ManPro Project-Utkarsh Prabhat

8/2/2019 ManPro Project-Utkarsh Prabhat

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Percentage Composition andApplications of Ferrous and

Non-Ferrous Materials

By:Utkarsh prabhat

(100906112)

Acknowledgement


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I would like to express my gratitude to Mr. V. K. Singla for providing me the opportunity of taking

p this project work.

I would like to put on record my deep sense of indebtedness to my Mother and Father, under whose

aluable guidance this work has been completed. I am pleased to acknowledge the support of myriends and my batchmates for their valuable suggestions without which it would not have been

ossible to complete the project work.

~~~___~~~

IntroductionThe structure of metals greatly influences their behaviour and properties. Knowledge of structures

uides us in controlling and predicting the behaviour and performance of metals in variousmanufacturing processes. Understanding the structure of metals also allows us to predict and evaluate


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heir properties. This then helps us make appropriate selections for specific applications under

articular force, temperature and environmental conditions.

Before we elaborate about the different materials it is important to take note of various properties and

he way all metals and their alloys are categorised.

Physical Properties::

ardness The resistance a materials has to cutting and surface indentations.

oughness

This describes the amount of energy a material can absorb without breaking.

This is the opposite to brittleness. We measure a material's ability to absorb

shock.

ensile StrengthThe maximum force a material can withstand in tension(pulling)

compression(squashing) , torque(twisting) and shearing(sideways pressure).

MalleabilityThe amount of hammering, pressing and shaping a material can take without

breaking.

uctility The length that a material can be stretched without breaking.

lasticityThe length that a material can be stretched and return to its original length when

released.

eat and Electricalonductivity

The measure of how well a material can conduct heat or electricity.

eavinessThe denseness of materials. A dense material will be heavy in relation to its

size.

rengthThe measure of how a material withstands a heavy load without breaking.

hermal expansion It plays important role in the casting and afterwards in daily use of the material

esistance to

orrosionA good galvanizing material can be used.

Ferrous andNon-Ferrous Metals Table::


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Metals

All metals can be classified as eitherFerrous orNon-ferrous.

errous

hese are metals which contain iron. They may have small amounts of other metals or other elements added, to give the

equired properties.

All ferrous metals are magnetic and give little resistance to corrosion

Non-Ferrous Metals

hese are metals which do not contain any iron. They are not magnetic and are usually more resistant to corrosion than

errous metals.

xamples are aluminium, copper, lead. zinc and tin.

ure Metals

A pure metal only consists of a single element. This means that it only has one type of atom in it.

he common pure metals are:-aluminium, copper, iron, lead, zinc, tin, silver and gold.

Alloys

An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals. When a material is needed which requires certain properties and this does

ot exist in a pure metal we combine metals .

ure white aluminium is very soft and ductile. Other elements can be added to create an aluminium alloy. This can

roduce a metal which is stronger than Mild Steel has improved hardness and is resistant to corrosion while still

emaining light in weight.

~~~___~~~

Ferrous alloyserrous metals and alloys contain iron as their base metal and are variously categorized as carbon and

lloy steels, stainless steels, tool and die steels, cast irons, and cast steels-

Carbon Steels::

arbon steel, also called plain carbon steel, is steel where the main alloying constituent is carbon. The AISI definesarbon steel as: "Steel is considered to be carbon steel when no minimum content is specified or required for chromium,


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obalt, columbium [niobium], molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tungsten, vanadium or zirconium, or any other element to

e added to obtain a desired alloying effect; when the specified minimum for copper does not exceed 0.40 percent; or

when the maximum content specified for any of the following elements does not exceed the percentages noted:

manganese 1.65, silicon 0.60, copper 0.60."

teel with a low carbon content has properties similar to iron. As the carbon content rises, the metal becomes harder andronger but less ductile and more difficult to weld. In general, higher carbon content lowers the melting point and its

mperature resistance. Carbon content influences the yield strength of steel because carbon atoms fit into the interstitial

rystal lattice sites of thebody-centered cubic (BCC) arrangement of the iron atoms. The interstitial carbon reduces the

mobility ofdislocations, which in turn has a hardening effect on the iron. To get dislocations to move, a high enough

ress level must be applied in order for the dislocations to "break away". This is because the interstitial carbon atoms

ause some of the iron BCC lattice cells to distort.

arbon steel is broken down in to four classes based on carbon content:

Mild and low carbon steel

Mild steel is the most common form of steel as its price is relatively low while it provides material properties that are

cceptable for many applications. Low carbon steel contains approximately 0.050.15% carbon[1] and mild steel contains

160.29%[1] carbon, therefore it is neither brittle norductile. Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is

heap and malleable; surface hardness can be increased through carburizing.[2]

is often used when large amounts of steel is needed, for example as structural steel. The density of mild steel is

pproximately 7.85 g/cm3 (0.284 lb/in3)[3] and the Young's modulus is 210,000 MPa (30,000,000 psi).[4]

ow carbon steels suffer fromyield-point runoutwhere the materials has two yield points. The first yield point (or upper

ield point) is higher than the second and the yield drops dramatically after the upper yield point. If a low carbon steel isnly stressed to some point between the upper and lower yield point then the surface may develop Lder bands.[5]

Higher carbon steels

arbon steels which can successfully undergo heat-treatment have a carbon content in the range of 0.301.70% by

weight. Trace impurities of various otherelements can have a significant effect on the quality of the resulting steel. Trace

mounts ofsulfurin particular make the steel red-short. Low alloy carbon steel, such as A36 grade, contains about 0.05%

ulfur and melts around 14261538 C (26002800 F).[6]Manganese is often added to improve the hardenability of low

arbon steels. These additions turn the material into a low alloy steel by some definitions, but AISI's definition of carbon

eel allows up to 1.65% manganese by weight.

