuratereadings of a wide range of pH values. Themore economical pH testers cost about $40.Some more expensive meters ($75 - $750) alsowill display the water temperature, and somemeters have cables so that you can obtain read-ings throughout the water column. Unlike thecolorimetric method, meters can be used even ifthe water is clouded or colored.■

Helpful Hint:If your water quality monitoring programplans to collect data on alkalinity, pH meterswith built-in temperature sensors arerequired rather than the colorimetric kits.

pH Calibration StandardsWhether you use a field kit, pH meter, or colorimeter unit, calibration standards (also called“buffer solutions”) are employed to ensure that your equipment is accurate. The standards mostcommonly used are pH 4.00 (or 4.01), pH 7.00, and pH 10.00. They are available in liquid orpowder form (the powder is added to demineralized or deionized water). These pH standardscost from $5 to $25 each, depending on the quantity of calibrations you will be conducting.

Following is information regarding buffers:

• Because buffer pH values change with temperature, the buffer solutions should be atroom temperature when you calibrate the meter. Usually you can calibrate your pHequipment at home, a few hours before using it. Check manufacturer’s instructions.

• Do not use a buffer after its expiration date.

• Always cap the buffers during storage to prevent contamination.

• Do not reuse buffer solutions!

11-5



How to Measure pH ValuesGeneral procedures for measuring pH are

presented in this section for guidance only;they do not apply to all sampling methods.Monitors should consult with theinstructions that come with their samplingand analyzing instruments. Those who areinterested in submitting data to waterquality agencies should also consult withthe agencies to determine acceptableequipment, methods, quality controlmeasures, and data quality objectives (seeChapter 5).

Before proceeding to the monitoring siteand collecting samples, volunteers shouldreview the topics addressed in Chapter 7. It iscritical to confirm the monitoring site, date,and time; have the necessary monitoringequipment and personal gear; and understandall safety considerations. Once at themonitoring site, volunteers should recordgeneral site observations, as discussed inChapter 7.




• pH colorimetric field kit; or

• pH meter with built-in temperature sensor; or

• colorimeter unit with reagents.

STEP 2: Collect the sample.If you are using the

colorimetric method to measurepH, you can fill the test tube bylowering it into the water. Ifusing a meter, you cansometimes put the meter directlyin the water—you don’t need tocollect a sample. But ifmonitoring from a dock or boat,you will need to collect a watersample using screw-cap bottles,Whirl-pak bags, or watersamplers. Refer to Chapter 7 fordetails.

STEP 3: Measure pH values.Colorimetric Method

The colorimetric methods (both visual andelectronic meter) use indicators that changecolor according to the pH of the solution.Follow the directions in your colorimetric kit.

Since the test tube for the colorimetric testsis small, a clean eyedropper is useful as youfill the tube with the correct amount of samplewater. With colorimetric kits, you add achemical or two (reagents) to your watersample, and compare the resulting color of thewater sample to the color standards of knownpH values. With the field kits, which usevisual assessments, it is helpful to place whitepaper in the background of the tube toemphasize any color differences, especially ifthe sample’s color is faint. Record the pH valueof the standard that most closely matches thecolor of the sample. If the sample hue isbetween two standards, check your program’squality assurance project plan (QAPP)(see Chapter 5). Some QAPPs require you to average the values of the two closeststandards, and record this number as the pH.Other plans require you to select the closestvalue, and do not allow you to average thevalues.

Volunteer using a color comparator,or colorimetric field kit (photo by K. Register).

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Alkalinity (also known as “buffer capacity”)is a measure of the capacity of water toneutralize acids. Alkaline compounds such asbicarbonates, carbonates, and hydroxides,remove hydrogen ions and lower the acidityof the water (thereby increasing pH). Theyusually do this by combining with thehydrogen ions to make new compounds.

Alkalinity is influenced by rocks and soils,salts, certain plant activities, and certainindustrial wastewater discharges. Some watercan test on the acid side of the pH scale andstill rank high in alkalinity! This means that,while the water might be acidic, it still has acapacity to buffer, or neutralize, acids.

Total alkalinity is measured by measuringthe amount of acid (e.g., sulfuric acid) neededto bring the sample to a pH of 4.2. At this pH,all the alkaline compounds in the sample are“used up.” The result is reported as milli-grams per liter of calcium carbonate (mg/lCaCO3).

The Role of Alkalinity in the EstuarineEcosystem

Measuring alkalinity is important indetermining the estuary’s ability to neutralizeacidic pollution from rainfall or wastewater.Without this acid-neutralizing capacity, anyacid added to a body of water would cause animmediate change in pH. This bufferingcapacity of water, or its ability to resist pHchange, is critical to aquatic life. Theestuary’s capacity to neutralize acids will varybetween the freshwater reaches of the estuaryand the portions with higher salinity.

Total Alkalinity Levels in EstuariesTotal alkalinity of seawater averages 116

mg/l and is greater than fresh water, whichcan have a total alkalinity of 30 to 90 mg/l,depending on the watershed. The brackishwaters of an estuary will have total alkalinitybetween these values. ■

TOTAL ALKALINITY

pH Meter

Consistent calibration of equipment willensure that high quality data are collected. ThepH meter should be calibrated prior to sampleanalysis and after every 25 samples accordingto the instructions in the meter manual. Usetwo pH standard buffer solutions (see the box,“pH Calibration Standards,” page 11-4). Aftercalibration, place the electrode into the watersample and record the pH. The glass electrodeon these meters must be carefully rinsed withdeionized water after each use to ensureaccurate results in the future.

STEP 4: Clean up and send off data.Volunteers should thoroughly clean

all equipment.Make sure that the data sheet is complete,

legible, and accurate, and that it accounts forall samples. Volunteers should make a copy ofthe completed data sheet before sending it tothe designated person or agency in case theoriginal data sheet becomes lost. ■

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General procedures for measuring alkalinityare presented in this section for guidanceonly; they do not apply to all samplingmethods. Monitors should consult with theinstructions that come with their samplingand analyzing instruments. Those who areinterested in submitting data to waterquality agencies should also consult withthe agencies to determine acceptableequipment, methods, quality controlmeasures, and data quality objectives (seeChapter 5).

Before proceeding to the monitoring siteand collecting samples, volunteers shouldreview the topics addressed in Chapter 7. It iscritical to confirm the monitoring site, date,and time; have the necessary monitoringequipment and personal gear; and understandall safety considerations. Once at themonitoring site, volunteers should record

general site observations, as discussed inChapter 7.

The alkalinity method described below(using a digital titrator) was developed by theAcid Rain Monitoring Project of the Universityof Massachusetts Water Resources ResearchCenter (River Watch Network, 1992).



• digital titrator;

• 100-ml graduated cylinder;

• 250-ml beaker;

• pH meter with built-in temperature sensor;


How to Measure Alkalinity

Choosing a Sampling MethodFor total alkalinity, a double endpoint

titration using a pH meter and a digital titratoris recommended. This can be done in the fieldor in the lab. If you plan to analyze alkalinityin the field, it is recommended that you use adigital titrator. Another method for analyzingalkalinity uses a buret. For volunteer programs,using a digital titrator is recommended over theburet, because digital titrators are portable,economical, take less time, and have easy-to-read endpoints (results).

Digital Titrator

This method involves titration, the additionof small, precise quantities of sulfuric acid(the reagent) to the sample until the samplereaches a certain pH (the endpoint). Theamount of acid used corresponds to the totalalkalinity of the sample.

Digital titrators have counters that displaynumbers. A plunger is forced into a cartridgecontaining the reagent by turning a knob onthe titrator. As the knob turns, the counterchanges in proportion to the amount ofreagent used. Alkalinity is then calculatedbased on the amount used. Digital titratorscost approximately $100; the reagents(chemicals) to conduct total alkalinity testscost about $36. Additionally, alkalinitystandards are needed for accuracy checks (seethe box, “Alkalinity Calibration Standards,”page 11-9). ■


11-8



• reagent (sulfuric acid titration cartridge,0.16 N);

• standard alkalinity ampules, 0.500 N,for accuracy check; and

• bottle with deionized water to rinse pHmeter electrode.

STEP 2: Collect the sample.If you plan to analyze a water sample in the

lab for alkalinity, then follow these collectionand storage steps:

• Use 100 ml plastic or glass bottles.

• Label the bottle with site name, date,time, data collector, and analysis to beperformed.

• Wearing gloves, plunge the bottle into thewater. Fill the bottle completely and captightly.

• Avoid excessive agitation and prolongedexposure to air.

• Place the bottle in the cooler. Samplesshould be analyzed as soon as possible,but can be stored at least 24 hours bycooling to 4°C (39°F) or below. NOTE:Samples should be warmed to room tem-perature before analyzing (Hach, 1997).

STEP 3: Measure total alkalinity.Alkalinity is usually measured using sulfuric

acid with a digital titrator. Follow the stepsbelow in the field or lab. Remember to wearlatex or rubber gloves.

Add sulfuric acid to the water sample in mea-sured amounts until the three main alkalinecompounds (bicarbonate, carbonate, andhydroxide) are converted to carbonic acid. AtpH 10, hydroxide (if present) reacts to formwater. At pH 8.3, carbonate is converted tobicarbonate. At pH 4.5, all carbonate and bicar-bonate are converted to carbonic acid. Belowthis pH, the water is unable to neutralize the sul-furic acid and there is a linear relationshipbetween the amount of sulfuric acid added to thesample and the change in the pH of the sample.So, more sulfuric acid is added to the sample to

reduce the pH by exactly 0.3 pH units (whichcorresponds to an exact doubling of the pH) to apH of 4.2. However, the exact pH at which theconversion of these bases might have happened,or total alkalinity, is still unknown.

Arriving at total alkalinity requires an equa-tion (given below) to extrapolate back to theamount of sulfuric acid that was added to actu-ally convert all the bases to carbonic acid. Amultiplier (0.1) then converts this to total alka-linity as mg/l of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Todetermine the alkalinity of your sample, followthese steps:

• Samples should be warmed to room tem-perature before analyzing.

• Insert a clean delivery tube into the 0.16Nsulfuric acid titration cartridge and attachthe cartridge to the titrator body.

• Hold the titrator, with the cartridge tippointing up, over a sink or waste bottle.Turn the delivery knob to eject air and afew drops of titrant. Reset the counter to0 and wipe the tip.

• Measure the pH of the sample using a pHmeter. If it is less than 4.5, skip to step 3a,page 11-9.

• Insert the delivery tube into the beakercontaining the sample. Turn the deliveryknob while magnetically stirring thebeaker until the pH meter reads 4.5.Record the number of digits used toachieve this pH. Do not reset the counter.

• Continue titrating to a pH of 4.2 andrecord the number of digits.

• Apply the following equation:

Alkalinity (as mg/l CaCO3) = (2a - b) x 0.1

Where:

a = digits of titrant to reach pH 4.5

b = digits of titrant to reach pH 4.2 (including digits required to get to pH 4.5)

0.1 = digit multiplier for a 0.16 titration cartridge and a 100 ml sample

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Example:

Initial pH of sample is 6.5.

It takes 108 turns to get to a pH of 4.5.

It takes another 5 turns to get to pH 4.2, for a total of 113 turns.

Alkalinity = [(2 x 108) - 113] x 0.1 = 10.3 mg/l

• Record alkalinity as mg/l CaCO3 on thedata sheet.

• Rinse the beaker with distilled waterbefore the next sample.

STEP 3a:If the pH of your water sample, prior to titration, is less than 4.5, proceed as follows:

• Insert the delivery tube into thebeaker containing the sample.

• Turn the delivery knob while swirlingthe beaker until the pH meter readsexactly 0.3 pH units less than the initialpH of the sample.

• Record the number of digits used toachieve this pH.

• Apply the equation as before, but a = 0and b = the number of digits required toreduce the initial pH exactly 0.3 pH units.

Example:

Initial pH of sample is 4.3.

Titrate to a pH of 0.3 units less than theinitial pH; in this case, 4.0.

It takes 10 digits to get to 4.0.

Enter this in the 4.2 column on the datasheet and note that the pH endpoint is 4.0.

Alkalinity = (0 - 10) x 0.1 Alkalinity = -1.0

• Record alkalinity as mg/l CaCO3 on thedata sheet.

• Rinse the beaker with distilled waterbefore the next sample.

STEP 4: Perform an accuracy check.This accuracy check should be performed

on the first field sample titrated, again abouthalfway through the field samples, and at thefinal field sample. Check the pH meteragainst pH 7.00 and 4.00 buffers after every10 samples.

• Snap the neck off an alkalinity ampulestandard, 0.500 N; or, if using a standardsolution from a bottle, pour a few milli-liters of the standard into a clean beaker.

• Pipet 0.1 ml of the standard to the titratedsample (see above). Resume titrationback to the pH 4.2 endpoint. Record thenumber of digits needed.

• Repeat using two more additions of 0.1ml of standard. Titrate to the pH 4.2 aftereach addition. Each 0.1 ml addition ofstandard should require 250 additionaldigits of 0.16 N titrant.

Note on Data Sheet for AlkalinityData sheets should be specialized depending on which methodsyour program uses to measure each parameter—and this is truefor alkalinity, too. With the method described in this manual, yourworksheet should include places for volunteers to record theresults of the various steps described.

Alkalinity Calibration Standards You will need to do an accuracy check on your alkalinity testequipment before the first field sample is titrated, again abouthalfway through the field samples, and at the final field sample. Forthis, you will need an alkalinity standard. Often, these come in pre-measured glass ampules. To use, break off the tip of the glassampule and pour the liquid into a beaker. Then, follow the directionsfound under “Step 4: Perform an accuracy check.” The price for thealkalinity standards is about $23 for 20 2-ml ampules.

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Hach. 1997. Hach Water Analysis Handbook.3rd ed. Hach Company. Loveland, CO.

LaMotte Chemical Products Company. Undated. Laboratory Manual for Marine Science Studies.LaMotte Educational Products Division, Chestertown, MD. 41 pp.

River Watch Network. 1992. Total Alkalinity and pH Field and Laboratory Procedures.(Basedon University of Massachusetts Acid Rain Monitoring Project.)

Other references:

American Public Health Association (APHA), American Water Works Association, and WaterEnvironment Federation. 1998. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water andWastewater. 20th ed. L. S. Clesceri, A. E. Greenberg, A. D. Eaton (eds). Washington, DC.

Godfrey, P. J. 1988. Acid Rain in Massachusetts.University of Massachusetts Water ResourcesResearch Center. Amherst, MA.



STEP 5: Return the field data sheetsand/or samples to the lab.

Volunteers should thoroughly clean allequipment and transport the samples to thedesignated lab. Alkalinity samples must beanalyzed within 24 hours of their collection. Ifthe samples cannot be analyzed in the field,keep the samples on ice and take them to thelab or drop-off point as soon as possible.

Make sure that the data sheets are complete,legible, and accurate, and that they account forall samples. Volunteers should make a copy ofthe completed data sheets before sendingthem to the designated person or agency incase the original data sheet becomes lost. ■

Chapter12Toxins

Testing for toxins requires specialized equipment and expertise beyond the means

of most volunteer monitoring programs. Nonetheless, it is important to understand

the sources of toxins and the role they play in estuaries. Volunteers can provide

valuable assistance with research projects by providing local knowledge of a

watershed and potential sources of toxic compounds and by collecting fish and

invertebrates for laboratory analysis.

Photos (l to r): G. Carver, R. Ohrel, R. Ohrel

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Unit One: Chemical Measures Chapter 12: Toxins

Since industrialization in the late 1940s and 1950s, the amount of contaminants and

toxic substances put into estuaries has greatly increased. These contaminants include

heavy metals (such as mercury, lead, cadmium, zinc, chromium, and copper) and syn-

thetic (manmade) organic compounds such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

(PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), pesticides (e.g., dichlorodiphenyl-

trichloroethane—DDT), and human sewage. Many of these toxins such as PCBs and

DDT do not degrade for hundreds of years and can concentrate in the sediment and in

the tissues of local aquatic animals. Sources of toxins into estuaries include industrial

discharges; runoff from lawns, streets, and farmlands; and discharges from sewage

treatment plants. The estuary’s own sediment can also serve as a source, as sediment

contains years of toxic deposits. Other toxic substances are deposited into estuaries

from the atmosphere. Mercury vapor and lead particles from industrial sources enter

estuaries from the atmosphere as rain, snow, or dry particles. All toxins can affect an

estuary’s biological structure and populations. Humans, in turn, can be harmed by

consuming bottom-dwelling organisms such as shellfish that are exposed to contami-

nated sediment as well as through exposure to contaminated water.

Testing for many of these toxins requires specialized equipment and expertise

beyond the means of most volunteer monitoring programs. Nonetheless, it is impor-

tant to understand the sources of toxins and the role they play in estuaries. Volunteers

can provide valuable assistance with research projects by providing local knowledge

of a watershed and potential sources of toxic compounds and by collecting fish and

invertebrates for laboratory analysis.

This chapter reviews some of the toxic substances found in our nation’s estuarine

ecosystems, especially heavy metals, pesticides, PCBs, and PAHs, and introduces

some testing techniques for toxins.

Overview

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Chapter 12: Toxins Unit One: Chemical Measures

There are two general classes of toxicpollutants found in estuaries—metals andorganic compounds. Toxic metals includemercury, lead, cadmium, chromium, andcopper. Some of these metals (e.g., copper)are required in small concentrations formetabolic processes but are toxic at higherlevels. Organic compounds of interest includePAHs and several synthetic ones that are nolonger produced, such as PCBs and DDT(USEPA, 1996). Other organic toxins ofconcern are biotoxins that are produced byharmful algal blooms (see Chapter 19). Thischapter focuses on the more traditionalorganic compounds.

Sources of toxic substances include surfacewater from municipal and industrialdischarges, runoff (e.g., from lawns, streets,and farmlands), and atmospheric deposition.

Lifespan of ToxinsHow long pollutants remain in estuaries

depends on the nature of the compound. Somepollutants bind to particles and settle, while

others remain water soluble. Another factor isthe flushing rate within the estuary. Manypollutants, including DDTand PCBs, havebeen banned in the United States since the1970s, but are very chemically stable andpersist in benthic sediment long after thepollution source has abated. ■

Toxins in Estuaries

ToxicityToxins can affect the animals in anestuarine ecosystem through acute orchronic toxicity. Organisms suffer acutetoxicity when exposure levels result indeath within 96 hours. Lethal doses differfor each toxin and species, and areinfluenced by the potency and concen-tration of the toxin. Chronic toxicity—also referred to as sub-lethal toxicity—does not result in death (at exposures of atleast 96 hours), but can cause impairmentto aquatic animals, organ damage andfailure, gastro-intestinal damage, and canaffect growth and reproduction.

Why Monitor Toxins?

Monitoring for the presence of toxinsprovides information on possible effects to anestuary’s community structure andpopulations. Human health is anotherimportant reason for monitoring. Bottom-dwelling organisms, like shellfish, canaccumulate these metals and chemicals intheir tissues, making them a potential risk tohuman health when consumed. When high

concentrations of chemical contaminants arefound in local fish and wildlife, state officialsissue consumption advisories for the generalpopulation as well as for sensitivesubpopulations such as pregnant women.Advisories include recommendations to limitor avoid consumption of certain fish andwildlife species from specific bodies ofwater. ■

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Though there are many toxic substancesfound in our nation’s estuarine ecosystems,the categories of biggest concern are: heavymetals, pesticides, PCBs, and PAHs (USEPA,1996).

Heavy MetalsSome toxic metals, such as copper and zinc,

are needed in trace amounts for metabolismbut are toxic in higher levels. Others, such asmercury, lead, chromium, and cadmium, haveno known metabolic function. Their presencemay prompt state officials to restrict wateruse, close shellfish waters, or issue fishconsumption advisories. Generally, the threemetals most closely monitored are mercury,copper, and lead because of their adverseeffects on human health.

Mercury

Mercury is distributed throughout theenvironment from natural sources and fromhuman activities. Sources of mercury fromhuman activities (also called anthropogenicsources) include solid waste incineration andcoal combustion facilities for electricity.Together, they contribute approximately 87percent of the emissions of mercury in theUnited States. Other sources of mercuryinclude municipal wastewater treatment plantsand mining and industrial sources, such assmelting, pulp mills, paper mills, leathertanning, electroplating, chemicalmanufacturing, and cement production. Inaddition, mercury is deposited in surfacewaters through runoff from its naturaloccurrence in rocks and soils as well as from

The Role of Toxins in the Estuary Ecosystem

Accumulation and Amplification of Toxins—DefinitionsBiological accumulation(bioaccumulation)—The uptake andstorage of chemicals (e.g., DDT, PCBs)from the environment by animals andplants. Uptake can occur through feedingor direct absorption from water orsediments.

Biological amplification (also calledbioamplification, biomagnification orbioconcentration)—The concentration of asubstance as it “moves up” the food chainfrom one consumer to another (Figure 12-1). The concentration of chemicalcontaminants (e.g., DDT, PCBs, methylmercury) progressively increases from thebottom of the food chain (e.g., phyto-plankton, zooplankton) to the top of thefood chain (e.g., fish-eating birds such ascormorants).

Toxin infish-eatingbirds

Toxin inlarge fish

Toxin in small fish

Toxin in plankton

Toxin in water

Figure 12-1.Biological amplification. Chemical concentrations progressivelyincrease from lower to upper levels of the food chain.

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atmospheric deposition ofvolatile compounds fromwetlands (USEPA, 1999c).

Methylmercury is thechemical form or “species”that bioaccumulates in thetissue of animals andbioamplifies in food chains.Mercury poisoning throughconsumption ofmethylmercury-contaminated food results in

such adverse central nervous system effects asimpairment to peripheral vision and mentalcapabilities, loss of feeling, and—at highdoses—seizures, severe neurologicalimpairment, and death. Methylmercury has alsobeen shown to be a developmental toxicant,causing subtle to severe neurological effects inchildren.

Methylmercury makes up 90-100 percent ofthe mercury found in most adult fish. It binds toproteins and is found primarily in fish muscle(fillets). Concentrations of total mercury in fishare approximately 10,000 to 100,000 timeshigher than the concentrations of total mercuryfound in the surrounding waters.

Mercury contamination is one of the leadingreasons that fish consumption advisories areissued in the United States. These advisoriesinform the public that concentrations ofmercury have been found in local fish at levelsof public health concern. State advisoriesrecommend either limiting or avoidingconsumption of certain fish from specificwaterbodies (USEPA, 1999c).

Lead

Lead is used by the ton in products such asbatteries, ammunition, solder, pipes, and inbuilding construction. Lead poisoning isassociated with kidney damage, anemia, anddamage to the central nervous system. Ofgreatest concern are the dangers of leadpoisoning to children, who can sufferpermanent physical and mental impairments.

Cadmium

Cadmium is another heavy metal of concernbecause it can cause kidney and bone damageto people who suffer long-term chronicexposure to it. Sources of cadmium into theenvironment from human activities are mainlyfrom the mining, extraction, and processing ofcopper, lead, and zinc. Other sources caninclude solid waste incineration, reprocessingof galvanized metal, and sewage sludge.Cadmium can also be found in some batteries,fertilizers, tires, and many industrial processes.

Copper

Copper is an essential nutrient, required bythe body in very small amounts. However, theU.S. Environmental Protection Agency hasfound copper to potentially cause stomach andintestinal distress, liver and kidney damage,and anemia, depending on the level and termof exposure. Persons with certain diseasesmay be more sensitive than others to theeffects of copper contamination.

Copper releases to land and water areprimarily from smelting industries. Municipalincineration may also produce copper. Copperis also widely used in household plumbingmaterials.

Chromium

Depending on the level and term ofexposure, chromium has the potential to causeskin irritation, ulcers, dermatitis, or damage toliver, kidney, circulatory, and nerve tissues.

Though widely distributed in soils andplants, chromium is rare in natural waters.The two largest sources of chromiumemission in the atmosphere are chemicalmanufacturing industries and natural gas, oil,and coal combustion. Chromium may alsoreach waterways via:

• road dust;

• cement-producing plants;

• the wearing down of asbestos brakelinings from automobiles or similarasbestos sources;

Toxins in the water canmake estuaries andother waterbodiesunsafe for fishing orswimming (photo by R. Ohrel).

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• municipal refuse and sewage sludgeincineration;

• automotive catalytic converter exhaust;

• emissions from cooling towers that usechromium compounds as rust inhibitors;

• waste waters from electroplating, leathertanning, and textile industries; and

• solid wastes from chemicalmanufacture.

PesticidesAnother major category of toxins in

estuaries is pesticides. Most of them willbreak down into nontoxic chemicals within afew days of application. Others are bannedbecause they can persist for decades.Pesticides are developed to eliminate pestssuch as weeds (herbicides), insects(insecticides), rodents (rodenticides), fungi(fungicides), and other organisms that areconsidered undesirable.

Two of the more persistent pesticides areDDT and its breakdown product and closelyrelated compound, DDD (dichlorodiphe-nyldichloroethane). They are both in a class ofpesticides called organochlorines. Thesepesticides destroy living cells and affect thenervous system of organisms. DDTis a highlytoxic, broad-spectrum poison that is capableof killing many different species. It was usedextensively in the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960sbecause it was cheap to produce, effective,and not harmful to humans. For these reasons,it continues to be used in developing countriesto eradicate the mosquito that transmitsmalaria. DDTwas banned in the U.S. in 1972because of its effects on wildlife, but itcontinues to be measured in sediment and inaquatic animals. In fact, buried sediments maybe a large and continuing source of DDTcompounds due to mixing processes such asflooding, dredging activities, and thedisturbing of sediment by animals (calledbioturbation ), as well as other mechanisms.

Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) andPolycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)

PCBs are another class of banned syntheticorganic chemicals comprising 209 individualchlorinated biphenyl compounds. Similar toDDT, PCBs are resistant to biological andchemical degradation and can persist in theenvironment for decades. There are no knownnatural sources of PCBs. Millions of metrictons of PCBs were used as solvents and in theelectronic industry as insulators fortransformers. Most PCBs are soluble in fats;therefore, they accumulate in the tissues ofanimals. Once incorporated into an animal’sfat, PCBs will stay there and cannot beexcreted. They are rapidly accumulated byaquatic organisms, becoming amplified in thefood chain when animals eat PCB-contami-nated organisms. PCB concentrations in fishat the top of the food chain can be 2,000 tomore than a million times higher than theconcentrations found in the surroundingwaters (USEPA, 1999d).

While the manufacture and use of PCBshave been banned in the U.S. since 1976, thesediment of many estuaries can have highlevels of PCB contamination, and PCBs cancontinue to enter estuaries from leakingshoreside landfills or from improper disposal.PCBs in the sediment can reenter the watercolumn though natural processes and dredgingactivities. Although PCBs are declining in theenvironment, health concerns are stillwarranted.

Recent findings indicate that susceptiblepopulations (e.g., certain ethnic groups, sportanglers, the elderly, pregnant women,children, fetuses, and nursing infants)continue to be exposed to PCBs via fish andwildlife consumption (USEPA, 1999d).

Exposure to PCB compounds involvesdifferent levels of harmful risks. There ismuch interest in determining if PCBs areendocrine disrupters—chemicals that canmimic, block, or otherwise disrupt the body’shormones. Some have been shown to act as

12-6



hormone disrupters in wildlife and possibly inlaboratory animals. Human health studiesindicate that eating fish containing PCBs canlead to significant health consequencesincluding:

• reproductive dysfunction;

• deficiencies in neurobehavioral anddevelopmental behavior, especially innewborns and school-aged children;

• other systemic effects (e.g., liverdisease, diabetes, effects on the thyroidand immune systems); and

• increased cancer risks (e.g., non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma) (USEPA, 1999d).

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, PAHs,are the byproducts of oil burning. They arecarcinogenic (cancer causing) and mutagenic(change cell growth). They are also producedby burning coal and wood. They enterestuaries from leaking gas storage tanks, roadrunoff, sewage plants, industrial andmunicipal discharges, oil spills, and bilgewater discharges. Creosote applied to wharfpilings also contains PAHs.

Other Notable ToxinsIn addition to the toxins discussed above,

there are many others that enter estuaries andaffect their wildlife. Some of these include:

Dioxin

Dioxin, a byproduct of bleaching paper withchlorine, is associated with birth defects inhumans. Chlorine combines with lignins(natural binders of wood fiber) to producedioxin.

Tributyltin (TBT)

TBT, an antifouling paint additive used onboats and in marinas, is a fat-lovingcompound (lipophilic) that accumulates in thetissue of animals, and amplifies in the foodchain. Contributions of TBT arise almostexclusively from anti-fouling bottom paintsthat are applied to boat hulls to retard thegrowth of barnacles and other foulingorganisms. The greatest release of tracemetals occurs when the paint is fresh or afterhull cleaning when new layers of paint areexposed. Over the last few years, increasingregulation and controls have attempted toreduce emissions from this source to estuarywaters. For example, TBT can no longer beused on small craft, but is used on ocean-bound tankers. Nonetheless, while the use ofTBT is restricted, it is still in use andaccumulates in harbor sediments.

Household chemicals, paints, cleaningchemicals, etc.

There are tens of thousands of chemicalsused in industrial processes and in our homes.Little is known about their effects on aquaticlife, how concentrated they are in estuaries,how long they persist in aquatic environments,or their interaction with each other. ■

Some Toxins Are from Biological ProcessesExcessive algae growth can result in brownand red tides and other harmful blooms.Harmful algal blooms excrete biotoxinsthat can be hazardous to shellfish, fish, andhumans. See Chapter 19 for moreinformation.

12-7



Toxic metal and organic pollutants arefound in low concentrations in water—on theorder of parts-per-billion and parts-per-trillionlevels. But concentrations in the sediment arehigher and range in the parts-per-million andparts-per-billion levels. Because of these lowlevels, collecting water and sediment samplesfor toxin analysis involves a high degree ofrigor and training to limit inadvertentcontamination of the sample. Sources ofcontamination include the polyethylene bottle,as well as the handling of the bottle. Unlessthere is a clearjustification and rigor ousoversight, volunteermonitoring pr ogramsare discouraged from collecting samples fortoxin analysis. However, it is important thatvolunteer programs understand the generalprocess of sampling for toxins and testingtheir impact.

Testing for the presence of toxic substances(metals and toxic chemical compounds) inestuary water and sediment usually requires alaboratory with expensive equipment, such asa mass spectrometer, high performance liquidchromatography, or atomic absorptionspectrophotometer. Some toxins are in minutequantities and require a concentration step,such as organic extractions, to be analyzed.

One method scientists use to analyze theeffects of a toxic substance on livingorganisms is called a bioassay, or biologicalassay. A bioassay is a controlled experimentusing a change in biological activity as aqualitative or quantitative means of analyzinga material response to a pollutant. Dependingon the test, microorganisms, planktonicanimals, or live fish can be used as testorganisms.

Scientists also look for biochemicalindicators of contaminants by studyinganimals called biomarkers. They look forDNA damage in blood cells and the presenceof stress proteins, which are produced in

response to a wide variety of contaminants,including trace metals and organic pollutants.Volunteers may be able to assist withcollecting fish and invertebrates to be used inthe chemical analysis of tissue, or under avery high degree of training assist with thecollection of sediment and water samples tobe tested for toxicity. In some cases,volunteers collect shellfish and send them to alaboratory for tissue analysis. See Chapter 19for more information.

Volunteer water quality monitoringprograms interested in monitoring for toxinsare recommended to work with a local collegeor laboratory which has the necessaryequipment and knowledge. Any such studyshould carefully follow established protocolsfor analysis and testing (see, for example,APHA, 1998).

Volunteers can also assist with a fieldsurvey to identify potential sources of toxinsin an estuary. See Chapter 7 for moreinformation on field observations.

It should be noted that conventional toxicitytests and chemical analyses are rarelysufficient to identify the cause or sources oftoxicity. Multiple contaminants are usuallypresent in a toxic sample, and many of thecontaminants may be at elevatedconcentrations. There are other importantfactors that influence toxicity, such assediment organic carbon content or the size ofsand grains.

Field test kits are available for some of theheavy metals and other pollutants that can beused in preliminary measurements. Forexample, one kit measures copper in estuariesthat may exist as a soluble salt or assuspended solids. Test kits are also availablefor zinc, chlorine, chromate, iron, chloride,silica, and cyanide. Field test kits vary greatlyin their detectable range and cost between $15and $450. ■


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Over the past 30 years,scientists have collecteda large amount ofconvincing informationdemonstrating that airpollutants can bedeposited on land andwater—sometimes atgreat distances from theiroriginal sources—andcan contribute to

declining estuarine water quality. This iscalled atmospheric deposition. Pollutantsreleased into the air are carried by wind

patterns away from their place of origin.These pollutants come from manmade ornatural sources of emissions. For example, upto 25% of the mercury emitted worldwide isreleased naturally as part of the globalmercury cycle.

Presently, atmospheric depositionmonitoring by volunteers is in its early stages.In the future, there may be a role forvolunteers to monitor the amount of toxinsthat are deposited from the atmosphere intoestuaries. See Chapter 10 for moreinformation on atmospheric deposition. ■

Atmospheric Deposition of Toxins



Miller, G.T. 1999. Environmental Science. Wadsworth Publishing Company. Belmont, CA.

Southern California Coastal Water Research Project. 1999. FY1999/2000 Research Plan.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1996. Environmental Indicators of WaterQuality in the United States.EPA 841-R-96-002. Office of Water, Washington, DC.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1998. Estuaries and Your Coastal Watershed.EPA-842-F-98-009. Office of Water, Washington, DC. Web site:http://www.epa.gov/owowwtr1/oceans/factsheets/fact5.html.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1999a. Guidance for Assessing ChemicalContaminant Data for Use in Fish Advisories.Vol. 2, 3rd ed. “Risk Assessment and FishConsumption Limits.” EPA 823-B-99-008. Office of Water, Washington, DC.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1999b. Fact Sheet: Update: National Listingof Fish and Wildlife Advisories.EPA-823-F-99-005. Office of Water, Washington, DC.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1999c. Fact Sheet: Mercury Update: Impacton Fish Advisories. EPA-823-F-99-016. Office of Water, Washington, DC.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1999d. Fact Sheet: Public Health Implicationsof Exposure to Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs).EPA-823-F-99-019. Office of Water,Washington, DC.

Pollutants released into the air can beintroduced to theestuary throughatmospheric deposition (photo by R. Ohrel).

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Other references:


Maine Coastal Program. 1998. The Estuary Book.State Planning Office, 38 State House Station,Augusta, ME 04333.

National Safety Council’s Environmental Center. 1998. Coastal Challenges: A Guide to Coastaland Marine Issues. Prepared in conjunction with Coastal America. Web site: http://www.nsc.org/ehc/guidebks/coasttoc.htm

Web sites:

Restore America’s Estuaries: http://www.estuaries.org/estuarywhat.html.

Atmospheric Deposition

National Estuary Program (NEP): http://www.epa.gov/owow/estuaries/airdep.htm

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Unit TwoPhysical Measures

Temperature • Salinity • Turbidity and Total Solids • Marine Debris

Photos (l to r): U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, R. Ohrel, S. Schultz, P. Bergstrom

Chapter13Temperature

Water temperature is closely connected to many biological and chemical processes

in the estuary. For this reason, and because it is easily measured, temperature is

commonly monitored by volunteer groups using thermometers or meters.

Photos (l to r): R. Ohrel, R. Ohrel, Tillamook Bay National Estuary Project and Battelle Marine Sciences Lab, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

13-1


Unit Two: Physical Measures Chapter 13: Temperature

Water temperature is closely connected to many biological and chemical processes

in the estuary. For this reason, and because it is easily measured, temperature is

commonly monitored by volunteer groups using thermometers or meters.

This chapter explains the significance and variability of estuarine water

temperature and provides steps for collecting temperature data.

Overview

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Chapter 13: Temperature Unit Two: Physical Measures

Temperature, probably the most easilymeasured parameter, is a critical factorinfluencing several aspects of the estuarineecosystem. It influences biological activityand many chemical variables in the estuary.

The Role of Temperature in the Estuarine Ecosystem

Temperature plays many roles in theestuary. As water temperature increases, forexample, the capacity of water to holddissolved oxygen becomes lower. Watertemperature also influences the rate of plantphotosynthesis, the metabolic rates of aquaticorganisms, and the sensitivity of organisms totoxic wastes, parasites, and diseases (USEPA,1997).

Many species regulate the timing ofimportant events, such as reproduction andmigration, according to specific watertemperatures. Optimal temperatures (whichvary with the species and their life stage)allow organisms to function at maximumefficiency. The slow change of temperaturethat comes with the seasons permitsorganisms to acclimate, whereas rapid shiftsmay adversely affect plants and animals.Temperature shifts of more than 1°-2°C cancause thermal stress and shock (Campbell andWildberger, 1992). Long-term temperaturechanges can affect the overall distribution andabundance of estuarine organisms.

Throughout the winter, temperatures remainfairly constant from top to bottom. In springand summer, the uppermost layer of anestuary grows warmer and mixing betweenthis surface water and the cooler bottom waterslows. As air temperatures cool through theautumn, the surface water becomesincreasingly cold and increases in density. Thesurface water mass ultimately sinks when itsdensity becomes greater than that of theunderlying water mass. As the surface watermoves down, mixing occurs and nutrientsfrom the bottom are redistributed toward thesurface. This introduction of nutrients tosurface waters fuels phytoplankton growth(see Chapters 10 and 19).

Temperature is not generally constant fromthe water surface to the bottom. An estuary’swater temperature is a function of:

• depth;

• season;

• amount of mixing due to wind, storms,and tides;

• degree of stratification (layering) in theestuary;

• temperature of water flowing in fromthe tributaries; and

• human influences (e.g., release of urbanstormwater, warm water dischargedfrom power plants). ■

Why Monitor Temperature?


Where to SampleBecause temperatures change according to

the many variables listed above, it is oftenhelpful to measure water temperaturethroughout the water column and at differentsurface locations. By collecting samples atdifferent depths, thermal layers within theestuary can be determined. This information,

in turn, can be useful for analyzing otherenvironmental parameters.

HELPFUL HINTTemperature can only be measured at themonitoring site. If samples are to be takento a laboratory for analysis, temperatureshould first be measured in the field.

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General procedures for measuringtemperature are presented in this section forguidance only. Monitors should consult withthe instructions that come with theirsampling and analyzing instruments. Thosewho are interested in submitting data towater quality agencies should also consultwith the agencies to determine acceptableequipment, methods, quality controlmeasures, and data quality objectives (seeChapter 5).

Before proceeding to the monitoring site andcollecting samples, volunteers should reviewthe topics addressed in Chapter 7. It is criticalto confirm the monitoring site, date, and time;

have the necessary monitoring equipment andpersonal gear; and understand all safetyconsiderations. Once at the monitoring site,volunteers should record general siteobservations, as discussed in Chapter 7.

STEP 1: Check equipment. Check to make sure that no separation has

occurred in the thermometer liquid beforeeach use.

If you are using a thermometer and not mea-suring directly in the water, bring a large (atleast 2-gallon) clear container that can hold thesample. This will facilitate thermometer reading.

When to SampleAs with other water quality variables,

temperature should be measured at the samelocation and time of day each time volunteerscollect data.

Choosing a Sampling Method Water temperature is measured with a ther-

mometer or meter. Alcohol-filled thermometersare less hazardous, when broken, than mercury-filled thermometers, making them the betteroption. Under field conditions, using a ther-mometer armored in plastic or metal will mini-mize breakage problems.

Some meters used to measure other parame-ters, such as pH or dissolved oxygen, also mea-sure temperature and can be used instead of athermometer.

Volunteer monitors usually take a single tem-perature reading while they collect other waterquality data at their monitoring sites. While thesingle reading is useful, it does not fully pro-vide details about daily trends. Temperaturedata loggers, which record data at regular inter-vals (usually hourly), could be deployed atselected monitoring sites. These instruments areable to continuously record data for up to

months at a time. The data can then be down-loaded directly into a computer database. As thecosts of data loggers decline, they may becomeattractive options for volunteer programs. ■

Thermometer AccuracyTo assure accuracy, check the thermometeragainst a National Institute of Standardsand Technology (NIST) certifiedthermometer at least once a year.

Confirm the thermometer’s accuracy inseveral samples of water of varyingtemperatures. Your county health depart-ment or the state department of environ-mental protection may lend an NISTthermometer to the program for theseimportant periodic checks.


How to Monitor Temperature

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STEP 2: Measure air temperature.Chapter 7 specifies air temperature as one

of the general observations that should bemade at each monitoring site. Air temperaturecan be measured with the same thermometer ormeter used for reading water temperature. Priorto measuring water temperature, allow the ther-mometer or meter to equalize with the ambientor surrounding air temperature for three to fiveminutes. Make sure the thermometer is out ofdirect sunlight to avoid a false high reading.Record the air temperature on the data sheetbefore measuring the watertemperature.

STEP 3: Measure water temperature.The following section describes two proce-

dures to measure water temperature. If measur-ing temperature in shallow water or at the sur-face, follow Procedure A. If measuring temper-ature from a collected water sample, followProcedure B.

Procedure A—Measuring temperature directlyin shallow water or at the water surface:

• Place the thermometer or meter probe inthe water at least 4 inches below the sur-face or halfway to the bottom (if in veryshallow water).

• If using a thermometer, wait until itreaches a stable temperature (3-5 min-utes). If using a meter, allow it to reach astable reading.

• If possible, read the temperature with thethermometer bulb beneath the water sur-face. Otherwise, quickly remove the ther-mometer and read the temperature.