Medium carbon steel

Approximately 0.300.59% carbon content.[1] Balances ductility and strength and has good wear resistance; used for large

arts, forging and automotive components.[7]

High carbon steel

Approximately 0.60.99% carbon content.[1] Very strong, used for springs and high-strength wires.[8]

Ultra-high carbon steel
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ductilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weldinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstitial_defecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bravais_latticehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_crystal_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dislocationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steel#cite_note-kts-0%23cite_note-kts-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steel#cite_note-kts-0%23cite_note-kts-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ductilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carburizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steel#cite_note-1%23cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steel#cite_note-2%23cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young's_modulushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steel#cite_note-3%23cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yield_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yield_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BCder_bandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steel#cite_note-4%23cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steel#cite_note-4%23cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_elementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red-shorthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A36_steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steel#cite_note-5%23cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardenabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_alloy_steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AISIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steel#cite_note-kts-0%23cite_note-kts-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steel#cite_note-kts-0%23cite_note-kts-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steel#cite_note-6%23cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steel#cite_note-kts-0%23cite_note-kts-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steel#cite_note-7%23cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ductilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weldinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstitial_defecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bravais_latticehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_crystal_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dislocationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steel#cite_note-kts-0%23cite_note-kts-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steel#cite_note-kts-0%23cite_note-kts-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ductilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carburizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steel#cite_note-1%23cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steel#cite_note-2%23cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young's_modulushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steel#cite_note-3%23cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yield_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yield_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BCder_bandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steel#cite_note-4%23cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_elementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red-shorthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A36_steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steel#cite_note-5%23cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardenabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_alloy_steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AISIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steel#cite_note-kts-0%23cite_note-kts-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steel#cite_note-6%23cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steel#cite_note-kts-0%23cite_note-kts-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steel#cite_note-7%23cite_note-7


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Approximately 1.02.0% carbon content.[1] Steels that can be tempered to great hardness. Used for special purposes like

non-industrial-purpose) knives, axles orpunches. Most steels with more than 1.2% carbon content are made using

owder metallurgy. Note that steel with a carbon content above 2.0% is considered cast iron.

teel can be heat treated which allows parts to be fabricated in an easily-formable soft state. If enough carbon is present,

he alloy can be hardened to increase strength, wear, and impact resistance. Steels are often wrought by cold workingmethods, which is the shaping of metal through deformation at a low equilibrium or metastable temperature.

Alloy Steels::

Alloy steel is steel alloyed with otherelements in amounts of between 1 and 50% by weight to improve its mechanical

roperties. Alloy steels are broken down into two groups: low alloy steels and high alloy steels. The differentiation

etween the two is somewhat arbitrary; Smith and Hashemi define the difference at 4%, while Degarmo, et al., define it at

%.[1][2] However, most commonly alloy steel refers to low alloy steel.

hese steels have greaterstrength, hardness, hot hardness, wearresistance, hardenability, ortoughness compared to

arbon steel. However, they may require heat treatment in order to achieve such properties. Common alloying elements

re molybdenum, manganese, nickel, chromium, vanadium, silicon andboron.

lloy steels comprise a wide variety of steels which have compositions that exceed the limitations of C, Mn, Ni,o, Cr, Va, Si, and B which have been set for carbon steels. However, steels containing more than 3.99%hromium are classified differently as stainless and tool steels.

lloy steels are always killed, but can use unique deoxidization or melting processes for specific applications.

lloy steels are generally more responsive to heat and mechanical treatments than carbon steels.

AISI Designation
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steel#cite_note-kts-0%23cite_note-kts-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punch_(metalworking)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powder_metallurgyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_ironhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_workinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_elementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloy_steel#cite_note-0%23cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloy_steel#cite_note-0%23cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloy_steel#cite_note-degarmo112-1%23cite_note-degarmo112-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strengthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hot_hardness&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wearhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardenabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toughnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_treatmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molybdenumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siliconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boronhttp://www.efunda.com/materials/alloys/stainless_steels/stainless.cfmhttp://www.efunda.com/materials/alloys/tool_steels/tool.cfmhttp://www.efunda.com/materials/alloys/alloy_home/steels.cfmhttp://www.efunda.com/materials/alloys/carbon_steels/carbon.cfmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steel#cite_note-kts-0%23cite_note-kts-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punch_(metalworking)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powder_metallurgyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cast_ironhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_workinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_elementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloy_steel#cite_note-0%23cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloy_steel#cite_note-degarmo112-1%23cite_note-degarmo112-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strengthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hot_hardness&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wearhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardenabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toughnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_treatmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molybdenumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siliconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boronhttp://www.efunda.com/materials/alloys/stainless_steels/stainless.cfmhttp://www.efunda.com/materials/alloys/tool_steels/tool.cfmhttp://www.efunda.com/materials/alloys/alloy_home/steels.cfmhttp://www.efunda.com/materials/alloys/carbon_steels/carbon.cfm


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ypically, alloy steels are designated by distinct AISI (American Iron and Steel Institute) four-digit numbers. Therst two digits indicate the leading alloying elements, while the last two digits give the nominal carbon content of

he alloy in hundredths of a percent. Occasionally we see five-digit designations where the last three digits tellhat the carbon is actually over 1%. Here is an example:

XXX :x.xx% average carbon content

51100

13xx:1.75Mn Manganese23xx:3.50Ni Nickel

31xx:1.25Ni, 0.65-0.80Cr Nickel-Chromium

40xx:0.20-0.25MoMolybdenum

44xx:0.40-0.52Mo

41xx:0.50-0.95Cr, 0.12-0.30Mo Chromium-Molybdenum

46xx:0.85-1.82Ni, 0.20-0.25MoNickel-Molybdenum

48xx:3.5Ni, 0.25Mo

50xx:0.27-0.65Cr

Chromium

51xx:0.80-1.05Cr

50xxx:0.50Cr, 1.00C

51xxx:1.02Cr, 1.00C

52xxx:1.45Cr, 1.00C

61xx:0.60-0.95Cr, 0.10-0.15V Chromium-Vanadium

92xx:1.4-2Si, 0.65-0.85Mn,


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ow alloy steel

ow alloy steels are usually used to achieve better hardenability, which in turn improves its other mechanical properties.

hey are also used to increase corrosion resistance in certain environmental conditions. [3]

With medium to high carbon levels, low alloy steel is difficult to weld. Lowering the carbon content to the range of10% to 0.30%, along with some reduction in alloying elements, increases the weldability and formability of the steel

while maintaining its strength. Such a metal is classed as a high-strength low-alloy steel.

ome common low alloy steels are:

D6AC

300M

Principal low alloy steels[4]

SAE designation Composition

13xx Mn 1.75%

40xx Mo 0.20% or 0.25% or 0.25% Mo & 0.042% S

41xx Cr 0.50% or 0.80% or 0.95%, Mo 0.12% or 0.20% or 0.25% or 0.30%

43xx Ni 1.82%, Cr 0.50% to 0.80%, Mo 0.25%

44xx Mo 0.40% or 0.52%

46xx Ni 0.85% or 1.82%, Mo 0.20% or 0.25%

47xx Ni 1.05%, Cr 0.45%, Mo 0.20% or 0.35%

48xx Ni 3.50%, Mo 0.25%

50xx Cr 0.27% or 0.40% or 0.50% or 0.65%
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloy_steel#cite_note-2%23cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weldabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Formability&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HSLA_steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloy_steel#cite_note-3%23cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/41xx_steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloy_steel#cite_note-2%23cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weldabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Formability&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HSLA_steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloy_steel#cite_note-3%23cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/41xx_steel


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50xxx Cr 0.50%, C 1.00% min

50Bxx Cr 0.28% or 0.50%

51xx Cr 0.80% or 0.87% or 0.92% or 1.00% or 1.05%

51xxx Cr 1.02%, C 1.00% min

51Bxx Cr 0.80%

52xxx Cr 1.45%, C 1.00% min

61xx Cr 0.60% or 0.80% or 0.95%, V 0.10% or 0.15% min

86xx Ni 0.55%, Cr 0.50%, Mo 0.20%

87xx Ni 0.55%, Cr 0.50%, Mo 0.25%

88xx Ni 0.55%, Cr 0.50%, Mo 0.35%

92xx Si 1.40% or 2.00%, Mn 0.65% or 0.82% or 0.85%, Cr 0.00% or 0.65%

94Bxx Ni 0.45%, Cr 0.40%, Mo 0.12%

ual-phase steel (DPA) is a high-strength steel that has a ferrite and martensitic microstructure. DPA starts as a low or

medium carbon steel and is quenched from a temperature above A1 but below A3 on a continuous cooling transformation

iagram. This results in a microstructure consisting of a soft ferrite matrix containing islands of martensite as the

econdary phase (martensite increases the tensile strength). The desire to produce high strength steels with formability

reater than microalloyed steel led the development of DPS in 1970s.[1][2]

he steel melt is produced in an oxygen top blowing process in the converter, and undergoes an alloy treatment in the

econdary metallurgy phase. The product is aluminum-killed steel, with high tensile strength achieved by the composition

with manganese, chromium and silicon.

heir advantages are as follows:[1][3]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martensitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_cooling_transformationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensile_strengthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Formability&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microalloyed_steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-phase_steel#cite_note-chakraborti-0%23cite_note-chakraborti-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-phase_steel#cite_note-degarmo-1%23cite_note-degarmo-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siliconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-phase_steel#cite_note-chakraborti-0%23cite_note-chakraborti-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-phase_steel#cite_note-fallahi-2%23cite_note-fallahi-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martensitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_cooling_transformationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensile_strengthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Formability&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microalloyed_steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-phase_steel#cite_note-chakraborti-0%23cite_note-chakraborti-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-phase_steel#cite_note-degarmo-1%23cite_note-degarmo-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siliconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-phase_steel#cite_note-chakraborti-0%23cite_note-chakraborti-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-phase_steel#cite_note-fallahi-2%23cite_note-fallahi-2


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Low yield strength

Low yield to tensile strength ratio (yield strength/ tensile strength = 0.5)

High initial strain hardening rates

Good uniform elongation

A high strain rate sensitivity (the faster it is crushed the more energy it absorbs) [2]

Good fatigue resistance

ue to these properties DPS is often used for automotive body panels, wheels, and bumpers.[3]

Stainless Steels::

n metallurgy, stainless steel, also known as inox steel orinox, is defined as a steel alloy with a minimum of 11%

hromium content by mass.[1] Stainless steel does not stain, corrode, or rust as easily as ordinary steel (itstains less, but it

not stain-proof).[2]

It is also called corrosion-resistant steel orCRES when the alloy type and grade are not detailed,articularly in the aviation industry. There are different grades and surface finishes of stainless steel to suit the

nvironment to which the material will be subjected in its lifetime. Common uses of stainless steel are cutlery and watch

ases and bands.

tainless steel differs from carbon steel by the amount of chromium present. Carbon steel rusts when exposed to air and

moisture. This iron oxide film (the rust) is active and accelerates corrosion by forming more iron oxide. Stainless steels

ave sufficient amounts of chromium present so that a passive film of chromium oxide forms which prevents further

urface corrosion and blocks corrosion from spreading into the metal's internal structure.