• Record the temperature on the field datasheet, using the scale (°C or °F) requiredby the program (Figure 13-1).

• If the meter probe has a long cable, youmay measure temperature at differentdepths.

Procedure B—Measuring temperature from acollected water sample:

• Make sure the sample holds at least twogallons so that the water remains unaf-fected by the temperature of the ther-mometer and the air. The volunteer canuse this same sample for many other typi-cal water quality monitoring tests.

• Quickly immerse the thermometer ormeter in the water sample.

• If using a thermometer, wait until itreaches a stable temperature (3-5 min-utes). If using a meter, allow it to reach astable reading.

• If possible, read the temperature with thethermometer bulb beneath the water sur-face. Otherwise, quickly remove the ther-mometer and read the temperature.

• Record the temperature on the field datasheet, using the scale (°C or °F) requiredby the program (Figure 13-1).

STEP 4: Clean up and send off data.Thoroughly clean all equipment for proper

storage. Make sure the data sheets are complete and

accurate. Volunteers should make a copy of thecompleted data sheets before turning them in tothe laboratory, program manager, or designateddrop-off point. ■

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°C = x (°F – 32)59

°F = x °C + 3295( )

Figure 13-1.Temperatureconversion scale.

13-5



References and Further ReadingAmerican Public Health Association (APHA), American Water Works Association, and Water

Environment Federation. 1998. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water andWastewater. 20th ed. L. S. Clesceri, A. E. Greenberg, A. D. Eaton (eds). Washington, DC.

Campbell, G., and S. Wildberger. 1992. The Monitor’s Handbook.LaMotte Company,Chestertown, MD. 71 pp.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1997. Volunteer Stream Monitoring: A Methods Manual.EPA 841-B-97-003. November. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 211 pp.

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Chapter14Salinity

Because of its importance to estuarine ecosystems, salinity (the amount of

dissolved salts in water) is commonly measured by volunteer monitoring programs.

Photos (l to r): U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, R. Ohrel, The Ocean Conservancy, P. Bergstrom

14-1


Unit Two: Physical Measures Chapter 14: Salinity

Because of its importance to estuarine ecosystems, salinity (the amount of

dissolved salts in water) is commonly measured by volunteer monitoring

programs. This chapter discusses the role of salinity in the estuarine environment

and provides steps for measuring this water quality variable.

Overview

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Chapter 14: Salinity Unit Two: Physical Measures

Salinity is simply a measure of the amount ofsalts dissolved in water. An estuary usuallyexhibits a gradual change in salinity throughoutits length, as fresh water entering the estuaryfrom tributaries mixes with seawater moving infrom the ocean (Figure 14-1). Salinity is usually

expressed in parts per thousand (ppt) or 0/00. The fresh water from rivers has a salinity of

0.5 ppt or less. Within the estuary, salinity lev-els are referred to as oligohaline (0.5-5.0 ppt),mesohaline (5.0-18.0 ppt), or polyhaline (18.0-30.0 ppt). Near the connection with the opensea, estuarine waters may be euhaline, wheresalinity levels are the same as the ocean at morethan 30.0 ppt (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1986).

Generally, salinity increases with water depthunless the estuarine water column is wellmixed. Salinity, along with water temperature,is the primary factor in determining the stratifi-cation of an estuary. When fresh and salt watermeet, the two do not readily mix. Warm, freshwater is less dense than cold, salty water andwill overlie the wedge of seawater pushing infrom the ocean. Storms, tides, and wind, how-ever, can eliminate the layering caused by salin-ity and temperature differences by thoroughly

mixing the two masses of water. The shape ofthe estuary and the volume of river flow alsoinfluence this two-layer circulation. SeeChapter 2 for more information.

Role of Salinity in the EstuarineEcosystemSalinity levels control, to a large degree, thetypes of plants and animals that can live indifferent zones of the estuary. Freshwaterspecies may be restricted to the upper reachesof the estuary, while marine species inhabit theestuarine mouth. Some species tolerate onlyintermediate levels of salinity while broadlyadapted species can acclimate to any salinityranging from fresh water to seawater.

Salinity measurements may also offer cluesabout estuarine areas that could become afflict-ed by salinity-specific diseases. In theChesapeake and Delaware bays, for example,pathogens infecting oysters are restricted to sec-tions that fall within certain salinity levels.Drastic changes in salinity, such as those due todrought or storms, can also greatly alter thenumbers and types of animals and plants in the estuary.

Another role played by saline water in anestuary involves flocculation of particles.Flocculation is the process of particles aggre-gating into larger clumps. The particles thatenter an estuary dissolved in the fresh water ofrivers collide with the salt water, and may floc-culate or clump together and increase turbidity(Figure 14-2).

Salinity is often an important factor whenmonitoring many key water quality variables.For example:

• Most dissolved oxygen meters requireknowledge of the salinity content inorder to calibrate the meter properly.

• If you are interested in converting thedissolved oxygen concentration (usuallyexpressed as mg/l or parts per million) to

About Salinity

(DuringLow FlowConditions)

Non-TidalFresh Water

TidalFresh Water

Oligohaline

Mesohaline

Polyhaline

AverageAnnual

Salinity Tidal Limit

O C E A N

Euhaline< 30.0 ppt

< 18.0 ppt

< 5.0 ppt

< 0.5 ppt

(Marine)

Figure 14-1.Estuarinesalinity slowly increasesas one moves awayfrom freshwater sourcesand toward the ocean.

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Salinity will fluctuate with movement of thetides, dilution by precipitation, and mixing ofthe water by wind. There are also seasonaldifferences in salinity.

Season and WeatherEnvironmental conditions vary with the

seasons, and salinity levels can reflect thosevariations. During wet weather periods andduring the spring thaw in colder regions, morefresh water enters the estuary, so salinity islower at these times. On the other hand, dryweather periods mean less fresh waterentering the estuary, so higher salinity levelsmay be found. Another way the seasonsinfluence an estuary’s salinity involves themixing of fresh water and salt water. Seasonalstorms help mix estuarine waters and serve todecrease the vertical salinity and temperaturegradients in the estuary.

Choosing a Sampling MethodSalinity can be measured either by physical

or chemical methods. Physical methods useconductivity, density, or refractivity. Thephysical methods are quicker and moreconvenient than the chemical methods. The

chemical methods determine chlorinity (thechloride concentration), which is closelyrelated to salinity.

Conductivity

Conductivity is a measure of the ability ofwater to pass an electrical current.Conductivity in water is affected by thepresence of inorganic dissolved solids such aschloride, nitrate, sulfate, and phosphateanions (ions that carry a negative charge) orsodium, magnesium, calcium, iron, andaluminum cations (ions that carry a positivecharge). As the concentration of salts in thewater increases, electrical conductivity rises—the greater the salinity, the higher theconductivity. Organic compounds like oil,phenol, alcohol, and sugar do not conductelectrical current very well and, therefore,have a low conductivity when in water.Conductivity is also affected by temperature:the warmer the water, the higher theconductivity. For this reason, conductivity isextrapolated to a standard temperature (25°C).

Conductivity is measured with a probe anda meter. Conductivity meters requiretemperature correction and accurate

percent saturation(amount of oxygen inthe water compared to the maximum itcould hold at that temperature), you musttake salinity into account. As salinityincreases, the amount of oxygen thatwater can hold decreases.

• If you use a meter to measure pH, thetechniques are the same whether youare testing salt or fresh water.However, if you measure with anelectronic colorimeter, you must use acorrection factor (available from themanufacturer) to compensate for theeffects of salinity. ■

Fresh Water

Salt Water


Figure 14-2.Turbidity increases when fresh water meets with salt water.

14-4



calibration can be difficult. The cost of thesemeters ranges from $500 to $1,500. Voltage isapplied between two electrodes in a probeimmersed in the sample water. The drop involtage caused by the resistance of the wateris used to calculate the conductivity percentimeter. The meter converts the probemeasurement to micromhos per centimeterand displays the result for the user.

Some conductivity meters can also be usedto test for total dissolved solids and salinity.The total dissolved solids concentration inmilligrams per liter (mg/l) can also becalculated by multiplying the conductivityresult by a factor between 0.55 and 0.9, whichis empirically determined (see APHA, 1998).

Meters should also measure temperatureand automatically compensate for temperaturein the conductivity reading. Conductivity canbe measured in the field or the lab. In mostcases, it is probably better if the samples arecollected in the field and taken to a lab fortesting. In this way, several teams ofvolunteers can collect samples simulta-neously. If it is important to test in the field,meters designed for field use can be obtainedfor around the same cost mentioned above.

Density

As water becomes saltier, itsweight increases although its

volume does not measurablyrise. Since salt water is denserthan fresh water, this changeof weight results in a greater

specific gravity. The volunteer can calculatesalinity by measuring a water sample’sspecific gravity. This is done with ahydrometer (Figure 14-3).

Hydrometers are a fairly simple andinexpensive means of obtaining salinity.Specific gravity hydrometers cost from $13 to$25 (although professional sets can cost muchmore), and a hydrometer jar costs about $13to $15, although you can also use a large,clear jar that is deep enough to float thehydrometer.

Because hydrometers measure specificgravity, the presence of suspended solids canraise hydrometer readings and result in asalinity measurement that is higher than thetrue value. This has especially been shown inlow salinity areas (Bergstrom, 1997;Bergstrom, 2002). Volunteer programs,therefore, should consider their accuracy andprecision requirements before electing to usea hydrometer.

Refractivity

Refractometers (Figure 14-4) are used tomeasure substances dissolved in water, usingthe principle of light refraction throughliquids. The more dissolved solids in water,the slower light travels through it.Refractometers measure the change in thedirection of light as it passes from air intowater. Salinity and temperature both affect the index.

Refractometers use a scale to quantify theeffect that dissolved solids in water have onlight. Using a refractometer is simple. Itworks with ambient light, and no batteries are required. Such instruments cost from $150 to $350.

Chlorinity

Salinity is related to chlorinity, and thismethod calculates salinity based on thequantity of chloride ions in the sample.Salinity kits based on testing chloride ionscost about $40 for 50 tests.

The chlorinity method uses titration with

.005

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Figure 14-3.Hydrometer.Salt water isdenser thanfresh water andhas a greaterspecific gravity.Volunteers cancalculate salinityby measuring awater sample’sspecific gravitywith ahydrometer.

Daylight plate

PrismEyepiece

Salinity SpecificGravity

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Figure 14-4. Refractometer.Salinity can be determinedby a refractometer, whichmeasures the change indirection of light as it passesfrom air into water. Whilenot inexpensive, it is verysimple to use.

14-5



General procedures for collecting andanalyzing salinity samples are presented inthis section for guidance only; they do notapply to all sampling methods. Monitorsshould consult with the instructions thatcome with their sampling and analyzinginstruments. Those who are interested insubmitting data to water quality agenciesshould also consult with the agencies todetermine acceptable equipment, methods,quality control measures, and data qualityobjectives (see Chapter5).

Before proceeding to the monitoring site andcollecting samples, volunteers should reviewthe topics addressed in Chapter 7. It is criticalto confirm the monitoring site, date, and time;have the necessary monitoring equipment andpersonal gear; and understand all safetyconsiderations. Once at the monitoring site,volunteers should record general siteobservations, as discussed in Chapter 7.



• hydrometer, jar, and hydrometerconversion table; or

• conductivity meter (plus standard tocheck accuracy of meter); or

• refractometer; or

• field kit to test for chloride.

STEP 2: Collect the sample.If samples will be collected in the

field for later measurement, followthese collection and storage steps.See Chapter 7 for information oncleaning and preparing bottles.

• Use 200 ml glass orpolyethylene bottles. (NOTE:Some procedures requiresmaller samples. Check withyour lab for their preferredvolume of sample water.)

• Label the bottle with site name, date,time, data collector, and analysis to beperformed.

• Wearing latex gloves, plunge the bottleinto the water. Fill the bottle completelyand cap tightly.

• Samples may be stored up to 7 daysbefore analysis (Hach, 1997).

STEP 3: Measure salinity.The following section describes various

methods to analyze a water sample forsalinity. If analyzing salinity by using ahydrometer, follow Procedure A. If using aconductivity meter, use Procedure B. If using

either a silver nitrate or mercuric nitratesolution. Some kits require conversion ofchlorinity to salinity using a formula, whileothers incorporate the formula and giveresults directly as salinity. Whicheverchloride analysis process you select, read theliterature to determine if a conversionformula is needed.

This method is relatively easy to usealthough the color change at the endpoint is

sometimes difficult to assess. A white paperplaced behind the titration bottle makesdetermination of the endpoint an easier task. ■

REMINDER!To ensure consistently high quality data,appropriate quality control measures arenecessary. See “Quality Control andAssessment” in Chapter 5 for details.

How to Measure Salinity

Using a hydrometer.(photo by P. Bergstrom).

14-6



a refractometer, followProcedure C. If using asalinity kit based on testingchloride ions, follow thedirections that come withthe kit.

Procedure A—Measuringsalinity with a hydrometer

• Put the water sample in a hydrometer jaror a large, clear jar.

• Gently lower the hydrometer into the jaralong with a thermometer. Make sure thehydrometer and thermometer are nottouching and that the top of thehydrometer stem (which is not in thewater) is free of water drops.

• Let the hydrometer stabilize and thenrecord the specific gravity andtemperature. Read the specific gravity (tothe fourth decimal place) at the pointwhere the water level in the jar meets thehydrometer scale. Do not record the valuewhere the meniscus (the upwardcurvature of the water where it touchesthe glass) intersects the hydrometer (seeFigure 14-5).

• Record the specific gravity and thetemperature on your data sheet.

• Use a hydrometer conversion table thatcomes with your hydrometer to determinethe salinity of the sample at the recordedtemperature. Record the salinity of thesample on your data sheet.

Procedure B—Measuring salinity with aconductivity meter (in field or lab)

• Prepare the conductivity meter for useaccording to the manufacturer’sdirections.

• Use a conductivity standard solution(usually potassium chloride or sodiumchloride) to calibrate the meter for the

range that you will be measuring. Themanufacturer’s directions should describethe preparation procedures for thestandard solution.

• Rinse the probe with distilled ordeionized water.

• Select the appropriate range on the meter,beginning with the highest range andworking down. Place the probe into thesample water, and read the conductivityof the water sample on the meter’s scale.If the reading is in the lower 10 percentof the range that you selected, switch tothe next lower range. If the reading isabove 10 percent on the scale, then recordthis number on your data sheet.

• If the conductivity of the sample exceedsthe range of the instrument, you maydilute the sample with distilled water. Besure to perform the dilution according tothe manufacturer’s directions because thedilution might not have a simple linearrelationship to the conductivity.

• Rinse the probe with distilled ordeionized water and repeat the fourth stepabove with the next water sample untilfinished.

Procedure C—Measuring salinity with a refractometer

• Lift the lid that protects therefractometer’s specially angled lens.

• Place a few drops of your sample liquidon the angled lens, and close the lid.

• Peer through the eyepiece. Results appearalong a scale within the eyepiece.

• Record the measurement on your datasheet.

• Rinse the lens with a few drops ofdistilled water, and pat dry, being verycareful to not scratch the lens’surface.

1.0020

1.0025

WaterLevel

Read atWater Level

Meniscus

Figure 14-5.Reading thehydrometer. After letting thehydrometer stabilize, readthe specific gravity at thepoint where the water levelin the jar meets the hydro-meter scale. Do not recordthe value where the menis-cus (the upward curvature ofthe water where it touchesthe glass) intersects thehydrometer (redrawn fromLaMotte, 1993).

14-7




equipment and transport the samples to thedesignated lab, if necessary.

Make sure that the data sheet is complete,legible, and accurate, and that it accounts for

all samples. Volunteers should make a copy ofthe completed data sheet before sending it tothe designated person or agency in case theoriginal data sheet becomes lost. ■



Hach. 1997. Hach Water Analysis Handbook.3rd ed. Hach Company. Loveland, CO.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1997. Volunteer Stream Monitoring: A Methods Manual.EPA 841-B-97-003. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 211 pp.

Other references:


Bergstrom, P. 1997. “Salinity by Conductivity and Hydrometer—AMethod Comparison.” The Volunteer Monitor9(1):13-15.

Bergstrom, P. 2002. “Salinity Methods Comparison: Conductivity, Hydrometer, Refractometer.”The Volunteer Monitor14(1):20-21.

LaMotte Company. 1993. Hydrometer Instructions. Chestertown, MD.

Maine Coastal Program. 1998. The Estuary Book.State Planning Office, 38 State House Station,Augusta, ME 04333.

Mitsch, W.J., and J.G. Gosselink. 1986. Wetlands.Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. 539 pp.


14-8



Chapter15Turbidity and Total Solids

Natural runoff, water turbulence from storms, and wave action can cause turbidity

of the water. Sediment can also be disturbed by bottom-feeding animals, adding to

the water’s turbidity. Although we often think that clean water is clear, even

unpolluted water can have suspended particles that may lessen its clarity but do

not diminish its quality. Many human activities contribute to increased turbidity,

as discussed in this chapter.

Photos (l to r): G. Carver, K. Register, R. Ohrel, K. Register

15-1


Unit Two: Physical Measures Chapter 15: Turbidity and Total Solids

Measures of turbidity indicate how cloudy or muddy the water is or,

alternatively, the degree of its clarity or translucence. Several types of material

cause water turbidity:

• suspended soil particles (including clay, silt, and sand);

• tiny floating organisms (e.g., phytoplankton, zooplankton, and

bacterioplankton); and

• small fragments of dead plants.

Natural runoff, water turbulence from storms, and wave action can cause

turbidity of the water. Sediment can also be disturbed by bottom-feeding animals,

adding to the water’s turbidity. Although we often think that clean water is clear,

even unpolluted water can have suspended particles that may lessen its clarity but

do not diminish its quality. Human activities, however, exacerbate the clouding.

Sediment runoff from agricultural fields, logging activities, wash from

construction sites and urban areas, and shoreline erosion from heavy boat traffic

and jet skis, among other problems, all contribute to high turbidity. Excessive

algal growth due to the additions of nutrients into an estuary can also affect water

turbidity. High levels of turbidity over long periods of time can greatly diminish

the health and productivity of the estuarine ecosystem.

This chapter explains the role of turbidity in the estuarine ecosystem and

describes some common steps for monitoring it. The measurement of total

solids—particles suspended and dissolved in the water—is also discussed.

Overview

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Chapter 15: Turbidity and Total Solids Unit Two: Physical Measures

Turbidity is a measure of waterclarity: how much the materialsuspended in water decreases thepassage of light through the water.Suspended materials include soilparticles (clay, silt, and sand), algae,plankton, and other substances. Theyare typically in the size range of 0.004mm (clay) to 1.0 mm (sand).

Total solidsrefer to the matter that issuspended or dissolved in water.When a water sample is evaporated,there is often a residue left in thevessel—these are the total solids. Thesolids in water have different attributesand sizes. The suspended particles inwater can be retained on a filter with a2 µm or smaller pore size, whiledissolved solids are small enough topass through a filter of that size.

Turbidity and total solids can be usefulindicators of the effects of runoff fromconstruction, agricultural practices, loggingactivity, discharges, and other sources.Regular monitoring can help detect trends thatmight indicate increasing (or decreasing)erosion in the estuary’s watershed.

Sources of turbidity in estuary watersinclude:

• soil erosion from construction, forestry,or agricultural sites;

• waste discharge;

• urban runoff;

• eroding stream banks;

• stirred-up bottom sediments fromflooding, dredging, boating and jet-skiing activities, or bottom-feedinganimals; and

• excessive algal growth.

Turbidity and total solids often increasesharply during and immediately following arainfall, especially in developed watersheds,

which typically have relatively highproportions of impervious surfaces such asrooftops, parking lots, and roads. The flow ofstormwater runoff from impervious surfacesrapidly increases stream velocity, whichincreases the erosion rates of streambanks andchannels. Turbidity can also rise sharplyduring dry weather if earth-disturbingactivities are occurring without erosioncontrol practices in place.

Sedimentation, where solids settle out of thewater column onto the estuary bottom, is apriority concern in many estuaries, makingturbidity monitoring an important part of mostvolunteer estuary water quality monitoringprograms. As one example, a study of WeeksBay, Alabama, found that its watershedcontributed about 22,500 tons of sediment peryear to the bay as a result of agricultural fieldrunoff (Baldwin County, 1993).

The Role of Turbidity and Total Solids inthe Estuarine Ecosystem

Highly turbid water full of suspendedmaterial has many effects on the estuarineenvironment. If an estuary is excessivelyturbid over long periods, its health andproductivity can be greatly diminished.

As discussed in Chapter 9, dissolvedoxygen is a critical factor controllingbiological activity. Highly turbid water caninfluence the amount of dissolved oxygen inthree ways. First, turbid waters interfere withlight penetration in the water, therebyreducing the amount of light reaching thebottom, making it less suitable for plantgrowth. Because there are fewer aquaticplants—and therefore less photosynthesistaking place—less dissolved oxygen isproduced. Dissolved oxygen concentrationsare also influenced by high turbidity and itsrelationship to water temperature. Suspendedparticles absorb heat, which causes watertemperature to increase. Because warm waterholds less dissolved oxygen than cold water,

Why Measure Turbidity and Total Solids?

Land use decisions throughout anestuary’s watershed impact waterquality. Here, extensive erosionnear a highway adds to thesediment entering a nearbyestuary (photo by R. Ohrel).

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It should be remembered that turbidity is nota measurement of the amount of suspendedsolids present or the rate of sedimentation of anestuary—it measures only the amount of lightthat is scattered or absorbed by suspended parti-cles. Some laboratories also measure “totalsolids” in a waterbody, which is related to tur-bidity. Measurement of total solids is a moredirect measure of the amount of material sus-pended and dissolved in water.

Chapter 6 summarized several factors thatshould be considered when determining moni-toring sites, where to monitor, and when tomonitor. In addition to the considerations inChapter 6, a few additional ones specific tomonitoring turbidity are presented here.

When to Sample In setting up a turbidity monitoring plan, the

program manager should ensure that the effortwill continue for several years. Since the work-ings of an estuary are complex, a mere year ortwo of turbidity data is insufficient to capturethe variability of the system. In fact, a fewyears of unusual data may be quite misleadingand tell a story very different than reality. Onthe other hand, volunteers can detect somesources of erosion and turbidity in just one ortwo monitoring sessions.

Volunteers should sample water for turbidityon a weekly or biweekly basis, year-round. Thekey to effective turbidity monitoring is to sample at a sufficiently frequent interval and

this temperature increase causes a reduction indissolved oxygen concentrations. Highturbidity may also be caused by high levels ofdead organic matter, called detritus. Detrituscan include leaves, twigs and other plant andanimal wastes. As these materials aredecomposed by bacteria, oxygen can bedepleted.

Some of the physical effects of excessivesuspended materials include:

• clogged fish gills that inhibit theexchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide;

• reduced resistance to disease in fish;

• reduced growth rates;

• altered egg and larval development;

• fouled filter-feeding systems of animals;and

• hindered ability of aquatic predatorsfrom spotting and tracking down their prey.

Suspended materials such as sand, soil, orsilt tend to settle out faster in brackish waterthan in fresh water. These particles settle tothe estuary bottom, where they smother fish

eggs and bottom-dwelling animals, and alterthe habitat needed by estuary plants andanimals. For example, oysters require a hardsurface on which to attach and grow. Increas-ed sedimentation in an estuary can cover theavailable hard surfaces such as rocks andolder oyster beds, leaving oysters without thehabitat that is critical to their survival.Another problem with sedimentation in anestuary is that the newly settled particles maynot be the same size as the estuary’s naturalbottom sediment, causing shifts from fine tocoarser sediments (or vice versa). This changein sediment size can greatly affect the plantsand animals that have adapted to the estuary’sbenthic environment.

Higher concentrations of suspended solidscan serve as carriers of toxins, which readilycling to suspended particles. This isparticularly a concern where pesticides arebeing used on irrigated crops. Where solidsare high, pesticide concentrations mayincrease well beyond those of the originalapplication as the irrigation water travelsdown irrigation ditches and ultimately intoestuaries. ■


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at enough representative sites so that thedata will account for most of the inherentvariability within the system.

Since turbidity often increases sharplyduring and immediately following a rain-fall, volunteers may be asked to takeadditional turbidity readings shortly afterthe storm (as soon as it is safe to do so).Stormwater, as it enters an estuary, oftencreates a plume of highly turbid water.This is because the stormwater is carry-ing high levels of suspended solids due

to erosion as well as sediment from roads andparking lots in the watershed. The extent of theplume can usually be seen from above, as thecolor of water in the plume is different from thewater in the estuary’s main body. Some volun-teer monitoring programs include “stormwaterplume tracking” as part of their turbidity datacollection to assess the spatial extent ofstormwater discharges (see box, this page).

Where to SampleIf the monitoring program is designed to pin-

point trouble spots in the estuary, the managershould select monitoring sites throughout theestuary, as well as cluster sites near suspected

sources of turbid water into the estuary. Suchsites might include an area near a dischargepipe or a river that flows into the estuary. Sincerivers may have multiple trouble spots, yourmonitoring efforts may require several monitor-ing sites in the rivers and tributaries.

Choosing a Sampling MethodWhen deciding upon the appropriate method

for measuring turbidity levels in an estuary, theprogram manager must consider the cost ofequipment, the number and location of sites tobe monitored by volunteers, and the planneduses for the collected data.

There are four commonly used methods tomeasure turbidity in estuary waters. Turbiditymeters measure turbidity, while the Secchi disk,transparency tube, and turbidity field kits mea-sure transparency, which is an integrated mea-sure of light scattering and absorption. Samplescan also be collected by volunteers and sent to alab for analysis. Monitors interested in submit-ting data to water quality agencies should con-sult with the agencies to determine the preferredequipment and methods.

Secchi Disk

Most volunteer water quality monitoring pro-grams rely on the Secchi disk because it is easyto use, inexpensive, and relatively accurate. It isalso easy to make (see box, page 15-5). TheSecchi disk was invented by the Italianastronomer Pietro Angelo Secchi in the 1860s.This simple weighted disk is used by volunteersto measure the water depth at which the diskjust disappears from view—the Secchi depth.Most programs find that the Secchi disk givessufficiently good clarity readings.

The Secchi disk is 20 centimeters (8 inches)in diameter and divided into alternating blackand white quadrants to enhance visibility andcontrast (although some disks are totally white).Secchi disks cost about $25 to $50 and can behomemade.

It is lowered by hand into the water to thedepth at which it vanishes from sight. The dis-tance to vanishing is then recorded, and thenthe procedure is repeated so that two readings

Stormwater Plume TrackingAs part of a turbidity monitoring program, volunteers can conduct“plume tracking” to assess the spatial extent of stormwater discharges.By monitoring for runoff characteristics (i.e., high turbidity, lowsalinity, etc.) near the mouth of a freshwater input to the estuary,volunteers can assess how far the stormwater plume emanating fromthe stream or river extends into the estuary.

An effective method to monitor a stormwater plume is to divide theplume area into a grid, and conduct sampling in each of the grid areas.Sampling should extend from the area of greatest freshwater impact,across the plume, and beyond the edge of the plume. Studying the fateof stormwater and its effects on an estuary is an important componentto understanding the amount of material flowing into the estuary andwhere stormwater material is deposited. With this monitoring, we canbegin to learn what residual effects the deposited material has on thenatural function of the estuary’s ecosystem. By regularly monitoringstorm plumes, volunteers can collect valuable information that can helpdetect trends.

As stormwater entersan estuary, it oftencreates a plume ofhighly turbid water. Inthis photo, a plume ofstormwater deliverslarge amounts ofdissolved and suspend-ed materials to anestuary (photo by G.Carver).

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are obtained. The clearer the water, the greaterthe distance. If you are monitoring tributaries tothe estuary, you may find a Secchi disk of limit-ed use, however, because in many cases theriver bottom will be visible and the disk willnot reach a vanishing point.

Secchi readings will vary with the specificestuary, location in the estuary, and season.Water clouded with sediment after a storm orwith high levels of phytoplankton during awarm spell will have low Secchi readings (poorwater clarity). Low productivity winter watersor estuarine water located near the ocean willgenerally register higher Secchi depths. A sig-nificant change in Secchi depth may motivate amonitoring program to identify possible causes.

WARNING! Beware of Secchi Line ShrinkageOver time, a Secchi disk line may begin toshrink from regular water exposure andsubsequent drying. This can lead to errorsin Secchi depth measurements.

To minimize this problem, use a minimal-stretch nylon cord, a vinyl-coated braidedmetal-core clothesline, or other shrink-resistant line. But no matter what material youuse, it is critical to calibrate Secchi disk linesregularly (e.g., every six months).

A Secchi disk is one of the simpler pieces of equipment requiredfor water quality testing. Although many supply companies sellthis item, volunteer programs on a tight budget can construct theirown disks (Figure 15-1). Materials needed for this project are:

• 1/8” thick steel, 1/4” Plexiglas, or 1/4” to 1/2” marineplywood

• drill with 3/8” inch bit

• shrink-resistant rope or cord (e.g., minimal-stretch nylon,vinyl-coated braided metal-core clothesline)

• eyebolt (5/16”), approximately 3” to 4” long

• flat washers, lock washers, 2 nuts (5/16”)—2 of each

• attachable weights

• meter stick

• black and white flat enamel paint

• paintbrush

• marking pen

Cut the steel, Plexiglas, or plywood into a circle with a 20-centimeter (8”) diameter. Section the disk into four quartersand paint two opposing quarters white and the other two black. Paint the other side of the disk totally white.

After the paint has dried, drill a hole in the center of the disk. Put a nut onto the eyebolt followed by a lock washer andflat washer. Insert the eyebolt assembly through the hole in the disk with the white and black side facing the eye of thebolt. Place another flat washer on top of the assembly along with a sufficient number of weights (dependent on the diskmaterial used). Add another lock washer and nut to finish the assembly.

Attach a 6-meter length of shrink-free cord or rope through the eyebolt and fasten securely. Place the meter stickalongside the rope and disk and mark the rope in 5- or 10-centimeter increments with an indelible marker or waterproofink measuring from the top of the disk. A different color marker used at each full meter increment will facilitate readingSecchi measurements.

MAKING A SECCHI DISK

Figure 15-1.A homemade Secchi disk.

Attach incremented rope here

Eye Bolt

Lock WasherFlat Washer Nut

Black & WhiteSecchi Disk

Weight

Nut

Flat WasherLock Washer

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Turbidity Meter

The most accurate means ofassessing turbidity is with a turbiditymeter, called a nephelometer. Aturbidity meter consists of a lightsource that illuminates a water sampleand a photoelectric cell that measuresthe intensity of light scattered at a 90°angle by the particles in the sample. Itmeasures turbidity in nephelometricturbidity units or NTUs. Meters canmeasure turbidity over a wide range,from 0 to 1,000 NTUs. Measurementscan jump into hundreds of NTUs dur-ing runoff events. Therefore, theturbidity meter to be used should bereliable over the range in which youwill be working. Meters of this qualitycost about $800. Many meters in this

price range are designed for field or lab use. Although turbidity meters can be used in

the field, volunteers might want to collectsamples and take them to a central point forturbidity measurements. This is because of theexpense of the meter (most programs canafford only one and would have to pass italong from site to site, complicating logisticsand increasing the risk of damage to themeter) and because the meter includes glasscells that must remain optically clear and freeof scratches. At a reasonable cost, volunteerscan also take turbidity samples to a lab formeter analysis.

Transparency Tube

The transparency tube (sometimes called a“turbidity tube”) is a clear, narrow plastic tubemarked in units (usually centimeters) with alight and dark pattern painted on the bottom.Water is poured into the tube until the patterndisappears. Volunteers then record the depthat which the pattern disappeared. Volunteer

groups using transparency tubes have foundtube readings to relate fairly well to labmeasurements of turbidity and total suspendedsolids, although the transparency tube is notas precise or accurate as a meter. Also,readings in transparency tubes can berendered inaccurate in cases of highly coloredwaters. A transparency reading taken fromone tube cannot be compared with a readingtaken from another tube of a differentmanufacturer, especially if the tube ishomemade. Transparency tubes can bepurchased from scientific supply houses forabout $35 to $60.

Turbidity Field Kits

With these kits, turbidity is measured byusing a standardized turbidity reagent tomatch the turbidity of a water sample. Dropsof the turbidity reagent are added to a testtube of turbidity-free water until the water inthe test tube becomes as blurred or cloudy asthe water sample from the estuary, which is inan identical test tube. These field kits costabout $40.

Laboratory Analysis

Analysis of turbidity or of total solids by aprofessional laboratory is by far the mostaccurate means of obtaining this data. Mostlaboratories institute strict quality assuranceand quality control methods to ensureconsistently reliable results. A college orprofessional lab may offer its services free ofcharge to a volunteer program.

If the program decides to use lab analysis, itmust ensure that its volunteers adhere to strictguidelines while collecting samples. Sloppyfield collection techniques will result in poor data. ■

A volunteer uses aSecchi disk from theshady side of a dock(photo by K. Register).

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General procedures for measuring turbidityare presented in this section for guidanceonly; they do not apply to all samplingmethods. Monitors should consult with theinstructions that come with their samplingand analyzing instruments. Those who areinterested in submitting data to waterquality agencies should also consult withthe agencies to determine acceptableequipment, methods, quality controlmeasures, and data quality objectives (seeChapter 5).





• turbidity meter, turbidity standards, lint-free cloth to wipe the cells of the meter;or

• Secchi disk with weight attached and on acalibrated line; or

• transparency tube; or

• turbidity test kit.

STEP 2: Monitor turbidity.The following section describes

four ways to analyze a watersample for turbidity. If analyzingturbidity by Secchi disk, followProcedure A. If using a turbiditymeter, use Procedure B. If using atransparency tube, follow ProcedureC. If using a turbidity field test kit,follow Procedure D.

Procedure A—Measuring waterclarity with a Secchi disk

The key to consistent results is totrain volunteers to follow standardsampling procedures and, if possible,have the same individual take thereading at the same site throughoutthe season. If the conditions vary from this ideal situation, record anydifferences on the data sheet. The lineattached to the Secchi disk must bemarked according to units designated by thevolunteer program. Many programs requirevolunteers to measure to the nearest 1/10 meter.Meter intervals can be marked with waterproofink or tagged (e.g., with duct tape) for ease ofuse. Do not wear sunglasses while viewing theSecchi disk in the water.

The optimal conditions for recording Secchidisk readings are:

• clear sky;

• sun directly overhead (but disk shouldbe in shade or shadow); and

• measurements made from the protectedside of a boat or dock with minimalwaves or ripples.

Steps for using a Secchi disk are as follows:

• Check to make sure that the Secchi diskis securely attached to the measured line.

• Tie a wrist loop at the end of the rope sothat the rope end does not accidentallydrop into the water when the disk islowered.

How to Measure Turbidity

Using a transparency tube is an easyway to measure the water transpar-ency. It is especially useful in waterthat is too shallow for a Secchi disk(photo by K. Register).

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• Lean over the shady side of the boat ordock and lower the Secchi disk by handinto the water, keeping your backtoward the sun to block glare. Makesure the disk hangs horizontally whensuspended.

• Lower the disk until it disappears fromview. Lower it one third of a meter andthen slowly raise the disk until it justreappears. Move the disk up and downuntil the exact vanishing point is found.This is called the limit of visibility.

• Attach a clothespin to the line at thepoint where the line enters the water or,if that is not possible, note carefullywhere the line meets the water’s surface(Figure 15-2). Raise the Secchi disk andrecord the depth measurement on yourdata sheet.

• Repeat the procedure and write thesecond measurement on your data sheet,as well as the average of the two depths.

• If the disk hits the bottom beforedropping out of sight, note thisobservation and record the bottom depth.

Procedure B—Measuring water turbidity with aturbidity meter

• Prepare the sample containers.

If factory-sealed, disposable Whirl-pakbags are used to sample, no preparationis needed. Reused sample containers(and all glassware used in this procedure)must be cleaned before the first run andafter each sampling run. Follow theprocedures described in Chapter 7.

• Collect the sample.

Refer to Chapter 7 for details on how tocollect water samples using screw-capbottles or Whirl-pak bags.

• Analyze the sample.

While monitors should consult with the instructions that come with their

turbidity meter, the following procedureapplies to field or lab use of mostturbidity meters:

(a) Prepare the turbidity meter for useaccording to the manufacturer’sinstructions.

(b) Use the turbidity standards providedwith the meter to calibrate it. Makesure it is reading accurately in therange in which you will be working.

(c) Shake the sample vigorously andwait until the bubbles havedisappeared. You might want to tapthe sides of the bottle gently toaccelerate the process.

(d) Use a lint-free cloth to wipe theoutside of the tube into which thesample will be poured. Be sure not tohandle the tube below the line wherethe light will pass when the tube isplaced in the meter. NOTE: If thetube becomes scratched, it will haveto be replaced. The scratches on theglass can affect the meter’s readings.

(e) Pour the sample water into the tube.Wipe off any drops on the outside ofthe tube.

(f) Set the meter for the appropriateturbidity range. Place the tube in themeter and read the turbiditymeasurement directly from the meter display.

(g) Record the result on the field or lab sheet.

(h) Repeat steps c-g for each sample.

Procedure C—Measuring water clarity with atransparency tube

Readings in transparency tubes can berendered inaccurate in cases of highly coloredwaters. A transparency reading taken from onetube cannot be compared with a reading takenfrom another tube of a different manufacturer,especially if the tube is homemade.

• Collect the sample in a bottle or bucketat mid-depth if possible. Avoid stagnant

ClothespinMeters

Meters

Meter

Marked intenth ofa meter

increments

3

2

1

Figure 15-2.Using aSecchi disk to measuretransparency. The diskis lowered until it is nolonger visible. Thatpoint is the Secchi diskdepth (redrawn fromUSEPA, 1997).

15-9



water and sample as far from theshoreline as is safe. Avoid collectingsediment from the bottom.

• Prepare the transparency tube by placingit on a white surface.

• Look vertically down the tube to see theblack and white pattern on the bottom.Take readings in open but shadedconditions. Avoid direct sunlight byturning your back to the sun.

• Stir or swish the water in the bucket orbottle until it is homogeneous, takingcare not to produce air bubbles (thesewill scatter light and affect themeasurement).

• Slowly pour the water sample into thetube, stopping intermittently to see if theblack and white pattern has disappeared.To avoid introducing air bubbles, pourthe water against the inside wall of thetube.

• When you can no longer see the pattern,look at the ruler on the side of the tube,and record the number of units on yourdata sheet. This is the depth of the watercolumn in the tube when the pattern justdisappears.

NOTE: Some transparency tubes have awater-release valve at the bottom of the tube.With these tubes, you are required to fill thetube entirely, then open the valve while youlook down the tube. As soon as you see theblack and white pattern appear, close thevalve, and record the depth at which you firstsaw the pattern.

Procedure D—Measuring water clarity with aturbidity field kit

While monitors should consult with theinstructions that come with their kits, thefollowing procedure applies to most turbidityfield kits:

• The kits come with two tubes, each witha black and white pattern on the bottom.

Fill one of the two turbidity tubes to theline indicated with the water to betested. This is usually 50 ml. If youcannot see the black and white patternon the bottom of the tube when youlook down through the column, pour outhalf of the water until 25 ml remains inthe test tube (or pour out the amountstated in your kit’s instructions).

• Fill the second turbidity tube withturbidity-free water that is equal to theamount of the sample (50 or 25 ml).Distilled or tap water can be used.

• Place the tubes next to each other, andlook down the tubes to note thedifference in clarity. If there is adifference in clarity, go on to the next step.

• Shake the bottle of standard turbidityreagent, and add the reagent to the“clear water” tube according to the kit’sinstructions. Keep track of how muchreagent is being added. Stir the contentsof both tubes to equally distribute turbidparticles. After each addition of reagent,compare the turbidity of the tubes.

• Continue to add the reagent and stirboth tubes until the turbidity of both testtubes is the same.

• Record the total amount of turbidityreagent added.


equipment and transport the samples to thedesignated lab, if necessary. Samples submit-ted to a lab for analysis must be processedwithin 24 hours of collection. Keep samplesin the dark and on ice or refrigerated.

Make sure that the data sheet is complete,legible, and accurate, and that it accounts forall samples. Volunteers should make a copy ofthe completed data sheet before sending it tothe designated person or agency in case theoriginal data sheet becomes lost.

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The measurement of total solids cannot bedone in the field. Samples must be collectedusing clean glass, plastic bottles, or Whirl-pakbags and taken to a laboratory where the testcan be run. Total solids are measured byweighing the amount of solids present in aknown volume of sample. This is done byweighing an empty beaker, filling it with aknown volume, evaporating the water in anoven and completely drying the residue, andthen weighing the beaker with the residue.The total solids concentration is equal to thedifference between the weight of the beakerwith the residue and the weight of the beakerwithout it.

Total solids are measured in milligrams perliter (mg/l). Since the residue is so light inweight, the lab will need a balance that issensitive to weights in the range of 0.0001

gram. Balances of this type are calledanalytical or Mettler balances, and they areexpensive (around $3,000). The techniquerequires that the beakers be kept in adesiccator, which is a sealed glass vesselcontaining material that absorbs moisture andensures that the weighing is not biased bywater condensing on the beaker. Somedesiccants change color to indicate moisturecontent.