Properties

High oxidation-resistance in airat ambient temperature are normally achieved with additions of a minimum of 13% (by

weight) chromium, and up to 26% is used for harsh environments.[8] The chromium forms a passivation layer of

hromium(III) oxide (Cr2O3) when exposed to oxygen. The layer is too thin to be visible, and the metal remains lustrous.

is impervious to waterand air, protecting the metal beneath. Also, this layer quickly reforms when the surface is

cratched. This phenomenon is calledpassivation and is seen in other metals, such as aluminium and titanium. Corrosion

esistance can however be adversely affected if the component is used in a non-oxygenated environment, a typical

xample being underwater keel-bolts buried in timber.

When stainless steel parts such as nuts andbolts are forced together, the oxide layer can be scraped off causing the parts

o weld together. When disassembled, the welded material may be torn and pitted, an effect that is known as galling. This

estructive galling can be best avoided by the use of dissimilar materials, e.g. bronze to stainless steel, or even different

ypes of stainless steels (martensitic against austenitic, etc.), when metal-to-metal wear is a concern. In addition, Nitronic

loys (trademark of Armco, Inc.) reduce the tendency to gall through selective alloying with manganese and nitrogen.

Applications::

tainless steels resistance to corrosion and staining, low maintenance, relatively low cost, and familiar luster make it an

deal base material for a host of commercial applications. There are over 150 grades of stainless steel, of which fifteen are

most common. The alloy ismilledinto coils, sheets, plates, bars, wire, and tubing to be used in cookware,cutlery,

ardware, surgical instruments,major appliances, industrial equipment, and as an automotive and aerospace structural

loy and construction material in large buildings. Storage tanks and tankers used to transport orange juice and other food

re often made of stainless steel, due to its corrosion resistance andantibacterial properties. This also influences its use in
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-phase_steel#cite_note-fallahi-2%23cite_note-fallahi-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-phase_steel#cite_note-fallahi-2%23cite_note-fallahi-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-phase_steel#cite_note-fallahi-2%23cite_note-fallahi-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-phase_steel#cite_note-fallahi-2%23cite_note-fallahi-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yield_strengthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yield_strengthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensile_strengthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-phase_steel#cite_note-degarmo-1%23cite_note-degarmo-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-phase_steel#cite_note-fallahi-2%23cite_note-fallahi-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-phase_steel#cite_note-fallahi-2%23cite_note-fallahi-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steel#cite_note-0%23cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steel#cite_note-1%23cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steel#cite_note-1%23cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steel#cite_note-1%23cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutleryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth's_atmospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steel#cite_note-7%23cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromium(III)_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titaniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nut_(hardware)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screw#bolthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weldinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martensitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austenitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel_millhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel_millhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cookwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutleryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutleryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgical_instrumentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_applianceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_applianceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange_juicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibacterialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibacterialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yield_strengthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensile_strengthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-phase_steel#cite_note-degarmo-1%23cite_note-degarmo-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-phase_steel#cite_note-fallahi-2%23cite_note-fallahi-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steel#cite_note-0%23cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steel#cite_note-1%23cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutleryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth's_atmospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steel#cite_note-7%23cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromium(III)_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titaniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nut_(hardware)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screw#bolthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weldinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martensitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austenitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel_millhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cookwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutleryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surgical_instrumentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_applianceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange_juicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibacterial


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ommercial kitchens and food processing plants, as it can be steam cleaned,sterilized, and does not need painting or

pplication of other surface finishes.

tainless steel is also used for jewellery and watches. The most common stainless steel alloy used for this is 316L. It can

e re-finished by any jeweller and will not oxidize or turn black.

ome firearms incorporate stainless steel components as an alternative toblued orparkerizedsteel. Some handguns, such

s the Smith & Wesson Model 60 and the Colt M1911 can be made entirely from stainless steel. This gives a high-luster

nish similar in appearance to nickel plating; but, unlike plating, the finish is not subject to flaking, peeling, wear-off due

o rubbing (as when repeatedly removed from a holster over the course of time), or rust when scratched.

ome automotive aftermarket parts manufacturers use stainless steel only for the making ofshort shifters,shift knobsand

weighted shift knobs.

Uses in sculpture, building facades and building structures

Stainless steel was in vogue during the art deco period. The most famous example of this is the upper portion of

the Chrysler Building (illustrated to the right). Diners and fast food restaurants feature large ornamental panels,

stainless fixtures and furniture. Owing to the durability of the material, many of these buildings retain their

original appearance.

The forging of stainless steel has given rise to a fresh approach to architecturalblacksmithing in recent years.

The Gateway Arch (picture above) is clad entirely in stainless steel: 886 tons (804 metric tonnes) of 0.25 in

(6.4 mm) plate, #3 finish, type 304 stainless steel.[10]

Type 316 stainless is used on the exterior of both the Petronas Twin Towers and the Jin Mao Building, two of the

world's tallest skyscrapers.[11]

The Parliament House of Australia in Canberra has a stainless steel flagpole weighing over 220 tons.

The aeration building in theEdmonton Composting Facility, the size of 14 hockey rinks, is the largest stainlesssteel building in North America.

The United States Air Force Memorial has an austenitic stainless steel structural skin.

The Atomium in Brussels,Belgium is now clad in stainless steel, after a renovation completed in 2006. Previously

the spheres and tubes of the structure were clad in aluminium.

Types of stainless steel

here are different types of stainless steels: when nickel is added, for instance, the austenite structure of iron is stabilized.

his crystal structure makes such steels non-magnetic and lessbrittle at low temperatures. For greaterhardness and

rength, more carbon is added. When subjected to adequate heat treatment, these steels are used as razorblades, cutlery,

ools, etc.

ignificant quantities ofmanganese have been used in many stainless steel compositions. Manganese preserves an

ustenitic structure in the steel as does nickel, but at a lowercost.

tainless steels are also classified by theircrystalline structure:

Austenitic, or 300 series, stainless steels make up over 70% of total stainless steel production. They contain a

maximum of 0.15% carbon, a minimum of 16% chromium and sufficient nickel and/or manganese to retain an

austenitic structure at all temperatures from the cryogenicregion to the melting point of the alloy. A typical

composition of 18% chromium and 10% nickel, commonly known as 18/10 stainless, is often used inflatware.

Similarly, 18/0 and 18/8 are also available. Superaustenitic stainless steels, such as alloy AL-6XN and 254SMO,

exhibit great resistance to chloride pitting and crevice corrosion due to high molybdenum content (>6%) and
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sterilization_(microbiology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluing_(steel)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkerizedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkerizedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handgunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smith_%26_Wesson_Model_60http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M1911_pistolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automotive_aftermarkethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_shiftershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shift_knobshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shift_knobshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shift_knobshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weighted_shift_knobshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_decohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysler_Buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blacksmithhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonnehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steel#cite_note-9%23cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steel#cite_note-9%23cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petronas_Twin_Towershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin_Mao_Buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin_Mao_Buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyscraperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steel#cite_note-10%23cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steel#cite_note-10%23cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_House,_Canberrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmonton,_Albertahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmonton,_Albertahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_Memorialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brusselshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austenitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardness_(materials_science)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_treatmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutleryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystalline_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austenitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryogenichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryogenichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AL-6XNhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molybdenumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sterilization_(microbiology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluing_(steel)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkerizedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handgunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smith_%26_Wesson_Model_60http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M1911_pistolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automotive_aftermarkethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_shiftershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shift_knobshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weighted_shift_knobshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_decohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysler_Buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blacksmithhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonnehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steel#cite_note-9%23cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petronas_Twin_Towershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin_Mao_Buildinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyscraperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steel#cite_note-10%23cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_House,_Canberrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmonton,_Albertahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_Memorialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brusselshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austenitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardness_(materials_science)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_treatmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutleryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystalline_structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austenitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryogenichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AL-6XNhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molybdenum


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nitrogen additions, and the higher nickel content ensures better resistance to stress-corrosion cracking versus the

300 series. The higher alloy content of superaustenitic steels makes them more expensive. Other steels can offer

similar performance at lower cost and are preferred in certain applications.[citation needed]

he low carbon version of the Austenitic Stainless Steel, for example 316L or 304L, are used to avoid corrosion problem

aused by welding. The "L" means that the carbon content of the Stainless Steel is below 0.03%, this will reduce theensitization effect, precipitation of Chromium Carbides at grain boundaries, due to the high temperature produced by

welding operation.

Ferritic stainless steels are highly corrosion-resistant, but less durable than austenitic grades. They contain

between 10.5% and 27% chromium and very little nickel, if any, but some types can contain lead. Most

compositions include molybdenum; some, aluminium ortitanium. Common ferritic grades include 18Cr-2Mo,

26Cr-1Mo, 29Cr-4Mo, and 29Cr-4Mo-2Ni. These alloys can be degraded by the presence of chromium, anintermetallic phase which can precipitate upon welding.

Martensitic stainless steels are not as corrosion-resistant as the other two classes but are extremely strong and

tough, as well as highly machineable, and can be hardened by heat treatment. Martensitic stainless steel contains

chromium (12-14%), molybdenum (0.2-1%), nickel (0-


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ool steels are made to a number of grades for different applications. Choice of grade depends on, among other things,

whether a keen cutting edge is necessary, as in stamping dies, or whether the tool has to withstand impact loading and

ervice conditions encountered with such hand tools as axes,pickaxes, and quarrying implements. In general, the edge

mperature under expected use is an important determinant of both composition and required heat treatment. The higher

arbon grades are typically used for such applications as stamping dies, metal cutting tools, etc.

ool steels are also used for special applications like injection molding because the resistance to abrasion is an important

riterion for a mold that will be used to produce hundreds of thousands of parts.

he AISI-SAE grades of tool steel is the most common scale used to identify various grades of tool steel. Individual

loys within a grade are given a number; for example: A2, O1, etc.

AISI-SAE tool steel grades[1]

Defining property AISI-SAE grade Significant characteristics

Water-hardening W

old-working

O Oil-hardening

A Air-hardening; medium alloy

D High carbon; high chromium

hock resisting S

igh speed

T Tungsten base

M Molybdenum base

ot-working H

H1H19: chromium base

H20H39: tungsten base

H40H59: molybdenum base

lastic mold P
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_(manufacturing)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_loadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pickaxehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quarryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injection_moldinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Iron_and_Steel_Institutehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Automotive_Engineershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tool_steel#cite_note-0%23cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_(manufacturing)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_loadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pickaxehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quarryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injection_moldinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Iron_and_Steel_Institutehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Automotive_Engineershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tool_steel#cite_note-0%23cite_note-0


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pecial purpose

L Low alloy

F Carbon tungsten

Water-hardening grades

W-grade tool steel gets its name from its defining property of having to be water quenched. W-grade steel is essentially

igh carbonplain-carbon steel. This type of tool steel is the most commonly used tool steel because of its low cost

ompared to other tool steels. They work well for small parts and applications where high temperatures are not

ncountered; above 150 C (302 F) it begins to soften to a noticeable degree. Hardenability is low so W-grade tool steels

must be quenched in water. These steels can attain high hardness (above HRC 60) and are rather brittle compared to other

ool steels.

he toughness of W-grade tool steels are increased by alloying with manganese, silicon and molybdenum. Up to 0.20% of

anadium is used to retain fine grain sizes during heat treating.

ypical applications for various carbon compositions are:

0.600.75% carbon: machine parts, chisels, setscrews; properties include medium hardness with good toughness

and shock resistance.