Volunteers can collect samples for totalsolids analysis using the instructions inChapter 7. If you are sending your samples toa lab for analysis, they must be tested within24 hours of collection. Keep samples in thedark and on ice or refrigerated. Learn fromthe lab what volume of water needs to becollected. For some tests, 50 ml are needed,while other tests require 100 ml or more. ■

How to Measure Total Solids



National Estuary Program (NEP). Web site: http://www.epa.gov/owow/estuaries/about1.htm

Southern California Coastal Water Research Project, 1999/2000 Research Plan, Westminster, CA.Web site: http://www.sccwrp.org

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1997. Volunteer Stream Monitoring: A MethodsManual.EPA 841-B-97-003. November. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 211 pp.

Other references:

American Public Health Association (APHA), American Water Works Association, and WaterEnvironment Federation. 1998. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water andWastewater. 20th ed. L. S. Clesceri, A. E. Greenberg, A. D. Eaton (eds). Washington, DC.

Association of National Estuary Programs(ANEP). 1998. Preserving Our Heritage, Securing OurFuture: A Report to the Citizensof the Nation. Washington, DC. 49 pp.

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Baldwin County (Alabama) Soil and Water Conservation District. 1993. Unpublished report onagricultural field runoff and erosion in the Weeks Bay watershed.

Mitchell, M., and W. Stapp. 1999. Field Manual for Water Quality Monitoring.12th ed. Kendall/Hunt. Available from GREEN, c/o Earth Force, Inc., 1908 Mount Vernon Ave., Alexandria, VA22301; phone: 703-299-9400; catalog # ISBN-1-6801; Web site: http://www.earthforce.org/green/

National Safety Council’s Environmental Center. 1998. Coastal Challenges: A Guide to Coastal andMarine Issues.Prepared in conjunction with Coastal America. Web site: http://www.nsc.org/ehc/guidebks/coasttoc.htm.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1991. Volunteer Lake Monitoring: A MethodsManual.EPA 440/4-91-002. Office of Water, Washington, DC.

White, T. 1994. “Monitoring a Watershed: Nationwide Turbidity Testing in Australia.” TheVolunteer Monitor6(2): 22-23.

Web sites:

National Estuary Program (NEP): http://www.epa.gov/owow/estuaries/about1.htm

Environmental Protection Agency’s Office of Wetlands, Oceans, & Watersheds:http://www.epa.gov/owow/monitoring/volunteer/stream/http://www.epa.gov/owow/monitoring/index.html

U.S. Geological Survey, Florida Bay: http://coastal.er.usgs.gov/flbay/ref.html

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Chapter16Marine Debris

Waterbodies have historically been dumping grounds for human-made debris. Rarely

can a person visit a stream, lake, river, estuary, or ocean and fail to observe some

form of trash. This debris originates from many activities, but is generally

categorized as coming from land-based or ocean/inland waterway-based sources.

Regardless of its origin, however, marine debris impacts human health and safety;

poses an entanglement or ingestion threat to wildlife; and degrades critical habitats.

All photos by The Ocean Conservancy

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Unit Two: Physical Measures Chapter 16: Marine Debris

Waterbodies have historically been dumping grounds for human-made debris.

Rarely can a person visit a stream, lake, river, estuary, or ocean and fail to observe

some form of trash. This debris originates from many activities, but is generally

categorized as coming from land- or ocean/inland waterway-based sources.

Regardless of its origin, however, marine debris impacts human health and safety;

poses an entanglement or ingestion threat to wildlife; and degrades critical habitats.

Volunteer groups may be attracted to marine debris monitoring because of the

pervasiveness of the problem and the ease with which marine debris pollution can

be observed. They may also choose several approaches to dealing with it. Some

organizations simply remove trash from shorelines and waterways. Others take it

one step further, collecting information about the types and amounts of debris

found. This kind of data collection may be done with different levels of scientific

rigor, depending largely on the goals of the volunteer effort.

This chapter discusses techniques for organizing a debris monitoring and cleanup

program, with emphasis on data collection and data uses.

Overview

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Chapter 16: Marine Debris Unit Two: Physical MeasuresChapter 16: Marine Debris

Once, our nation’s beacheswere littered only with thelikes of dry seaweed strands,shells, plant stems, and strand-ed jellyfish. These days, the lit-ter is more likely to includecigarette butts, grocery bags,scraps of fishing nets, pieces offoamed coffee cups, fast foodcontainers, and beverage cansor bottles. As the coastal popu-lation has risen and society hasturned from degradable natural

materials to synthetic ones, the trash problemhas worsened.

Of all the human-made goods producedover the past several decades, plastics areamong the most persistent and pervasive. Thequalities that make plastic such a versatilematerial for so many products can make itharmful once it is released to the environ-ment. Constructed to be light and durable,plastics break down very slowly—some prod-ucts even persisting for centuries.

Marine debris monitoring information fromvolunteer organizations is important in manyways. Data from monitoring efforts can beused to:

• assess debris sources;

• identify areas where public education andoutreach are necessary; and

• evaluate the success of legislation enactedagainst littering and ocean dumping.

Marine debris monitoring and coastalcleanups serve three major functions. First, theyreduce the amount of litter on shorelines in animmediate and visible way—an aspect mostgratifying to the volunteers. Second, with care-ful planning, volunteers can document thetypes, quantities, and possible sources of debris.Third, the cleanup teaches the public about theproblems of marine debris and how citizens canhelp. The sight of a littered beach transformedinto a clean one makes an impression that thecommunity will long remember and gives the

volunteers a strong sense of pride in theiraccomplishment. Grassroots educational effortsaccompanying the cleanup can help preventfuture littering.

Marine Debris SourcesAs our knowledge about marine debris has

increased, two pathways have been shown tocontribute to the problem. These sources can bedivided into land-based and ocean/inland water-way-based. Land-based debris consists of wasteproducts that have washed or blown into thewater from the land. Primary sources of land-based debris include:

• sewers;

• combined sewer overflows;

• illegal dumping;

• beachgoers who leave litter on beaches;

• balloon releases;

• disposal of industrial waste products; and

• loss from coastal solid waste managementlandfills via wind.

Ocean/inland waterway-based debris itemsare accidentally or deliberately discharged atsea. Sources include:

• commercial fishing boats;

• recreational vessels;

• floating fish processing plants;

• cargo ships;

• passenger day boats and ferries;

• offshore oil platforms, rigs, and supplyboats;

• military vessels;

• passenger cruise ships; and

• research vessels.

For many debris items, however, it is not soeasy to identify their source—whether land orocean/inland waterway-based.

Why Monitor Marine Debris?

Marine debris is typically comprised ofplastic, glass, rubber, metal, paper, wood,and cloth (photo by The OceanConservancy).

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Unit Two: Physical Measures Chapter 16: Marine DebrisChapter 16: Marine Debris

Plastic DebrisAnnex V of the International Conventionfor the Prevention of Pollution from Ships,commonly known as MARPOL, bans thedisposal of plastic into the world’s oceansand establishes limits on the disposal ofother garbage. Many countries, includingthe United States, have agreed to thistreaty. Over time, this agreement shouldsubstantially reduce the load of plasticsentering the marine environment. TheUnited States also prohibits the disposal ofplastic into the nation’s navigable water-ways from any vessel—ranging from thelargest tanker to an inner tube.

The Role of Marine Debris in the EstuarineEcosystem

A walk along any but the most pristinecoastal or estuarine shoreline will quicklyreveal an astonishing array of human-madeproducts. Beaches are natural accumulationareas for ocean- and land-based debris.Nearshore waves tend to push marine litterlandward where it becomes stranded as hightide recedes. Beaches are also popularrecreation areas and users often leave theirtrash behind.

The many marine debris sources make itone of the more widespread pollutionproblems threatening estuarine and coastalsystems. The problem of today’s litter is notmerely aesthetic. Once litter gets into theestuarine environment, it seriously affectshumans, wildlife, and habitats.

Human Impacts

Plastic debris (e.g., nets, fishing lines, trashbags) can snare boat propellers or clogcooling water intakes, causing substantialdamage to the motor. A disabled motor cannot only be costly to fix, but can leave boatersstranded in the water—a potentiallydangerous situation.

Debris can also affecthuman health. Medicalwastes menace barefootbeachgoers and pose athreat of contamination.Glass or metal shards cancause serious injuries.

Some beaches withmarine debris problemsface the possibility oflosing money. Withoutregular beach cleaning—anexpensive undertaking—many coastal communitiesrisk losing tourismrevenues.

Wildlife Impacts

Wildlife often fare evenworse than humans. Marine debris canmean death to estuarine animals. Onecommon cause of death by marinedebris is entanglement. Many animalscan become caught in discardedfishing nets and lines, rope, six-packrings, balloon ribbons, grocery bags,and other floating debris.

Some animals die from marinedebris ingestion, mistakenly eatingthe human-made materials. En-dangered sea turtles, for example,consume floating trash bags andballoons, likely mistaking them forjellyfish—a staple in most seaturtles’diets. Several seabird specieshave been found to swallow plasticpieces and cigarette butts. Thesematerials can damage the animals’digestivesystems. Alternatively, animals may stopeating because their stomachs are full.Because the debris in their stomachs offers nonutritional value, the unfortunate creaturesmay eventually starve to death.

At least 267 marine species are known tohave either become entangled in or ingestedmarine debris (Faris and Hart, 1995; MMC,1997).

Wildlife entanglement isjust one of the impacts ofmarine debris. Animalscaught in debris mayeventually die (photos byThe Ocean Conservancy).

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Chapter 16: Marine Debris Unit Two: Physical Measures

Habitat Impacts

Marine debris can cause problems for theestuary system. Debris coming from milesaway may carry with it opportunistic plantsand animals that colonize the debris’surface.These non-indigenous species can havedevastating impacts for the region (seeChapter 19). Submerged debris can also covercommunities such as coral reefs and smotherseagrasses and bottom-dwelling species.

Levels of Marine DebrisMarine debris is pervasive throughout

coastal regions. Similar to most estuarinepollution parameters, the amount of marinedebris at any single moment can depend onthe estuary location, its surrounding land use,the frequency of cleaning by municipal

agencies, and environmental conditions,among other factors.

Each year, on the third Saturday inSeptember, The Ocean Conservancy conductsthe International Coastal Cleanup. During thisactivity, volunteers remove debris fromshorelines and underwater sites. The volunteersalso collect information about the items found.The Ocean Conservancy uses the volunteer datato evaluate the success of anti-litter and anti-dumping legislation. The data are also used toidentify debris sources and public outreachpossibilities.

The Ocean Conservancy compiles theinformation collected during the InternationalCoastal Cleanup and generates a list of themost frequently found debris items (Table 16-1). The list provides insight to where litterprevention efforts can be concentrated. ■

Debris Items Total Number Reported Percentage of Total Collected

1. cigarette butts 1,027,303 20.25%

2. plastic pieces 337,384 6.65%

3. food bags/wrappers (plastic) 284,287 5.60%

4. foamed plastic pieces 268,945 5.30%

5. caps, lids (plastic) 255,253 5.03%

6. paper pieces 219,256 4.32%

7. glass pieces 209,531 4.13%

8. beverage cans 184,294 3.63%

9. beverage bottles (glass) 177,039 3.49%

10. straws 161,639 3.19%

11. beverage bottles (plastic) 150,129 2.96%

12. bottle caps (metal) 130,401 2.57%

Top 12 Totals 3,405,461 67.12%

Table 16-1. Most frequently found marine debris items in the United States. Data represent shoreline andunderwater cleanups during the 2000 International Coastal Cleanup (The Ocean Conservancy Web site).

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Marine debris cleanup programs generallyfall into two categories:

• programs that collect and removedebris; and

• programs that collect and removedebris, and record information on thenumbers and types of debris found.

Any organization or individual canparticipate in programs that collect andremove debris from beaches and shorelines.This type of activity is designed to clean thearea and raise general public awareness ofmarine debris pollution. Such programs canelicit a sense of pride and accomplishment in

their volunteers and in thecommunity.

Other cleanup programsgo beyond simplycollecting and removingdebris. Some programs,such as The OceanConservancy’sInternational CoastalCleanup and NationalMarine Debris MonitoringProgram, record data onthe numbers and types ofdebris being found. Data collected fromcleanups can be extremely important in

Sampling Considerations and Options

Case Study: National Marine Debris Monitoring ProgramSupported by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), The Ocean Conservancycoordinates the National Marine Debris Monitoring Program (NMDMP). NMDMPis ascientifically valid marine debris study utilizing volunteer groups to monitor and removemarine debris on U.S. coastal beaches. Trained volunteers conduct beach debris surveysfollowing a strict scientific protocol and procedures.

The NMDMPwas started in the spring of 1996. The goal is to establish and maintain 180marine debris monitoring sites along the entire coastal United States, including Alaska,Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Monitoring sites are surveyed monthly byhundreds of volunteers.

The NMDMPis a five-year program designed to scientifically answer two fundamentalquestions regarding marine debris:

• Is the amount of debris on our coastlines decreasing?

• What are the major sources of the debris?

Information gathered by the NMDMPstudy will be utilized by the USEPA, National MarineFisheries Service, National Park Service and the U.S. Coast Guard to better understand theproblem of marine debris pollution.

The NMDMPdata card can be found in Appendix A.

For More Information:

The Ocean ConservancyOffice of Pollution Prevention and Monitoring1432 N. Great Neck Road, Suite 103Virginia Beach, VA 23454Phone: 757-496-0920Fax: 757-496-3207http://www.oceanconservancy.orgEmail: [email protected]

International Coastal Cleanup volunteers inPuerto Rico (photo by S. Sheavly, The OceanConservancy).

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convincing politicians toactively solve the marinewaste problem and areuseful at all levels ofgovernment. The use of adata card (Appendix A)facilitates the collectionof marine debrisinformation during thecleanup activity.

Any marine debriscleanup program con-ducted by a volunteergroup should be thor-oughly planned and

thought out. The following basic questionsshould be considered before proceeding withthe activity:

• Why do we want to conduct a cleanup?What do we want to accomplish?

• Do we just want to conduct a cleanupsimply to remove debris, or do we wantto collect some kind of data?

• If we want to collect data, how will thedata be used? What do we hope toaccomplish with the data (e.g., influencelegislation, monitor debris type oraccumulation trends, identify debrissources, etc.)?

• What kind of data do we want tocollect? (The type of data should bedetermined by what it is you want toaccomplish.)

• Will this be a one-day event, or will itneed to be repeated periodically?(Collecting meaningful data on debrismay take repeated efforts.)

Choosing a Sampling MethodMarine debris monitoring is a very simple

process. The sampling method selected willdepend largely on the goals of the volunteerprogram. Sampling methods used as part ofthe International Coastal Cleanup and theNational Marine Debris Monitoring Program

(NMDMP) are briefly summarized here. Onlythe NMDMPmethod follows a scientificallyvalid and rigorous sampling protocol.

Method Used for International Coastal Cleanup

Volunteers fan out over a monitoring site(e.g., by foot on land, by boat, or by swim-ming), randomly searching for debris. Usingdata cards, they identify and quantify the debrisitems. The entire event provides a one-day“snapshot” of the types and quantities of debrisoccurring along shorelines and in waterways.No scientific protocol is followed during thisactivity.

The International Coastal Cleanup is veryuseful for heightening public awareness aboutmarine debris and its prevention and providesinsights into the sources and activities produc-ing marine debris. Because it lacks scientificrigor, however, this method may not revealinformation about marine debris trends.

Method Used for National Marine DebrisMonitoring Program

The NMDMPis an example of a marinedebris monitoring program that follows a scien-tific protocol for data collection.

Every 28 days, volunteers remove debrisfrom a randomly selected and pre-measured500-meter stretch of beach. Each 500-metersurvey unit must:

• be of sandy or small gravelcomposition;

• have a moderate to low slope (15-45degrees) along the width of the beach;

• receive no other routine cleaning;

• not be protected from the ocean byjetties, breakwaters, etc.;

• be accessible for monthly monitoring;and

• contain at least 500 meters of accessiblelength.

Not only is there scientific rigor designedinto the selection of monitoring sites, but

The National Marine Debris MonitoringProgram is conducted on stretches of beachthroughout the United States. Here, a volunteercoordinator measures a 500-meter monitoringsite in North Carolina (photo by The OceanConservancy).

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volunteers are also trained in the propermethods for conducting a cleanup. Instead ofwalking randomly, volunteers must walk in aprescribed pattern (Figure 16-1) to ensure thatthe entire survey area is covered. Data cardsare used to identify and quantify the debrisitems. The NMDMPalso incorporates aquality assurance protocol (see Chapter 5) toguarantee the validity of the collected data.

The NMDMPutilizes only ocean beachsites; however, volunteer estuary monitoringgroups may consider a similar protocol designto suit their particular data collection needs. ■

How to Conduct a Marine Debris Cleanup

2 meters

500 meters

Litter Trapping Feature

Ocean

500 meters

Figure 16-1.Specificwalking pattern forinventorying marinedebris as part of theNational Marine DebrisMonitoring Program(NMDMP) (from Center for MarineConservation, 1997).

Depending on the level of sophistication andthe data needs of the program, organizing amarine debris cleanup can take minutes ormonths. Although getting a few people onto thelocal beach to pick up some trash may seemlike an easy task, a successful cleanup caninvolve hundreds of people and demand monthsof organization, recruitment, and planning.

Regardless of the program objectives, a fewgeneral elements to a marine debris monitoringprogram are presented here for the volunteerleader. These elements are derived from TheOcean Conservancy’s International CoastalCleanup and can be divided into threecategories: before the cleanup, the day of thecleanup, and immediately after the cleanup.

Helpful HintIf you plan a marine debris cleanup duringthe months of September and October, your data can be included as part of yourstate’s International Coastal Cleanup activity. Call 1-800-262-2322 or [email protected] beforeyour cleanup activity for more information.

Before the Cleanup:

STEP 1: Identify debris collection sitesthat are safe and accessible to volunteers.

• Ensure that youwill have access tothe site and thatyou have thenecessarypermission to be atthe site.

• Verify cleanup dateand time.

• Identify potentialvolunteer check-insite(s) that will beclearly visible andhave parking available; for example, ifyou are conducting a waterway cleanup,it could be located next to a boat rampor central area of a marina. You maywant to post signs or posters directingpeople to the proper location.

• If scientific data will be collected,volunteers should be trained prior to theactivity.

Volunteers in the National Marine DebrisMonitoring Program collect and inventorymarine debris (photo by The OceanConservancy).

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STEP 2: Identify site coordinators who canmanage cleanup activities at each site.

Recruit coordinators and hold acoordinators’meeting. This is youropportunity to distribute materials to thecoordinators and make sure they understandeverything they have to do. They shouldknow the importance of collecting data,completing data forms, keeping track ofnumbers of volunteers, and working with themedia. All site coordinators should visit theirsite before the cleanup, finalize where theywill set up their check-in point, where thedumpster should be located, and where thevolunteers will be sent.

Review what to do if there is a healthemergency (Step 8) and what to do with dead,entangled, or injured animals (Step 9).

STEP 3: Locate a waste hauler who willdonate services to the project.

• Contact a local waste collection companyin your area. Your municipal governmentmay help and may even waive theentrance fees at landfills or incineratorsfor the event.

• Identify an organization or businesswilling to donate trash bags.

• Plan ahead on how filled trash bags aregoing to be removed: (1) Will volunteerscarry them back to the check-in point, orsome other central location, or (2) willthey leave them as they are filled, right onthe beach (above the high tide mark), tobe picked up by truck or other vehicle? Ifyou chose the first option, have yourvolunteers start at the far end of the zonethey will be cleaning and work their wayback to the central location. This willdecrease the distance they will have tocarry full bags of debris.

STEP 4: Plan recycling options.

A) Contact recyclers in your area andarrange with them pickup and deliverydates and times.

• Recycling debris should be a majoremphasis of the cleanup project. Somelocalities may have recyclingcoordinators in their solid wastedepartments who should be able toassist you.

• Try to remove as much other debrisfrom the recyclable materials aspossible—particularly organicmatter—before sending them to berecycled.

B) Plan ahead how you will collect therecyclables. Either:

• Have volunteers sort as they collect,working in groups of four or more(make sure to have separate bags forrecyclables; using bags of differentcolors may aid the sorting process); or

• Identify a special group of volunteerswho will work during and after thecleanup to specifically sort therecyclables.

You can make recycling more fun by makinga contest out of it: whoever has the mostnumber of cans or bottles (or most bags, or byweight) may win a small prize or get some sortof recognition at the end of cleanup.

STEP 5: Arrange for a scale at cleanupsites to weigh trash bags and largeindividual items (e.g., tires), or be sure you can get a weight from yourwaste hauler.

This kind of data helps to dramatize a trashproblem and is often of particular interest to themedia.

There are several ways to calculate theweight of trash collected:

• Secure a scale similar to those used inseafood markets and grocery stores, orone with a hook on it for hanging bags,and weigh each bag of trash before it isthrown into a dumpster. This is the mostaccurate way of reporting the weight.

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• Your waste hauler may be able to giveyou the total weight of what was hauledaway (either a real weight or a goodestimate by the number of filleddumpsters or roll-offs).

• Estimate the total weight by weighing arandom sample of 10 filled bags of trash,calculating the average weight per bag,and multiplying that number by the totalnumber of filled trash bags.

• Also estimate the weight of items whichare too large for trash bags, includingtires, large fishing nets, and buildingmaterials.

STEP 6: Solicit volunteers and work withthe media.

A well-publicized cleanup drive can oftenattract large numbers of citizen volunteers.The following steps can help:

• Distribute posters and brochures.

• Contact local schools, civic organi-zations, chambers of commerce,environmental groups, industries, andothers willing to participate in thecleanup.

• Distribute media announcements tolocal media and the groups listed abovewho may have their own newsletters orflyers.

• If you have the time, contact specificenvironmental reporters (print andTV/radio media) in your area who maybe interested in a “before and after” typeof story. Get a photographer out to shootpictures of a cleanup site before theevent to illustrate the trash problem, orsupply the press with some of your own.This will help encourage participationthe day of the event.

STEP 7: Maintain a list of people whorespond and express interest in thecleanup to get some indication of thenumber of volunteers to expect at yourcleanup sites.

This may be important in case you have toomany people wanting to go to a specific site.Others can possibly be diverted to differentsites that may need more participants.

Consider ahead of time how volunteers willbe dispersed during the cleanup to cover yourwhole cleanup area. For example, some groupsmark off sections of beach every 1/8 of a mile(or whatever distance is appropriate), andestimate the minimum number of volunteersthat are needed for each section. Wooden stakeswork well for markers, or telephone polesmight be used if the cleanup occurs along aroad, etc. You may want to have maps of thecleanup site available for volunteers.

Helpful HintOne site coordinator will not be enoughwhen 40 or more volunteers indicate theywill be participating at a site. As a generalrule, it takes one additional “assistantcoordinator” for every 30-40 volunteers.

STEP 8: Be prepared for healthemergencies.

• Have first aid kits available at eachcleanup site or check-in location for smallemergencies like cuts and scrapes. Youand your site coordinators should alsoreview what you would do if there is amajor health emergency (heat exhaustionor heatstroke, broken bone, etc.). Writeout a plan. Know how to get to theclosest hospital or other emergencyfacility from your cleanup site so you candirect emergency personnel. Somecommunities may want to have rescue

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personnel standing by, particularly forareas expecting several hundredvolunteers. Additionally, volunteerssuffering deep cuts or puncture woundsshould check with their physician on theneed for a tetanus shot.

• Try to obtain walkie-talkies, two-wayradios, or cellular phones for each sitecoordinator. This is useful for staying intouch with each other, regardless ofpossible emergencies. Local cellularphone companies may donate phonesfor such events.

Helpful HintConsider contacting your local policedepartment and marine patrol to let themknow you will be having a cleanup event.

STEP 9: Make sure volunteers know whatto do with dead, entangled, or injuredanimals.

• Contact your local animal/wildlife rescuefacilities to let them know that a cleanupwill be occurring, and ask them how toproperly care for and transport anyinjured animals that might be found.

• Dead wildlife could simply be left; moreoften than not, they died naturally andsome scavenger will probably take careof them.

• Entangled animals should be removedbecause other animals may becomeentangled with them.

• All entanglement and injury incidentsshould be reported on data cards.Consider sharing your information withlocal stranding networks, which oftenkeep records of dead, injured, and entan-gled wildlife.

STEP 10: Arrange for someone to takephotos or videos of the event.

• Good video footage may be useful forfuture public service announcements orother educational purposes.

• Label clearly all photos and slides withthe photographer’s name, name and loca-tion of site, and date.

STEP 11: Contact merchants and otherpotential donors who can supply drinks,food, raffle prizes, or whatever else youmight need.

Many merchants will jump at the chance tobe involved in a positive and non-politicalevent. It is good public relations, and you canmake it even better by remembering to mentionall your donors and sponsors in press releasesor conversations with the press. Donations ofthis type also encourage more participation.

The Day of the Cleanup:

STEP 12: Check your equipment. If water quality monitoring is to be part of

your cleanup activity, make sure to bringalong all the proper equipment designated bythe program manager (see Chapter 7 for ageneral list of equipment). In addition to thestandard water quality sampling equipmentand apparel listed in Chapter 7, the site coor-dinator should bring the following items tothe site for each cleanup:

• plastic garbage bags to collect debris(have at least two bags for each expectedvolunteer);

• blank data cards;

• pencils or pens to record data;

• clipboards; and

• Pocket Guide to Marine Debris(TheOcean Conservancy and USEPA, 2000).

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Volunteers should be told to bring:

• gloves;

• protective shoes;

• sunglasses;

• sunscreen; and

• water.

STEP 13: Set up your check-in points.Be prepared before your volunteers start

arriving! Have a table or area that will serve asa volunteer check-in station set up with allmaterials; sign-in sheets ready for volunteers;and signs, if necessary, to direct volunteers toparking, the check-in point, and where they willbe cleaning (e.g., stake off sections of the site tobe cleaned). Your dumpsters and recycling binsshould be appropriately located.

You may want to display actual examples ofthe items that volunteers may be less familiarwith, if you have them. This will aid withproper data collection.

STEP 14: Coordinate volunteers at cleanupsites.

Critical to the success of the cleanup isemphasizing that the volunteers’effort willmake a difference. Distribute materials andinstruct the volunteers on the following items asthey arrive at the check-in point, eitherindividually or in small groups:

• Have all volunteers sign in.

• Emphasize the importance of datacollection, including information aboutunusual situations or observations (seeChapter 7). The International CoastalCleanup data card serves as a nationwidestandard that allows data from any beachin the United States to be compared withany other. Standardized data make thenational database more useful andaccurate for analysis. The OceanConservancy will provide these cards atno charge to beach cleanup programs (seeend of this chapter for contactinformation).

• To facilitate datacollection andsorting out therecyclable trash,encouragevolunteers to workin teams of four orfive. Each volunteerin the team shouldbe given one to twotrash bags—one foraluminum, one forplastic bottles, andseveral others forglass. They should sort as they go. Onevolunteer, designated the “data captain,”would be responsible for recording theitems picked up by the other volunteerson the data card (they can call out theitems as they go). This person willquickly become familiar with the card,making the task easier.

• The volunteers should know what sort ofdebris they are likely to encounter.Accurate debris identification will makethe database more valuable and will alsohelp volunteers steer clear of potentiallydangerous materials such as medicalwaste or toxic waste containers. It is bestto treat unidentified containers withcaution; 55-gallon drums and munitionsshould be avoided altogether. If volun-teers do find suspicious materials, theyshould stay well away, but note theirquantity and location and report thisinformation to the program leaders. Theleaders can then determine the best meansof removing any potentially hazardousmaterials.

• Emphasize safety, stressing theimportance of:

– always wearing gloves;

– picking up glass or metal shards withcare;

– steering clear of injured animals whichmay harbor disease;

– avoiding overexposure to the sun;

A volunteer coordinator reviews data collectionrequirements for the International CoastalCleanup (photo by The Ocean Conservancy).

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– not lifting heavy objects withoutassistance;

– being aware of snakes and otheranimals in dunes or grasses;

– not wading across tidal inlets (currentsare often powerful and unpredictable);and

– reporting any injuries to the programleader.

• Instruct volunteers on what to do if theyfind dead or entangled animals (see Step 9).

• Instruct the volunteers on what they are todo with the filled bags of trash (see Step 3).

STEP 15: As the volunteers return, collectall data cards.

Tell volunteers to return the cardsimmediately after the cleanup. It is best tohave a labeled box at the check-in stationwhere the cards can be returned. Review thecards to ensure they were properly filled out.

STEP 16: Be sure that volunteers get theircertificates, hats, t-shirts, or any othergiveaways before leaving the site.

Any awards that you choose to give out(e.g., for most recyclables, most unusual item,etc.) can be distributed at this time as well.

STEP 17: Dispose of debris.Oversee sorting of the recyclable debris.

Make sure the waste hauler takes all the trashaway and no other materials are left behind.

Immediately After the Cleanup:

STEP 18: Compile cleanup information.Sample information could include the total

number of people, pounds, and miles in yourcleanup, any entanglements, unusual items,number of trash bags filled, etc. If yourcleanup is part of a larger event, send the datacards to the event coordinator. If feasible,make copies of the cards before sending them,in case the originals become lost.

STEP 19: Follow up with site coordinatorsand key volunteers.

This is intended to gauge the success of thematerials developed for promotion of thecleanup, effectiveness of media coverage, etc.They then use this information to plan fornext year’s cleanup to make it even moreefficient and effective. ■

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The Ocean Conservancy. 2002. International Coastal Cleanup (ICC) Coordinator Handbook.

Other references:

Center for Marine Conservation (now The Ocean Conservancy). 1997. National Marine DebrisMonitoring Program Volunteer Handbook.

Faris, J. and K. Hart. 1995. Seas of Debris: A Summary of the Third International Conference onMarine Debris. NC Sea Grant College Program. UNC-SC-95-01.

Marine Mammal Commission (MMC). 1997. Annual Report to Congress. Bethesda, MD. 239 pp.

The Ocean Conservancy and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 2001. PocketGuide to Marine Debris. Washington, DC.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1989. Marine Debris Bibliography.Washington, DC. 25 pp.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1992. Turning the Tide on Trash: A LearningGuide on Marine Debris. EPA 842-B-92-003. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 78 pp.

Web sites:

The Ocean Conservancy: http://www.oceanconservancy.org

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: http://www.epa.gov/owow/oceans/debris/index.html

For information about the International Coastal Cleanup for marine debris research:

The Ocean ConservancyOffice of Pollution Prevention and Monitoring Atlantic Regional Office1432 N. Great Neck Road, Suite 103Virginia Beach, VA 23454Phone: 757-496-0920Fax: 757-496-3207Email: [email protected]

The newsletter Coastal Connection can be requested from:

The Ocean Conservancy1725 DeSales, Street NW#600Washington, DC 20036 Phone: 202-429-5609Fax: 202-872-0619


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Unit ThreeBiological Measures

Bacteria: Indicators of Potential PathogensSubmerged Aquatic Vegetation • Other Living Organisms

Photos (l to r): U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, R. Ohrel, Weeks Bay Watershed Project, R. Ohrel

Chapter17Bacteria: Indicators of Potential Pathogens

Direct testing for pathogens is very expensive and impractical, because pathogens

are rarely found in waterbodies. Instead, monitoring for pathogens uses “indicator”

species—so called because their presence indicates that fecal contamination may

have occurred. The four indicators most commonly used today by both volunteer

and professional monitors—total coliforms, fecal coliforms, E. coli, and

enterococci—are bacteria that are normally prevalent in the intestines and feces of

warm-blooded animals.

Photos (l to r): S. Schultz, E. Ely, University of Maine Cooperative Extension, University of Maine Cooperative Extension

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Unit Three: Biological Measures Chapter 17: Bacteria: Indicators of Potential Pathogens

“Is the water safe?” This is one of the major water quality questions every user of

an estuary wants to know when preparing for a day of swimming, boating, fishing,

shellfishing, or other pursuit. Whether the water is safe depends in part on the

presence or absence of pathogens—viruses, bacteria, and protozoans that can cause

disease. Increasingly, monitoring and regulatory emphasis are focused on the

potential for pathogens that may lead to waterborne diseases. Pathogens can enter a

waterbody via fecal contamination as a result of inadequately treated sewage, faulty

or leaky septic systems, runoff from urban areas, boat and marina waste, combined

sewer overflows, and waste from pets, farm animals, and wildlife. Human illness can

result from drinking or swimming in water that contains pathogens or from eating

shellfish harvested from such waters.

Direct testing for pathogens is very expensive and impractical, because pathogens

are rarely found in waterbodies. Instead, monitoring for pathogens uses “indicator”

species—so called because their presence indicates that fecal contamination may

have occurred. The four indicators most commonly used today by both volunteer and

professional monitors—total coliforms, fecal coliforms, E. coli, and enterococci—are

bacteria that are normally prevalent in the intestines and feces of warm-blooded

animals, including wildlife, farm animals, pets, and humans. The indicator bacteria

themselves are not usually pathogenic.

This chapter discusses factors that should be considered when establishing a

volunteer monitoring program for bacteria and reviews the major bacterial indicators

and the analytical methods most commonly used to test for them. Case studies

provide further examples and illustrations.

Overview

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Chapter 17: Bacteria: Indicators of Potential Pathogens Unit Three: Biological Measures

Pathogenic microorganisms(including bacteria, viruses, andprotozoans) are associated withfecal waste and can cause a varietyof diseases including typhoid fever,cholera, giardiasis (a parasiticinfection of the small intestine), andhepatitis, either through theconsumption of contaminatedshellfish or ingestion of taintedwater. Since these pathogens tend tobe found in very low concentrationsin the water, and there are manydifferent pathogens, it is difficult tomonitor them directly. Also,pathogens are shed into the wastestream inconsistently. For thesereasons, direct testing for pathogensis expensive and nearly impossible.

Instead, monitoring forpathogens uses “indicator” specieswhose presence in the watersuggests that fecal contaminationmay have occurred. The fourindicators most commonly usedtoday by volunteer and

professional monitors—total coliforms, fecalcoliforms, E. coli, and enterococci—arebacteria that are normally prevalent in theintestines and feces of warm-blooded animals,including:

• wildlife (e.g., deer, geese, raccoons);

• farm animals (e.g., swine, cattle, poultry);

• pets; and

• humans.

States routinely monitor shellfish harvestingareas for fecal coliform bacteria and close themto harvesting when the bacterial count exceedsan established criterion. States may also closebathing beaches if officials find sufficientlyhigh levels of fecal coliform bacteria. In addi-tion to bacteria, shellfish are also monitored forhazards such as viruses, parasites, natural tox-ins, and chemical contaminants (e.g., pesticides,mercury, PCBs). (See the U.S. Food and Drug

Administration’s Web site, provided at the endof this chapter, for more information.)

States monitor heavily used beach and recre-ation areas as well as the water overlying shell-fish beds for total and fecal coliforms, but thereare limits to the coverage they can provide.Volunteers can supply valuable data to assistestablished programs by monitoring areaswhere officials are not sampling, thereby aug-menting a state’s network of stations. State offi -cials can use this information to screen for areasof possible contamination. Such expanded cov-erage helps states make beach- and shellfish-closing decisions on a more localized basis.

Fecal coliform contamination can frequentlyoccur in conjunction with other inorganic pollu-tants. Runoff from a livestock area washing intoan estuary, for instance, may contain not onlyfecal coliforms, but high levels of nutrients aswell (see Chapter 10 for more information onnutrients). By including bacterial counts as oneof a suite of monitoring parameters, a programmanager can design a program that provides agood characterization of the chosen sites. Thissort of data collection may reveal problem areasthat were not previously recognized.

Volunteers can also perform fecal coliformmonitoring with an eye toward regulatory com-pliance. For example, the program may estab-lish monitoring sites near known or suspectedbacterial discharges. Monitoring sites can be setup adjacent to the discharge, but the effluentitself can also be sampled. Program managersshould be aware of the legal issues affectingthis type of sampling, such as trespass laws andthe violation of privacy and property rights.

Why do volunteer groups decide to do bacte-ria testing themselves? The first and foremostreason is that volunteers are concerned abouttheir watershed and want the opportunity formore community involvement and ownershipof the data. Cost is also a factor; unless youfind a lab that will donate the analysis, chargesrun $10-$35 per sample, whereas some volun-teer monitoring groups spend approximately $2for each sample they process themselves.

Why Monitor Bacteria?

Waterfowl are among the many non-human sources of bacteria in estuaries(photo by S. Schultz).

Shellfish beds are closed whenbacteria concentrations exceedestablished criteria (photo by R. Ohrel).

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The Role of Bacteria in the EstuarineEcosystem

Bacteria are microscopic single-celledorganisms that function as decomposers in anestuary, breaking down plant and animalremains. This activity releases nutrientspreviously locked up in the organic matterinto the estuarine food web.

Bacteria live in water, on the surface ofwater, in the bottom (benthic) sediments, ondetritus (dead organic material), and in and onthe bodies of plants and animals. They exhibitround, spiral, rod-like, or filamentous shapes(Figure 17-1). Some bacterial organisms aremobile and many congregate into colonies. Inthe estuary, bacteria are often found denselypacked on suspended particulate matter.

Bacteria serve as food for other organisms;they are also involved in many chemicalreactions within the water. For example,certain bacteria convert ammonia to nitrite.Another species converts nitrite to nitrate.These nutrients are used by plants. Somebacteria exist only under aerobic(oxygenated) conditions; others live inanaerobic (no oxygen) environments. Some

versatile bacteria canfunction under eithercondition.

Bacterial Contamination While bacteria normally

inhabit estuaries as anintegral part of the food web,human activities mayintroduce pathogenic(disease-causing) bacteria tothe system. Of greatestconcern to public health isthe introduction of fecalwaste from humans or warm-blooded animals. Sources offecal bacterial contaminationinclude faulty wastewatertreatment plants, livestock congregation areas,sanitary landfills, inefficient septic systems,fecal waste from pets, stormwater runoff, boatand marina waste, sewage sludge, anduntreated sewage discharge. Wildlife also addbacteria to waterways, and can be thedominant source of fecal coliform bacteria insome areas (Figure 17-2). ■

Bacilli (rods)

Cocci (spheres)

Spirilla (corkscrews)

Septic Systems

Waterfowl

DomesticAnimals

Sanitary Waste

SewageTreatment Plants

Wildlife

Wrack Line

Pets Sediments

StormwaterRunoff

Figure 17-1.Threeshapes assumed bybacteria.

Figure 17-2.Potential sources of bacteria in an estuary (redrawn from Ely, 1997).

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In this section, the four main indicatorbacteria are discussed. But before we canunderstand these indicators, we need tounderstand the criteria that were used to selectthem as indicators. To be an ideal assessor offecal contamination, an indicator organismshould meet as many of the following criteriaas possible:

• The organism should be presentwhenever enteric (intestinal) pathogensare present.

• The organism should be useful for alltypes of water.

• The organism should have a longersurvival time than the hardiest entericpathogen.

• The organism should not grow in water.

• The organism should be found in warm-blooded animals’intestines.

• The testing method should be easy toperform.

• The density of the indicator organismshould have some direct relationship tothe degree of fecal pollution (Gerba,2000).

Total Coliforms and Fecal ColiformsColiform bacteria live in the lower

intestines of warm-blooded animals and mayconstitute as much as 50 percent of fecalwaste. Although coliform bacteria are notusually pathogenic themselves, their presenceindicates sewage contamination, perhapsaccompanied by disease-causing pathogens.

Public health agencies have used totalcoliforms and fecal coliforms as indicatorssince the 1920s. Total coliforms are a groupof closely related bacterial genera that allshare a useful diagnostic feature: the ability to

The Bacterial Indicators

BACTERIA SOURCE TRACKINGPart of interpreting fecal coliform data involves trying to understand the sources of bacteria in the estuary. If your monitoring indicates high counts of bacteria, the next step is to examinethe possible sources. To begin “bacteria source tracking,” volunteers should note the numberof wildfowl in the area and observe the scat (excrement) of animals along the beach or shore.To establish if wild animals are large contributors of bacteria, compare bacteria counts in anarea with few signs of wildlife with an area heavily populated with birds and other animals.

Also investigate whether parts of the watershed have residential areas where dog droppingscan be readily found. It is recommended that monitoring programs work with local agenciesto research possible sources. It is important to look at all the possible sources of bacteria (seeFigure 17-2 for examples), rather than immediately assume that faulty sewage treatment orfailing septic systems are the only culprits.

In addition to careful observation of possible sources and comparing bacteria counts indifferent apparent situations, there are other more complex methods used by laboratories totrack bacteria sources. One method uses the fact that some bacteria in humans anddomesticated animals have developed resistance to antibiotics. Colonies of bacteria areexposed to various antibiotics to help determine if the source of the bacteria is human,domesticated animals, or wildlife. Other methods, carried out in a few universities andlaboratories, involve the analysis of bacterial DNA.

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metabolize (ferment) the sugar lactose,producing both acid and gas as byproducts.There are many selective growth mediaavailable that take advantage of these metaboliccharacteristics in traditional testing protocols.

Total coliforms are not very useful for testingrecreational or shellfishing waters. Somespecies in this group are naturally found inplant material or soil, so their presence doesn’tnecessarily indicate fecal contamination. Totalcoliforms are useful, however, for testingtreated drinking water where contamination bysoil or plant material would be a concern.

A more fecal-specific indicator is the fecalcoliform group, which is a subgroup of the totalcoliform bacteria. Fecal coliformsare widelyused to test recreational waters and are approvedas an indicator by the U.S. Food and DrugAdministration’s National Shellfish SanitationProgram (NSSP) for classifying shellfishingwaters. However, even this group includes somespecies that can have a nonfecal origin (e.g.,Klebsiella pneumoniae, which grows well inpaper pulp and is sometimes found in highconcentration near paper mills). Studies havefound that all members of the coliform groupcan regrow in natural surface water dependingon the water temperature and the amount oforganic matter in it (Gleeson and Gray, 1997).Some warm tropical waters have sufficientorganic matter for the bacteria to increase innumbers. The effluents from pulp mills, papermills, and wastewater treatment plants may, insome cases, also provide conditions under whichcoliform bacteria can grow.

Even though fecal coliform bacteria havesome deficiencies when it comes to being a“perfect” indicator, they are generallyconsidered the best available indicators ofcontamination at the present time. Many citizenprograms and state agencies use fecal coliformtesting to assess potential bacterialcontamination in an estuary.

One major question often asked about fecalcoliforms and estuaries is: “How long do fecalcoliform bacteria persist in an estuary?” Theanswer may vary, depending on where thebacteria are located in the estuary. For example,bacteria may survive for weeks in the sediment

or in fecal pellets from wildfowl thathave sunk to the bottom. During astorm or other event that disturbs thesediment, fecal coliform bacteria canbecome reintroduced to the watercolumn. Fecal matter also collects inthe line of seaweed and organicmaterial (called wrack) that can beseen when the high tide goes out.Birds and other animals forage forfood and defecate in this wrack line.When the wrack line enters the waterduring high tide or a storm, the fecalmaterial and associated bacteria alsoenter the water.

Escherichia Coli and EnterococciOther commonly used indicator bacteria are

Escherichia coli, a single species within thefecal coliforms group, and enterococci,another group of bacteria found primarily inthe intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals.Enterococci are unrelated to the coliforms;instead, they are a subgroup of the fecalstreptococci group.

The method approved by the U.S.Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) forenterococci testing requires the use of anexpensive growth medium that contains atoxic ingredient. Volunteer programsinterested in monitoring for enterococcibacteria could partner with a university or labto conduct these tests.

Other Bacteria as IndicatorsIn addition to the four main indicators

discussed above, there are other bacteria thatcan also serve useful indicators ofcontamination. These include Aeromonashydrophila (a noncoliform), which can betested using the membrane filtration methoddescribed later in this chapter. One medium,ECA Check (made by MicrologyLaboratories), identifies and quantifiesAeromonasas well as E. coli and totalcoliforms. Consult with suppliers foravailability of medium (see Appendix C).

After incubation, any fecal coliformbacteria in the water sample will havegrown into a colony (when usingmFC medium or broth). These arecalled colony forming units (cfu)(photo by University of MaineCooperative Extension).

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Chapter 6 summarized several factors thatshould be considered when determiningmonitoring sites, where to monitor, and whento monitor. In addition to the considerations inChapter 6, a few additional ones specific tomonitoring bacteria are presented here.

Due to the costs and training associatedwith analyzing water samples for bacterialcontamination, programs just starting up orthose without adequate lab facilities shouldstrongly consider allowing a professional,university, or other lab facility to run thebacterial analyses. Often these labs will runsamples free of charge or at a reduced rate forvolunteer monitoring programs.

Where to SampleThe selection of bacterial monitoring sites

depends on the ultimate purpose of the data.If the data are to supplement state efforts, forexample, the program should choose sitesbased on gaps in the state’s array ofmonitoring stations. Areas suspected ofcontamination that are not routinelymonitored by state officials should receive thehighest priority.

If data will serve as regulatory compliancedocumentation, sites should cluster neardischargers believed to be in noncompliance.State health or water quality agencies canprovide information on where additional data

Total coliforms, fecal coliforms, E. coli, andenterococci are easy to grow in a lab, and allwill be present in large numbers if recentfecal contamination has occurred. Unfortu-nately, one problem with the indicators is thequestion of source. All the indicators cancome from animals and some can also comefrom plants or soil. Another problem is thatnone of the indicators accurately reflect thepotential for human health effects, thoughsome do a better job than others. Because ofthese and other complications, microbiologistsare still looking for better indicators. In themeantime, volunteer monitors and publichealth agencies alike must do their best withthe presently available indicators.

In 1986, EPA issued a revision to itsbacteriological ambient water quality criteriarecommendations to include E. coli andenterococci, as they provide bettercorrelations with swimming-associated

gastrointestinal illness than fecal coliforms.As an indicator, E. coli has a major advantageover the fecal coliforms: it is more fecal-specific (E. coli occurs only in the feces ofwarm-blooded mammals).

Why Fecal Coliforms Are the Indicator ofChoice

Even though EPA recommends enterococcior E. coli for testing recreational waters, manystates still use fecal coliforms. This is partlyfor the sake of continuity, so that new datacan be directly compared with historical data.Another reason fecal coliforms are theindicator of choice for many states andvolunteer monitoring programs is due toeconomics: the EPA-approved method fortesting enterococci can be more expensivethan the fecal coliform test. ■

How Effective Are the Indicators?

Bacterial Sampling and Equipment Considerations

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are needed. Government managers are morelikely to use the data if volunteers monitormore than one site near discharge sources.

To better understand bacterialcontamination in a particular estuary, it isnecessary to establish the relationshipbetween flow into the estuary and the extentof bacterial contamination. Choose samplesites above and below the area of suspectedcontamination, at the effluent’s entry into theestuary, and even the discharge itself to obtaina scientifically valid set of data (Figure 17-3).Bacterial data collected by volunteers canhelp assess the relationship between bacterialdensity and estuarine conditions, and helpidentify bacterial sources.

As previously mentioned, bacteria maysurvive for weeks in the sediment, or in fecalpellets which have sunk to the bottom.Bacteria in sediment can be tested by stirringup the sediment before collecting a watersample. To facilitate data analysis, volunteersshould be careful to identify samples thatcontain sediment.

When to SampleVolunteers should monitor bacteria on a

weekly, biweekly, or monthly basis. Inaddition, it may be extremely helpful tomonitor during or immediately after stormevents. It is important to create a monitoringschedule that is sustainable. Set reasonablegoals for the frequency of monitoring givenyour program’s number of volunteers andfinancial resources. In areas where volunteerssample primarily to assess the health risks inseasonal areas, such as bathing beaches,monitoring can cease or be conducted muchless frequently during cold-weather months.Sampling to determine possible contaminationof shellfish beds, however, should continue ona regular basis throughout the harvestingseason. ■

Reminder!To ensure consistently high quality data,appropriate quality control measures arenecessary. As discussed in Chapter 5, it isvery important for volunteers to carefullyfollow established protocols so that theresulting data are of the highest quality. With bacteria testing, two qualityassurance/quality control procedures areespecially critical. First, the bacteriamonitoring program should require periodicsplit samples, in which one sample isdivided equally into two or more samplecontainers and then analyzed by differentanalysts or labs. Careful handling of thewater sample is also critical. Someprograms have chain-of-custody forms toidentify the responsible person at every stepof the process. While most volunteerprograms don’t require these forms, thechain-of-custody can become important ifthe data will be used in cases where legalor corrective actions need to be taken.

Figure 17-3. Sites to monitor for bacterial contamination.

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Some citizen monitoringprograms use volunteers toconduct the lab analysis of fecalcoliform bacteria, and othersuse volunteers to collect thewater samples, leaving theresponsibility of sampleanalysis to a professional lab. Ineither case, the procedure forcollecting the water samplesrequires strict adherence toquality assurance and qualitycontrol guidelines. Analysis ofthe sample should be donewithin six hours of the timewhen the sample was collected.

Before proceeding to themonitoring site and collectingsamples, volunteers should

review the topics addressed in Chapter 7. It iscritical to confirm the monitoring site, date,and time; have the necessary monitoringequipment and personal gear; and understandall safety considerations. Once at themonitoring site, volunteers should recordgeneral site observations, as discussed inChapter 7. In particular, they should keep alertfor signs of bacteria sources (e.g., wildfowl orother wildlife, pets, nearby residences, foulsmells, etc.).


equipment and apparel listed in Chapter 7, thevolunteer should bring an ice cooler (with icepacks to keep samples cool) and sterilizedwide-mouth sample bottles (over 150 ml) orWhirl-pak bags.

Sampling Hint:If using a boat to reach the samplinglocation, make sure that it is securelyanchored. It is critical not to bring up theanchor until the sampling is completed,since mud (with associated bacteria) maybecome stirred into the water.

STEP 2: Collect the sample.Strict adherence to protocol guidelines is

critical in sampling for bacteria. Contami-nation from any outside source will skew theresults and invalidate the data.

Volunteers must take several precautions toensure good samples: stay clear of algalblooms, surface debris, oil slicks, andcongregations of waterfowl; avoid agitatingthe bottom sediments; and do not allow theboat propeller to stir up the water. Weargloves when collecting water samples.

Plastic Bottles or Whirl-pak Bags?For collecting water samples, both plasticbottles and Whirl-pak bags meet the basiccriteria of being both sterile and nontoxic.The pre-sterilized, disposable Whirl-pak bagsare convenient, but plastic bottles can bewashed and reused practically indefinitely,making them cheaper in the long run. Inaddition, the bottles are easier to work withbecause they stand up on a benchtop.However, they need to be sterilized in anautoclave, and this procedure may requirethe assistance of a certified lab. Volunteersshould ensure that the bottles they purchaseare autoclavable—some plastics are not.

(Excerpted and adapted from Miceli, 1998.)

Check to see if a current or tide is runningby examining the movement of water orsurface debris. If it is running, sample on theupstream side of the boat or pier.

In the Field: Collecting Water Samples for Bacterial Analysis

A volunteer with the Friends of theEstuary/Morro Bay NEPVolunteerMonitoring Program collects a sample ina plastic bottle for bacteria testing (photo by E. Ely).

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Sampling Hint: Protect Yourself!Volunteers should take particular care incollecting samples, especially nearwastewater discharge pipes, as the effluentmay contain highly pathogenic organisms.Avoid splashing water, wash handsthoroughly after water contact, and minimizethe breathing of water vapor. Mostimportantly, all volunteers should weargloves and protective eyeglasses or goggles.

If using a bottle

• Using a waterproof pen, label the bottlewith site name, date, time, data collector,and analysis to be performed.

• Making sure to wear gloves, plunge thebottle into the water upside-down.

• Open the sample bottle below the watersurface, keeping hands off the bottlemouth and the inside of the cap. Hold thelid; do not set it down as it may becomecontaminated.

• Reach down into the water as far aspossible (at least 12-18 inches), stillholding the bottle with its mouth down.Make sure you keep the bottle above thebottom so as not to disturb the sediment.In a single motion, rotate the bottle mouthso that is it facing up, and sweep thebottle up and out of the water. Make surethat the sweeping motion continues untilthe bottle is fully out of the water.

• Pour out enough water to leave about 1inch of air space in the bottle so that thelab technician can shake the sample priorto analysis.

• Replace the lid, again making sure not totouch the inside of the cap or bottle rim.

• Place the bottle in the cooler. Transportsamples back to the lab in a coolerregulated to between 1°- 4°C. Do notallow water that may have accumulatedin the cooler from melting ice to

submerge the bottles. Toprevent this problem, use icecubes packed in plastic bags,water frozen in plastic jars,or sealed ice packs.

If using a Whirl-pak bag

• Using a waterproof pen, writethe following on the outsideof the Whirl-pak bag: sitename, date, time, datacollector, and analysis to beperformed.

• Tear off the perforated top ofthe bag.

• Making sure to wear gloves,pinch the white tabs on the topof the Whirl-pak between yourfingers, and place the bag intothe water.

• Open the bag below the watersurface, keeping hands awayfrom the inside of the bag.

• Fill the bag about two-thirds full, andremove from the water.

• Leave an inch or so of air space in thebag. Hold the plastic-coated wire tabs atthe top of the bag with both hands, and“whirl” the bag quickly around andaround in circles. This will cause the topof the bag to fold over on itself severaltimes.

• Seal the bag by pinching the plastic-coated wire tabs together and twistingthem. The bag should not leak.

• Place the bag in the cooler. Transportsamples back to the lab in a coolerregulated to between 1°- 4°C. Do notallow water that may have accumulatedin the cooler from melting ice tosubmerge the bags. To prevent thisproblem, use ice cubes packed in plasticbags, water frozen in plastic jars, orsealed ice packs.

A measured amount of a water sampleis being removed from a Whirl-pakbag prior to testing for the presence ofbacteria. The sample has been keptcold since it was collected 3 hoursbefore. Note that the volunteer iswearing gloves (photo by K.Register).

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STEP 3: Check data sheets, and send offthe sample for analysis.

Volunteers should make sure the samplesremain at the optimal temperature, addingadditional ice if necessary. Recheck the datasheets for accuracy and account for allsamples. Transport the samples to the

designated lab. Processing of the samplesshould start within six hours of samplecollection. Ensure that the data survey formsare complete and legible. Send the forms tothe appropriate person or agency. As with alldata sheets, the volunteer should make a copyin case the original becomes lost. ■

In the Lab: Analytical Methods

When testing for thepresence of bacteria,laboratories generally useone of two analysis pro-cedures: membrane fil-tration (MF) or mostprobable number(MPN). Volunteer moni-toring groups generallyuse the MF procedure, butmay also use presence-absence testsor one ofthe simplified testmethods described below.Any procedure can beused for any of the indi-cator bacteria, simply by

varying such factors as growth media andincubation temperature. Read the summariesof each analysis procedure before decidingwhich is appropriate for your bacterialmonitoring program.

Membrane Filtration (MF): The ClassicMethod for Bacteria Testing

Membrane filtration for fecal coliforms is themethod most widely used by volunteer groups,who select this method because it is EPA-approved, it conforms to what many state labsuse, and it is a long-established, well-recog-nized method. For programs that monitor shell-fishing waters, MF for fecal coliforms repre-sents a practical way to approximate the meth-ods used by their state shellfishing lab. Stateshellfish labs, in accordance with NSSPman-date, use the MPN method for fecal coliforms;volunteer groups tend to use the same indicator(fecal coliforms) but not the MPN method.

Since bacteria are too tiny to count individu-ally, MF relies on an incubation step, followedby a count of the resultant bacteria colonies. Aknown volume of sample water is pulledthrough a filter with suction from a vacuumpump. Bacteria are collected on the top of the

Membrane filtration equipment. Clockwise fromleft: membrane filtration apparatus; handvacuum pump (syringe and tubing); petri platewith absorbent pad; membrane filter (photo byM. Redpath).

What Levels Are Significant?Interpreting bacterial data can be tricky. There is a great deal of variability in the testprocedure as well as in the environment, so a firm conclusion cannot be drawn based on justone sample.

Waterbodies almost always contain some level of fecal coliform bacteria; therefore, it isstrongly recommended that volunteer groups do routine monitoring in dry weather so that theycan know the baseline conditions for their specific sampling sites. Take samples duringdifferent weather conditions and, if possible, collect data during rain events. Consult yourappropriate state agency to learn your state’s standards for bacteria in surface waters.

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filter, which is then placed in a petri dish on topof either solid mFC medium or an absorbent padsoaked with mFC broth.

The petri dishes are inverted and incubated for24 hours (plus or minus 2 hours) at 44.5°C (Hach,1997). The incubation temperature is the crux ofthe membrane filtration with mFC method, sincethe ability to grow and ferment lactose at 44.5°Cis the key distinguishing feature of the fecal col-iforms group. To obtain accurate counts, the tem-perature must be held absolutely steady (within0.2°C): a bit too warm, and the fecal coliformscan’t grow; a bit too cool, and nonfecal bacteriastart growing. A good-quality waterbath incuba-tor, while not a cheap piece of equipment, is theleast expensive incubator that can provide suffi -cient results. Air incubators capable of maintain-ing the required temperature are even moreexpensive. Some volunteer programs have triedbuilding their own waterbath incubators, withmixed success. Another option is to purchase areconditioned waterbath incubator. Check theYellow Pages or ask local laboratories to rec-ommend companies that specialize in used andreconditioned equipment.

After incubation, it is necessary to count thenumber of blue-colored fecal coliform colonies.A 10- to 15-power microscope or illuminatedmagnifier is needed to count the colonies. Eachcolony has grown from a single bacterial cell, soby counting the colonies you can obtain a countof the bacteria present in the water sample.Results are reported as colony forming units(cfu)/100 ml, using the following formula:

cfu/100 ml = (coliform colonies counted x 100)/(ml sample filtered)

In addition to using mFC medium to investigatethe possible presence of fecal coliforms, themembrane filtration method can be used withother media to analyze other indicator bacteria.The medium used depends on which indicatoryou are looking for. Some media containingredients that give the target organisms adistinctive appearance, such as a color. Othermedia require incubation at very specifictemperatures. The amount of time of incubationalso varies according to the medium used.

Some volunteer monitoring groups usemembrane filtration with mTEC agar, a methodthat provides counts for both fecal coliformsand E. coli. However, this procedure is extra-challenging. In addition to all the stepsdescribed above for fecal coliforms, thisprocedure requires the plates to be incubated attwo temperatures (first 35°C and then 44.5°C),and then a special reagent is used to distinguishthe E. coli colonies from the other fecalcoliforms.

Equipment Requirements for MembraneFiltration

Unquestionably, equipment requirementspresent the biggest hurdle to volunteer groupswho want to use an EPA-approved method. Thetwo approved methods volunteers use—membrane filtration with mFC or with mTEC—both require an incubator, an autoclave (forsterilizing equipment), and a membrane filtrationapparatus. On the other hand, once the initialinvestment is made, routine testing by thesemethods is inexpensive. Many volunteerprograms arrange to use high school or universitylaboratories to sterilize equipment, prepare media,incubate plates, and dispose of wastes. Others setup the equipment at a central program lab.

Most Probable Number (MPN) The traditional “most probable number”

(MPN) technique (using test tubes) may not bepractical for volunteer groups because it islabor-intensive, takes up significant incubatorspace, and requires up to four days for a finalresult. However, it is important for volunteerestuary monitoring groups to be aware of thismethod because MPN for fecal coliforms is theonly method that is NSSP-approved forclassifying shellfish-growing waters.

Unlike membrane filtration, which gives youa plate of colonies to count, MPN does not yielda direct count of bacteria. Instead, the watersample is added to a series of tubes that containa liquid medium. After incubation, each tubeshows either a positive or negative reaction forthe target organism. In the case of fecalcoliforms, for example, a positive tube is one

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that shows growth and gas in lactose brothmedium. A second step is required to“confirm” the positive tubes. The number ofconfirmed positives corresponds to a statis-tical probability that the sample contained acertain number—the “most probablenumber”—of bacteria. The accuracy of theMPN method can be increased by inoculatingmore tubes and by using several dilutions ofthe water sample.

Comparing Membrane Filtration and MPNProfessional labs mainly use the MFmethod of analyses, although some use theMPN method. The MF technique is goodfor large numbers of samples and producesresults more rapidly. It should be noted thathighly turbid water or water with highcounts of noncoliform bacteria can limitthe utility of the MF procedure. If a watersample is very turbid, the filter in the MFprocedure can become clogged bysediment, algae, etc.

Presence-Absence TestsPresence-absence (P-A)

tests are the easiest methodfor answering the simplequestion of whether thetarget bacteria are present inthe water sample. Manyvolunteer monitoringprograms use P-Atests todetermine if more extensivetesting is needed. The P-Atest procedure requires that abacterial growth medium(selected based on thebacteria indicator you areinterested in monitoring) be

added to a water sample in a sterile,transparent test tube. The test tube is capped,and the contents are shaken until the mediumis dissolved or totally mixed. The sample isthen incubated for the prescribed length oftime at the required temperature. After

incubation, reading the results usuallyrequires comparing the color of the sample toa standard.

For example, if using the Colilert reagent(see below) in your P-Atest because you areinterested in monitoring total fecal coliformsand E. coli, you will check the color of thesample after incubation. A yellow colorconfirms the presence of total coliforms. Ifyellow is observed, the next step is to checkthe sample for fluorescence by placing anultraviolet (UV) light within five inches of thetest tube. If the sample’s fluorescence isgreater or equal to the fluorescence of thestandard, the presence of E. coli is confirmed.Several companies sell P-Atest kits; be sureto carefully read and follow all directionsbefore using them.

Special Note About Disposing ofBacteria Cultures: After counting the colonies that havegrown in petri dishes, you will need tosafely destroy the bacteria cultures. Hereare two methods:

AutoclavePlace all petri dishes in a container in anautoclave. Heat for 15 to 18 minutes at121°C and at a pressure of 15 pounds persquare inch. Throw away the petri dishes.

BleachDisinfection with bleach should be donein a well-ventilated area, since it canreact with organic matterto producetoxic and irritating fumes. Pour a 10-25percent bleach solution into each petri dish.Let the petri dishes stand overnight. Placeall petri dishes in a sealed plastic bag andthrow away.

Simplified Testing MethodsBecause traditional laboratory methods are

complex and can be expensive, severalvolunteer monitoring groups have startedusing simplified methods to test for totalcoliforms, E. coli, and enterococci. The

Volunteers using membrane filtrationequipment. The person on the right is usinga hand-operated vacuum pump to pull rinsewater through the membrane filter (photo by E. Ely).

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products and procedures outlined below arealternatives to the approved methods and, insome cases, can have simpler equipmentrequirements. New bacteria monitoringproducts are introduced often, so check withscientific supply houses for new options (seeAppendix C).

With these simplified methods, there are acouple of important caveats to keep in mind:

• These methods are not EPA-approvedfor recreational waters (althoughColilert is approved for drinking water)and thus are appropriate for screeningonly.

• None of the quick methods provides afecal coliforms count. They only assesstotal coliforms, E. coli, or enterococci.This may be problematic for volunteergroups whose data users utilize orrequire fecal coliform indicators.

The big advantage of these simplifiedmethods is that they make it possible forindividual volunteer monitors to perform thetests in their own homes. Incubation is at35°C or even at room temperature. Some ofthe popular simplified methods use theproducts listed below. See Appendix C foraddresses of suppliers.

Coliscan Easygel and Coliscan-MF MembraneFiltration

Coliscan (from Micrology Labs—seeAppendix C) is a product used by manyvolunteer monitoring programs to monitor fortotal coliform and E. coli. Coliscan comes intwo pre-packaged kits: Coliscan Easygel(which is used in a plate-count method) andColiscan-MF (which uses membranefiltration).

Both Coliscan products make use of apatented medium on which total coliformcolonies other than E. coli appear pink and E.coli colonies appear purplish blue. With theColiscan-MF Membrane Filtration Kit, watersamples are processed by the membranefiltration technique and the filter is placed onthe special Coliscan medium.

Coliscan Easygel is a very easypour-plate method. It is self-contained and relativelyinexpensive. You simply add thewater sample (unfiltered) directlyto a bottle of liquid Coliscanmedium, mix it, and pour it into aspecial petri plate which is coatedwith a substance that causes themedium to gel. Easygel isappropriate only for counts higherthan about 20 colony formingunits per 100 milliliters (20cfu/100 ml), since there is nofiltration step to concentrate thebacteria and the maximum samplewater volume is 5 ml.

For both Coliscan-MF andColiscan Easygel, themanufacturer recommends anincubation temperature of 35°C,but says that plates can also be incubated atroom temperature (though growth will beslower). However, room temperature can varywith season or even day to day, making itdifficult to compare results obtained atdifferent times. Using an incubator ensures aconsistent temperature.

After incubation, colonies that have formedin the petri dish are counted. Some users havefound colony counting somewhat tricky withthe Easygel plate because many colonies areembedded in the agar (since it is a pour plate).Nevertheless, Easygel can be an effectivescreening tool.

Colilert, Colilert-18, and Enterolert

Some health care agencies, pollutiondischargers, and volunteer monitoring groupshave adopted the use of Colilert andEnterolert test kits (all made by IdexxLaboratory—see Appendix C) as alternativemethods for detecting and enumerating totalcoliforms, E. coli, and enterococci. Colilertand Colilert-18 are the media used in MPNtests to determine if total coliforms and E.coli are present in the water sample. Coliler tis not intended formarine waters, but

After the water sample is pulledthrough the membrance filter (using avacuum), the glassware above thefilter is rinsed so all bacteria presentin the sample will accumulate on thefilter. In this laboratory, the mem-brane filtration process occurs under ahood for added quality control (photoby K. Register).

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Colilert-18 is. These kits use either multipletubes or multiple wells, with an MPNapproach, to detect the presence or absence oftotal coliforms and E. coli. As with the classicMPN method, the more tubes inoculated, themore sensitive the count. Five tubes areenough for a rough screen.

Results are read after 18 hours for Colilert-18 and after 24 hours for Colilert. Incubationis required at 35°C (plus or minus 0.5°C).With Colilert, the detection of total coliformsis based upon a color change and E. coli is

detected when the sample fluoresces underUV light. This modified MPN test providesmore information about the amount ofbacteria in the water than a presence-absencetest, but not as much information asan MF or MPN test.

Enterolert is used to detect enterococci in awater sample using MF, MPN, P-A, or themodified MPN procedure discussed above.Incubation is 24 hours at 41°C (plus or minus 0.5°C). ■

Case Study: Bacteria Monitoring in California In California, several chapters of Surfrider Foundation (a nonprofit environmentalorganization dedicated to the protection of the world’s waves, oceans, and beaches) useColilert to monitor the surf zone. Surfrider volunteers carry out the tests in their homes orlocal school laboratories, using relatively inexpensive incubators. Supplies for each samplecost about $5.

Surfrider volunteers publish their results in local newspapers and present them at publicmeetings. Their efforts are helping to raise awareness about bacteria and nonpoint source pollution.

(Excerpted from Ely, 1998.)

Which Method and Which Medium Should You Use?In deciding what method to use, a number

of questions must be considered. Some ofthem are:

• How do you hope to use your data?

• Will you be testing the freshwater orsaltwater portion of the estuary?

• Will you be testing water whereshellfish are harvested?

• What methods does your state labcurrently use?

• Do you have access to laboratoryfacilities?

• What kind of equipment can you afford?

• Which bacteria are used as indicators byyour state?

If your budget allows, select your bacterialindicator and analysis method based on theintended use of your data. If the primaryobjective of the volunteer monitoring programis to evaluate water for compliance with statewater quality standards, the program shoulduse the same or similar method used by statelabs. The program should keep apprised ofany changes in state requirements.

On the other hand, groups that are primarilyinterested in raising community awarenessand/or screening for high counts may find thata simpler, non-approved method is adequatefor their needs. ■

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Case Study: Bacteria Monitoring in MaineThe Clean Water Program of the University of Maine Cooperative Extension wasestablished in 1988. It provides organizational and technical support to 18 citizenwater quality monitoring groups (approximately 600 volunteers). The Clean WaterProgram works in collaboration with the Maine State Planning Office Partners inMonitoring Program, the Maine Department of Marine Resources, and the MaineDepartment of Environmental Protection to form the umbrella program known asthe Maine Shore Stewards Program. Water quality groups study the health ofestuarine water by monitoring for dissolved oxygen, temperature, pH, salinity, andfecal coliform bacteria.

The primary objective of the program is to assist in determining bacterialpollution sources and to work with local and state officials to remediate thosesources (Figure 17-4). The program focuses at the local community level. Labsfor fecal coliform bacteria analysis are set up in local high schools or communitygroup locations.

Through their monitoring efforts, citizen groups havediscovered many bacterial sources causing shellfishbed closures, including unregulated septic storage andfailing septic systems. Working with local officialsand state agencies, the groups helped remedy theproblems and reopen the beds. Due in large part tothese monitoring efforts, 100,000 acres of clam flatsin Maine have been reopened in the past five years.

Other objectives of the program are to monitor coastalswimming areas and provide baseline data. Recently,a coastal community with a failing septic system usedvolunteer data to determine when bacteria levels weresafe for swimming. In addition, volunteer data hasidentified recreational boats as major bacterial sourcesin many communities during the summer.

The Maine Shore Stewards Program has built on the strengths of communities by providing them with water qualityand marine resources education, and by assisting them with their work on environmental issues. Partly from theirprogram participation, many high school students have been inspired to go on to study environmental science inuniversities and to become involved in community conservation efforts. Watershed communities have begun workingtogether to resolve water quality problems, and hundreds of citizens have become active in environmental educationand conservation efforts.


Maine Shore StewardsUniversity of Maine Cooperative Extension235 Jefferson StreetP.O. Box 309Waldoboro, ME 04572Phone: 207-832-0343Fax: 207-832-0377http://www.ume.maine.edu/ssteward

Shore Stewards Volunteers55%

(5027 samples)Department of Marine

Resources Staff45%

(4118 samples)

Water Quality Samples 1999Fecal Coliform Bacteria

Boothbay Harbor Lab

Figure 17-4. Volunteers participating in Maine’s Shore StewardsProgram are instrumental in supplementing state agency-collectedfecal coliform data. Their efforts have helped identify the causes ofmany shellfish bed closures (reprinted from Maine Department ofMarine Resources).

Students participating in Maine’sShore Stewards Program run estuarysamples for fecal coliform bacteriausing the membrane filtration method(photo by University of MaineCooperative Extension).

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Bacteria testing is a very important—and demanding—part of many monitoring programs. Hereare some helpful answers to common questions that may arise (excerpted from Miceli, 1998).

What does it mean when I get a high bacteria count?

The first action to take is to return to the same location and get more samples. If some or allof these sample results are high, too, then you should follow your organization’sprocedures—for example, calling your state agency to notify them.

A little detective work plays a big role in determining where contamination is coming fromand whether it is of human origin. Always make observations—the presence of animals andbirds, abundant leaf matter, any strange debris, any unusual smells, etc. Also note weatherconditions since results can vary tremendously if it is raining.

Remember, too, that variability and unusual test results will occur and that a high level offecal coliforms is not abnormal, especially since wildlife frequent estuaries. A long-termmonitoring effort will provide baseline information about a sampling site and will enableyou to quickly recognize any unusual results.

What exactly am I looking at and counting anyway?

A single bacterium in the water sample that is caught on the filter, if able to grow on themedium, can reproduce at a fast rate. Some bacteria multiply every 20 minutes, so after 24hours, when you retrieve your plates, you are looking at a clump of about a millionbacteria—visible to the naked eye!

I am using the membrane filtration method. Why do I see . . .

(a) a big blob of growth on only one spot on the filter?This may occur when the sample aliquot being analyzed is small (1-10 ml) and is notdistributed evenly on the filter. To ensure even distribution, be sure to add enough buffer orrinse water (5-10 ml) to the funnel prior to adding the sample—and prior to applying thevacuum. The sample will disperse in the buffer (picture the way a small dollop of creamspreads out in a cup of coffee), and the colonies should be evenly distributed on the filter.

(b) all the growth on only one side of the filter?The funnel base may be clogged so that the vacuum is only pulling through one part of thebase. Remove the base and thoroughly clean it of any buildup. It is recommended thatfunnels and bases be cleaned periodically.

(c) colonies that look runny and oblong?First, you may be incubating the plates in the wrong position. Plates should be incubated in aninverted position—that is, medium side up—so that condensation will fall down on the cover,not on the growing colonies. Second, excessive moisture may remain on the filter if it is

Bacteria Testing Q & A

(continued)

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removed before all the sample is filtered. This may cause the bacterial growth to spread out.These “spreaders” should be counted as one colony.

There’s a lot of background growth. Can I still count all my target colored colonies?

There is a maximum number of total colonies allowable on a plate. For the small-sizemembrane filtration plates, 80 (or even 60, depending on the method) is the maximum. Thelarger plates used with Coliscan Easygel can accommodate up to 300 colonies.

All those organisms compete for the limited nutrients in the medium. The ones that grow arethose that were able to outcompete the others. This competition may mask what the actualnumbers are. If the total number of colonies exceeds the allowable number, the count isinvalid and the result should be reported as an estimate based on the quantity of sampleanalyzed and the plate size.

I have a hard time assessing if a colony is the “right” color.

Including positive and negative control organisms when you analyze your samples will giveyou a reference to compare to. It takes practice to learn which questionable colonies arepositive for your method. When starting out, it’s a good idea to pick a representative colonyyou are unsure about and verify what it is, perhaps with assistance from a professional lab.This is especially helpful if an entire plateful of a strange-looking colony appears.Identifying what it is may uncover an unknown problem in the area or point to a problemwith your quality control.

On mTEC medium (before you add the urease reagent) some yellow colonies are bigger,some are smaller, and some are pinpoint, but they should all be considered fecal coliformcolonies. Some may even start to turn a brown-yellow.

Plates of mFC media are usually easy to count; the one potential problem is crowding, becausethe colonies are big and flat.

Pour plates (such as the Coliscan Easygel plate) can be difficult to read since colonies growboth on top of and within the medium. The colonies may be smaller and more difficult toassess when there is a lot of growth. Total coliforms appear pink-red, E. coli appears purple,and non-coliforms, which are also able to grow, are usually green or white. Lots ofbackground growth may interfere with “reading” the plates.

How do I store a plate that I want to send to a laboratory?

If you want to send a plate to a lab for help with identification, place it in a ziplock baglabeled “biohazard” and store it in the refrigerator, media-side up. Transport the plate to alaboratory as soon as possible, but the plates can be stored for a week or longer in therefrigerator because the cold temperature slows bacterial growth.

(Bacteria Testing Q & A, continued)

(continued)

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I gave another laboratory a duplicate sample bottle and their results are very different! Why?

First, be clear about what you are duplicating. If you collect two separate samples from thesame site, you are replicating collection. Since organisms are not homogenous in theenvironment, it is very possible that two separate grabs from the same area may yielddifferent results.

Most often, what volunteer groups really want to replicate is the analysis. Never use twoseparate grab samples to test for comparability of analysis with another laboratory; rather,collect a single sample in a large container (you may need to buy a few larger sample bottlesfor this purpose), mix it well, then immediately pour half into another sterile containerwhich you will provide to the other laboratory for analysis.

Both laboratories should use the same test method, and preferably both should analyze thesample at approximately the same time. If the results are not within acceptable limits ofvariability, determine where the discrepancy lies. (NOTE: Defining acceptable limits ofvariability is a complex problem; consult with a professional lab for guidance.) Commonproblems include not mixing the sample well enough prior to analysis, not measuringaccurately, and incorrect incubation temperature.

What minimum quality control should I be doing?

Briefly, you should maintain records of positive and negative controls, incubatortemperatures, and split sample results. Maintaining proof that your results were generated ina consistent, reproducible manner that adheres to the requirements of the method will allowothers to accept your results. Quality control testing should not take too much extra time, butit will instill confidence that you are producing valid data.

Can I combine my results with others in my program who are using a different method?

No. When reporting results, it is necessary to specify the method used, the media used, andthe lower limit of detection (the smallest number of test bacteria that could be foundconsidering the method and the quantity of sample). Different methods have differentprecision and recovery ability. It is important to separate results that were generated bydifferent test methods and under different conditions. ■

(Bacteria Testing Q & A, continued)

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Ely, E. 1998. “Bacteria Testing Part 1: Methods Primer.” The Volunteer Monitor 10(2): 8-9.

Ely, E. 1998. “Bacteria Testing Part 2: What Methods Do Volunteer Groups Use?” The VolunteerMonitor 10(2): 10-13.

Green, L. 1998. “Let Us Go Down to the Sea: How Monitoring Changes from River to Estuary.”The Volunteer Monitor10(2): 1-3.

Miceli, G. 1998. “Bacteria Testing Q & A.” The Volunteer Monitor10(2): 13-15.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1997. Volunteer Stream Monitoring: AMethods Manual. EPA 841-B-97-003. Office of Water, Washington, DC. 211 pp.

Other references:


Behar, S. 1997. Testing the Waters: Chemical and Physical Vital Signs of a River. River WatchNetwork. Montpelier, VT.

Ely, E.. 1997. “Interpreting Fecal Coliform Data: Tracking Down the Right Sources.” TheVolunteer Monitor9(2): 18-20.

Gleeson, C., and N. Gray. 1997. The Coliform Index and Waterborne Disease. E and FN Spon,London.

Gerba, C. 2000. “Indicator Microorganisms.” In: Environmental Microbiology. R. Maier, I.Pepper, C. Gerba (eds). Academic Press, New York.

Hach. 1997.Hach Water Analysis Handbook.3rd ed. Hach Company. Loveland, CO.

Kerr, M., L. Green, M. Raposa, C. Deacutis, V. Lee, and A. Gold. 1992. Rhode Island VolunteerMonitoring Water Quality Protocol Manual. University of Rhode Island Coastal ResourcesCenter, Rhode Island Sea Grant, and URI Cooperative Extension. 38 pp.

Mitchell, M., and W. Stapp. 1999.Field Manual for Water Quality Monitoring. 12th ed.Kendall/Hunt. Available from GREEN, c/o Earth Force, Inc., 1908 Mount Vernon Ave.,Alexandria, VA 22301; phone: 703-299-9400; Web site: http://www.earthforce.org/green/.

River Watch Network. 1996. Escherichia coli (E. coli) Membrane Filter Procedure. River WatchNetwork. Montpelier, VT.

Stancioff, E. 1996. Clean Water: A Guide to Water Quality Monitoring for Volunteer Monitors ofCoastal Waters.Maine/New Hampshire Sea Grant Marine Advisory Program and Univ. ofMaine Cooperative Extension. Orono, ME.


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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1986. Bacteriological Ambient Water QualityCriteria for Marine and Fresh Recreational Waters. EPA 440/5-84-002. EPA Office of Water.PB-86-158-045.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1985. Test Methods for Escherichia coli andEnterococci in Water by the Membrane Filtration Procedure.EPA 600/4-85-076. EPA Officeof Water. PB-86-158-052.

Web sites:

U.S. Food and Drug Administration, National Shellfish Sanitation Program (NSSP):http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~mow/sea-ill.html and http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/seafood1.html.

Many manufacturers of bacteria-testing equipment have Web sites that are informative and up-to-date on the bacteria-growing media they offer. See Appendix C for Web addresses.

Other resources:

Educational Video on Processing Fecal Coliform Samples

To assist volunteer organizations, a short educational video is available that describes anddemonstrates the analysis of fecal coliform sampling. It includes information for thelayperson on everything from sterilization techniques to QA/QC (quality assessment/qualitycontrol) procedures. The video costs $14 and can be ordered through the New Hampshire SeaGrant Communications Office, Kingman Farm House, University of New Hampshire,Durham, NH 03824; phone: 603-749-1565; fax: 603-743-3997.

Chapter18Submerged Aquatic Vegetation

In the shallows of many healthy estuaries, where sunlight penetrates the water to

the estuary bottom, dense stands of aquatic plants sway in unison with the

incoming waves. The aquatic plants are known collectively as submerged aquatic

vegetation. Unfortunately, over the past several decades these plants have fared

poorly in many of our nation’s estuaries. Areas once covered by thick beds of

these plants may have little or no vegetation remaining. In areas that can support

them, the plants often serve as a barometer of estuarine ecosystem health.

By monitoring the status of these plant populations over time, we can better

determine the estuary’s vitality.

Photos (l to r): K. Register, R. Ohrel, The Ocean Conservancy, E. Ely.

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Unit Three: Biological Measures Chapter 18: Submerged Aquatic Vegetation

In the shallows of many healthy estuaries, where sunlight penetrates the water to

the estuary bottom, dense stands of aquatic plants sway in unison with the

incoming waves. The aquatic plants are known collectively as submerged ( or

submersed) aquatic vegetation. SAV—or sometimes called seagrassesin marine

environments—generally include rooted vascular plants that grow up to the water

surface but not above it (although a few species have flowers or tufts that may

stick a few centimeters above the surface). The definition of SAV usually excludes

algae, floating plants, and plants that grow above the water surface.

The plants are important components of estuarine systems, providing shelter,

habitat, and a food source for many organisms. They also benefit estuarine species

indirectly by helping to maintain the viability of the ecosystem. Their

photosynthesis adds dissolved oxygen to the water, and their leaves and roots help

stabilize the shoreline against erosion. The plants also absorb nutrients, which can

be major estuarine pollutants.

Unfortunately, over the past several decades these plants have fared poorly in

many of our nation’s estuaries. Areas once covered by thick beds of these plants

may have little or no vegetation remaining.

Not all healthy estuarine and near coastal areas have the physical and chemical

properties necessary to support SAV. For example, areas with very high tidal

ranges (e.g., more than two meters) or soft sediments may not provide a suitable

habitat for the plants. In areas that can support them, the plants often serve as a

barometer of estuarine ecosystem health. By monitoring the status of these plant

populations over time, we can better determine the estuary’s vitality.

This chapter describes the role of SAV in the estuarine ecosystem, describes

some common SAV species, and provides basic steps for monitoring SAV.

Overview

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Chapter 18: Submerged Aquatic Vegetation Unit Three: Biological Measures

SAV forms a critical link between thephysical habitat and the biologicalcommunity. The plants require specificphysical and chemical conditions to remainvigorous. In turn, they stabilize sediments andprovide habitat, nourishment, and oxygen toother species in the estuary.

A viable and self-sustaining SAV populationis the hallmark of a healthy estuary (inestuaries that naturally support SAV). Bymonitoring the occurrence of SAV beds andthe changes in their distribution, density, andspecies composition, trained volunteers canhelp determine the health and status of SAVin an estuary. Scientists can then compare thisinformation to historical data of SAV beds.