0.760.90% carbon: forging dies, hammers, and sledges.

0.911.10% carbon: general purpose tooling applications that require a good balance of wear resistance and

toughness, such as drills, cutters, and shear blades.

1.111.30% carbon: small drills, lathe tools, razor blades, and other light-duty applications where extremehardness is required without great toughness.

Air-hardening grades

he first air hardening grade tool steel was mushet steel, which was known as air-hardening steelat the time.

A2 is the most common air hardening grade currently used.

Cold-working grades

Grade-O refers to oil hardening tool steels, while grade-A refers to air hardening tool steels. These tool steels are used onarger parts or parts that require minimal distortion during hardening. The use of oil quenching and air hardening helps

educing distortion as opposed to higher stress caused by quicker water quenching. More alloying elements are used in

hese steels, as compared to water-hardening grades. These alloys increase the steels' hardenability, and thus require a less

evere quenching process. These steels are also less likely to crack and are often used to make knife blades.

-grade tool steels contain between 10% and 18% chromium. These steels retain their hardness up to a temperature of

25 C (797 F). Common applications for these grade of tool steel is forging dies, die-casting die blocks, and drawing

ies. Due to high chromium content, certain D-grade tool steel grades are often considered stainless orsemi-stainless tool

eels.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plain-carbon_steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardenabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushet_steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainlesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Semi-stainless&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plain-carbon_steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardenabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushet_steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainlesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Semi-stainless&action=edit&redlink=1


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Composition

Here are composition for some of the most common cold-working tool steels, quantities of minor ingredients may vary

ightly with manufacturer:

-1 steel contains 0.90% carbon 1.0%1.4% manganese, 0.50% chrome, 0.50% nickel, and 0.50% tungsten. It is a very

ood cold work steel and also makes very good knives.

A-2 steel contains 1.0% carbon, 5.0% chromium, and 1.0% molybdenum.

-2 steel contains 1.5% carbon and 11.0 13.0% chromium; additionally it is composed of 0.45% manganese, 0.030%

maxphosphorus, 0.030% max sulfur, 1.0% vanadium, 0.7% molybdenum, and 0.30% silicon. D2 is very wear resistant

ut not as tough as lower alloyed steels. It is widely used for shear blades, planer blades and industrial cutting tools,

ometimes used for knives.

hock resisting grades

-grade tool steel are designed to resist shock at both low and high temperatures. A low carbon content is required for the

ecessary toughness (approximately 0.5% carbon). Carbide-forming alloys provide the necessary abrasion resistance,

ardenability, and hot-working characteristics. This family of steels displays very high impact toughness and relatively

ow abrasion resistance, it can attain relatively high hardness (HRC 58/60). This type of steel is used in applications such

sjackhammerbits.

High speed grades

-grade and M-grade tool steels are used for cutting tools where strength and hardness must be retained at temperatures

p to or exceeding 760 C (1,400 F). M-grade tool steels were developed to reduce the amount of tungsten and

hromium required.

1 (also known as 18-4-1) is a common T-grade alloy. Its composition is 0.7% carbon, 18% tungsten, 4% chromium, and

% vanadium. M2 is a common M-grade alloy.

Hot-working grades

H-grade tool steels were developed for strength and hardness during prolonged exposure to elevated temperatures. All of

hese tool steels use a substantial amount of carbide forming alloys. H1 to H19 are based on a chromium content of 5%;

H20 to H39 are based on a tungsten content of 9%-18% and a chromium content of 3%4%; H40 to H59 are

molybdenum based.

pecial purpose grades

P-grade tool steel is short for plastic mold steels. They are designed to meet the requirements of zinc die casting

and plastic injection molding dies.

L-grade tool steel is short for low alloy special purpose tool steel. L6 is extremely tough. F-grade tool steel is water hardened and substantially more wear resistant than W-grade tool steel.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tungstenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockwell_scalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackhammerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_castinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganesehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tungstenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockwell_scalehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackhammerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_casting


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Cast Irons::

ast iron usually refers to Gray iron, but also identifies a large group offerrous alloys, which solidify with a eutectic.

he color of a fractured surface can be used to identify an alloy. White cast iron is named after its white surface when

actured due to its carbide impurities which allow cracks to pass straight through. Grey cast iron is named after its grey

actured surface, which occurs because the graphitic flakes deflect a passing crack and initiate countless new cracks as

he material breaks.

on (Fe) accounts for more than 95% by weight (wt%) of the alloy material, while the main alloying elements are carbon

C) and silicon (Si). The amount of carbon in cast irons is 2.1 to 4 wt%. Cast irons contain appreciable amounts of silicon,

ormally 1 to 3 wt%, and consequently these alloys should be considered ternary Fe-C-Si alloys. Despite this, the

rinciples of cast iron solidification are understood from thebinary iron-carbon phase diagram, where the eutectic point

es at 1154 C and 4.3 wt% carbon. Since cast iron has nearly this composition, its melting temperature of 1150 to 1200