Volunteers and SAV MonitoringSAV is extremely sensitive to disturbance.Therefore, it is essential that volunteersreceive proper training and supervisionfrom qualified scientists or resourcemanagers. Volunteer leaders should checkwith the appropriate government agency todetermine which monitoring or samplingactivities may be suitable for volunteers.

The Role of SAV in the EstuarineEcosystem

As critical to the shallow waters of anestuary as trees are to a forest, SAV beds playseveral roles in maintaining an estuary’shealth. Although only a few truly aquaticspecies consume the living plants (e.g.,manatees, sea turtles, and some species offish), several types of waterfowl and smallmammals rely on them as a major portion oftheir diet. Even in death, the plants are amajor estuary component. SAV forms hugequantities of decomposed matter as leaves die;several aquatic species use this detritus as aprimary food source.

During the growing seasons of spring and

summer, SAV supplies oxygen to the waterthrough the process of photosynthesis, therebyhelping to support aquatic organisms’survival. The plants also take up largequantities of nutrients, which remain lockedin the plant biomass throughout the warmweather seasons. As the plants die and decayin autumn, they slowly release the nutrientsback to the ecosystem at a time whenphytoplankton blooms pose less of a problem(see Chapters 10 and 19).

Additionally, the plant communities provideshelter for various species of organisms.Juvenile and larval fish and crustaceans useSAV beds as protective nurseries and to hidefrom predators. Shedding crabs concealthemselves in the vegetation until their newshells have hardened. A variety of organisms[e.g., barnacles, bryozoans (a group ofcolonial invertebrates)] and eggs of manyspecies attach directly to the leaves.

The sheer bulk of the plants often buffersthe shoreline and minimizes erosion bydampening the energy of incoming waves.Plant roots bind the sediments on the estuarybottom and retard water currents. Byminimizing water movement, SAV allowssuspended sediments to settle and waterclarity is improved.

SAV Habitat RequirementsOnce established and under optimal

conditions, these plants can spread quicklyinto large, thick stands. SAV habitatrequirements are as follows (adapted fromBergstrom, 1999):

Adequate Light Penetration

SAV can grow only in those portions of theestuary shallow enough and clear enough toreceive sufficient sunlight for photosynthesis.The plants tend to grow in shallow water, butmay grow in deeper areas where the water isparticularly clear.

Why Monitor SAV?

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Water Inundation

SAV species primarily live in areas where theplants will remain submerged; however, somespecies can withstand exposure during low-water periods (e.g., low tide). A large tidalrange may limit SAV growth (i.e., prolongedexposure during low tide and inundation bydeep water during high tide, especially whenthe water is cloudy, can make for undesirablehabitat conditions).

Suitable Salinity, Temperature, and Sediments

The salinity, temperature, and sediments of aparticular estuarine location determine, to alarge extent, which species can survive. Whilesome species tolerate a fairly wide range ofsalinity, others are restricted to very specificlevels.

Low to Moderate Wave Action

Heavy waves impede SAV roots from gettingestablished. Some water circulation is desirable,however, to prevent SAV from becomingchoked with algae.

The Demise of SAV In a balanced and healthy estuar-

ine ecosystem, SAV species blanketthe shallows with the compositionof each bed attuned to controllingvariables such as light availability,sediment, salinity, temperature, anddepth. When an estuary is tippedout of balance, however, SAV bedsusually suffer. The degradation orloss of these beds can set up a chainreaction of ill effects that ripplesthrough the entire estuarine ecosystem.

This chain of events often starts with an over-load of nutrients (Figure 18-1). Excessive quan-tities of nitrogen and phosphorus cause an over-growth of phytoplankton (see Chapter 19).These algal bloomscloud the water and severe-ly diminish sunlight penetration. The nutrientsmay also trigger a thick growth of epiphytes—plants that grow on the surface of SAV leaves.The epiphytes block sunlight from reaching theleaf surfaces of their hosts.

Sunlight attenuated by suspendedsediment and phytoplankton in the water

Epiphytic growthon leaves

Nitrogen andphosphorus

Resuspendedbottom sedimentfrom wave action

Shorelineerosion

Phytoplanktonblooms

Figure 18-1. Impacts on SAV. Sediments, nutrients (and accompanying algal blooms), and epiphytic growth canultimately affect the amount of sunlight reaching the plants(adapted from Barth et al., 1989).

As SAV beds decline, the need toprotect them becomes ever morecritical (photo by R. Ohrel).

18-4



As the water clarity problem worsens, thearea of the estuary that is able to support SAVbecomes even smaller. For example, estuarywater once capable of supporting plants to adepth of ten feet may now only transmit enoughlight for plant survival to a depth of six feet.

When plant beds thin or die back, water thatmay already be low in dissolved oxygen due toalgal blooms (see Chapters 9 and 19) becomeseven more depleted as the amount of oxygengenerated by SAV photosynthesis declines.Nutrients once tied up in the plant leaves, roots,and bottom sediments may be released to thewater where phytoplankton snap them up,thereby increasing the possibility of moreblooms.

A bare substrate, where SAV once flour-ished, poses a whole set of new problems.Without plant roots to stabilize the sediment,waves easily kick up silt which remains sus-pended in the water until calmer conditionsreturn. Like algal blooms, suspended silt cutsdown on light transmission through the water.The silt may also settle onto the leaves of anyremaining plants, further blocking the light

needed for photosynthesis. As some species lose a foothold in the estu-

ary, non-indigenous (or invasive) and oppor-tunistic species may move in and displace them.Non-indigenous SAV species (e.g., Eurasianwatermilfoil, parrotfeather milfoil, and hydrilla)may overwhelm native SAV species andassume their habitat. While the growth of thesenew species often alleviates the problems asso-ciated with a bare substrate, other problemsmay arise (see Chapter 19).

While nutrients are one of the major causesof SAV disappearance or decline in many baysand estuaries (particularly on the Atlanticcoast), other factors may also play a role.Runoff from different land uses and dredgingactivities can cloud waters over acres of SAVbeds with sediment. Agricultural and lawn her-bicides may cause a loss of some species, whileindustrial pollutants and foraging animals mayselectively kill off local beds. Areas frequent-ly subject to improper shellfish harvesting,boat-generated waves, and boat propellerscarring may also lose their SAV beds. ■


What to SampleThere are numerous SAV species with

different ranges throughout the UnitedStates. The type of SAV monitored byvolunteers, then, will depend ongeographic location. A few common andwidely distributed SAV species aredescribed below:

Eelgrass (Zostera marina)

Eelgrass (Figure 18-2) is the dominantseagrass in the cooler temperate zones ofthe Atlantic and Pacific coasts. Beds ofthis luxuriant plant survive in a widerange of salinities throughout theseregions, but occur mainly in high salinitywaters (18-30 parts per thousand-ppt)

(Chesapeake Bay Program Web site). Flowingand elongate like an eel, the slender leafblades grow up to several feet in length.

Eelgrass spreads by sending out runnersthat creep along the bottom and repeatedlysend up shoots that grow into new plants. Thespecies produces tiny, rather inconspicuousflowers and seeds that appear on large andeasily distinguished branching stalks. Newplants take several years to reach maturation.Once a bed becomes established, however,this species of seagrass is highly productive.

Because of its predominance andwidespread coverage, eelgrass is an importantecological element of many estuaries andnearshore areas. It may cover acres of thebottom, providing food and/or cover for fish,invertebrates, and waterfowl.

Figure 18-2.Eelgrass (Zostera marina).

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Eelgrass is subject to infection by a blightpresumably caused by a slime moldlikeorganism called Labyrinthula zosterae.Thedisease causes dark lesions on the eelgrassleaves and can ultimately result in massmortality of the plant beds. A major epidemicoccurred in the 1930s, but by the 1960s mostbeds had recovered. Along with the diebackof eelgrass, animals dependent on this plant,such as the brant (a small goose) and bayscallops (an important economic resource),also declined precipitously.

In the past 15 years, scientists andvolunteers have noted the characteristiclesions of the disease on some eelgrass plantsonce again. The blight, also known as eelgrasswasting disease, is not fully responsible foreelgrass bed demise. While some areas neverfully recovered from the 1930s epidemic,other factors have contributed to the plant’sdecline. Nutrient-rich waters, herbicides, andabundant algal growth have also harmedeelgrass and other SAV species.

Volunteers in New England have workedwith a technique to assess the degree ofinfestation on individual eelgrass leaves(Figure 18-3). This information provides anestimate of disease progression.

Widgeon Grass (Ruppia maritima)

Widgeon or ditch grass (Figure 18-4)inhabits the entire Atlantic and Gulf Coasts,and part of the Pacific Coast of the UnitedStates. This plant is remarkably resilient andcan withstand a wide range of salinities.Specimens have occasionally been found infresh water, yet the species can also toleratefull ocean salinity. Its primary habitat,however, is in brackish bays and estuaries.

The leaves of widgeon grass are needlelike,short, and usually about two inches in length.They branch off of slender, elastic stems. Likeeelgrass, this grass produces tiny, ratherinconspicuous flowers and seeds found onstalks. The plants may also reproduceasexually by means of rhizomes which extendalong the estuary bottom and send out shoots.

Widgeon grass is an extremely important

SAV species for waterfowl. The Americanwidgeon, a brown duck for which the plantis named, relies heavily upon widgeongrass as a major component of its diet. Theplant is nutritious, making it a favoredfood item for many other waterfowlspecies as well.

Wild Celery (Vallisneria americana)

Wild celery, also known as tapegrass orfreshwater eelgrass (Figure 18-5), is foundalong the Atlantic Coast. It is widelydistributed in fresh water, tidal freshwaterrivers, and tidal tributaries to estuaries.

Wild celery has long, flattened,ribbonlike leaves that emerge from clustersat the base of the plant. The leaves, whichcan grow up to several feet in length, havea bluntly rounded tip and a light greenstripe that runs down their centers.

Wild celery can reproduce by seed,rhizome, and tuber. It is an important foodsource for waterfowl, particularly thecanvasback duck.

Turtle Grass (Thalassia testudinum)

Along the Florida and Gulf Coasts, turtlegrass (Figure 18-6) replaces eelgrass as thedominant seagrass species. Turtle grass

0%

1%

10%

20%

50%

100%

Figure 18-3.Eelgrass wasting disease index key. The disease causes black patchesto appear on eelgrass leaves. Volunteer monitors can use the index to estimate thedisease’s presence on the leaves(Burdick et al, 1993).

Figure 18-4.Widgeongrass (Ruppia maritima).

Figure 18-5.Wild celery(Vallisneria americana).

18-6



meadows are highly productive and, therefore,play an important role in estuarine and nearcoastal ecosystems.

Turtle grass plants have broad, straplikeblades, which are wider and shorter than thoseof eelgrass. This grass reproduces asexuallyby creeping rhizomes or sexually by water-borne flower pollen and forms densemeadows which often cover vast swaths ofthe shallow marine or estuarine substrate.

Manatee Grass (Syringodium filiforme) andShoal Grass (Halodule wrightii)

Both of these seagrass species are commonalong southern Florida and the Caribbeanislands.

Long and thin, the blades of manatee grass(Figure 18-7) are light green and up to threefeet in length. Like other seagrasses, this grasshas inconspicuous flowers. Manatee grassalso propagates by rhizome extension.Manatee grass often mixes with turtle grass inseagrass meadows.

Shoal grass (Figure 18-8) has elongatestalks that often branch into flat, wide leaveswith a maximum width of 1/8 inch. Thesestalks may grow to 15-16 inches in length.They have a naturally ragged, somewhatthree-pointed tip on the leaf. This plant isaptly named since it inhabits very shallowareas, generally in water less than 20 inchesdeep. While shoal grass beds can grow onboth the landward and ocean sides of turtlegrass beds, they are usually found on turtlegrass beds’landward sides.

When to SampleAs with all water quality variables,

repetitive measures over a period of yearsgive a more representative picture of SAVstatus than a single sampling approach.Unlike many of the other variables, however,volunteers usually need to measure SAVdensity and distribution and identify speciesonly one to three times during the peakgrowing season.

The best time of year to sample is when theSAV species of interest is at its peak biomass

(maximum growth). This varies by speciesand location.

Optimal sampling times are close to lowtide on a sunny day when the water is fairlyclear (Bergstrom, 1998). A notable exceptionmay apply to SAV beds growing in veryshallow water, which may be accessible onlyduring high tide. In either case, monitorsshould try to avoid times when boat traffic isheavy (e.g., weekends) and the water tends tobe cloudier.

Choosing a Sampling MethodThere are several means of monitoring SAV.

Choosing the most appropriate method willdepend on the number and location of sitesalready being monitored by volunteers orothers for water quality, the extent of SAVcoverage, the location of problem areas, theavailability of qualified scientists and resourcemanagers to supervise the activity, and theplanned uses for the collected data.

Helpful HintCollecting plant samples is not generallyrecommended. Only properly trained andauthorized personnel should take minimalsamples, if necessary, for positiveidentification.

Before collecting, transporting, or plantingany SAV species, check with the appropriategovernment agency about obtainingnecessary permits.

Observations at Established Water QualityMonitoring Sites

Volunteer monitoring programs may chooseto analyze SAV concurrently with severalother water quality variables. In this case, thesimplest option is to estimate the shootdensity of each SAV species in a pre-determined radius around the establishedmonitoring sites (Figure 18-9). No plantsshould be removed from the site.

An SAV index (Table 18-1) or other densityscale is a simple means of ranking the density

Figure 18-6.Turtle grass(Thalassia testudinum).

Figure 18-8. Shoal grass(Halodule wrightii).

Figure 18-7. Manateegrass (Syringodiumfiliforme).

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of plants at specific sites. Volunteers estimateSAV density and classify the bed as fallingwithin one of three or more density classes.

The data collected from this approach is notscientifically rigorous and therefore may beconsidered only for general educationpurposes. The method is, however, a quickand easy means of obtaining relativeinformation on the status of an estuary’s SAV beds.

Transect Sampling

In transect sampling, a straight line isestablished across an area containing SAV.Records are made of each plant that touchesthe line at predetermined increments (Figure18-10). If the vegetation is extremely dense,the data collector can place a rod into thevegetation at the designated point and recordthe different species that touch the rod. Themethod provides a rough estimate of thepercent of vegetative cover and the frequencyof each species.

In a modified version, discrete monitoringsites can be established along the transect (seecase study, page 18-8).

Groundtruthing

Groundtruthing is done to verify maps ofSAV beds that some government agencies oruniversities create from aerial surveys. Theexercise involves on-the-ground observationsto verify the presence of beds, identifyspecies, and locate smaller beds that mightnot be captured by aerial photography. Bygroundtruthing, volunteer groups helpscientists and resource managers get a morecomplete picture of year-to-year SAVdistribution. Knowing SAV bed locations andspecies composition helps ensure theirprotection from activities thatmight have a negative impacton them (see case study, page18-9).

Groundtruthing requires agreat deal of on-the-groundeffort, and resource agencypersonnel and otherprofessional staff usuallycannot cover the entire aerialsurvey area. Volunteers, then,can provide valuable assistancein verifying the SAV maps. ■

SAV bed

Transectline

Figure 18-10.Transectsampling through a bedof SAV.

SAV Index Value Category Description

0 None No vegetation present

1 Patchy Small colonies or clumps; sparse bottom coverage

2 Dense Extensive grass beds; lush meadows

Table 18-1. Sample SAV index values. The index may be modified or expanded to include more categories(e.g., SAV coverage of 0-10%, 10-40%, 40-70%, and 70-100%).

Figure 18-9. SAV shootdensity can be estimatedin a circle around a waterquality monitoring site(marked with an X).

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Case Study: Intertidal SAV Monitoring in OregonIn 1998, the Tillamook Bay National Estuary Project initiated a four-year study to investigatethe interactions of eelgrass with other estuarine species and its response to human disturbance.

Under the leadership of estuarine researchers,volunteers collect percent cover and density data onthree different weeklong occasions between May andSeptember. Intertidal eelgrass is examined, makingvolunteers’time in the field limited to the duration ofthe low tide. This limitation requires severalvolunteers to help collect data.

At three different intertidal sites, monitors establishfive 30-meter transects and record data at five-meterintervals along each transect (e.g., at one meter, sixmeters, and so on). Using a one-meter square quadratmade from 1/2-inch PVC pipe, volunteers measurepercent cover and eelgrass shoot density.

To measure percent cover, there are several ways to proceed: visual estimation, photodigitizing, grid overlay, and others. A “point intercept” method, which utilizes a clear piece ofPlexiglas that has 50 randomly placed dots on it (marked with a permanent ink marker), isused in this program. The Plexiglas is placed over the experimental plot, and volunteersobserve the item [e.g., sand, eelgrass (including shoots and blades), ulva (a green algae), etc.]covered by the majority of each dot. Then, a percent cover value is calculated by dividing thenumber of each component found by the total number of dots on the Plexiglas. For example:

Determining eelgrass shoot density is somewhat less complex. Volunteers simply count thenumber of shoots (not blades) of eelgrass in each quadrat. A researcher familiar with eelgrasscan teach volunteers how to distinguish between eelgrass shoots, blades, and rhizomes.


Tillamook Bay National Estuary Project P.O. Box 493 Garibaldi, OR 97118 Phone: 503-322-2222Fax: 503-322-2261http://www.co.tillamook.or.us/gov/estuary/tbnep/nephome.html

Component # Dots Formula Percent CoverEelgrass 31 31÷50 = 62%

Sand 6 6÷50 = 12%

Ulva 13 13÷50 = 26%

Volunteers measuring percent cover andeelgrass shoot density in Oregon (photo byTillamook Bay National Estuary Projectand Battelle Marine Sciences Lab).

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Case Study: Chesapeake Bay SAV HuntVolunteers throughout the Chesapeake Bay region participate in the SAV Hunt, an annualeffort coordinated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to locate, identify, and map SAV.

The SAV Hunt is used to groundtruth the results of an annual aerial survey. While the surveyprovides invaluable information about the location and extent of SAV beds, aerialphotographs have some limitations:

• they miss small beds;

• they don’t identify which species are growing;

• sometimes what looks like a bed of SAV in the photo turns out to be something elseentirely, such as algae growing on underwater rocks or large rocks placed in the waterusually as an erosion control measure; and

• photos are usually taken once a year (or even less frequently), and the SAV species in thebeds change over the growing season.

The SAV Hunters’on-the-ground observations fill in the missing information; their data arevital supplements to the aerial survey (see Appendix A for a sample data sheet).

Volunteers select the area they want to survey. They receive a map of that location, showingwhere SAV has been found in aerial surveys and previous SAV Hunts. Volunteers also receivea field guide with line drawings, color photographs, and descriptive text to help them identifythe species.

A new Maryland law bans clam dredging in SAV beds, and the information provided bycitizens helps identify those areas that are now off-limits to clam dredging. Natural resourceagencies use the information to help target SAV protection and restoration, and local planningagencies use it when considering approval for construction projects that may affect aquaticresources.


SAV Monitoring CoordinatorU.S. Fish and Wildlife ServiceChesapeake Bay Field Office177 Admiral Cochrane DriveAnnapolis, MD 21401Phone: 410-573-4500http://www.fws.gov/r5cbfo/

(Excerpted and adapted from Reshetiloff, 1998.)

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Monitoring SAV beds may pose more logis-tical problems than the measurement of otherwater quality variables. Whereas volunteersmeasure other variables at set stations, SAVgroundtruthing requires volunteers to go toareas where the SAV is growing—the plantbeds may not be in exactly the same locationfrom year to year.

Although land access to the beds may lie onprivate property, landowners are often willingto provide right-of-way to volunteer monitors.Water access may be limited by depths tooshallow to accommodate some vessels—necessitating use of a shallower draft boat(e.g., canoe, kayak, johnboat, or skiff withoutboard motor). The program managershould assist each volunteer in solving possi-ble logistical problems before the volunteerheads for the field.

General procedures for monitoring SAVusing the groundtruthing method are presented

in this section for guidance only (they areadapted from the Chesapeake Bay SAV Hunt—see case study, page 18-9).Monitors shouldconsult with qualified scientists orresourcemanagers overseeing the effort on properequipment and techniques. Monitors shouldalso make sure that necessary permits areobtained before collecting any samples.

Before proceeding to the monitoring site, vol-unteers should review the topics addressed inChapter 7. It is critical to confirm the monitor-ing site, date, and time; have the necessarymonitoring equipment and personal gear; andunderstand all safety considerations. Once atthe monitoring site, volunteers should recordgeneral site observations, as discussed inChapter 7. Groundtruthers should be especiallycareful to note the tidal stage, weather condi-tions, water clarity, and the time of day, as thesevariables can substantially affect the visibilityof SAV beds.

How to Groundtruth

SAV Site LogisticsReaching SAV beds marked on maps may require walking, motoring, rowing, paddling, wading, or swimming.

Volunteers can reach some SAV beds by walking along the shoreline. Attempt to reach the beds during low tide when theyare in shallower water, but first ensure that the sediments support safe walking.

When using a boat, keep it in sufficiently deep water so that the propeller does not tear up the plants. If the beds areconsistently located in shallow areas, consider using a rowboat, canoe, or even an inflated inner tube as an alternate vessel.In areas such as the Everglades in southern Florida, volunteers should consider using an airboat.

Keeping track of map position is extremely important. In areas of vast seagrass beds and few distinct landscape features, itis particularly easy to get lost. A Global Positioning System (GPS) or compass, used in conjunction with the map, may be ahelpful orientation tool. The volunteer should:

• Travel to the SAV beds marked on the provided map. To find the beds, look for dark patches on the bottom or calmersurface water surrounded by ripples. The calm water may overlie SAV beds (Bergstrom, 1998).

• Compare the bed to its noted map position by examining its general location, notable landscape features (natural ormanmade), position relative to the shoreline, and the overall extent of the bed. These distinctions may change from yearto year, but collectively should provide sufficient information to confirm the identity of the bed.

If you are not sure that you are in the exact spot, if the bed seems to be in a different position than indicated on the map, or ifother aspects of the bed are dramatically different, make sure to note this or record the changes on the survey sheet and map.Have a companion corroborate your observations if possible.

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equipment and apparel listed in Chapter 7, thevolunteer should bring the following items tothe site:

• map showing SAV beds covering thestudy site, as determined from aerialsurvey;

• global positioning system (GPS) receiver,if available;

• weighted and calibrated line to measuredepth, or Secchi disk;

• SAV field identification guide;

• shoes for wading;• plastic sealable bags (sandwich size);

• labels to go inside plastic bags, orwaterproof marker;

• mask and snorkel or SCUBA, ifnecessary;

• instructions for monitoring SAV;

• rake to gather specimen for identification(see box below for details);

• view tube or hand lens, if available;

• polarized sunglasses; and

• waterproof copy of any requiredcollection permits.

Raking It InUnless you get into the water to identify SAV, some kind of tool may be needed to take a mini-mum number of samples. From a boat or pier, a properly trained person using the right rake iscritical to groundtruthing success. At all times, care should be taken to avoid digging the rakeinto the sediment, since this can damage underground roots and rhizomes.

There are several rakes available (see Appendix C for suppliers); however, no one rake will findall SAV species at all times, and some species simply cannot be collected by raking.

Some recommended rakes are described below, with accompanying photographs on this page.

• A bamboo shrub rake is good for shallow water and SAV with short stems. It works muchbetter from a canoe or kayak than the more common shrub rake with plastic tines. Fordeeper water, an extension pole can be attached. Most shrub rakes have 5-10 tines(although the bamboo ones have more) and are about 8” across, with a 4’handle.

• The crab landing net—consisting of a wire basket and long (6’) handle—can be hard tofind, but works well on very short, sparse SAV stems. As the net sweeps through the SAV,samples are collected in the net junctions. This quality may, however, make it difficult attimes to remove one sample from the net in order to collect another. This net is not recom-mended for very dense SAV.

• A metal garden bow rake with stiff tines is used by some hunters, but it is probably the leasteffective of the four kinds. However, it is the one that most people already have on-hand.

• Though it may be difficult to find, a modified lawn thatch rake can work in water deeperthan the length of a typical rake handle. Adapted with a short handle and rope and called a“throw rake,” it can be tossed from a boat or pier. As a volunteer pulls it back by its rope,the rake picks up fairly tall, branched plants, leaving short, unbranched plants behind.

The throw rake can be a useful tool, but extreme caution should be exercised.

As new and more effective designs are found, information will be made available at the U.S. Fishand Wildlife Service Chesapeake Bay Field Office Web site: http://www.fws.gov/r5cbfo/ under“Submerged Aquatic Vegetation (SAV).”

(Source: Bergstrom, 2000.)

Several rakes forcollecting SAV samples:(a) bamboo shrub rake;(b) crab landing net; (c)bow rake; and (d) lawnthatch rake, or “throwrake,” adapted with ashort handle and rope(photos by P. Bergstrom,U.S. Fish and WildlifeService).

a

b

c

d

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STEP 2: Collect initial data andmap bed area.

If the map already shows theoutline of the bed, use the map’sname or code for the bed as itsidentifier on the data sheet. If themap contains no record of the bed,name it according to the formatestablished by the programmanager. Volunteers will need toroughly map unidentified beds toadd them to the permanent record.

Those areas marked as SAV beds on the mapbut having no plants should be designated onthe survey form by writing “no plants.”

Indicate the means by which the volunteerreached the beds (motor boat, canoe, by foot,pier, etc.).

Use the weighted, calibrated line to measuredepth. A Secchi disk attached to a marked linecan also be used to measure depth. Record thedepth on the survey form.

STEP 3: Monitor SAV.A bed may contain only one type of SAV or

a variety of species. Move around within thebed and closely examine several areas to get arepresentative assessment of the speciescomposition. Snorkeling or a view tube maybe needed.

Assessing SAV bed condition

• To identify the plants, carefully use arake or another implement to obtain asmall sample of the stems and leaves.Try not to dig the tool into the sedimentas it may damage underground roots andrhizomes. It may be necessary tosnorkel or SCUBAfor some species thatrakes may not be able to pick up easily(e.g., eelgrass in summer when it isshort).

• Using the identification guide or a key,match the specimen to the appropriateplant.Do not record floating samples,as they may have come from adif ferent location. Record the common

name of the plant on the survey form. Ifthe match is tenuous or the plant doesnot seem to resemble any diagram,place the specimen in a plastic bag andbring it back to shore for a programleader to identify. Make sure to label theplastic bag with the site name, date, andcollector using an indelible marker.Place one label inside the specimen bagand another on the outside of the bag asa precaution against lost labels orillegible writing. Record the identity ofthe collected plant as “unknown” on thesurvey form. Any collected sampleshould be refrigerated if not examinedright away.

• Examine several different areas of thebed, estimating density and inspectingseveral plants. The program managershould train volunteers to recognizesymptoms of common diseases orinfestations.

• If this site has been visited previously,any noticeable differences, such aschanges in the species composition,density, bed size, and general planthealth, should be recorded.

“Mapping” SAV beds

When the SAV bed is unmarked on the mapor has shifted in location, the volunteer shouldhand-draw the new location on the map.Shoreline features, manmade objects, buoys,shoals, and other landmarks may all behelpful in marking location. If possible, thevolunteer should use a Global PositioningSystem (GPS) unit to roughly establish theposition of the bed (see Chapter 7).

After completing all steps at the first SAVbed, navigate to the next designated bed onthe map. Complete the same steps for eachbed and record all information on a newsurvey form for each bed. Treat unmappedbeds the same way; after establishing the bedposition on the map, evaluate them like anyother bed.

Trained volunteer collecting SAVsamples with a lawn thatch rake(photo by P. Bergstrom, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service).

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STEP 4: Clean up and send off data.Volunteers should clean all equipment and

deliver any unknown specimens to theprogram manager for plant identificationassistance. The samples should be refrigeratedif they will not be examined immediately.

Ensure that the data survey forms arecomplete and legible. Send the forms to the

appropriate person or agency, preferably afteridentifying any unknown specimens.Identified specimens do not need to be sentwith the forms; the program manager shouldprovide guidance on dealing with theremaining unidentified plants. As with all datasheets, the volunteer should make a copy incase the original becomes lost. ■

SAV Bed Restoration and MonitoringIn an effort to restore SAV populations, many volunteer and professional groups are experimenting with planting SAV(Bergstrom, 1999).

Even with the right permits and supervision, however, simply planting grasses does not guarantee success. Asphotosynthetic plants, they depend on sunlight to survive. A comprehensive monitoring program can provide detailedinformation about water clarity and other water quality parameters important to SAV survival. Some programs usewater quality data that volunteers are already collecting to help identify top candidates for SAV restoration projects.

While plants may show growth initially, they may disappear a few yearslater. Many volunteer restoration projects do not include follow-upmonitoring to determine their long-term effectiveness. Without waterquality and plant survival monitoring, volunteers are unable tounderstand what works and what fails.

Post-restoration monitoring can be a strain on organizational resources.It requires staff and volunteer time, which may be difficult to spare.SAV planting projects are usually one-time events, making it easier tooversee volunteers. Doing the necessary follow-up monitoring, however,often requires volunteers to work on their own with less oversight by theprogram leader (after all, the leader can’t be everywhere at once!).Because follow-up monitoring may require the use of snorkel or SCUBAequipment, program leaders might be reluctant to support unsupervisedvolunteer SAV restoration monitoring; liability becomes an issue.

The Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay is working with other Bay-areaorganizations to standardize SAV monitoring and reporting methodsthroughout the region. This effort should improve the groups’knowledgeof restoration sites and monitoring activities. It is hoped that thiscoordination will allow the groups to improve their tracking of SAVrestoration projects.


Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay6600 York Road, #100Baltimore, MD 21212Phone: 410-377-6270Fax: 410-377-7144http://www.acb-online.org/index.htm

Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay volunteers usea 1.0 x 1.0 m frame, constructed with nylonrope and 2.5 cm diameter PVC piping, to guideSAV replanting efforts. The frame is dividedinto 1/4-meter intervals. At each gridintersection, two mature plants (called “plantingunits”), held together with a biodegradablestaple so that their rhizomes are alignedparallel, are anchored on the bottom with abamboo skewer. Twenty-five planting unitsequaling 50 plants per square meter are placedin each 1m2 grid. The use of the planting gridallows for the number of plants, and thereforeplanting density, to be easily quantified (photoby B. Murphy).

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Bergstrom, P. 1998. “SAV Hunter’s Guide (for Chesapeake Bay).” The Volunteer Monitor10(2): 17.

Hurley, L. M. 1992. Field Guide to the Submerged Aquatic Vegetation of the Chesapeake Bay. U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service. Chesapeake Bay Estuary Program, Annapolis, MD. 52 pp. (NOTE:Out of print).

Other references:

Bergstrom, P. 1999. “Using Monitoring Data to Choose Planting Sites for Underwater Grasses.” TheVolunteer Monitor11(1): 16-17.

Bergstrom, P. 2000. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Chesapeake Bay Coastal Program, pers. com.

Blakesley, B.A., M.O. Hall, and J.H. Landsberg. 1999. “Seagrass Disease and Mortality:Understanding the Role of Labyrinthula.” In: The 15th Biennial International Conference of theEstuarine Research Federation Abstracts.New Orleans, LA. Sept. 25-30, 1999.

Burdick, D. M., F. T. Short, and J. Wolf. 1993. “An Index to Assess and Monitor the Progression ofthe Wasting Disease in Eelgrass, Zostera marina.” Marine Ecology Progress Series, 94: 83-90.

Fassett, N. C. 1969. A Manual of Aquatic Plants. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, WI. 405 pp.

Gabrielson, P. W., R. F. Scagel, and T. B. Widdowson. 1990. Keys to the Benthic Marine Algae andSeagrasses of British Columbia, Southeast Alaska, Washington and Oregon. PhycologicalContribution [Dept. of Botany, University of British Columbia, Vancouver]. No. 4. 187 pp.

Hotchkiss, N. 1972. Common Marsh, Underwater, and Floating-Leaved Plants of the United Statesand Canada. Dover Pubns, ISBN: 048622810X.

Kerr, M., L. Green, M. Raposa, C. Deacutis, V. Lee, and A. Gold. 1992. Rhode Island VolunteerMonitoring Water Quality Protocol Manual.URI Coastal Resources Center, RI Sea Grant, andURI Cooperative Extension. 38 pp.

Littler, D. S., M. M. Littler, K. E. Bucher, and J. N. Norris. 1989. Marine Plants of the Caribbean: AField Guide from Florida to Brazil. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC. 263 pp.

Martin, E., and V. Lee. 1991. “Monitoring Diseased Eelgrass.” The Volunteer Monitor 3(1): 13.

Meyers, D. 1999. “Volunteers Add ‘Missing Piece’: Monitoring Restoration.” The VolunteerMonitor 11(1): 10-11.

Reshetiloff, K. 1998. “SAV Hunt: Citizens Keep Track of Bay Grasses.” The Volunteer Monitor10(2): 16.

Sheath, R. G., and M. M. Harlin. 1988. Freshwater and Marine Plants of Rhode Island. KendallHunt Publ. Company, Dubuque, IA. 149 pp.

Tampa Bay Estuary Program (TBEP). 1999. Submerged Aquatic Vegetation Monitoring Protocols.unpbl. Doc. Mail Station I-1/NEP, 100 8th Avenue, SE, St. Petersburg, FL33701; Phone: 727-893-2765.


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Tiner, R. W., Jr. 1987. A Field Guide to the Coastal Wetland Plants of the Northeastern UnitedStates. University of Massachusetts Press, Amherst, MA. 285 pp.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1992. Monitoring Guidance for the NationalEstuary Program: Final. EPA 842-B-92-004. Washington, DC.

Web sites:

Chesapeake Bay Foundation: http://www.savethebay.cbf.org

Chesapeake Bay Program: http://www.chesapeakebay.net/baygras.htm

Maryland Department of Natural Resources: http://www.dnr.state.md.us/bay/sav/index.html

University of Hawaii Seagrass: http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/seagrass/

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Chesapeake Bay Field Office: http://www.fws.gov/r5cbfo/

Virginia Institute of Marine Science: http://www.vims.edu/bio/sav/index.html

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Chapter19Other Living Organisms

While bacteria and submerged aquatic vegetation are popular biological parameters

measured by volunteers, there are other living organisms that deserve—and

receive—attention. Some of these organisms are monitored or collected to screen for

potential problems in the estuary. Others serve to complement chemical, biological,

and physical monitoring activities. For the most part, the monitoring of particular

living organisms represents localized rather than nationwide efforts; that is, for many

reasons, volunteer groups have the desire, equipment, support, and environmental

need to work with these organisms in their particular estuary.

Photos (l to r): E. Ely, E. Ely, T. Monk, R. Ohrel

19-1


Unit Three: Biological Measures Chapter 19: Other Living Organisms

While bacteria and submerged aquatic vegetation are popular biological

parameters measured by volunteers, there are other living organisms that

deserve—and receive—attention. Some of these organisms are monitored or

collected to screen for potential problems in the estuary. Others serve to

complement chemical, biological, and physical monitoring activities.

For the most part, the monitoring of particular living organisms represents

localized rather than nationwide efforts; that is, for many reasons, volunteer

groups have the desire, equipment, support, and environmental need to work with

these organisms in their particular estuary.

Clearly, there is a multitude of living organisms that a volunteer group may wish

to monitor to help assess an estuary’s health. This chapter discusses several of

those biological parameters—macroinvertebrates, phytoplankton, and non-

indigenous species—and describes their use as environmental health indicators,

identifies sampling considerations, and provides steps for collecting and analyzing

the organisms in the field.

Overview

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Chapter 19: Other Living Organisms Unit Three: Biological Measures

Macroinvertebratesare organisms that arelarge (macro) enough to be seen with thenaked eye and lack a backbone (invertebrate)(USEPA, 1997). Aquatic macroinvertebratesare commonly used in freshwater streammonitoring as indicators of water quality.According to the USEPA (1997),macroinvertebrates make good indicators ofstream quality because:

• They are affected by the physical,chemical, and biological conditions inthe stream.

• They may show the effects of short- andlong-term pollution.

• They may show the cumulative impactsof pollution.

• They may show the impacts fromhabitat loss not detected by traditionalwater quality assessments.

• They are a critical part of the food web.

• Some are very intolerant of and cannotescape pollution.

The Role of Macroinvertebrates in theEstuarine Ecosystem

Macroinvertebrates serve many of the samefunctions in estuarine systems as they do instreams. They are critical to the food web.Some impact water clarity through theirfeeding process, filtering with their gills orother body parts tiny plants, animals, and

The presence, absence, and abundance ofmany living organisms can serve as usefulindicators of estuarine health. Someorganisms require relatively clean water tosurvive, grow, and reproduce. Their presencesuggests that water quality is good in thatportion of the estuary. Other species areunfazed or even thrive under poor waterquality conditions. If the number of pollution-tolerant organisms suddenly increases whilepollution-sensitive species disappear orbecome difficult to find, the estuary may beunder stress.

Volunteer monitoring of estuarineorganisms, then, can serve as an earlywarning device. When biological monitoringsuggests that a water quality problem mayexist, the information can be used to alertgovernment authorities, who in turn canintensify their own monitoring efforts toidentify the problem’s cause and solution. Theidentification and tracking of non-indigenousspecies can be used to further alert us to

human disturbance of estuarine ecosystems.Early detection networks can help eradicate anon-indigenous species invasion before itbecomes established.

Monitoring can also be used to complementchemical, biological, and physicalmeasurements. Nutrient data, for example,provide useful information about the typesand quantities of nutrients in the estuary, butmay not tell us enough about potentialimpacts. The presence of phytoplanktonblooms provides evidence that nutrientconcentrations may have reached high levels.

As another example, turbidity and sedimentdeposition can affect the survival of manybottom-dwelling organisms. By monitoringthese animals along with other parameters, wecan gain a better sense of the estuary’s overallhealth.

Finally, the collection and analysis ofshellfish for pathogens and toxic materialscomplement monitoring for those pollutants inthe water column. ■

Why Monitor Other Living Organisms?

MACROINVERTEBRATES

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other materials found in the water. Others, suchas oysters and corals, grow together in groups,providing valuable habitat for a number oforganisms. Burrowing macroinvertebrates helpaerate bottom sediments.

Unfortunately, using macroinvertebrates asindicators of estuarine health is more problem-atic than for streams (Green, 1998; Ely, 1991).

• Estuaries support differentmacroinvertebrates than freshwatersystems, with few key freshwaterindicator species living in estuarineenvironments.

• Tidal fluctuations and muddy bottomsmake collecting estuarinemacroinvertebrates more difficult thanin streams.

• In contrast with stream systems, thereare as yet no identification keys andwater quality indices, suitable forvolunteers, that link estuarine macro-invertebrates with estuarine health.

As a result of these limitations, volunteerorganizations currently find it difficult to usemacroinvertebrates as indicators of estuarinewater quality. However, that is not to say thatvolunteer programs should avoid monitoringmacroinvertebrates altogether. Volunteer moni-tors are frequently recruited to monitor specificmacroinvertebrate species, such as corals (seecase study, below). Shellfish are other goodexamples of estuarine macroinvertebrates thatvolunteer groups monitor and sample.

Shellfish and Estuarine Health

Shellfish often reflect some of the mostimportant measures of water quality. One waythat volunteers can utilize shellfish is to takean inventory of their distribution throughoutthe estuary (see case study, page 19-4).Another way is to work with laboratories thatanalyze the hazardous compounds in theanimals’tissues.

With support from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), The Ocean Conservancy manages the Reef Condition(RECON) Monitoring Program. RECON is an entry-level rapid-assessment protocol for volunteer recreational divers withan interest in reef conservation issues. The goals of RECON are to broaden the scope of available information about thebenthic (bottom-dwelling) organisms on coral reefs, to alert local researchers and managers of changing reef conditions(e.g., mass bleaching events, outbreaks of disease, nuisance algal blooms), and to increase public understanding of thethreats to coral reef ecosystems.

RECON divers take a short course from a certified RECON instructor, followed by two practicedives and a qualifying examination. Divers are trained to collect information about the reefenvironment, the health of stony corals, and the presence of key reef organisms and obvioushuman-induced impacts. Results of the cumulative data collection are posted on The OceanConservancy Web site for public access and archived for use by the scientific and researchcommunity.


The Ocean ConservancyOffice of Pollution Prevention and Monitoring1432 N. Great Neck Road, Suite 103Virginia Beach, VA 23454Phone: 757-496-0920, Fax: 757-496-3207Email: [email protected]://www.oceanconservancy.org

Case Study: Coral Monitoring

A volunteer divercollects data at a coralreef in the Caribbean(photo by T. Monk).

19-4



Chemical Uptake

Even water that appears clear and untaintedmay still contain harmful levels of chemicalpollutants. Shellfish living in the water mayassimilate and accumulate these chemicalsthrough the intake of polluted water andsediment or by eating other contaminatedorganisms.

Several types of chemical contaminants canaccumulate in shellfish. These include:

• heavy metals such as mercury andcadmium;

• petroleum hydrocarbons such aspolyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs);

• pesticides such as endrin, dieldrin,endosulfan, mirex, and malathion; and

• industrial pollutants such aspolychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).

Bivalve shellfish, such as clams, mussels,and oysters, are filter-feeders and strain largequantities of estuarine water through theirsystems to extract small particles of food.Because they filter such large quantities ofwater, however, even relatively lowconcentrations of a waterborne contaminant

may eventually translate to high tissueconcentrations.

Non-bivalve shellfish, such as crabs,lobsters, and shrimp, are mobile scavengerswhich consume plants, small animals, anddetritus from the estuary’s waters and bottom.Contaminated prey or sediments can producehigh contaminant levels in the tissues of theseshellfish.

Biological Uptake

Studies or surveys often use shellfish asindicators of biological contamination as well.The non-mobile bivalves are particularlyhelpful as they pinpoint specific areas ofcontamination.

Shellfish collect fecal bacteria in their gut,making them good indicators of recentexposure to sewage waste. Since fecalcoliforms can indicate the presence of human oranimal pathogens, tainted shellfish serve as awarning and signal that an area may not besuitable for recreation or fishing. Unlike watersampling for bacterial contamination (seeChapter 17), shellfish tissue analysis acts as amarket test; that is, it determines whether theshellfish are fit for human consumption.

While some shellfish monitoring programs collect specimens for tissue analysis at a laboratory,others require only that volunteers count each organism they find in the field.

Tampa BayWatch and the Tampa Bay Estuary Program developed a volunteer activity knownas the Great Bay Scallop Search. During this annual one-day event, volunteer snorkelers patrolseagrass beds and count scallops along transect lines (see Appendix A for the Scallop Searchdata sheet).

The purpose of the project is to document scallop population recovery. Poor water qualitycaused scallops to disappear from Tampa Bay during the 1960s. Thanks in part to regulatoryaction, the scallops are slowly returning. Stocking efforts are underway to help boost scalloprecovery and establish viable breeding colonies in the bay.


Tampa BayWatchPhone: 727-896-5320http://www.tampabaywatch.org

Tampa Bay Estuary ProgramPhone: 727-893-2765http://www.tbep.org/

Case Study: Shellfish Inventories in Florida

19-5



Shellfish are easier to collect than finfishbecause most tend to move more slowly ornot at all. Moreover, they often congregate—an oyster bed or a boulder studded withmussels are two examples—and are fairlyeasy to reach.

Some shellfish are more susceptible tocertain contaminants than others. While aspecies may easily tolerate highconcentrations of one chemical, lowconcentrations of another can be lethal.

The life stage of an individual—larva,juvenile, or adult—will also greatly affect itsresponse to a toxic substance. In general,

larvae and juveniles are morevulnerable to injury or death fromexposure to these substances.Studies of the effects of toxiccompounds must consider both theage and species of the specimens to fullyassess the chemical’s toxicity. ■

Helpful HintBefore collecting any organism, check withthe appropriate government agency todetermine whether you will need a permit.

Officials can set predetermined levels offecal coliform in shellfish as a managementstandard. Areas where levels exceed thisstandard should be closed to commercial andrecreational shellfish collection until theproblem is resolved.

In addition to accumulating bacteria,

shellfish can also consumephytoplankton, some of whichproduce toxins. When shellfishingest the phytoplankton, the toxinsaccumulate in their tissues. Thetoxins can be transferred to humanswho consume the shellfish. ■

Shellfish Sampling Considerations

How to Collect ShellfishThe tests forshellfish contaminants

require sophisticated analyses, expensiveequipment, and rigorous quality assuranceprocedures. Trained scientists must performthese tests to ensure accurate, scientificallyvalid results. Volunteers can assist thescientists, however, by collecting shellfish foranalysis in designated study areas.

Scientists may need data to:

• identify areas of concern for a particulartoxic substance;

• aid policy makers in setting regulatorylimits on the recreational or commercialcollection of shellfish species;

• identify the contaminant sources;

• examine the effects of particularcontaminants on a species; and

• determine whether shellfish are safe forconsumption.

The training of volunteers should include asession on the identification of the speciesrequired for testing. Most of the popular fieldguides for the coastal regions include sectionson shellfish identification.


Shellfish contaminatedwith pathogens or other

pollution indicate thatsurrounding waters maybe unsafe for fishing or

swimming. It may beunsafe for humans to

eat the shellfish (photo by R. Ohrel).

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• field guide for species identification;

• waterproof copy of any requiredcollection permits;

• collection bucket;

• tools necessary to dig shellfish, dislodgeclustered shellfish, or otherwise collecttargeted shellfish species;

• sample containers; and

• sample preservative, if necessary.

STEP 2: Collect the shellfish sample.Once at the sample site, volunteers should

capture animals using the method designated bythe program manager.

The volunteers should carefully label the

sample container in which the animal will betransported with the date, site name, shellfishtype, and the name of the collector. An indeliblemarker is best for ensuring that the labeling ispermanent. Make sure that the sample containeris not wet before using the marker. If requiredby the program manager, volunteers should adda preservative to the sample bottle.

STEP 3: Clean up and send off sampleand data.

Volunteers should transport the livespecimens at chilled temperatures appropriatefor the species. The program manager shoulddesignate pickup locations for volunteers todeliver the specimens and supporting datasheets to program personnel. As with all datasheets, the volunteer should make a duplicatein case the original becomes lost.

Make sure to thoroughly clean allequipment. ■

Very few programs currently use volunteers to collect shellfish for laboratory analysis. TheDepartment of Health in Washington State, however, has successfully worked with differentvolunteer groups to gather shellfish at commercial and recreational beaches.

Youth Area Watch, managed by the Chugach School District, in Alaska, is also involved withshellfish collection. Students in the organization collect mussels for scientists who monitorplanktonic activity and production capacity in Prince William Sound.


Washington State Department of HealthFood Safety and Shellfish ProgramsPhone: 360-236-3330

Adopt A Beach4649 Sunnyside Ave. N. #305Seattle, WA 98103-6900Phone: 888-57-BEACH or 206-632-1390Email: [email protected]

Youth Area WatchWeb site: http://www.micronet.net/users/~yaw/

Case Study: Shellfish Collection in Washington and Alaska

19-7



Organisms lacking the means to counteracttransport by water currents are referred to asplankton, a name derived from the Greek wordplanktos for “wandering.” Included in this groupare bacterioplankton (bacteria), phytoplankton(plants), and zooplankton (animals). In generalall plankton are very small and, in many cases,microscopic. However, relatively large animals,such as the jellyfish, are also included in the def-inition of plankton (Table 19-1; Figure 19-1).

Phytoplankton are micro-scopic plants that are commoncomponents of our naturalwaters. These plants are algaeand contain an assortment ofpigments in their photosynthet-ic cells. They are representedby single cell or colonial formsthat are the primary food andoxygen producers within fresh-water, estuarine, and marine

PHYTOPLANKTON

Taxonomic Grouping Taxonomic Grouping

Phytoplankton

Zooplankton

Crustaceans

Protistans

Ctenophores

Chaetognaths

Coelentertates

Pteropods

Tunicates

BiddulphiaNitzschiaThalassiosira

ChaetocerosSkeletomenaMelosira

DinophysisGyrodinium

CeratiumProrocentrum

ChlorellaCladophora

Codium

CalanusTemora

Acartia

Coccolithus Phaeocystis

Porphyridium Porphyra

Euthemisto Hyperia

Pleurobrachia Mnemiopsis

Aurelia Physalia

Pyrosoma

Globigerina

Ectocarpus

Euphausia

Podon

Oscillatoria/Trichodesmium Lyngbya

Cryptomonas

diatoms

cryptomonads

coccolithophorids

green algae

blue-green algae

red algae

brown algae

copepods

euphausiids

cladocerans

amphipods

radiolarians

foraminiferans

comb jellies

arrow worms

true jellyfish

larvacea salps

dinoflagellates

Volunteer phytoplanktonmonitors at work in Maine.

(a) Samples are collectedusing a 1-meter plankton

net. (b) Subsamples areexamined immediately at

100X magnification(photos by E. Ely).

Table 19-1.Common types of phyto- and zooplankton (see Levinton, 1982).

(a)

(b)

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habitats.Zooplankton are animal plankton thatrange in size and complexity. They include thelarval forms of large adult organisms (e.g.,crabs, fish) and small animals that never getlarger than several millimeters (e.g. copepods).

The abundance of planktonic organisms in thewater column follows predictable, geographical-ly based seasonal patterns related to nutrients,light intensity, temperature, and grazing (preda-tion) pressures. Monitoring the types and rela-tive abundances of plankton populations in con-junction with nutrient and other environmentalparameters can provide significant insight intothe health of an aquatic ecosystem.

The Role of Phytoplankton in the EstuarineEcosystem

Without phytoplankton, the intricate web ofestuarine plants and animals would collapse.Phytoplankton are primary producers and formthe base of the estuary’s food pyramid. As pho-tosynthesizers, phytoplankton transfer the sun’senergy into plant matter and provide nourish-ment for the next level of organisms.

Phytoplankton are consumed primarily byzooplankton, which in turn are fed upon by otherlarger organisms. If the phytoplankton communi-ty is altered in composition or abundance, these

changes may have serious ramifications through-out the food web and upset what may be consid-ered a more favorable balance of life in thesewaters.

Water quality conditions will influence thecomposition and abundance of phytoplankton.Since phytoplankton respond rather rapidly tochanges in nutrient concentrations, they aregood indicators of nutrient-rich conditions.Waters having relatively low nutrient levels aredominated by diatoms, which are a highlydesirable source of food. In water with highernutrient concentrations, cyanobacteria anddinoflagellates become more abundant. Thesephytoplankton species are less desirable as afood source to animals.

As nutrients—and consequently phytoplank-ton—increase, various water quality variablesare affected. Waters with low nutrient levels aregenerally clearer than water containing highconcentrations of nutrients. As nutrient levelsincrease and the phytoplankton concentrationsbecome more dense, the water often takes on thecolor of the algal pigments (e.g., reddish brown,green, brown) and odors become noticeable. Inestuaries, the cells frequently collect along tidalfronts, where their presence is more evident.

Phytoplankton also influence oxygen concen-

Green AlgaeCarteria

DinoflagellatesGymnodinium

DinoflagellatesCeratium

DinoflagellatesDinophysis

DiatomCoscinodiscus

DiatomChaetoceros

DiatomThalassiosira

Phytoplankton

CopepodAcartia

CladoceranPodon

Blue Crab Zoeaeand Megalops

Calinectes

Zooplankton

Larval StageZoeae

Larval StageMegalops

Figure 19-1.Examples of various planktonic forms found in coastal and estuarine waters.

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trations in the estuary. As photosynthesizers,they produce oxygen, which is critical to all buta few estuarine organisms. When sunlight isunavailable (e.g., at night), phytoplanktonrespire, removing oxygen from the water.Oxygen is also consumed when bacteria workto decompose phytoplankton. A common after-math of excessive phytoplankton growth inconfined waterways is that oxygen is depleted,thus producing hypoxic conditions that mayresult in the deaths of many organisms.

Levels of PhytoplanktonAt certain times, conditions are very good for

phytoplankton growth. When there are adequatenutrients, increased light intensity, warmerwater, and minimal predation pressures fromzooplankton, phytoplankton population explo-sions, or algal blooms, may occur. The phyto-plankton will continue to bloom until one ormore of the key factors promoting phytoplank-ton growth is no longer available.

For example, during the spring months intemperate regions, diatom blooms usually coin-cide with increases in nutrient levels, water tem-perature, and light intensity. This increase inphytoplankton biomass is typically followed byan increase in zooplankton (often copepods) intothe summer months. During the summer, thedominant phytoplankton assemblage shifts toinclude dinoflagellates and the grazing pressuresof the zooplankton subsides. Another, but small-er, bloom of diatoms occurs in the fall, leadingto a successive repeat in the nutrient/bloomcycle. Figure 19-2 illustrates seasonal bloomfluctuations in different geographic locales.

In recent years, there has been an increasingpresence of bloom-forming algae in estuariesworldwide. This has been attributed to increasedlevels of nutrients entering these waters.

Harmful Algal Blooms

Some phytoplankton—mostly dinoflagellatesand some diatoms—produce toxins, which havebeen known to cause illness or death in manyaquatic organisms, including fish, shellfish, andmarine mammals, by causing lesions, clogginggills, and depleting oxygen in the water. The

toxins can also haveserious impacts onhumans (Table 19-2).The toxins can be trans-ferred to humansthrough the consump-tion of shellfish (e.g.,clams, oysters, mussels,and scallops). Theseorganisms feed by filter-ing water through theirgills to extract variousforms of plankton. Theplankton may not betoxic to the shellfish, butthey could be toxic tohumans who consumethem. Therefore, state orlocal authorities routine-ly close areas to shell-fish harvesting if exces-sive amounts of toxinsare detected in the water.

One example of a harmful algal bloom is a“red tide.” It is so named because the bloom isintense enough to change the color of the water.Some phytoplankton will produce a reddish,brown, or green color. In some cases, however,no color is produced at all—thus dispelling themyth that there is a definite connection betweenabnormally colored water and toxicity.Although there are many species that canbloom enough to change the color of the water,only a few species are toxic.

An increase in the frequency of harmful algalblooms in the U.S. and worldwide has led toincreased efforts to develop effective monitor-ing and detection methods. By detectingblooms early, we can better ensure the safety ofseafood products. The states of Maine andCalifornia have instituted coast-wide volunteermonitoring programs aimed at early detectionof harmful blooms (Ely, 1998). Other stateshave a combination of formal and informalmechanisms to detect the blooms. The cost oftoxic plankton monitoring is relatively high, sovolunteer monitoring is an important way toprotect public health in a cost-effective man-ner (Griffin, 1998). ■

Arctic

Temperate

Tropical

J F M A M J J A S O N D

Algae Herbivores

Figure 19-2.Typicalseasonal cycles forplankton in arctic,

temperate, and tropical regions.

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Table 19-2.Some toxic phytoplankton important in the United States and their human impacts(excerptedand adapted from Ely, 1998).

Dinophysis spp. DSP(diarrheticshellfish poisoning)

No human illnessreported in U.S.

Gastroenteritis.Nonfatal.

Phytoplankton Illness Caused U.S. Outbreaks Symptoms

Alexandrium spp. PSP(paralyticshellfishpoisoning)

New England, WestCoast (includingAlaska)

Numbness of lips andfingers; lack ofcoordination.Respiratory failure insevere cases. Can befatal.

Pseudonitzschia spp. ASP(amnesicshellfish poisoning)

No human illnessreported in U.S.Human illnessreported in Canada(east coast) andmarine mammalillness on U.S. WestCoast.

Abdominal cramps,disorientation.Permanent memoryloss in severe cases.Can be fatal.

Gymnodinium breve NSP(neurotoxicshellfish poisoning)

Mid-Atlantic andSoutheast Coast,Gulf of Mexico

Gastroenteritis,painful amplificationof sensation. Nodeaths.


When and Where to SampleAs stated in the discussion on algal blooms,

dominant plankton populations changethroughout the year. This should beconsidered when planning a samplingprogram. For long-term monitoring, aconsistent time period for sampling is neededfor comparability.

What to SampleIn temperate regions, the cyclic pattern of

increased nutrient availability, sunlight, andalgal blooms provides a baseline forcomparison to other spikes in the phyto-plankton populations. If an increase in thenumbers of a given species or genus isconspicuously absent when one normally

Helpful HintAdversely affected by strong light, zooplankton groups descend to great depths during the dayand ascend during the night to feed on phytoplankton. Staying in deeper, colder waters duringthe day requires less energy for respiration and aids in avoiding predation by fish and seabirds.

If sampling zooplankton populations, considerations must be made to collect samples fromdepths what will yield representative samples of the plankton assemblages being monitored.This determination should be made as part of the overall planning process and establishmentof a monitoring protocol.

19-11



expects an increase, or vice versa, this mayserve as a warning that some environmentalparameter has changed. In this case, the dataset from phytoplankton monitoring serves as ageneral indicator of estuarine conditions.

Choosing a Sampling MethodSeveral different methods of obtaining

phytoplankton data are available. Themonitoring coordinator should choose amethod based on the precision of the datarequired, the reason for collectingphytoplankton data, and the money availablefor this portion of the monitoring effort.

Visual Assessment

This method is the easiest and leastexpensive way to monitor phytoplankton. Inthis approach, volunteers estimatephytoplankton abundance based on fieldobservations. This gross assessment of thewaterbody is very limited and should be usedas an indicator to follow-up with a morerigorous assessment procedure.

Plankton Net Tow

This method uses a cone-shaped mesh net,towed by boat or by hand along a dock orbridge through the water, to collect a varietyof plankton species. This approach provides a

decent estimate of phytoplankton density, butsmaller species are likely to be excluded fromthe sample because they are able to passthrough the net. If a more comprehensivequantitative assessment is required for thetaxonomic identification of phytoplanktonspecies, an alternative method of sampling,such as water samplers, should be used.

Water Samplers

If plankton population density measures areneeded (number of cells/liter), then amonitoring technique to collect a specificamount of water must be used. A device thatcan be lowered into the water to capture aprecise amount of water at a set depth isneeded.

Traditional water samplers, such asKemmerer or Van Dorn (see Chapter 7), areuseful for collecting samples at differentdepths, thus ensuring better representation ofthe entire plankton community. In addition,small plankton are unable to escape thesamplers, which is not the case for nets. ■

Reminder!To ensure consistently high quality data,appropriate quality assurance and qualitycontrol measures are necessary. SeeChapter 5 for details.

19-12



General procedures for collecting andanalyzing phytoplankton samples are presentedin this section for guidance only; they do notapply to all sampling methods. Monitorsshould consult with the instructions thatcome with their sampling and analyzinginstruments. Those who are interested insubmitting data to government agenciesshould also consult with the agencies todetermine acceptable equipment, methods,quality control measures, and data qualityobjectives (see Chapter5).

Before proceeding to the monitoring site andcollecting samples, volunteers should reviewthe topics addressed in Chapter 7. It is criticalto confirm the monitoring site, date, and time;have the necessary monitoring equipment andpersonal gear; and understand all safety con-siderations. Once at the monitoring site, vol-unteers should record general site observa-tions, as discussed in Chapter 7.

Besides the general considerations in Chap-ter 7, each phytoplankton sampling methodinvolves a specific set of steps. Regardless ofthe method used, the program manager shoulddesignate how the data will be provided toprogram personnel. If the data is used as anearly warning indicator of harmful algalblooms, volunteers may need to submit datasheets immediately (e.g., via fax) to programstaff. As with all data sheets, volunteers shouldmake a duplicate in case the original becomeslost.

When finished sampling, volunteers shouldalso make sure to thoroughly clean allequipment with fresh water and store dry. Netsshould be kept out of sunlight wheneverpossible.

Specific instructions for measuringphytoplankton using the different methods arepresented here.

VISUAL ASSESSMENTSTEP 1: Check equipment.

In addition to the standard samplingequipment and apparel listed in Chapter 7, thevolunteer should bring a Secchi disk tomeasure transparency (see Chapter 15).

STEP 2: Record phytoplanktonassessment.

Estimate the presence of phytoplanktonblooms based on water color, transparency(using a Secchi disk), and odor. In general, awaterbody with a significant phytoplanktonbloom will display a green, brown, or redcolor, although—as discussed earlier—this isnot always the case. The transparency levelwill be considerably reduced when comparedwith prior measurements. There may also bean odor (usually a sulfur or “rotten egg”smell) due to the decomposition ofphytoplankton cells at the end of the bloomperiod.

PLANKTON NET TOWSTEP 1: Check equipment.

In addition to the standard samplingequipment and apparel listed in Chapter 7, thevolunteer should bring the following items tothe site for each sampling session:

• properly-sized tow net, samplingcontainer, and towing apparatus;

• dropper;

• field microscope with slides (e.g.,depression slides) and slide covers;

• guide for plankton identification; and

• sample preservative (iodine- orformalin-based solution forphytoplankton and zooplankton,respectively) if species identificationwill not be made soon after collection.

How to Monitor Phytoplankton

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STEP 2: Collect the sample.The deployment method of the plankton net

is important, as many phytoplanktonassemblages tend to form clumps within thewater column. Numerous horizontal tows,done in a diagonal sweep through the watercolumn, are useful to account for zooplanktonmigration patterns and phytoplankton clumps.A diagonal sweep conducted during ahorizontal tow requires that the plankton netbe deployed to a depth that is 0.5 m off thebottom. During the tow, the net is pulleddiagonally toward the surface, thustransecting the water column.

In the horizontal tow method, volunteersshould allow the net to be pulled through thewater for a predetermined distance at a setspeed. Slow speeds are recommended—lessthan 3 feet per second if towing manually; 1-3

miles per hour if towing by boat. A recordshould be maintained as to the duration of thetow and distance so that the quantity of waterfiltered can be computed and plankton densityderived.

STEP 3: Calculate density.Figure 19-3 shows how to calculate plankton

density. The plankton captured by the netrepresent the number of organisms in the pre-measured volume of water. A slide sample of0.05 ml (a drop from an eyedropper) should beprepared and plankton cells counted using amicroscope. Multiplying the number of cellsby 1,000 reveals the number of plankton perliter. This density figure can then be convertedto the number of individuals per cubic meter,again multiplying by 1,000. A sample equationfor extrapolating plankton density is given

30

20

10

0

Note: The filter will eventually clog depending uponthe concentration of plankton in the water.

Total volume of water filtered (V)equals A (the area of the net, ( π x r2 ))multiplied by D (the distance traveled)

Slow Speed(1-3 mph if sampling by boat;

less than 3 feet/second ifsampling manually)

V = A x D(do not mix metric andEnglish measurements)

Shake to mix andextract solution with

dropper

Fully rinse net so allplankton wash intobottom container

Count plankton inslide sample

3.14 x radius2

Example:

10 planktoncells found

1 drop = 0.05 ml1. To calculate number of cells/liter:

(10 cells/0.05ml) x 1000 = 200,000 cells/liter

2. To calculate number of cells/m3:200,000 cells/liter x 1000 = 200 million cells

3. To calculate number of cells in entire volume towed (20m3): 200,000,000 cells/m3 x 20m3 = 4 billion cells

Example:

r = 0.25mA = πr2 = 0.20m2

D = 100mV = A x D = 20m3

Figure 19-3.Plankton sampling using a net tow methodology.Sample calculations for cell density and total number of cells inthe total volume of water filtered are provided.

19-14



below using a slide sample of 0.05 mlcontaining 10 plankton cells:

(a) (10 cells/0.05 ml) x 1,000 = 200,000 cells/liter

(b) 200,000 cells/liter x 1,000 = 200,000,000 cells/m3

Calculating further to determine the totalnumber of cells in the tow (total volume =20m3 in our example; see Figure 19-3):

(c) 200,000,000 cells/m3 x 20m3 = 4,000,000,000 cells

The density calculation is only approximatedue to the “net factor”—the effect of the netas it is towed—forcing some water off theside rather than through its opening.

STEP 4: Identify the species.Plankton collected in the cod-end jar at the

base of the net can also be analyzed microscop-ically for species identification. Trained volun-teers can conduct a gross field analysis ofspecies found in the water column. A more rig-orous laboratory analysis may be needed tofully quantify species composition and density.This method could provide a means to establisha joint research project with a local university.

Species identification must be conductedsoon after collection (4-8 hours), unless a rec-ommended preservative is used. Many phyto-plankton samples can be preserved in an iodine-based preservative (e.g., Lugol’s solution),

In 1996, the United States Food and Drug Administration, the Maine Department of MarineResources, and the University of Maine Cooperative Extension developed a marine phyto-plankton monitoring program for the state. This volunteer-based monitoring effort has provento be integral to harvesting safe shellfish.

In this program, community members and students use plankton nets and field microscopes tomonitor for toxic algal species. Guidelines are established for volunteers to quantify their obser-vations on the various species of algae. The volunteers collect data at least once a week, provid-ing valuable information that otherwise would not be available to scientists. The data:

• help agencies identify toxic condition trends and where more thorough sampling isneeded;

• serve as an early warning system for harmful algal blooms, which can lead toshellfish bed closures; and

• help officials understand the correlations between toxins in the water column andtoxins in shellfish.

Volunteers receive training on phytoplankton identification and receive preserved samples oftoxic species to take home as references. Agency staff periodically visit volunteers in the field tohelp with species identification and to answer questions. Many volunteers simultaneously testtheir sites for other water quality parameters to give a more complete summary of estuary health.


Maine Shore StewardsUniversity of Maine Cooperative Extension235 Jefferson StreetP.O. Box 309Waldoboro, ME 04572Phone: 207-832-0343Fax: 207-832-0377http://www.ume.maine.edu

Case Study: Searching for Toxic Phytoplankton in Maine

19-15



which “fixes” the sample and stains the cellu-lose walls of the phytoplankton cells to aid inidentification. A zooplankton sample should bepreserved using a formalin-based solution.

WATER SAMPLESTEP 1: Check equipment.

In addition to the standard samplingequipment and apparel listed in Chapter 7, thevolunteer should bring the following items tothe site for each sampling session:

Gross Density Sample Technique

• sampler (e.g., Kemmerer, Van Dorn, orplankton net);

• dropper;

• field microscope with slides (e.g.,depression slides) and slide covers;


• sample preservative (iodine- or forma-lin-based solution for phytoplankton andzooplankton, respectively) if speciesidentification will not be made soonafter collection.

Composite Cell Count Technique

• sampler (e.g., Kemmerer or Van Dornsampler);

• 500 ml labeled bottles;


• sample preservative (iodine- or forma-lin-based solution for phytoplankton andzooplankton, respectively).

STEP 2: Collect the sample.Using a Kemmerer or Van Dorn sampler,

collect plankton samples from various depths.In many cases, phytoplankton clumps withinthe water column can cause problems foranalysis. These problems can be compensatedfor in multiple and/or composite samples.

STEP 3: Analyze the sample.Samples can be analyzed using the gross

density sample technique or the compositecell count technique.

Gross Density Sample Technique

The collected water can be poured throughthe mesh of a plankton net where the planktonare strained out of the water sample. Calculatedensity as explained in the plankton net towmethod and Figure 19-3.

It should be noted that a density figurecalculated from a mesh-strained planktonsample will likely not contain the smallerphytoplankton forms as they will pass throughthe mesh of most plankton nets. To obtain amore accurate density measure, an alternativemethod of analysis (e.g., composite cellcount) should be used to better assess thetypes and numbers of phytoplankton cellsobtained in each sample.

Composite Cell Count Technique

Using water sampling devices such as aKemmerer or Van Dorn, collect a series of 1-liter volumes of water from predeterminedareas representing vertical and horizontaldistributions. Combine these samples into alarger, composite sample. This method ofcreating composite samples provides themechanism to reduce the effects of distributionpatterns of phytoplankton assemblages andalso ensures that a better sampling is obtainedof smaller phytoplankton forms for analysis asthe sample is not filtered through a mesh.

While in the field, mix the compositesample thoroughly and pour subsamples into500 ml labeled bottles containing apreservative solution. At a laboratory, thesesamples will be processed into concentratesfor more rigorous microscopic analysis.Volunteer monitors can be trained to scan slidesamples of these composite samples todetermine species types and density levels.This method could provide a means toestablish a joint research project with a localuniversity. ■

19-16



Another procedure for determining theabundance of phytoplankton is to measure theamount of chlorophyll that is present.Chlorophyll is a pigment common to allphotosynthetic algae, and its amount in thewater is in relation to the algal concentration.This analysis is conducted in a laboratorywhere the density of chlorophyll may bedetermined with appropriate instrumentation.

Three replicate water samples, oftenranging from 250-500 ml, are usually takenfor this analysis. The samples should be

collected in opaque bottles, which are placedon ice, kept in the dark, and transported to alaboratory.

In the lab, the water sample is processedthrough a glass fiber filter, which is thenplaced in acetone and ground up. Techniciansmeasure the amount of chlorophyll in theprocessed sample using a fluorometer, aninstrument that measures the fluorescence of asubstance. If the laboratory cannot process thesample immediately, it may be frozen andfiltered at a later date. ■

Special Topic: Chlorophyll Collection for Lab Analysis

NON-INDIGENOUS SPECIES

Recently, attention has been given to thegreat numbers of organisms that have beenintroduced to ecosystems outside their normalrange of occurrence. These “alien invaders”are known by many names, including non-native species, non-indigenous species,nuisance species, invasive species, and exoticspecies. Regardless of the name, some ofthese organisms can wreak havoc on anyecosystem—including estuaries—once theybecome established.

Non-indigenous species (NIS) enterestuarine systems by a variety of pathways.These include:

• Boats and Ships

Vessels often take on ballast water andsediment to keep them stable at sea. Often,the ballast and associated sediment containsmall aquatic plants, animals, andpathogens which can be introduced to theestuary when the ballast is discharged nearports. Fouling organisms (e.g., barnacles)on the vessel’s hull can also be transportedto different regions. Plant fragments getcaught on boat propellers and fishing gear,creating another introduction pathway.

• Seafood Imports and Processing

Packing materials for live seafood (e.g.,seaweed and seawater) can contain livingorganisms. When materials are improperlydiscarded, species introductions arepossible. Organisms living in or on seafoodcan also find a way into the estuary.

• Aquaculture and Fishery Enhancement

This includes introductions of non-indigenous fish and shellfish that areintentionally released to the estuary orescape from captivity. Intentionalintroduction of one species caninadvertently bring other associatedspecies, such as parasites.

• Biological Control

Some organisms are introduced to controlthe growth and spread of other species.

• Artificial Waterways

Channels, canals, and locks are artificialconnections between waterways. Theyfacilitate movement of various organisms tonew locales via vessels or natural spread.

19-17



• Live Bait

Bait species and their packing material canbe intentionally and accidentally released tothe estuary.

• Research and Education

Laboratories, schools, and aquariums useNIS for testing, teaching, and research.Poor management can allow organisms toescape or be intentionally released.

• Aquarium and Nursery Trades

These industries transport and sell NIS.Intentional releases and escapes oforganisms can lead to NIS invasions.

• Natural Spread

Some organisms are transported to newlocations by natural means, includingmigration and transport (e.g., by birds,insects, natural floating debris, etc.).

NIS have been introduced intoenvironments for hundreds of years, but therate of these introductions is increasing,thanks in part to greater and fasterinternational shipping traffic and internationaltrade. The problem of NIS is worldwide andinvolves nearly all taxonomic groups(Heimowitz, 1999).

The Role of NIS in the EstuarineEcosystem

Some NIS have impacts on estuarineecosystems that are being felt in many ways.The following sections describe these variousimpacts:

Ecological Impacts

Many NIS are relatively innocuous to theirnew environments; others, however, arenotorious for causing major problems toestuarine ecology. In fact, NIS are the secondmost significant threat to threatened and

endangered species, behind only habitat loss(Wilcove et al., 1998).

Through predation and competition, NIShave disrupted many native populations—some to the point of total disappearance fromthe estuarine system. Because many NIS havefew, if any, predators or competitors in theirnew homes, they are able to reproduceessentially unchecked. As a result, theydominate their habitats and cause a reductionin biodiversity.

NIS can also affect habitats. Atlantic smoothcordgrass, for example, is native to the easternUnited States but has been introduced to thePacific Northwest. It is now causing havocalong Pacific Northwest estuaries, where ittraps sediment and converts extensivemudflats to nearshore meadows. The increasedelevation and root mass displaces animalcommunities adapted to surviving in the mud,destroys foraging habitat for fish and birds,and out-competes other plants that areincluded in animals’diets (Coastlines,1999).

Other impacts are also being seen. Somenon-indigenous herbivores (plant-eatinganimals), such as the nutria, have decimatedwetland, marsh, and submerged aquaticvegetation. This leads to increased erosion andloss of food and habitat for native species.Some NIS crossbreed with native species, asituation which can ultimately lead to localextinction of the natives. NIS may also carrydiseases or parasites with them, against whichlocal species have no defense. Finally, someNIS can transform estuarine chemicaldynamics, exposing the food web to new orincreased amounts of toxins.

Human Health Impacts

Some NIS threaten human health. Ballastwater discharges are suspected as causes ofbacterial and viral outbreaks. Ballast watercan also contain the dinoflagellates whichcause red tides (see previous sections in thischapter). These occurrences can have severehealth consequences for people who swim,boat, or eat fish or shellfish from contami-nated waters.

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Socio-Economic Impacts

Not only can NIS have significant impacts onecosystems and human health, but they alsoexact a great financial cost. NIS that grow inunchecked abundance can clog water intakepipes (the zebra mussel is probably the mostnotorious NIS in this regard) and causeinstability to levees. These problems keepmunicipal utilities and land managers on thelookout, and cost millions—even billions—ofdollars to address. One study has estimated thatenvironmental damages caused by NIS add upto $138 billion annually (Pimentel et al, 1999).In the marine environment alone, it costs $5billion each year to control NIS (Valigra, 1999).

Because of the damage they cause to nativepopulations, NIS can have a direct impact onlocal fisheries. The Chinese mitten crab has

been blamed for shutting down fish salvageoperations in the Sacramento River delta. In theChesapeake Bay, scientists and watermen fearthat the recently discovered veined rapawhelk—an Asian native with a voraciousappetite for shellfish—will decimate the region’salready suffering oyster and clam fisheries.

Levels of NIS InvasionAll estuaries in the United States probably

have some NIS, but no one knows exactlyhow many. San Francisco Bay is one of themost invaded estuaries in the world,supporting approximately 230 non-indigenousorganisms (Cohen and Carlton, 1998).Approximately 160 NIS are known to infestthe Chesapeake Bay (SERC Web site), andthe numbers are growing. ■

Non-Indigenous Species: A Different Kind of Pollution

Non-indigenous species (NIS) are viewed as a biological pollutant requiring management underthe federal Clean Water Act. NIS is markedly different from most traditional pollutants, however.

Unlike many other forms of pollution, such as nutrients, oil spills, or sewage, NIS do not eventu-ally dissipate over time. Instead, they grow and reproduce, spreading their impacts throughout theestuary. Because of this characteristic, an NIS is very difficult to eliminate once it becomes estab-lished. Consequently, prevention and early detection are the only cost-effective options for keep-ing NIS out of estuaries.

Sampling ConsiderationsOnce non-indigenous species become

established, they are very difficult—or evenimpossible—to eradicate. Therefore, earlydetection of NIS invasions is critical. Volunteerscan serve an important function by workingwith experts to find NIS. In fact, one of themost firmly established and destructive speciesin the San Francisco Bay area—the Asianclam—was first discovered by a collegebiology class doing basic monitoring exercisesin 1986 (Sheehan, 2000).

NIS include the full range of plants, animals,and microbes, so sampling approaches will varydepending on the species. To help find andcontrol NIS, it is important to understand the

organisms’life histories and habitats (Graves,1999). Awareness of native natural history isimportant for volunteer monitors, who may notknow all NIS in the region but can at leastrecognize what doesn’t look typical.■

Helpful HintIt may be illegal to possess or transportcertain NIS specimens. Volunteer leadersshould check with the appropriategovernment agency about obtaining thenecessary collection and transport permits.Obtain the permits before starting anysampling activities.

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Because NIS include nearly all taxonomicgroups, there is no standard procedure formonitoring them. Monitors should thereforeconsult with their data users to determineacceptable equipment, methods, qualitycontrol measures, and data qualityobjectives (see Chapter5) for theirorganisms of interest.

Regardless of the method used, volunteersshould review the topics addressed in Chapter7 before proceeding to the monitoring site andcollecting samples. It is critical to confirm themonitoring site, date, and time; have thenecessary monitoring equipment and personalgear; and understand all safety considerations.Once at the monitoring site, volunteers shouldrecord general site observations, as discussedin Chapter 7.

The training of volunteers should include asession on the identification of the organismsof interest.



• guide to aid species identification;

• equipment necessary to collect andtransport the organism(s) of interest;

• waterproof copy of any required speciescollection/transport permits; and

• sample preservative, if necessary.

STEP 2: Collect the sample.Volunteers should capture the organisms

using the method designated by the programmanager and approved by the data users.

The volunteers should carefully label thesample container in which the organism willbe transported with the date, site name,organism name (if known), and the name ofthe collector. An indelible marker is best for

ensuring that the labeling is permanent. Makesure that the sample container is not wetbefore using the marker.

STEP 3: Clean up and send off sampleand data.

Volunteers should transport live specimensat chilled temperatures appropriate for thespecies collected in containers supplied by theprogram. The program manager shoulddesignate pickup locations for volunteers todeliver the specimens and supporting datasheets to program personnel. As with all datasheets, the volunteer should make a duplicatein case the original becomes lost.

Make sure to thoroughly clean allequipment. ■

Hunting for NIS—and BountyIn 1999, the Virginia Institute of MarineScience began offering a bounty for theveined rapa whelk. Citizens collect anddonate the animals in return for money or t-shirts.

The project is used to help scientistsdocument the whelk’s distribution in theChesapeake Bay and investigate potentialimpacts on the Bay’s ecosystem.


The Virginia Institute of Marine Science P.O. Box 1346 Gloucester Point, VA 23062-1346 Phone: 804-684-7000http://www.vims.edu/fish/oyreef/rapven.html

How to Monitor Non-Indigenous Species

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Spreading northward from California, the non-indigenous European green crab(Carcinus maenas—see Figure 19-4) first appeared on the Oregon coast in 1997. By1999, green crabs occupied most Oregon estuaries, Washington’s Willapa Bay andGrays Harbor, and sites in British Columbia. A capable predator, this invader raisesconcerns about impacts to native and commercial shellfish in the Pacific Northwest.

Given the invasion rate and extensive area at risk,agency monitoring alone is insufficient to detect thespread of the green crab. Volunteer programs providemany more sets of eyes to watch for this species as wellas other NIS invasions.

To help the public distinguish green crabs from similarnative crabs, Oregon and Washington Sea Grants haveproduced a color photo identification guide. In addition,Washington Sea Grant (with support from the U.S.Department of Fish and Wildlife) held a workshop forvolunteer groups to provide information on green crabbiology and monitoring techniques. Washington State’sDepartment of Fish and Wildlife has contracted withAdopt-A-Beach, a nonprofit volunteer group to train andcoordinate volunteers on green crab monitoring.

Between July and September of 1999, 35 volunteers were trained and 32 monitoringsites, ranging from south Puget Sound to the San Juan Islands and the U.S.-Canadianborder, were established. Volunteers search for the crab using baited traps in theintertidal zone.

Through the combined actions of agencies, tribes, schools, and volunteers,approximately 80 sites are monitored for green crabs in Washington. Numerous effortsto track the status of the green crab in Oregon estuaries also continue. For example,volunteers and high school students along the northern coast are monitoring for greencrabs using live bait and modified minnow traps in six estuarine and marine sites.


Case Study: Keeping Tabs on Green Crabs in the Pacific Northwest

Figure 19-4.TheEuropean green crab,which can have severeenvironmental andeconomic impacts in thePacific Northwest.

Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife1111 Washington St. SEOlympia, WA 98501Phone: 360-902-2200Fax: 360-902-2230

Oregon Sea Grant, Marine Invasive Species Team500 Kerr Admin. Bldg., OSUCorvallis, OR 97331-2131Phone: 541-737-2714Fax: 541-737-2392

Washington Sea Grant, Marine Invasive Species Team3716 Brooklyn Avenue NESeattle, WA 98105-6716Phone: 206-543-6600Fax: 206-685-0380

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Volunteers have many opportunities to become involved in biological monitoring activities.This chapter discusses just a few organisms monitored by volunteers. Below are referencesto other biological monitoring parameters. Volunteer leaders should contact their statemonitoring agencies for information on other monitoring opportunities.

Birds

• “Bird Monitoring in North America”-U.S. Geological Survey Web site: http://www.mp1-pwrc.usgs.gov/birds.html.

• International Black Brant Monitoring Project: http://www.sd69.bc.ca/~brant/.(See also Alexander, G. 1998. “The International Black Brant Monitoring Project:Education That Spans a Flyway.” Coastlines8.2. Web site: http://www.epa.gov/owow/estuaries/coastlines/spring98/blackbrt.html.)

Salt Marshes/Wetlands

• Ferguson, W. 1999. “Fixing a Salt Marsh: Citizens, Shovels, and Sweat.” The VolunteerMonitor 11(1). Web site: http://www.epa.gov/owow/volunteer/spring99/index.html.

• Bryan, R., M. Dionne, R. Cook, J. Jones, and A. Goodspeed. 1997. Maine CitizensGuide to Evaluating, Restoring, and Managing Tidal Marshes. Falmouth, ME. Web site:http://www.maineaudubon.org.

• Lipsky, A. 1996. Narragansett Bay Method: A Manual for Salt Marsh Evaluation. Savethe Bay, Providence, RI. 22 pp. (Save the Bay, 434 Smith St., Providence, RI 02908-3770; phone: 401-272-3540).

• The Volunteer Monitor10(1). 1998. Issue Topic: “Monitoring Wetlands.” Web site:http://www.epa.gov/volunteer/spring98/index.html.

Replanting/Restoration Projects

• The Volunteer Monitor 11(1). 1999. Issue Topic: “Restoration.” Web site:http://www.epa.gov/owow/volunteer/spring99/index.html.

Biological Monitoring: Something for Everyone

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—. 1999. “The Cordgrass Is Not Always Greener on the Other Side.” Coastlines9.5: 6-7.


Cohen, A.N., and J.T. Carlton. 1998. “Accelerating Invasion Rate in a Highly Invaded Estuary.”Science279: 555-557.

Cushing, D.H. 1975. Marine Ecology and Fisheries. Cambridge Univ. Press. 278 pp.


Ely, E. 1991. “Benthic Macroinvertebrate Monitoring in Estuaries—ANew Direction forVolunteer Programs?” The Volunteer Monitor3(1): 5.

Ely, E. 1994. “The Wide World of Monitoring: Beyond Water Quality Testing.” The VolunteerMonitor 6(1): 8-10.

Ely, E. 1998. “‘Early Warning System’for Shellfish Poisoning.” The Volunteer Monitor10(2): 4-7.