C is about 300 C lower than the melting point of pure iron.

ast iron tends to bebrittle, except formalleable cast irons. With its low melting point, good fluidity, castability,

xcellent machinability, resistance to deformation, and wear resistance, cast irons have become an engineering material

with a wide range of applications, including pipes, machine and car parts, such as cylinder heads, blocks, and gearbox

ases. It is resistant to destruction and weakening by oxidization (rust).

~~~___~~~
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gray_ironhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferroushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eutectichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wt%25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siliconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_compoundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eutectic_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malleable_ironhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gray_ironhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferroushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eutectichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wt%25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siliconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_compoundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eutectic_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malleable_ironhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castability


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Non-ferrous metals and alloys

t covers a wide range of materials right from common metals like aluminium and copper to high-

emperature alloys such as tungsten and molybdenum. Though they are more expensive and rarer than

errous materials, these have many important uses and applications in todays world.

Aluminium and its alloys::

Aluminium alloys are mixtures ofaluminium with other metals (called an alloy), often with copper, zinc, manganese,

licon, or magnesium. They are much lighter and more corrosion resistant than plain carbon steel, but not as corrosion

esistant as pure aluminium. Bare aluminium alloy surfaces will keep their apparent shine in a dry environment due to the

ormation of a clear, protective oxide layer. Galvanic corrosion can be rapid when aluminium alloy is placed in electrical

ontact with stainless steel, or other metals with a more negative corrosion potential than the aluminium alloy, in a wet

nvironment. Aluminium alloy and stainless steel parts should only be used together in water-containing systems or

utdoor installations if provision is made for either electrical or electrolytic isolation between the two metals.

Alloy designations

Wrought and cast aluminium alloys use different identification systems. Wrought aluminium is identified with a four digit

umber which identifies the alloying elements.

ast aluminium alloys use a four to five digit number with a decimal point. The digit in the hundred's place indicates the

loying elements, while the digit after the decimal point indicates the form (cast shape or ingot).

emper designation

he temper designation follows the cast or wrought designation number with a dash, a letter, and potentially a one to

hree digit number, e.g. 6061-T6. The definitions for the tempers are:

F

As fabricated

H

Strain hardened (cold worked) with or without thermal treatment

-H1Strain hardened without thermal treatment
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixtureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galvanic_corrosionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixtureshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galvanic_corrosionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steel


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-H2

Strain hardened and partially annealed

-H3

Strain hardened and stabilized by low temperature heating

Second digit

A second digit denotes the degree of hardness-HX2 = 1/4 hard

-HX4 = 1/2 hard

-HX6 = 3/4 hard

-HX8 = full hard

-HX9 = extra hard

O

Full soft (annealed)

T

Heat treated to produce stable tempers

-T1

Cooled from hot working and naturally aged-T2 : Cooled from hot working, cold-worked, and naturally aged

-T3

Solution heat treated and cold worked

-T4

Solution heat treated and naturally aged

-T5

Cooled from hot working and artificially aged

-T51

Stress relieved by stretching

-T510

No further straightening after stretching

-T511

Minor straightening after stretching

-T52

Stress relieved by thermal treatment

-T6

Solution heat treated and artificially aged

-T7

Solution heat treated and stabilized

-T8

Solution heat treated, cold worked, and artificially aged-T9

Solution heat treated, artificially aged, and cold worked

-T10

Cooled from hot working, cold-worked, and artificially aged

W

Solution heat treated only

Wrought alloys

he International Alloy Designation System is the most widely accepted naming scheme for wrought alloys. Each alloy is

iven a four-digit number, where the first digit indicates the major alloying elements.


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1000 series are essentially pure aluminium with a minimum 99% aluminium content by weight and can be work

hardened.

2000 series are alloyed with copper, can beprecipitation hardened to strengths comparable to steel. Formerly

referred to as duralumin, they were once the most common aerospace alloys, but were susceptible to stress

corrosion cracking and are increasingly replaced by 7000 series in new designs.

3000 series are alloyed with manganese, and can be work-hardened. 4000 series are alloyed with silicon. They are also known as silumin.

5000 series are alloyed with magnesium, derive most of their strength from work hardening. It is suitable for

cryogenic applications and low temperature work. However is susceptible to corrosion above 60C.

6000 series are alloyed with magnesium and silicon, are easy to machine, and can be precipitation-hardened, but

not to the high strengths that 2000, and 7000 can reach.

7000 series are alloyed with zinc, and can be precipitation hardened to the highest strengths of any aluminium

alloy.

8000 series is a category mainly used for lithium alloys.

Magnesium and its alloys::

Magnesium alloy developments have traditionally been driven by aerospace industry requirements for lightweight

materials to operate under increasingly demanding conditions. Magnesium alloys have always been attractive to designers

ue to their low density, only two thirds that of aluminium. This has been a major factor in the widespread use of

magnesium alloy castings and wrought products.