Graves, J. 1999. “Exotic Species” In: Meeting Notes—U.S. Environmental Protection Agency(USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: Volunteer Estuary Monitoring:Wave of the Future.Astoria, OR: May 19-21, 1999.

Green, L. 1998. “Let Us Go Down to the Sea: How Monitoring Changes from River to Estuary.”The Volunteer Monitor10(2): 1-3.

Griffin, K. 1998. A Citizen’s Guide to Plankton Monitoring in Tillamook Bay. Tillamook BayNational Estuary Project, Garibaldi, OR. 45 pp.

Heimowitz, P. 1999. “Exotic Species” In: Meeting Notes—U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency (USEPA)/Center for Marine Conservation (CMC) workshop: Volunteer EstuaryMonitoring: Wave of the Future.Astoria, OR: May 19-21, 1999.

Levinton, J.S. 1982. Marine Ecology. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 526 pp.

Matthews, E. 1998. “Washington State Volunteers Fight Spartina.” The Volunteer Monitor10(2): 19.

Nordeen, W. 1999. Phytoplankton Cell Count Protocol. University of Maine CooperativeExtension and Maine Dept. of Marine Resources. April.

Parsons, T.R., M. Takahashi, and B. Hargrave. 1984. Biological Oceanographic Processes. NewYork: Pergamon Press. 330 pp.

Pfauth, M., and M. Sytsma. 1998. Key to West CoastSpartina Species Based on VegetativeCharacters.Portland State University Lakes and Reservoirs Program Publication 98-1.

Pimentel, D., L. Lach, R. Zuniga, and D. Morrison. 1999. Environmental and Economic CostsAssociated with Non-Indigenous Species in the United States. Cornell University. Manuscriptavailable on Internet: http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/Jan99/species_costs.html.

The Plankton Net—Maine’s Phytoplankton Monitoring Newsletter. Available from University ofMaine Cooperative Extension, 235 Jefferson Street, P.O. Box 309, Waldoboro, ME 04572;phone: 207-832-0343; fax: 207-832-0377.


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Sheehan, L. 2000. Center for Marine Conservation, pers. communication.

Smith, D.L., and K. Johnson. 1996. A Guide to Marine Coastal Plankton and MarineInvertebrate Larvae. Kendall/Hunt, Dubuque, IA.

Tampa BayWatch and Tampa Bay National Estuary Program. 1998. “Great Bay Scallop SearchEquipment List,” “Field Procedures” (information sheets).

Tomas, C.R. (ed.). 1997. Identifying Marine Phytoplankton. Academic Press, Harcourt Brace &Co., New York. 858 pp.


Valigra, L. 1999. “Alien Marine Life Eats Locals for Lunch.” Christian Science Monitor Website: http://www.csmonitor.com/durable/1999/02/11/p13s1.htm. Feb. 11, 1999.

Washington Sea Grant Program. 1998. Bioinvasions: Breaching Natural Barriers. WSG 98-01.Web site: http://www.wsg.washington.edu/pubs/bioinvasions/biowarning.html.

Wilcove, David et al. 1998. “Quantifying Threats to Imperiled Species in the United States.”Bioscience48(8).

Web sites:

Shellfish

U.S. Food and Drug Administration

1.Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition

Fish and Fishery Products Hazards and Controls Guide: http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/haccp-2.html

Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook:http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~mow/chap37.html

Seafood Information and Resources: http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/seafood1.html

2.Office of Seafood: http://vm.cfsan.fda. gov/~mow/sea-ill.html

Harmful Algal Blooms

Washington Sea Grant: http://www.wsg.washington.edu/outreach/mas/aquaculture/algalfacts.html

Non-Indigenous Species

Washington Sea Grant: http://www.wsg.washington.edu/outreach/mas/nis/nis.html

San Francisco Estuary Institute: http://www.sfei.org/invasions.html

Smithsonian Environmental Research Center (SERC): http://www.invasions.si.edu

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Invasive Species Program: http://invasives.fws.gov/

Sea Grant Non-Indigenous Species Site: http://www.sgnis.org/

Phytoplankton

Melbourne Parks and Waterways, Biological Surveys: http://140.211.62.101/streamwatch/swm13.html

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Appendix ASample Data Forms

A-1


Appendix A: Sample Data Forms

The following pages contain examples of data forms that may be useful to volunteer estuarymonitoring programs. Many of the forms are currently being used by volunteer groups throughoutthe U.S.

The data forms that can be found on the following pages include:

Page

A-3 Patuxent River Data Collection Form (Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay)

A-5 Citizen Monitoring Program Water Quality Data Sheet (Maine/New Hampshire Sea GrantMarine Advisory Program and University of Maine Cooperative Extension)

A-7 Citizen Monitoring Data Sheet(source unknown)

A-9 Coastal Watershed Survey Data Sheet (Maine Dept. of Environmental Protection)

A-11 International Coastal Cleanup Data Card (The Ocean Conservancy)

A-13 National Marine Debris Monitoring Program Data Card (The Ocean Conservancy)

A-15 Submerged Aquatic Vegetation Survey Form (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)

A-17 SAV Survey Form (source unknown)

A-19 Scallop Search Data Sheet (Tampa BayWatch and the Tampa Bay Estuary Program)

A-21 Shellfish Biotoxin Sample Form (Washington State Department of Health)

A-23 Crustacean Volunteer Survey Form (Portland State University Nonindigenous SpeciesMonitoring Program)

A-25 European Green Crab Survey Form (Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife)


A-2



A-3



A-4



A-5



A-6



A-7



A-8



A-9



A-10



A-11



A-12



A-13



A-14



A-15



A-16



A-17



A-18



A-19



A-20



A-21



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A-23



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A-25



A-26



AppendixBResources

B-1


Appendix B: Resources

DOCUMENTS NOT REFERENCED IN PREVIOUS CHAPTERSU.S. EPA. 1992. National Estuary Program Monitoring Guidance. Office of Water, Washington, DC.

EPA 842-B-92-004. Web site: http://www.epa.gov/OWOW/estuaries/guidance/.

U.S. EPA. 1995. Proceedings of the Fourth National Citizen’s Volunteer Monitoring Conference.EPA Office of Water, Washington, DC. EPA 841-R-94-003.

U.S. EPA. 1992. Proceedings of the Third National Citizen’s Volunteer Monitoring Conference.EPAOffice of Water, Washington, DC. EPA 841-R-92-004.

U.S. EPA. Bibliography of Methods for Marine and Estuarine Monitoring (Files 61-80). Web site: http://www.epa.gov/owowwtr1/info/PubList/monitoring/docs/list4.html.

U.S. EPA Technical Information Packages (TIPS) Publications List. Web site: http://www.epa.gov/clhtml/tips.html.

NEWSLETTERSCoastlines

National Estuary Program NewsletterSubscriptions are free. To subscribe, contact:Coastlines

Urban Harbors Institute100 Morrissey Blvd.Boston, MA 02125-3393Fax: 617-287-5575E-mail: [email protected] available online at www.epa.gov/nep/coastlines/.

NPS News-Notes

EPA Office of Wetlands, Oceans and Watersheds Occasional bulletins dealing with the conditionof the water-related environment, the control of nonpoint sources of water pollution, and theecosystem-driven management and restoration of watersheds.

Subscriptions are free. To subscribe, send name and address to:NPS News-Notesc/o Terrene Institute4 Herbert St.Alexandria, VA 22305 Phone: 703-548-5473Fax: 703-548-6299 Also available online at http://www.epa.gov/owowwtr1/info/NewsNotes/.


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The Volunteer Monitor

The National Newsletter of Volunteer Water Quality Monitoring Published twice yearly. Subscriptions are free. To subscribe, contact:

River NetworkThe Volunteer Monitor Newsletter520 SW6th Ave, Suite 1130Portland, OR 97204-1535Phone: 503-241-3506E-mail: [email protected] available online at www.epa.gov/OWOW/monitoring/volunteer/vm_index.html.

INTERNET RESOURCESEPA Volunteer Monitoring ListServe

To subscribe or unsubscribe, send an email to [email protected]. Leavethe subject line blank. In the message type:subscribe volmonitor lastname firstname or unsubscribe volmonitor lastname firstnameTo post a message, address your email to [email protected]

The Ocean Conservancy’s Ocean Action Network

You can help protect marine wildlife, and the ecosystems of which they are a part, by joining The Ocean Conservancy’s Ocean Action Network (OAN). Subscribers will receive freeOAN Alerts and Updates on issues by e-mail or regular mail:

Ocean Action Network1725 DeSales St., NWSuite 600Washington, DC 20036

If you prefer to receive and respond to alerts via email, visit The Ocean Conservancy’s Web site (www.oceanconservancy.org) and go to “Ocean Action Network”; or send a message, includingyour name, postal address and email address to [email protected].

Federal Agency Web Pages:EPA

EPA homepage: http://www.epa.gov/EPA Office of Water: http://www.epa.gov/ow/EPA Office of Wetlands, Oceans & Watersheds: http://www.epa.gov/owow/ National Estuary Program: http://www.epa.gov/owow/estuaries/nep.htmlSurf Your Watershed: http://www.epa.gov/surfVolunteer Monitoring: http://www.epa.gov/ OWOW/monitoring/vol.htmlWatershed Information Network: http://www.epa.gov/win

NOAA

National Sea Grant Program: http://www.nsgo.seagrant.org/index.htmlNERRS Estuary-Net Project: http://inlet.geol.sc.edu/estnet.htmlVolunteering for the Coast: http://volunteer.nos.noaa.gov/

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Others

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service:http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: http://www.fws.gov/U.S. Forest Service: http://www.fs.fed.us/U.S. Geological Survey: http://www.usgs.gov/

Links to Environmental Groups:

EnviroLink: http://www.envirolink.org/Kentucky Water Watch: http://water.nr.state.ky.us/ww/vm.htmU.S. EPA Office of Water: http://www.epa.gov/owow/estuaries/links.htm#local

FEDERAL AGENCIES AND PROGRAMSEnvironmental Protection Agency (EPA)

Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and WatershedsVolunteer Monitoring (4504T)

1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NWWashington, DC 20460Phone: 202-566-1200Fax: 202-566-1336E-mail: [email protected]

National Estuary Program (NEP)Web site: http://www.epa.gov/owow/estuaries/nep.html

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

U.S. Department of Commerce14th Street & Constitution Ave., NWRoom 6013Washington, D.C. 20230Phone: 202-482-6090Fax: 202-482-3154Email: [email protected]

NOAA Estuarine Reserve Division (NERRS)1305 East West Highway N/ORM5Silver Spring, MD 20910Phone: 301-713-3132Fax: 301-713-4363 Web site: http://www.ocrm.nos.noaa.gov/nerr/

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Alabama

Mobile Bay Estuary Program4172 Commanders DriveMobile, AL 36615Phone: 251-431-6409Fax: 251-431-6450Web site: http://mobilebaynep.com

California

Moro Bay Estuary Project601 Embarcadero, Suite 11Morro Bay, CA 93442Phone: 805-772-3834 Fax: 805-772-4162 Web site: http://www.mbnep.org

San Francisco Estuary Project1515 Clay St., Suite 1400Oakland, CA94612Phone: 510-622-2465 Fax: 510-622-2501 Web site: http://www.abag.ca.gov/bayarea/sfep/sfep.html

Santa Monica Bay Restoration Project320 W. Fourth St., 2nd floorLos Angeles, CA90013Phone: 213-576-6615Fax: 213-576-6646Web site: http://www.smbay.org

Connecticut

Long Island Sound, CT/NYLong Island Sound Study64 Stamford Government Center888 Washington BoulevardStamford, CT06904-2152Phone: 203-977-1541Fax: 203-977-1546 Web site: http://www.epa.gov/region01/eco/lis

Delaware

Delaware Estuary Program, DE/NJ/PADelaware River Basin CommissionP.O. Box 7360West Trenton, NJ 08628Phone: 609-883-9500 ext. 217Fax: 609-883-9522 Web site: http://www.delep.org/

Center for the Inland Bays467 Highway OneLewes, DE 19958Phone: 302-645-7325Fax: 302-645-5765 Web site: http://www.udel.edu/CIB

Florida

Charlotte Harbor Estuary ProgramSW Florida Regional Planning Council4980 Bayline Dr., 4th Fl.North Fort Myers, FL33917-3909Phone: 941-995-1777Fax: 941-656-7724 Web site:http://www.charlotteharbornep.com/

Indian River Lagoon Program1900 South Harbor City Blvd., #107Melbourne, FL32901Phone: 407-984-4950 Fax: 407-984-4937 Web site: http://www.epa.gov/owow/oceans/lagoon/

Sarasota Bay Project5333 N. Tamiami Trail, Suite 104Sarasota, FL34234Phone: 941-359-5841Fax: 941-359-5846 Web site: http://www.sarasotabay.org

National Estuary Porgram (NEP) Contacts

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Tampa Bay Estuary Program100 8th Avenue, SE, MS I-1/NEPSt. Petersburg, FL33701Phone: 727-893-2765Fax: 727-893-2767 Web site: http://www.tbep.org/

Louisiana

Barataria-Terrebonne Estuary ProgramP.O. Box 2663Nicholls State University CampusThibodaux, LA70310Phone: 504-447-0868 or 800-259-0869Fax: 504-447-0870 Web site: http://www.mail.btnep.org

Maine

Casco Bay Estuary ProjectUniversity of Southern MaineP.O. Box 930049 Exeter StreetPortland, ME 04104-9300Phone: 207-780-4820Fax: 207-780-4917Web site:http://www.cascobay.usm.maine.edu

Mar yland

Maryland Coastal Bays Program9609 Stephen Decatur HighwayBerlin, MD 21811Phone: 410-213-2297Fax: 410-213-2574 Web site: http://www.dnr.state.md.us/coastalbays

Massachusetts

Buzzards Bay Estuary Program2870 Cranberry HighwayE. Wareham, MA02538Marion, MA 02738Phone: 508-291-3625Fax: 508-291-3628 Web site: http://www.buzzardsbay.org/

Massachusetts Bays Program251 Causeway StreetSuite 900Boston, MA02114-2151Phone: 617-626-1230Fax: 617-626-1240 Web site:http://www.state.ma.us/massbays

New Hampshire

New Hampshire Estuaries152 Court StreetPortsmouth, NH 03801 Phone: 603-433-7187Fax: 603-431-1438Web site: http://state.nh.us/nhep

New Jersey

Barnegat Bay Estuary ProgramP.O. Box 2191Toms River, NJ 08753Phone: 732-506-5313Fax: 732-244-8396Web site: http://www.bbep.org

Delaware Estuary Program, DE/NJ/PADelaware River Basin CommissionP.O. Box 7360West Trenton, NJ 08628Phone: 609-883-9500 ext. 217Fax: 609-883-9522 Web site: http://www.delep.org/

New York-New Jersey Harbor EstuaryProgram290 Broadway24th Floor.New York, NY 10007Phone: 212-637-3816Fax: 212-637-3889Web site: http://www.harborestuary.org

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New York

Long Island Sound Study64 Stamford Government Center888 Washington BoulevardStamford, CT06904-2152Phone: 203-977-1541Fax: 203-977-1546 Web site: http://www.epa.gov/region01/eco/lis

New York-New Jersey Harbor EstuaryProgram290 Broadway24th Floor.New York, NY 10007Phone: 212-637-3816Fax: 212-637-3889Web site: http://www.harborestuary.org

Peconic Estuary ProgramDepartment of Health ServicesCounty of SuffolkRiverhead County Center, 2nd floorRiverhead, NY11901Phone: 631-852-2077Fax: 631-852-2743 Web site: http://www.co.suffolk.ny.us/health/eq/pep.html

North Carolina

Albemarle-Pamlico Sounds NEPN.C. DENRP.O. Box 27687Raleigh, NC 27611-7687Phone: 919-733-5083 ext. 585Fax: 919-715-5637 Web site: http://h2o.enr.state.nc.us/nep/

Oregon

Lower Columbia River Estuary Program811 SWNaito ParkwayPortland, OR 97204Phone: 503-226-1565Fax: 503-226-1580Web site: http://www.lcrep.org

Tillamook Bay Estuary Program613 Commercial AvenueP.O. Box 493Garibaldi, OR 97118Phone: 503-322-2222Fax: 503-322-2261 Web site:http://www.co.tillamook.or.us/gov/estuary/tbnep/nephome.html

Pennsylvania

Delaware Estuary ProgramDelaware River Basin CommissionP.O. Box 7360West Trenton, NJ 08628Phone: 609-883-9500 ext. 217Fax: 609-883-9522 Web site: http://www.delep.org/

Puerto Rico

San Juan Bay NEP400 Fernandez Juncos Ave., No. 400San Juan, PR 00901-3299Phone: 787-725-8162Fax: 787-725-8164Web site: http://www.estuariosanjuan.org

Rhode Island

Narragansett Bay Estuary Program235 Promenade StreetProvidence, RI 02908-5767Phone: 401-222-4700 ext. 7271Fax: 401-521-4230 Web site: http://www.nbep.org

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Texas

Coastal Bend Bays and EstuariesProgramNatural Resources Building, Suite 33006300 Ocean DriveCorpus Christi, TX 78412Phone: 361-980-3425Fax: 361-980-3437 Web site: http://tarpon.tamucc.edu

Galveston Bay Estuary Program711 West Bay Area Boulevard, # 210Webster, TX 77598Phone: 281-332-9937Fax: 281-332-8590 Web site:http://gbep.tamug.tamu.edu/gbepix.html

Washington

Lower Columbia River Estuary Program811 SWNaito ParkwayPortland, OR 97204Phone: 503-226-1565Fax: 503-226-1580Web site: http://www.lcrep.org

Puget Sound Water Quality Action TeamPuget Sound Estuary ProgramP.O. Box 40900Olympia, WA 98504-0900Phone: 360-407-7300; 800-54-SOUND (WA only)Fax: 360-407-7333 Web site:http://www.wa.gov/puget_sound

Alabama

Weeks Bay NERR11300 U.S. Highway 98Fairhope, AL 36532-5476Phone: 334-928-9792Fax: 334-928-1792

Alaska

Kachemak Bay NERRHomer Office - Reserve Headquarters202 West Pioneer AvenueHomer, AK 99603Phone: 907-235-4799Fax: 907-235-4794

Anchorage Office - ADF&GAlaska Department of Fish and GameHabitat and Restoration Division333 Raspberry Rd.Anchorage, AK 99518Phone: 907-267-2331Fax: 907-267-2464

California

Elkhorn Slough NERR1700 Elkhorn RoadWatsonville, CA95076Phone: 831-728-2822Fax: 831-728-1056

National Estuarine Research Reserve System (NERRS) Contacts

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Tijuana Estuary Visitor Center301 Caspian WayImperial Beach, CA91932Phone: 619-575-3613Fax: 619-575-6913

San Francisco Bay (Proposed) NERRRomberg-Tiburon CenterP.O. Box 855Tiburon, CA94920Phone: 415-338-3703Fax: 415-435-7120

Delaware

Delaware NERR 818 Kitts Hummock Rd. Dover, DE 19901 Phone: 302-739-3436Fax: 302-739-3446

Florida

Apalachicola NERR Visitor and Education Center 261 7th Street Apalachicola, FL32320 Phone: 850-653-8063/2296

Administrative and Technical Offices 350 Carroll Street Eastpoint, FL32328 Phone: 850-670-4783Fax: 850-670-4324

Rookery Bay NERRDepartment of Environmental Protection300 Tower RoadNaples, FL34113 Phone: 941-417-6310Fax: 941-417-6315

Guana Tolomato Matanzas NERRPO Box 840069St. Augustine, FL32084Phone: 904-461-4053Fax: 904-461-4053

Georgia

Sapelo Island NERRP.O. Box 15Sapelo Island, GA31327Phone: 912-485-2251Fax: 912-485-2141

Maine

Wells NERR342 Laudholm Farm RoadWells, ME 04090Phone: 207-646-1555Fax: 207-646-2930

Mar yland

Chesapeake Bay NERR - MarylandMaryland Department of NaturalResourcesTawes State Office Building, E-2580 Taylor AvenueAnnapolis, MD 21401Phone: 410-260-8713Fax: 410-260-8739

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Massachusetts

Waquoit Bay NERR P.O. Box 3092 149 Waquoit Highway Waquoit Bay, MA 02536Phone: 508-457-0495Fax: 617-727-5537

Mississippi

Grand Bay NERRDepartment of Marine Resources6005 Bayou Heron ResourcesMoss Point, MS 39562Phone: 228-475-7047Fax: 228-475-8849

New Hampshire

Great Bay NERRN.H. Fish and Game DepartmentMarine Fisheries Department225 Maine StreetDurham, NH 03824Phone: 603-868-1095Fax: 603-868-3305

Sandy Point Discovery Center; GBNERR89 Depot RoadStratham, NH 03885Phone: 603-778-0015

New Jersey

Jacques Cousteau NERRInstitute of Marine and Coastal SciencesRutgers University71 Dudley RoadNew Brunswick, NJ 08903-0231Phone: 732-932-6555Fax: 732-932-8578

New York

Hudson River NERRNYS DEC, c/o Bard College FieldStationAnnandale-on-Hudson, NY12504-5000Phone: 914-758-7010Fax: 914-758-7033

St. Lawrence River (Proposed) NERR317 Washington StreetWatertown, NY13601Phone: 315-785-2443Fax: 315-785-2574

North Carolina

North Carolina NERR 5001 Masonboro Loop Road1 Marvin Moss LaneWilmington, NC 28409Phone: 910-962-2470Fax: 910-962-2410

North Carolina NERRc/o Duke University Marine Laboratory135 Pivers Island Road Beaufort, NC 28516 Phone: 252-728-2170Fax: 252-728-6273

Ohio

Old Woman Creek NERRDepartment of Natural Resources2514 Cleveland Road EastHuron, OH 44839Phone: 419-433-4601Fax: 419-433-2851

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Oregon

South Slough NERRP.O. Box 5417 Charleston, OR 97420Phone: 541-888-5558Fax: 541-888-5559

Puerto Rico

Jobos Bay NERRDepartment of Natural andEnvironmental ResourcesCall Box BAguirre, PR 00704Phone: 787-853-4617Fax: 787-953-4618

Rhode Island

Narragansett Bay NERR 55 South Reserve Drive Prudence Island, RI 02872Phone: 401-683-6780 (on-site)Fax: 401-682-1936

South Carolina

Ace Basin NERRP.O. Box 12559Charleston, SC 29412Phone: 843-762-5062Fax: 843-762-5001

North Inlet-Winyah Bay NERR Baruch Marine Field Laboratory University of South Carolina P.O. Box 1630 Georgetown, SC 29442Phone: 843-546-3623Fax: 843-546-1632

Virginia

Chesapeake Bay NERR - VirginiaVirginia Institute of Marine ScienceP.O. Box 1346Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062Phone: 804-684-7135Fax: 804-684-7120

Washington

Padilla Bay NERRDepartment of Ecology 10441 Bayview-Edison Road Mount Vernon, WA 98273-9668Phone: 360-428-1558 Fax: 360-428-1491TDD: 360-757-1549

Appendix CEquipment Suppliers

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Appendix C: Equipment Suppliers

Aquatic Research InstrumentsP.O. Box 93Lemhi, ID 83465Phone: 800-320-9482; 208-756-8433Web site: www.aquaticresearch.comWater samplers, sediment samplers, planktonsamplers, drift nets, calibrated lines, armoredthermometers, BOD bottles.

Ben Meadows Company190 Etowah Industrial CourtCanton, GA30114Phone: 800-241-6401Web site: www.benmeadows.comWaders, rubber boots, field water testequipment, kick nets, dip nets, wash buckets,forceps.

Carolina Biological Supply Company2700 York RoadBurlington, NC 27215-3398Phone: 800-334-5551Web site: www.carolina.comFlexible arm magnifiers, hand lenses, forceps,kick nets, microscopes, reagents, educationalmaterials, live and mounted specimens forinstruction.

Cole Parmer Instruments, Inc.625 East Bunker CourtVernon Hills, IL60061Phone: 800-323-4340Web site: www.coleparmer.comLab equipment, field water test equipment,microscopes.

ChemetricsRoute 28Calverton, VA 20138Phone: 800-356-3072Web site: www.chemetrics.comWater testing kits for field analysis ofdissolved oxygen, nitrate, nitrite, ammonia,phosphates, chlorine, sulfur, manganese,others.

Consolidated Plastics8181 Darrow RoadTwinsburg, OH 44087Phone: 800-362-1000Web site: www.consolidatedplastics.comSampling trays, buckets, Nalgene bottles,Whirl-paks.

Earth Force1908 Mt. Vernon Avenue, 2nd FloorAlexandria, VA 22301Phone: 703-299-9485Web site: www.earthforce.orgEarth Force’s GREEN program has low-cost,self-contained, nontoxic, premeasured watermonitoring kits designed for young people.

Fisher Scientific Company711 Forbes Ave.Pittsburgh, PA 15219Phone: 800-766-7000Web site: www.fishersci.comLab equipment, sample bottles, sieves,reagents and chemicals, incubators, water testequipment, Whirl-paks.


This is a partial list of suppliers from which a volunteer estuary monitoring program mightobtain scientific equipment. This list does not imply endorsement by the U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency.

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Forestry Suppliers, Inc.P.O. Box 8397Jackson, MS 39284-8397Phone: 601-354-3565Web site: www.forestry-suppliers.comSecchi disks, transparency tubes, watersampling equipment, bottom dredges, sedimentsamplers, plankton and other nets, fishmeasuring boards. Ask for "EnvironmentalSource" catalogue.

GREENSee Earth Force

Hach Equipment CompanyP.O. Box 389Loveland, CO 80539-0389Phone: 800-227-4224Web site: www.hach.comField and lab water testing equipment,spectrophotometers, incubators, watersampling kits, fecal coliform samplingsupplies (including presence-absence tests),reagents, educational materials.

Hydrolab Corporation8700 Cameron RoadAustin, TX 78754Phone: 800-949-3766Web site: www.hydrolab.comMulti-parameter electronic meters forphysical and chemical parameters.

Idexx LaboratoriesOne Idexx DriveWestbrook, ME 04092Phone: 800-321-0207Web site: www.idexx.comColilert products for bacterial testing.

J. L. Darling Corporation2614 Pacific Highway EastTacoma, WA 98424-1017Phone: 253-922-5000Web site: www.riteintherain.comAll-weather writing paper.

LaMotteP.O. Box 329Chestertown, MD 21620Phone: 800-344-3100; 410-778-3100 (inMaryland)Web site: www.lamotte.comWater sampling kits, field and lab water testingequipment, Secchi disks, water samplers,armored thermometers, calibrated lines,plankton nets, kick nets, educational materials.

Lawrence EnterprisesSee Water Monitoring Equipment & Supply

Micrology Laboratories206 West Lincoln AvenueGoshen, IN 46526Phone: 888-327-9435Web site: www.micrologylabs.comLab equipment and media for bacterialtesting, including Coliscan products (ColiscanEasyGel and Coliscan MF) and ECACheck.

Millipore Corporation80 Ashby RoadBedford, MA01730Phone: 800-645-5476Web site: www.millipore.comFecal coliform testing supplies (complete sterilewater filtration system), membrane filters,sterile pipettes, petri dishes, sterile media, otherwater sampling and testing equipment and labsupplies, incubators, Whirl-paks.

Nalge Nunc InternationalP.O. Box 20365Rochester, NY 14602Phone: 800-625-4327Web site: www.nalgenunc.comFecal coliform testing supplies, membranefilters, sterile pipettes, petri dishes,incubators, Whirl-paks.

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National Archives and RecordsAdministrationCartographic and Architectural Branch8601 Adelphi RoadCollege Park, MD 20740-6001Phone: 301-713-7040E-mail: [email protected] (Note: whensubmitting a request via e-mail, be sure toinclude a regular mail address.)Web site:www.nara.gov/research/ordering/mapordr.htmlPhotographs, generally from before 1955.

Nichols Net and Twine, Inc.2200 Highway 111Granite City, IL 62040Phone: 618-797-0211; 800-878-6387Nets of all kinds (dip, kick, insect, larvae,macroinvertebrates), seines, custom nets.

Ocean Pro Shop4060 DuPont Parkway Townsend, DE 19734Phone: 302-378-8666Web site: www.wserv.com/oceanpro/Nets.

Onset Computer CorporationP.O. Box 3450Pocasset, MA02559-3450Phone: 800-564-4377; 508-759-9500Web site: www.onsetcomp.comData loggers.

Strategic Diagnostics Inc. (SDI)111 Pencader Drive Newark, DE 19702Phone: 800-544-8881Web site: http://www.sdix.comImmunoassay kits for pesticides, othercontaminants.

Thomas Scientific Company99 High Hill RoadP.O. Box 99Swedesboro, NJ 08085Phone: 856-467-2000; 800-345-2100Web site: www.thomassci.comLab equipment, sample bottles, sieves,reagents, incubators, water test equipment,Whirl-paks.

U.S. Department of AgricultureUSDA Consolidated Farm Service AgencyAerial Photography Field Office2222 West 2300 South Salt Lake City, UT 84119-2020 Phone: 801-975-3500Web site: www.fsa.usda.govRecent aerial photos.

U.S. Environmental Protection AgencyMaps on Demand Web site:www.epa.gov/enviro/html/mod/index.htmlInternet site that allows users to generatemaps displaying environmental informationfor most locations in the U.S. Types ofinformation that can be mapped include EPA-regulated facilities, demographic information,roads, and waterbodies. Maps of varyingscales can be generated on the site (latitudeand longitude), zip code, county, and basinlevels. Submit your request and email address,and after a brief wait, you will be able to viewyour map on-line or download it.

U.S. Geological SurveyUSGS Information ServicesBox 25286Denver Federal CenterDenver, CO 80225Phone: 888-ASK-USGSWeb site: mapping.usgs.gov/Topographic maps and aerial photos.

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VWR ScientificP.O. Box 626Bridgeport, NJ 08014Phone: 800-932-5000; 908-757-4045Web site: www.vwrsp.comGlassware, labeling tape, sample vials, labequipment, incubators, reagents, Whirl-paks.

Wards Natural Science Establishment, Inc.P.O. Box 92912Rochester, NY 14692-9012Phone: 800-962-2660; 716-359-2502Web site: www.wardsci.comAlcohol lamps, balances, microscopes, sampletrays, goggles, rubber stoppers, autoclaves,spectrophotometers, incubators, petri dishes,sterile pipettes, glassware, educationalmaterials, live and mounted specimens forinstruction.

Water Monitoring Equipment & SupplyP.O. Box 344Seal Harbor, ME 04675Phone: 207-276-5746Web site: watermonitoringequip.comMonitoring equipment: transparency tubes,view scopes, Secchi disks, water samplers,kick nets, sieve buckets.

Wildlife Supply Company95 Botsford PlaceBuffalo, NY 14216Phone: 800-799-8301Web site: www.wildco.comKick nets, plankton nets, wash buckets, fieldbiological sampling equipment, water bottles.

YSI Incorporated1725 Brannum LaneYellow Springs, Ohio 45387Phone: 937-767-7241Web site: www.ysi.comElectronic water quality monitoring meters,other water quality supplies.

GlossaryGlossary and Acronyms

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Glossary and Acronyms

Abiotic – Pertaining to factors or things that areseparate and independent from living things:nonliving.

Accuracy –A measure of confidence in ameasurement. As the difference between themeasurement of a parameter and its "true" orexpected value becomes smaller, themeasurement becomes more accurate.

Acid – Any substance capable of giving up aproton; a substance that ionizes in solution togive the positive ion of the solvent; a solutionwith a pH measurement less than 7. See alsoalkaline.

Acid rain – Precipitation composed of waterparticles, sulfuric acid, and/or nitric acid. Theseacids are formed from sulfur dioxides from thesmokestacks of coal and oil burning powerplants and from nitrogen oxides emitted bymotor vehicles. This precipitation form canchange the chemistry of healthy soils andwaters, potentially making them unfit to supportlife.

Acidity – A measure of the number of freehydrogen ions (H+) in a solution that canchemically react with other substances. Also seepH.

Acute toxicity – When exposure levels result indeath within 96 hours. Lethal doses differ foreach toxin and species, and are influenced bythe potency and concentration of the toxin.

Aerobic –Living or occurring only in thepresence of oxygen.

Algae –Organisms containing chloropyll andother pigments that permit photosynthesis.Algae lack true roots, stems, or leaves.

Algaecide –Chemical agent added to water todestroy algae.

Algal bloom (algae bloom) –Excessivegrowth of aquatic algae resulting from nutrientssuch as nitrogen and phosphorus being added tothe environment. Other physical and chemicalconditions can also enable algae to reproducerapidly.

Alkaline or basic –A solution with a pHmeasurement above 7.0. Alkaline solutionscontain an alkali, which is any base orhydroxide (OH-) that is soluble in water andcan neutralize acids. Also see base, acid.

Alkalinity – The capacity of water to neutralizeacids, a property imparted by the water'scontent of carbonate, bicarbonate, hydroxide,and on occasion borate, silicate, and phosphate.It is expressed in milligrams per liter ofequivalent calcium carbonate (mg/l CaCO3).

Anaerobic –Living or occurring only in theabsence of free oxygen.

Analyte – Parameter being tested.

Anion – Ion having a negative charge; an atomwith extra electrons. Atoms of non-metals, insolution, become anions. See conductivity.

Anoxia –A condition when the water becomestotally depleted of oxygen (below 0.5 mg/l) andresults in the death of any organism thatrequires oxygen for survival. The adjective isanoxic.

Anthr opogenic – Coming from humanactivities, e.g., human sources of pollutants andother impacts on natural environments.

Note: The terms contained within this glossary are general definitions and are accurate as theyrelate to water analysis. They are for reference only.


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Atmospheric deposition –The processwhereby air pollutants are deposited on landand water, sometimes at great distances fromtheir original sources. Pollution deposited insnow, fog, or rain is called wet deposition,while the deposition of pollutants as dryparticles or gases is called dry deposition. Airpollution can be deposited into waterbodieseither directly from the air or through indirectdeposition, where the pollutants settle on theland and are then carried into a waterbody byrunoff.

Atomic absorption – Quantitative chemicalmethod used for the analysis of elementalconstituents.

Autoclave –An oven-like vessel used forsterilization of equipment, carrying outchemical reactions, etc., at high temperatureand pressure.

BMP – See best management practices.

BOD – See biochemical oxygen demand.

Bacteria –Any of numerous unicellularmicroorganisms of the class Schizomycetes,occurring in a wide variety of forms, existingeither as free-living organisms or parasites,and having a wide range of biochemical, oftenpathogenic properties. Some bacteria arecapable of causing human, animal or plantdiseases; others are essential in pollutioncontrol because they breakdown organicmatter in air and water.

Bacterial examination –The examination ofwater and wastewater to determine thepresence, number, and identification ofbacteria. Also called bacterial analysis.

Ballast water – Water taken on vessels tokeep them stable at sea. Ballast water cancontain aquatic plants, animals, and pathogensthat can be introduced to an estuary when it isdischarged near ports.

Base – Any substance that contains hydroxyl(OH-) groups and furnishes hydroxide ions insolution. A molecular or ionic substancecapable of combining with a proton to form anew substance; a substance that provides apair of electrons for a covalent bond with anacid; a solution with a pH of greater than 7.0.Also see pH.

Baseline data –Initial data generated byconsistent monitoring of the same sites overtime.

Benthic –Pertaining to the bottom (bed) of awaterbody.

Best Management Practices (BMPs) –Pollution control techniques that aim toreduce pollution from agriculture, timberharvesting, construction, marinas, stormwaterand other sources.

Bioassay (biological assay) –A controlledexperiment using a change in biologicalactivity as a qualitative or quantitative meansof analyzing a biological response to apollutant by using viable organisms.Depending on the test, microorganisms,planktonic animals, or live fish can be used astest organisms to determine the effects a toxicsubstance has on living organisms.

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) – Theamount of oxygen taken up bymicroorganisms that decompose organicwaste matter in water.

Biocides – Chemical agents with the capacityto kill biological life forms. Bactericides,insecticides, herbicides, pesticides, etc. areexamples.

Biodegradability – The susceptibility of asubstance to decomposition by the actions ofmicroorganisms.

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Biological accumulation (bioaccumulation) –The uptake and storage of chemicals (e.g.,DDT, PCBs) from the environment byanimals and plants. Uptake can occur throughfeeding or direct absorption from water orsediments. The concentration of a substancein the tissue of an individual organism.

Biological magnification (also calledbioamplification or bioconcentration) –Theprogressive increase in the concentration ofchemical contaminants (e.g., DDT, PCBs,methyl mercury) from the bottom of the foodchain (e.g., bacteria, phytoplankton,zooplankton) to the top of the food chain(e.g., fishing-eating birds such as acormorant).

Biomass –The amount of living matter in agiven habitat or the total mass of a particularspecies or groups of species in a specifiedarea.

Biomonitoring – The use of living organismsto evaluate the anthropogenic, or human-induced, impacts on biota.

Bioturbation – Disturbance of sediment byanimals.

Bloom –A dramatic increase in the numberand volume of planktonic species as a resultof favorable environmental conditions (e.g.,temperature, nutrient availability, etc.). Seealgal bloom.

Brackish – Having a salinity between that offresh and marine water.

Buffer – A substance dissolved in water thatresists changes in pH (minimizes changes inhydrogen ion concentration).

Buret –A graduated glass tube used formeasuring and releasing small and preciseamounts of liquid.

Calibration – The checking, adjusting, orsystematic standardizing of the graduations ofa quantitative measuring instrument.

Carcinogen –A substance that causes cancer.

Cation –A positively charged atom or groupof atoms, or a radical which moves to thenegative pole (cathode) during electrolysis.See conductivity.

Chlorinated hydrocarbons –Compoundssuch as DDTand PCBs made of carbon,hydrogen, and chlorine atoms. Once releasedinto the environment, these chemicals becomebiologically amplified as they move up thefood chain; that is, as minnows eatzooplankton, larger fish eat minnows, andseabirds eat the larger fish, the concentrationof these chemicals in tissues is greatlyincreased.

Chlorophyll – A group of green pigmentsfound in most plants, includingphytoplankton, which are used forphotosynthesis. The chlorophyll a pigment isgenerally measured.

Chronic toxicity – Also referred to as sub-lethal. Does not result in death (at exposuresof at least 96 hours) but can cause impairmentto aquatic animals, organ damage and failure,gastro-intestinal damage, and can affectgrowth and reproduction.

Coliform bacteria – Any of several bacilli,especially of the genera Escherichia, found inthe intestines of animals. Their presence in watersuggests contamination with sewage of feces,which in turn could mean that disease-causingbacteria or viruses are present. Fecal coliformbacteria are used to indicate possible sewagecontamination. Fecal coliform bacteria are notharmful themselves, but indicate the possiblepresence of disease-causing bacteria, viruses, andprotozoans that live in human and animaldigestive systems. In addition to the possiblehealth risks associated with them, the bacteria

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can also cause cloudy water, unpleasant odors,and increased biochemical oxygen demand.

Combined sewer– Sewer system that carriesboth sanitary wastes and storm runoff to awastewater treatment plant to be treated andreleased to a body of water.

Combined seweroverflow (CSO) –If awastewater treatment plant does not have thecapacity to treat the increased volume causedby stormwater runoff, the combined sewermay discharge untreated sewage andstormwater directly into a body of water.

Comparability – The extent to which datafrom one study can be compared directly toeither past data from the current project ordata from another study. Using standardizedsampling and analytical methods, units ofreporting, and site selection procedures helpensure comparability.

Completeness – A measure of the number ofsamples you must take to be able to use theinformation, as compared to the number ofsamples you originally planned to take.

Compound – Two or more elementscombined; a substance having propertiesdifferent from those of its separate elements.

Concentrated –Being of full strength orundiluted.

Conductivity – A measure of the ability ofwater to pass an electrical current. Conductivityin water is affected by the presence of inorganicdissolved solids such as chloride, nitrate, sulfate,and phosphate anions (ions that carry a negativecharge) or sodium, magnesium, calcium, iron,and aluminum cations (ions that carry a positivecharge). As the concentration of salts in thewater increases, electrical conductivity rises; thegreater the salinity, the higher the conductivity.Conductivity is also affected by temperature: thewarmer the water, the higher the conductivity.For this reason, conductivity is extrapolated to astandard temperature (25°C).

Contamination – A general term signifyingthe impairment of water, sediments, plants oranimals by chemicals or bacteria to such adegree that it creates a hazard to public and/orenvironmental health through poisoning,biomagnification, or the spread of disease.

DDT – Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane. Achlorinated hydrocarbon widely used as apesticide in the United States until its use wasbanned in the United States in 1972. Toxic tohumans and wildlife when swallowed orabsorbed through the skin.

DO – See dissolved oxygen.

DQOs – See data quality objectives.

Data Quality Objectives (DQOs) –Statements that define quantitative andqualitative information required by the datausers to meet program needs.

Deionized water– Water with all ionsremoved.

Denitrification – The process wherebybacteria convert nitrate to nitrite and then tonitrogen gas.

Detection limit – The lowest concentration ofa given pollutant that an analytical method orequipment can detect and still report asgreater than zero. Generally, as readingsapproach the detection limit (i.e., as they gofrom higher, easier-to-detect concentrations tolower, harder-to-detect concentrations), theybecome less and less reliable.

Detritus – Small particles of dead anddecomposing organic matter, including twigs,leaves and other plant and animal wastes.

Digital titrator – A titrator unit having acounter that displays numbers. As the reagentis dispensed, the counter changes inproportion to the amount of reagent used.

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Dilute – To thin out, or having been thinnedout; less than full strength.

Dinoflagellate – A dominant planktonic formoccurring as a microscopic single cell. Oftenhas two flagella to assist with movement.

Dioxin – A family of some 210 synthetic,organic chemicals of the chlorinatedhydrocarbon class. Some dioxins are knownto be highly toxic and are thought to increasethe incidence of cancer and birth defects inhumans.

Dissolved oxygen (DO) – Oxygen moleculesthat are dissolved in water and available forliving organisms to use for respiration.Usually expressed in milligrams per liter orpercent of saturation. The concentration ofDO is an important environmental parametercontributing to water quality.

Dissolved solids – The total amount ofdissolved material, organic and inorganic,contained in water or wastewater.Measurements are expressed as ppm or mg/l.

Distilled water – Water that has been purifiedby distillation (boiling the water off as steamand condensing it back to a liquid, leaving theimpurities behind). Having been boiled, thewater is also sterile.

Dry deposition – See atmospheric deposition.

Ecosystem – A community of speciesinteracting with each other and with thephysical (nonliving) environment.

Effluent – A discharge to a body of waterfrom a defined or point source, generallyconsisting of a mixture of waste and waterfrom industrial or municipal facilities.

Emergent Plants – Plants rooted under water,but with their tops extending above the water.

Endpoint – That stage in titration at which aneffect, such as a color change, occurs,indicating that a desired point in the titrationhas been reached.

Endocrine disrupters – chemicals that canmimic, block, or otherwise disrupt humanhormones.

Enrichment – The addition of nitrogen,phosphorous, carbonaceous compounds, orother nutrients into a waterway that greatlyincrease the growth potential for algae andother aquatic plants.

Entanglement – To become tangled in orensnared. A common cause of death formarine animals is entanglement by marinedebris. Animals can become caught indiscarded fishing nets, monofilament line, andother gear, rope, six-pack rings, balloonribbons, plastic grocery bags, and otherfloating debris.

Enterococci – A group of bacteria foundprimarily in the intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals. Enterococci are unrelated tothe coliforms; rather, they are a subgroup ofthe fecal streptococci group.

Envir onment – All the factors that act uponan organism or community of organisms,including climate, soil, water, chemicals,radiation, and other living things.

Envir onmental Protection Agency (EPA) –A federal agency, established in 1970,concerned with air and water quality,radiation, pesticides, and solid-waste disposal.It is responsible for enforcing most federalenvironmental laws and for administering theNational Estuary Program (NEP).

Epiphyte – A plant that grows upon anotherplant, but is not parasitic. On aquatic plants,excessive epiphytes can decrease the amountof sunlight reaching the host plant.

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Erosion – The process where wind, water,ice, and other mechanical and chemical forceswear away rocks and soil, breaking upparticles and moving them from one place toanother.

Escherichia coli– A single species within thefecal coliforms group. Commonly used asindicator bacteria. Occurs only in the feces ofwarm-blooded mammals

Estuary – A semi-enclosed coastal body ofwater which has free connection with theopen sea and within which seawater ismeasurably diluted with fresh water derivedfrom land drainage. Estuaries are transitionzones between fresh water and the salt waterof an ocean.

Eutr ophic – Highly productive condition,generally the result of nutrient enrichment inthe water column that may cause algae (e.g.,phytoplankton) to bloom.

Eutr ophication – A condition in an aquaticecosystem where high nutrient concentrationsstimulate blooms of algae (e.g.,phytoplankton). Algal decomposition maylower dissolved oxygen concentrations.Although eutrophication is a natural processin the aging of lakes and some estuaries, itcan be accelerated by both point and nonpointsources of nutrients.

Fecal coliforms – See coliform bacteria.

Filter feeders – Animals (e.g., clams andoysters) that feed by filtering out of the watercolumn small food items such as detritus,phytoplankton, and zooplankton.

Filtration – The process of separating solidsfrom a liquid by means of a porous substance(filter) through which only the liquid can pass.

Fish Consumption Advisory –An advisoryissued by government agencies and used toreduce human health risks associated with

exposure to chemical contaminants (e.g.,PCBs, DDT, mercury) found in fish andshellfish. Advisories may recommend bansand restricted consumption of specific speciesin specific geographical areas of an estuary.

Fixed sample –A sample that has beenrendered chemically stable or unalterable,meaning that atmospheric oxygen will nolonger affect the test result.

Flushing rate – The time it takes for all thewater in an estuary to be moved out to sea.Flushing rates vary from days to weeks.

Food chain – A sequence of organisms in anecological community, each of which is foodfor the next higher organism, from theprimary producer to the top consumer.

Food web – A complex system of energy andfood transfer between organisms in anecosystem. Refers to the way that organicmatter is transferred from the primaryproducers (plants) to primary consumers(herbivores), and on up to higher feeding(trophic) levels.

Formalin – A 40% solution of Formaldehyde(CH2O), which is a preservative, an irritant,and a probable carcinogen. Formalin is usedto preserve organisms for later observation.

Fresh water– Water that is not salty. Freshwater enters estuaries from rivers, streams andthrough precipitation (rain, snow).

Habitat – The place where a population orcommunity (e.g., microorganisms, plants,animals) lives and its surroundings, bothliving and nonliving.

Habitat disruption – Destruction oralteration of a habitat by cutting across orestablishing barriers to migration routes ordestroying breeding areas or food sources.Loss of habitat is the primary cause of loss ofbiodiversity.

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Heavy metals – A general term given to theions of metallic elements such as mercury,copper, zinc, chromium, and aluminum.

Herbicide – A pesticide designed to killspecific plants.

Hydr ocarbon – A chemical compoundcontaining only hydrogen and carbon.

Hypoxia – A condition where very lowconcentrations of dissolved oxygen are in thewater column. When the level of dissolvedoxygen falls below 3 mg/l, water isconsidered hypoxic. At this level, manyspecies will move elsewhere and immobilespecies may die.

Indicator – 1) A compound that changescolor under a particular condition or over aparticular range of conditions. 2) An organismwhose presence suggests the presence of otherorganisms. See coliform bacteria. 3) Ameasurement of environmental conditions ortrends in environmental quality which can beused to evaluate resource protection programsand assess the general sate of theenvironment.

Ingestion – To eat. Some animals die frommarine debris when they mistakenly ingesthumanmade materials. By consuming thesematerials, damage can be caused to theanimals’digestive systems, or animals maystop eating because their stomachs are full.Because the debris in their stomachs offers nonutritional value, creatures eventually starveto death.

Inorganic – Being or composed of matter thatis not organic.

Inver tebrates – Animals that lack a spinalcolumn or backbone. Includes molluscs (e.g.,clams and oysters), crustaceans (e.g., crabsand shrimp), insects, starfish, jellyfish,sponges, and many types of worms that livein the benthos.

Land use – The way land is developed andused in terms of the kinds of anthropogenic(human) activities that occur (e.g., agriculture,residential areas, industrial areas).

Larva, larvae – An immature form of anorganism that will undergo metamorphosis tobecome a juvenile and then an adult.

mg/l – See milligrams per liter.

MPN – See most probable number.

Macro – A prefix meaning large. Usuallyrefers to organisms large enough to be seenwith the un-aided eye.

Macroinvertebrates – Organisms that arelarge (macro) enough to be seen with thenaked eye and lack a backbone (invertebrate).

Marsh or salt marsh – A protected intertidalwetland where fresh water and salt watermeet. Characterized by plants such as salt hay,black rush, and smooth cordgrass.

Mean (Average) – Using a set of n numbers,the sum of the numbers divided by n.

Measurement range – The range of reliablemeasurements of an instrument or measuringdevice.

Membrane filtration – An analytical methodcommonly used to identify coliforms in water.A measured amount of water is passedthrough a membrane filter, trapping bacteriaon its surface. The filter is then placed on apad that has been saturated with a specificmedium designed to permit the growth of theorganism or organisms being sought. Thefilter is incubated, and the bacterial colonieswhich have grown on the filter surface arecounted to determine the number of bacteriain the water sample.

GA-8



Meniscus – The curved upper surface of anon-turbulent liquid in a container; it isconcave (curves upward) if it wets thecontainer walls, and convex (curvesdownward) if it does not. For accuratemeasurements, readings should be taken at theflat center of the meniscus. The curve of themeniscus is due to surface tension.

Metadata – “Data about data.” Informationthat helps characterize the data that volunteerscollect. Metadata answer who, what, when,where, why, and how about every facet of thedata being documented. This informationhelps others understand exactly how the datawas obtained.

Metals, toxic – Some fifty of the eightyelemental metals used in industry, many ofwhich (e.g., cadmium, lead, mercury and zinc)are toxic to humans and are primarily absorbedinto the body by inhalation or ingestion.

Micr o – A prefix meaning one-millionth of aunit.

Micr oorganisms– Organisms (microbes)observable only through a microscope; larger,visible types are called macroorganisms.

Milligrams per liter (mg/l) – A weight pervolume designation used in water andwastewater analysis. Equivalent to parts permillion (1 ppm = 1 mg/l).

Molecule – The simplest structural unit of asubstance that retains the properties of thesubstance and is composed of one or moreatoms.

Most probable number(MPN) – Ananalytical method used to detect the presenceof coliforms in a water sample and estimatetheir numbers.

NEP – See National Estuary Program.

NERRS – See National Estuarine ResearchReserve System.

National Estuarine Research ReserveSystem (NERRS) – A federal programadministered by the National Oceanic andAtmospheric Administration (NOAA). NERRsites monitor the effects of natural and humanactivities on estuaries to help identify methodsto manage and protect coastal areas.

National Estuary Program – A federalprogram administered by the EPA that targetsa broad range of issues and engages localcommunities in the process. Each NEPismade up of representatives from federal, state,and local government agencies and membersof the community working together to identifyproblems in the estuary, develop specificactions to address those problems, and createand implement a formal management plan torestore and protect the estuary.

Nephelometer– An instrument that measuresscattered light in a liquid.

Nephelometric turbidity unit (NTU) – Astandard unit of turbidity measurement.

Neutral – On the pH scale, neither acid noralkaline. Pure water is neutral, and has a pHof 7.0.

Nitrates – One form of nitrogen that plantscan use for growth.

Nitrification – The process whereby somebacteria transform ammonium into nitrite andthen to nitrate.

Nitr ogen – An essential nutrient for plant andanimal development. Too much of thisnutrient can cause accelerated plant growth,algae blooms, and increase the amount ofmaterial available for decomposition (whichlowers dissolved oxygen).

Non-Indigenous Species (NIS) – Species thatmigrate or are carried by animals and humansinto ecosystems outside their normal range ofoccurrence. These “ alien invaders” are knownby many names, including alien, non-native,

GA-9



introduced, nuisance, invasive, and exoticspecies. Some of these organisms can wreakhavoc on any ecosystem—includingestuaries—once they become established.

Nonpoint source pollution – Pollution thatenters water from sources that cannot betraced to a single point. Generally initiated bystormwater runoff from agricultural, urban,forestry, marina, construction, and other landuses.

Nonsettleable matter– Suspended matterthat neither settles nor floats to the surface ofwater in a period of one hour.

Nutrient – Any of a necessary complement oforganic or inorganic elements or compoundsthat are considered essential to the biologicalgrowth of an organism.

Nutrient loading – Delivery of nutrients to awaterbody. An excess of nutrient loads beyondnormal levels may lead to a phytoplanktonpopulation increase. See algal blooms.

Organic matter – Composed of chemicalcompounds based on carbon chains or rings,and also containing hydrogen with or withoutoxygen, nitrogen, or other compounds.

Orthophosphate – An acid or salt containingphosphorus as PO4, such as K3PO4(potassium phosphate).

Outliers – Findings that differ radically frompast data or other data from similar sites.

Overturn – A process characterized by abreakdown in the stratification of a waterbody(e.g., by changing seasons or storms) and thesubsequent mixing of deep water with surfacewater.

PAHs – See polycyclic aromatichydrocarbons.

ppm – See parts per million.

ppt – See parts per thousand.

PCBs – See polychlorinated biphenyls.

Parts per million (ppm) – The unitcommonly used to represent the degree ofpollutant concentration where theconcentrations are small. Largerconcentrations are given in percentages.Equivalent to milligrams per liter (mg/l)where 1 ppm = 1 mg/l; in water, ppmrepresents a weight/volume ratio.

Patchiness – Refers to the uneven spatialdistribution of organisms. Plankton tend toexhibit patchiness in the water column,grouping together in “ patches.”

Pathogen – An organism (such as abacterium or virus) that can cause a disease.

Percent saturation – Amount of oxygen inthe water compared to the maximum it couldhold at that temperature.

pH – A measure of the alkalinity or acidity ofa substance. Also defined as “ the negativelogarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration (-log10[H+])” where H+ is the hydrogen ionconcentration in moles per liter. The pH of asubstance is neutral at 7.0, acidic below 7.0,and alkaline above 7.0.

Phosphorus –An essential nutrient for plantand animal development. However, too muchof this nutrient can cause accelerated plantgrowth, algae blooms, and increase the amountof material available for decomposition (whichlowers dissolved oxygen).

Photosynthesis – Process by which chlorophyll-containing cells in green plants convert incidentlight to chemical energy and synthesize organiccompounds from inorganic compounds(including carbon dioxide and water).

Phytoplankton – Microscopic plants that arecommon components of our natural waters.These plants are microalgae, and contain an

GA-10



assortment of pigments in their cells. They arerepresented by single cell or colonial formsthat are the primary food and oxygenproducers within freshwater, estuarine, andmarine habitats. Through the process ofphotosynthesis they utilize the sun’s energy toreproduce and provide the food resourcesnecessary to support other organisms.

Plankton – A broad group of aquaticmicroorganisms that form the basis of thefood chain. They are incapable of movingagainst water currents. Included in this groupare bacterioplankton (bacteria), phytoplankton(plants), and zooplankton (animals).

Point source pollution – Pollution dischargedinto a waterbody from any discrete pipe orother conveyance. Easier to identify, and oftenless expensive to cleanup than nonpointsources of water pollution.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) – Groupof more than two hundred chlorinated toxichydrocarbon compounds that can beamplified, that is, spread and increased, infood chains and webs.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) –A class of chemical compounds composed offused six-carbon rings. PAHs are commonlyfound in petroleum oils (e.g., gasoline andfuel oils) and are emitted from variouscombustion processes (e.g., automobileexhausts, coal-burning operations).

Precipitant – A chemical or chemicals thatcause a precipitate to form when added to asolution.

Precipitate – The discrete particles ofmaterial separate from a liquid solution.

Precision – The degree of agreement amongrepeated measurements of the same parameteron the same sample or on separate samplescollected as close as possible in time andplace. It tells you how consistent and

reproducible your methods are by showingyou how close your measurements are to eachother. Typically, precision is monitoredthrough the use of replicate samples ormeasurements.

Presence-absence test (P-Atest) –A methodcommonly used to determine whether thetarget organism or organisms (for example,total coliforms or E. coli) are present in awater sample or not.

Protozoans – Any of a number of one-celled,usually microscopic animals, belonging to thelowest division of the animal kingdom.

QA/QC – See quality assurance/qualitycontrol.

Quality assurance project plan (QAPP) –A written plan which details monitoringobjectives, scope of the program, methods,procedures (field and lab), and the activitiesnecessary to meet stated data qualityobjectives.

Quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) –The total integrated program for assuringreliability of monitoring and measurementdata.

Reagent – A chemical substance used to causea reaction for the purpose of chemical analysis.

Replicate samples – Two or more samplestaken from the same place at the same time.

Representativeness – The extent to whichmeasurements actually depict the trueenvironmental condition or population you areevaluating.

Risk management –To control issues thatcan cause physical or financial injury ordamage. Risk management programs includeplans to reduce risk and liability by stressingsafety with volunteers, purchasing insurance,and using waivers.

GA-11



Runoff – Water from rain, melted snow oragricultural or landscape irrigation that flowsover the land surface.

SAV – See submerged aquatic vegetation.

Salinity – A measure of the amount of saltsdissolved in water. Generally reported as“ parts per thousand” (i.e., grams of salt per1,000 grams of water) and abbreviated as“ppt” or ‰. Estuaries vary in salinity from 0ppt to 34 ppt depending on the relative inputof fresh and marine water.

Salt – Any compound formed by combinationof any negative ion (except hydroxide) withany positive ion (except hydrogen orhydronium); the precipitate produced as theresult of neutralization of an acid with a base.

Seagrass – In marine environments, rootedvascular plants that generally grow up to thewater surface but not above it. See submergedaquatic vegetation.

Secchi depth – The depth beneath the water’ssurface at which a Secchi disk can no longerbe seen.

Secchi disk – A round, eight-inch (20 cm),weighted, usually black and white disk that islowered by rope into the water. Secchi disksare used to measure transparency, which is anintegrated measure of light scattering andabsorption.

Sediment – Mud, sand, silt, clay, shell debris,and other particles that settle on the bottom ofwaterways.

Sedimentation – The deposition of suspendedmatter carried by water, wastewater, or otherliquids, by gravity. It is usually accomplishedby reducing the velocity of the liquid belowthe point at which it can transport thesuspended material. Also called settling.

Sensitivity – The capability of a method orinstrument to discriminate betweenmeasurement responses. The more sensitive amethod is, the better able it is to detect lowerconcentrations of a variable. Sensitivity isrelated to detection limit, which is the lowestconcentration of a given pollutant yourmethods or equipment can detect and reportas greater than zero.

Settleable solids – Particles of debris and finematter heavy enough to settle out of water.

Sewage – The total of organic waste andwastewater generated by residential andcommercial establishments.

Sewage, combined – Wastewater containingboth sanitary sewage and surface orstormwater with or without industrial wastes.

Sewage, industrial – Sewage in whichindustrial wastes predominate.

Sewage, raw – Sewage prior to receiving anytreatment.

Shellfish – Any aquatic animal with a shell,as the clam, oyster, mussel, and scallop. Theorganism feeds by filtering water through itsgills and removing food materials.

Solution – A liquid (solvent) that contains adissolved substance (solute).

Species, alien, invasive orintr oduced – Seenon-indigenous species.

Species – 1) A single, distinct kind oforganism, having certain distinguishingcharacteristics. Organisms forming a naturalpopulation that transmit specificcharacteristics from parent to offspring. 2)Chemical forms. For example, nitrogen comesin many different chemical forms, includingnitrite (NO2

-) and nitrate (NO3-).

GA-12



Specific gravity –Also called relativedensity. The ratio of the density of a substanceto the density of some reference substance.Hydrometers use this principle to determinesalinity of a water sample, compared to freshwater.

Standard (or standardized solution) –Asolution containing a known, preciseconcentration of an element or chemicalcompound, often used to calibrate waterquality monitoring equipment.

Standard deviation –A statistical measure ofthe dispersion of data.

STORET – (Store-Retrieve) A data storagesystem operated by EPA that stores raw dataon water quality, bacteriological, biological,and other parameters. Using the data, one cancreate reports for a given site and compareone watershed with another.

Stratification – The formation, accumulation,or deposition of material in layers, such aslayers of fresh water overlying salt water inestuaries.

Submerged Aquatic Vegetation (SAV) –Aquatic plants that generally include rootedvascular plants that grow up to the watersurface but not above it (although a fewspecies have flowers or tufts that may stick afew centimeters above the surface). Thedefinition of SAV usually excludes algae,floating plants, and plants that grow above thewater surface. Sometimes called seagrass inmarine environments.

Suspended Sediments – Particles of soil,sediment, living material, or detritussuspended in the water column.

Temperature –A measure of the hotness orcoldness of anything, as usually determinedby a thermometer. Temperature is adetermining factor for biological and chemicalprocesses.

Tide – The alternating rise and fall of theocean and estuary surface, caused by thegravitational pull of the sun and the moonupon the earth.

Titration – A method of analyzing thecomposition of a solution by adding knownamounts of a standardized solution until agiven reaction (color change, precipitation, orconductivity change) is produced.

Titrator – Instrument that forcefully expels areagent by using a manual or mechanicalplunger. The amount of reagent used iscalculated by subtracting the original volumein the titrator from the volume left after theendpoint has been reached.

Total coliforms –A group of closely relatedbacterial genera that all share a usefuldiagnostic feature: the ability to metabolize(ferment) the sugar lactose, producing bothacid and gas as byproducts.

Toxic waste – Discarded material that iscapable of causing serious injury, illness, ordeath. Toxins can be poisonous, carcinogenic,or otherwise harmful to living things.

Transparency – An integrated measure oflight scattering and absorption. Secchi disksare commonly used to measure transparencyof water.

Turbidimeter – An instrument for measuringturbidity in which a standard suspension isused for reference.

Turbidity – A measure of how clear the wateris; how much the suspended material in waterresults in the scattering and absorption of lightrays. An analytical quantity is usuallyreported in turbidity units and determined bymeasurements of light diffraction. Materialthat can increase the turbidity (reduce clarityof water) are suspended clay, silt, sand, algae,plankton, microbes, and other substances.

GA-13



Volume –The space occupied in threedimensions.

Voucher collection – A preserved archive oforganisms that have been collected andidentified. In addition to preserved specimens,the collection may involve photography ormicroscopy.

Water clarity – Measurement of how far anobserver can see through water. The greaterthe water clarity, the further you can seethrough the water.

Water column – The water between thesurface and the bottom of a river, lake,estuary, or ocean.

Water quality parameters – Any of themeasurable qualities or contents of water.Includes temperature, salinity, turbidity,nutrients, dissolved oxygen, and others.

Watershed – The entire area of land whoserunoff of water, sediments, and dissolvedmaterials (e.g., nutrients, contaminants) draininto a river, lake, estuary, or ocean.

Wet deposition – See atmospheric deposition.

Wetlands – Lands that are often transitionalareas between terrestrial and aquatic systems,with enough surface or groundwater tosupport a complex chain of life, includingmicroorganisms, vegetation, reptiles, fish, andamphibians. Wetlands usually border largerbodies of water such as rivers, lakes, bays,estuaries and the open sea, and may serve asbreeding grounds for many species. Examplesinclude swamps, marshes, and bogs.

Whirl-pak bag – Sterilized, clearpolyethylene bags used to collect watersamples for analysis.

Wrack – Line of seaweed and organicmaterial that can be seen when the high tiderecedes.

Zooplankton –Aquatic microorganisms thatare free floating or capable of minimalmovement. Zooplankton feed primarily onphytoplankton and bacteria, are can be eitheradult microorganisms, or larval forms of fishor shellfish.

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Photos (l to r): The Ocean Conservancy, L. Monk, The Ocean Conservancy, K. Register

I-1


Index

Aaccuracy, 3-5, 4-10, 5-6, 5-7, 5-9—5-11, 5-18,

5-22, 6-3, 9-6, 9-9, 9-11, 11-4, 11-7—11-9,13-3, 14-5, 17-2, 17-10

accurate, 2-9, 6-3, 6-5, 7-12, 8-2, 9-4, 9-13,10-7, 10-8, 11-3, 11-4, 11-6, 11-10, 14-7,15-4, 15-6, 16-11, 17-11, 19-5, 19-15

acid (acidic), 9-13, 11-2, 11-6—11-8

aerobic, 17-3

algae, 5-14, 7-6, 7-13, 10-2, 10-3, 11-3, 12-6,15-2, 17-12, 18-1, 18-3, 18-8, 18-9, 19-7—19-9

algal blooms, 2-6, 2-8, 7-2, 8-8, 8-16, 10-2,10-6, 11-2, 17-8, 18-3, 18-4, 19-9, 19-10

harmful algal blooms (HAB), 12-2, 12-6,19-9, 19-12, 19-14

alkalinity, Ch. 11, 2-6, 5-12

ammonium, 10-6

anaerobic, 17-3

analyte, 5-10, 5-11

anions, 14-3

anoxia, 9-3, 9-4

anoxic, 10-3, 10-6

anthropogenic sources, 12-3

atmospheric deposition, 2-5, 10-1—10-3, 10-11, 10-12, 12-2, 12-4, 12-8

autoclave, 7-8, 7-15, 17-8, 17-11, 17-12

Bbacteria, Ch. 17, 2-6, 2-7, 2-10, 2-13, 5-10,

5-12, 6-2, 6-6, 7-5, 7-8, 7-13—7-15, 8-12,9-2, 10-2, 10-3, 10-6, 15-3, 19-4, 19-7, 19-9

blooms, 10-6

culture disposal, 17-12

source tracking, 17-4

bar graph, 8-11, 8-12

base, 11-8

basic, 11-2

benthic, 2-7, 15-3, 17-3, 19-3

bias, 5-6

bioassay (biological assay), 12-7

biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), Ch. 9, 2-6, 6-3, 7-16

biological accumulation (bioaccumulation),12-3, 12-4

biological amplification (bioamplification),12-3, 12-4

brown tide, 10-3

buffer, 11-4, 11-6, 17-16

Ccadmium, 12-4, 19-4

calibrate (calibration), 5-2, 5-4, 5-21, 5-22, 6-3, 7-9, 7-17, 9-7, 9-10, 10-7, 10-8, 11-6,11-9, 14-2, 14-4, 14-6, 15-7, 15-8

calibration blank, 5-11, 5-12

calibration standards, 5-11, 5-12, 11-4

cations, 14-3

chlorinity, 14-3, 14-4

chlorophyll, 6-2, 10-10, 19-16

chromium, 12-4

color comparator, 6-3, 11-3

colorimeter, 10-7, 10-8, 11-3—11-5, 14-3

colorimetric method, 11-3—11-5

comparability, 5-9, 5-18, 5-19, 5-22

completeness, 5-8, 5-18, 5-19, 5-22

conductivity, 2-6, 5-12, 6-3, 14-3—14-6

copper, 12-4

crab jubilee, 6-7

Ddata

analysis, 3-8, 8-2

forms/cards/sheets, 3-4, 3-5, 4-4, 4-5, 4-10, 5-19, 5-22, 7-2, 7-9, 7-13, 7-16,7-17, 8-2—8-6, 9-10, 10-10, 10-12, 11-6, 11-9, 11-10, 13-4, 14-6, 14-7, 15-7—15-9, 16-6—16-12, 17-10, 18-12, 18-13, 19-12, 19-19

Index

I-2


Index

interpretation, 4-4, 7-2, 7-10, 8-2, 8-7, 10-8

loggers, 13-3

management, 3-2, 3-4, 3-8, 5-15, 5-21, 8-2—8-5

presentation, 8-2, 8-10

quality objectives, 3-2, 5-14, 5-18, 5-19, 5-22, 9-7, 10-8, 11-5, 11-7, 13-3, 14-5, 15-4, 19-12, 19-19

user(s), 3-2, 3-5, 4-4, 4-12, 5-2, 5-3, 5-9,5-13—5-16, 5-18—5-20, 5-22, 7-17, 8-2, 8-8, 8-10, 8-16, 17-13, 19-19

DDT, 12-1—12-3, 12-5

deionized water, 5-10, 5-11, 7-9, 7-15, 11-4,11-6, 11-8, 14-6

demineralized water, 11-4

denitrification, 10-6

density, 14-3, 14-4

detection limit, 5-9, 8-8, 8-9

detritus, 10-4, 15-3, 17-3, 18-2, 19-4

digital titrator, 11-7, 11-8

dinoflagellate(s), 7-13, 10-3, 19-7—19-9, 19-17

dioxin, 12-6

dissolved oxygen (DO), Ch. 9, 2-6, 2-8—2-11, 5-12, 5-19, 6-2, 6-3, 6-5, 6-6,7-12—7-17, 8-12, 8-13, 10-3, 10-6, 13-2,13-3, 14-2, 15-2, 15-3, 18-1, 18-4

saturation, 9-12

distilled water, 5-10, 6-3, 7-9, 11-9, 14-6, 15-9

dry deposition, 10-11

Eeelgrass, 18-4—18-6, 18-8, 18-12

wasting disease, 18-5

effluent, 7-14, 17-12, 17-7, 17-9

endocrine disrupter, 12-5

endpoint, 9-6, 9-10, 11-7, 11-9, 14-5

entangle(ment), 16-3, 16-8, 16-10, 16-12

enterococci, 17-1, 17-2, 17-5, 17-6, 17-12—17-14

EPA—see U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency

epiphytes, 18-3

Escherichia coli,17-1, 17-2, 17-5, 17-6, 17-11—17-14

eutrophic, 9-14

eutrophication, 2-6, 10-2

external check, 5-11, 5-12

external field duplicate, 5-11, 5-12

Ffecal coliform, 6-2, 17-1—17-6, 17-8,

17-10—17-13, 17-16, 19-4, 19-5

fertilizers, 6-6, 10-2, 10-3, 10-5, 10-6, 10-11,12-4

field blank, 5-10—5-12

field replicate, 5-10, 5-12

fish kill, 2-8, 6-7, 7-13, 10-3

food chain, 2-10, 12-4—12-6

food web, 2-7, 17-3, 19-2, 19-8, 19-17

fundraising, 2-13, 3-7—3-10

GGeographic Information System(s) (GIS), 8-14

global positioning system (GPS), 7-3, 7-4, 7-9, 7-11, 7-12, 18-10—18-12

graphics, 3-13, 3-14, 8-3, 8-10—14, 8-17

groundtruth(ing), 18-7, 18-9, 18-10

Hharmful algal blooms (HAB)—see algal

blooms

hydrometer, 5-19, 14-4—14-6

hypoxia, 9-2—9-4

hypoxic, 10-3, 19-9

Iindicator, 17-2, 17-4—17-6, 17-10—17-14,

19-1—19-4

ingestion, 16-3

insurance, 3-6, 3-7

internal check, 5-10, 5-12

invertebrate, 2-12, 12-7, 18-4, 19-2

I-3


Index

KKemmerer (water sampler), 7-17, 9-4, 9-7,

10-5, 19-11, 19-15

Llab replicate, 5-10, 5-12

land use, 2-5, 2-13, 3-3, 5-9, 7-12, 8-8, 8-14,15-2, 16-4, 18-4

associated pollutants, 2-6

lead, 12-4

liability, 3-6, 4-13

line graph, 8-13

Mmacroinvertebrate, 2-11, 2-12, 6-2,

19-1—19-3

manatee grass, 18-6

maps, 18-7, 18-9—18-12

topographic, 18-14

bathymetric, 18-14

marine debris, Ch. 16, 2-7, 2-10, 8-12

marker buoy method, 7-11

MARPOL, 16-3

maximum turbidity, 2-10

mean, 5-5, 5-6, 8-6, 8-8

measurement range, 5-9

median, 8-6

membrane filtration (MF), 17-10—17-17

meniscus, 9-9, 14-6

mercury, 12-3, 12-4, 12-8, 13-317-2, 19-4

metadata, 5-15

metals, 2-6, 2-7, 6-2, 11-2, 12-2, 12-6, 12-7,19-4

most probable number (MPN), 17-10—17-12,17-14

NNational Estuarine Research Reserve System

(NERRS), 2-12, 3-11

National Estuary Program (NEP), 2-12, 3-7,3-11

National Oceanic and AtmosphericAdministration (NOAA), 2-11, 2-12, 3-3,3-7, 3-11, 7-15

negative plate, 5-10, 5-12

neutral, 11-2

nitrate, 10-5, 10-6, 14-3, 14-4, 17-3

nitrification, 10-6

nitrite, 9-8, 10-5, 10-6, 17-3

nitrogen, 2-8, 7-15 10-1, 10-2, 10-4—10-8,10-11, 10-12, 18-3

fixation, 10-2, 10-6

non-indigenous species (NIS), 2-10, 3-5, 16-4, 18-4, 19-1, 19-2, 19-16—19-20

nonpoint source (NPS), 2-5, 2-9, 2-10, 3-14,6-5, 10-2, 10-5, 17-14

nutrient(s), Ch. 10, 2-3, 2-6, 2-8—2-11, 5-12,6-2, 6-5, 6-6, 7-14, 8-9, 8-10, 9-2, 11-2,12-4, 13-2, 17-2, 17-3, 17-17, 18-1—18-5,19-2, 19-9, 19-10

“pillows,” 9-15

Ooutlier, 8-5, 8-6

overturn, 9-3

oxygen, Ch. 9, 6-5, 6-7, 7-6, 10-2, 10-6, 10-7,10-10, 14-3, 15-3, 18-2, 18-4, 19-7—19-9

PPAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons),

12-1—12-3, 12-5, 12-6, 19-4

partnership, 3-11, 3-12

pathogens, 2-10, 14-2, 17-1, 17-2, 17-4, 19-2,19-4, 19-16

PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), 12-1—12-3, 12-5, 12-6, 17-2, 19-4

percent saturation, 2-11, 9-7, 9-8, 9-12, 14-3

performance based measurement system(PBMS), 5-20

pesticides, 2-6, 6-2, 6-6, 12-5, 15-3, 17-2, 19-4

Pfiesteria, 10-3

pH, Ch. 11, 2-6, 2-9, 2-11, 5-9, 5-12, 5-19, 6-2, 6-3, 8-12, 13-3, 14-3, 17-15

I-4


Index

phosphate, 7-15, 10-6, 14-3

phosphorus, 7-15, 10-1, 10-2, 10-4—10-8, 10-10, 18-3

phytoplankton, Ch. 19, 6-2, 7-13, 7-14, 9-2,10-3, 10-8—10-10, 12-3, 13-2, 15-1, 15-5,18-3, 18-4

blooms, 7-14, 10-6, 10-7, 18-2, 18-3, 19-2

pie chart, 8-12, 8-13

plankton, 2-10, 2-11, 7-13, 9-3, 15-2, 19-7—19-9, 19-11, 19-13—19-15

net, 19-11—19-15

point source(s), 2-5, 2-9, 2-10, 6-5, 6-6, 10-2,10-5, 10-11

positive plates, 5-10, 5-12

precise, 4-2, 5-6, 6-3, 9-10, 10-7, 11-7, 15-6

precision, 4-10, 5-4—5-6, 5-10, 5-11, 5-18, 5-22, 17-18, 19-11

presence-absence (P-A) test, 17-10, 17-12,17-14

press conference, 3-13, 8-17

press release, 2-13, 3-12—3-14, 4-2, 8-17

Qquality assurance (QA), 2-13, 3-8, 4-4, 5-3,

5-4, 5-15, 5-16, 5-22, 7-3, 8-10, 9-9, 10-8,15-6, 16-7, 17-7, 17-8, 19-5, 19-11

quality assurance project plan (QAPP), Ch. 5,2-13, 3-2, 3-8, 6-2, 7-1, 8-4, 8-8, 9-10, 11-5

quality control (QC), 2-13, 4-4, 4-9—4-11, 5-4, 5-10—5-12, 5-16, 5-19—5-22, 7-3, 7-10, 8-4, 8-11, 9-6, 9-7, 10-8, 11-5, 11-7,13-3, 14-5, 15-6, 15-7, 17-7, 17-8, 17-13,17-18, 19-11, 19-12, 19-19

external QC, 5-4

internal QC, 5-4

Rrain gauge, 7-14, 10-12

reagent(s), 3-1, 4-4, 4-5, 5-10, 5-11, 5-21, 6-3,7-5—7-7, 7-9, 9-5—9-7, 9-9—9-11, 9-13,10-7—10-9, 11-3, 11-4, 11-5, 11-7, 11-8,15-6, 15-9, 17-12, 17-17

red tide, 10-3, 12-6, 19-9, 19-17

refractivity, 14-3, 14-4

refractometer(s), 14-4—14-6

relative percent difference (RPD), 5-5, 5-6

relative standard deviation (RSD), 5-5, 5-6

replicate, 5-10

representativeness, 5-8, 5-18, 5-19, 5-22

risk management, 3-6

runoff, 2-8, 2-10, 6-5, 7-14, 8-9, 9-2, 10-2,10-3, 10-6, 10-11, 11-2, 12-2, 12-3, 12-6,15-2, 15-4, 15-6, 17-1, 17-2, 18-4,

Ssafety, 3-5—3-7, 4-5, 4-6, 5-3, 5-19, 7-1—

7-3, 7-5, 9-7, 10-8, 11-5, 11-7, 13-3, 14-5,15-7, 16-11, 19-5, 19-11, 19-19

salinity, Ch. 14, 2-11, 5-12, 5-19, 6-2, 6-3, 6-5, 9-1, 9-6—9-8, 9-10, 9-12, 17-15, 18-3—18-5

sample

duplicate, 5-10, 5-12

fixed, 9-6, 9-9, 9-11, 9-13

spiked, 5-11, 5-12

split, 5-11, 5-12, 17-7, 17-18

seagrass, 2-8, 16-4, 18-1, 18-5, 18-6, 18-10,19-4

Secchi, 3-5, 5-19, 6-6, 8-9, 8-12, 15-4—15-8,18-11, 18-12, 19-12

sediment, 2-3, 2-7, 2-10, 7-15, 7-16, 9-2, 9-3,10-2, 10-7, 10-10, 10-12, 11-2, 15—15-5,15-9, 17-3, 17-5, 17-7—17-9, 17-12, 18-1—18-4, 18-10—18-12, 19-2—19-4,19-17

toxins in, 12-5—12-7

sensitivity, 5-9, 5-18, 11-4

shellfish, 2-7, 7-13, 9-2, 10-3, 12-3, 12-6, 12-7, 17-1, 17-2, 17-7, 17-11, 17-14, 17-15, 18-4, 19-3—19-6, 19-9, 19-14, 19-16,19-17, 19-20

shoal grass, 18-6

shoreline landmark method, 7-11

species, 10-1, 10-5, 12-4

mercury, 12-4

nitrogen and phosphorus, 10-6

spectrophotometer, 10-7, 10-8, 12-7

I-5


Index

spikes, 5-22

standard deviation, 5-4, 8-8, 8-9

standard operating procedures (SOPs), 4-5, 5-2, 5-3, 5-9, 5-13, 5-15, 5-16, 5-19, 5-20

standard(s), 5-9, 5-11, 5-21, 7-7, 8-12, 9-6,10-7, 11-3—11-5, 11-7—11-9, 14-5, 14-6,15-7—15-9, 16-11, 17-12, 19-5

STORET, 5-3, 8-4

stormwater runoff, 2-5, 2-6, 9-14, 10-2, 15-2,17-3

stratification, 2-2, 2-11, 6-5, 7-15, 9-3, 9-4,13-2, 14-2

submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV), Ch. 18,2-10, 6-2, 7-13, 8-8, 10-3

SAV index, 18-6, 18-7

TTBT (tributyltin), 12-6

temperature, Ch. 13, 2-9, 5-12, 5-19, 6-2, 6-3,6-6, 7-2, 7-5, 7-6, 8-13, 9-3, 9-6—9-8, 9-12, 9-14, 9-15, 11-4, 11-5, 11-7, 11-8, 14-2—14-4, 15-2, 15-3, 17-5, 17-10—17-13, 17-15, 17-18, 18-3, 19-8, 19-9

air, 7-14, 13-2, 13-4

thermometer, 7-8, 7-9, 7-14, 13-1, 13-3, 13-4,14-6

tide, 2-11, 6-5, 6-6, 7-4, 7-9, 7-15, 13-2, 14-2,14-3, 18-3, 18-6, 18-8, 18-10

titration, 7-6, 9-5, 9-6, 9-9—9-11, 9-13, 11-7,11-8, 14-4, 14-5

titrator(s), 11-7, 11-8

total coliforms, 17-1, 17-2, 17-4—17-6, 17-12—17-14, 17-17

total dissolved solids, 6-3

total solids, Ch. 15, 2-6, 5-12

toxicity

acute, 12-2

chronic, 12-2

toxin, Ch. 12, 2-6, 2-7, 2-10, 19-17

transect, 18-7, 18-8, 19-4

transparency, 6-2, 19-12

transparency tube(s), 15-4, 15-6—15-9

tributary, 2-2, 2-5, 8-14, 13-2, 18-5

turbidity, Ch. 15, 2-6, 2-9, 2-10, 5-12, 6-2, 7-14, 8-9, 8-12, 14-2, 19-2

meter, 15-6—15-8

turtle grass, 18-5, 18-6

UU.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),

2-12, 3-3, 3-11, 5-3, 5-13, 5-16—5-18, 5-20, 8-4, 12-4, 16-5, 17-5, 17-6, 17-10,17-11, 17-13, 19-3

VVan Dorn (water sampler), 7-17, 9-4, 9-7,

10-5, 19-11, 19-15

visual assessment, 7-12, 19-11

voucher collection, 5-7, 5-8, 5-19

Wwaste, 7-5, 7-8, 7-9, 9-5, 9-10, 10-10, 17-11

watershed, 2-4, 2-5, 2-8, 3-5, 3-9, 4-6, 6-4, 7-12, 8-14, 10-4, 10-6, 10-11, 10-12, 15-2,15-4, 17-2, 17-4, 17-15

survey, 5-14

wet deposition, 10-11, 10-12

wetlands, 2-3, 2-5, 12-4, 19-17, 19-21

Whirl-pak (bag(s)), 7-15—7-17, 10-9, 11-5,15-8, 15-10, 17-8, 17-9

widgeon grass, 18-5

wild celery, 18-5

Winkler (method) (titration), 5-19, 9-5, 9-6, 9-8—9-11

wrack, 17-3, 17-5

Zzooplankton, 6-5, 10-10, 19-7—19-10, 19-12,

19-13, 19-15

I-6


Index

Manualstuary Epa

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