A further requirement in recent years has been for superior corrosion performance and dramatic improvements have been

emonstrated for new magnesium alloys. Improvements in mechanical properties and corrosion resistance have led to

reater interest in magnesium alloys for aerospace and speciality applications, and alloys are now being specified onrogrammes such as the McDonnell Douglas MD 500 helicopter.

Key Properties

Light weight

Low density (two thirds that of aluminium)

Good high temperature mechanical properties

Good to excellent corrosion resistance

Applications

Aerospace

or many years, RZ5 alloy has been the preferred material for helicopter transmission casings due to the combination of

ow density and good mechanical properties. More recently, however, the requirement for longer intervals between

verhauls and hence improved corrosion properties has caused manufacturers to reconsider material choice.

n the past, RZ5 was generally used for gearbox casings but many new programmes will use WE43 instead including the

main rotor gearbox castings. For this application, an aluminium transmission would have been used but for the
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xceptional corrosion resistance of WE43. The Eurocopter EC 120 and NH90 helicopters have also flown with WE43

ansmission casings and WE43 is specified for the Sikorsky S92. Further applications for WE43 will go ahead in the

uture both on new programmes and also to replace RZ5 on older helicopters.

Z5, ZRE1, MSR and EQ21 alloys are widely used for aircraft engine and gearbox casings. This will continue although it

likely that WE43 will be used increasingly for its corrosion and high temperature properties. Very large magnesiumastings can be made, such as intermediate compressor casings for turbine engines. These include the Rolls Royce Tay

asing in MSR, which weighs 130kg and the BMW Rolls Royce BR710 casing in RZ5. Other aerospace applications

nclude auxiliary gearboxes (F16, Eurofighter 2000, Tornado) in MSR or RZ5, generator housings (A320 Airbus,

ornado and Concorde in MSR or EQ21) and canopies, generally in RZ5.

Magnesium alloy forgings are also used in aerospace applications including critical gearbox parts for the Westland Sea

King helicopter and aircraft wheels, both in ZW3. Forged magnesium parts are also used in aero engine applications. In

he future, magnesium forgings are most likely to be used in higher temperature applications

Automotive motor racing

n motor racing, RZ5 is generally used for gearbox casings although MSR/EQ21 alloys are also being used increasingly

ue to their superior ambient temperature properties or because of increased operating temperatures. RZ5 wheels have

een shown to have significantly better performance than Mg-Al-Zn alloy wheels under arduous racing conditions. Due to

he high operating temperature of racing engines, WE54 castings have been used for a variety of Formula 1 engine parts

nd are used for engine components for a limited edition road car. Forged WE54 pistons offer great future potential for

motor racing and other applications will exist for other wrought products.

Magnesium alloys are also used in many other engineering applications where having light weight is a significant

dvantage. Magnesium-zirconium alloys tend to be used in relatively low volume applications where they are processed

y sand or investment casting, or wrought products by extrusion or forging. Zirconium-free alloys, principally AZ91 butso other alloys, are used in automotive and various other high volume applications.

Bicycles

As mentioned above Melram 072, the metal matrix composite is used in the bicycle industry due to its excellent stiffness

nd reduced weight compared to aluminium.

Copper and its alloys::

opper alloys are alloys with copperas their principal component. They have high resistance to corrosion.

ue to its high electric conductivity, pure electrolytic copper is used mostly for making ofelectrical cables.

he similarity in external appearance of the various alloys, along with the different combinations of elements used when

making each alloy, can lead to confusion when categorizing the different compositions. There are as many as 400

ifferent copper and copper-alloy compositions loosely grouped into the categories: copper, high copper alloy, brasses,

ronzes, copper nickels, coppernickelzinc (nickel silver), leaded copper, and special alloys. The following table lists

he principal alloying element for four of the more common types, along with the name for each type.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloyshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_cablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloyshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copperhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_cable


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Classification of copper and its alloys

Family Principal alloying element UNS numbers

oys, brass Zinc (Zn) C1xxxxC4xxxx,C66400C69800

bronzes Tin (Sn) C5xxxx

m bronzes Aluminium (Al) C60600C64200

onzes Silicon (Si) C64700C66100

ckel, nickel silvers Nickel (Ni) C7xxxx

ome common Copper alloys

NameNominal

composition

[2]

Form and

condition

Yield

strength

[3]

Tensile

strength

[4] Elongation[5] Hardness[6] Comments

opper (ASTM

1, B2, B3, B152,

124, R133)

Cu 99.9 Annealed 10 32 45 42

Electrical

equipment,

roofing, screens

" " Cold-drawn 40 45 15 90 "

" " Cold-rolled 40 46 5 100 "

ilding metal

ASTM B36)Cu 95.0, Zn 5.0 Cold-rolled 50 56 5 114

Coins, bullet

jackets

artridge brass

ASTM B14, B19,

36, B134, B135)

Cu 70.0, Zn 30.0 Cold-rolled 63 76 8 155 Good for cold-

working;

radiators,

hardware,electrical, drawn
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cartridge cases.

hosphor bronze

ASTM B103,139, B159)

Cu 70.0, Sn 10.0,P 0.25 Springtemper 122 4 241

High fatigue-

strength andspring qualities

ellow or High

rass (ASTM B36,

134, B135)

Cu 65.0, Zn 35.0 Annealed 18 48 60 55Good corrosion

resistance

" " Cold-drawn 55 70 15 115 "

" "Cold-rolled

(HT)60 74 10 180 "

Manganese bronze

ASTM 138)

Cu 58.5, Zn 39.2,

Fe 1.0, Sn 1.0, Mn

0.3

Annealed 30 60 30 95 Forgings

" " Cold-drawn 50 80 20 180 "

aval brass

ASTM B21)

Cu 60.0, Zn 39.25,

Sn 0.75Annealed 22 56 40 90

Resistance to

salt corrosion

" " Cold-drawn 40 65 35 150 "

Muntz metalASTM B111)

Cu 60.0, Zn 40.0 Annealed 20 54 45 80 Condensor tubes

Aluminium bronze

ASTM B169 alloy

A, B124, B150)

Cu 92.0, Al 8.0 Annealed 25 70 60 80

" " Hard 65 105 7 210 "
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eryllium copper

ASTM B194,

196, B197)

Cu 97.75, Be 2.0,

Co or Ni 0.25

Annealed,

solution-

treated

32 70 45B60

(Rockwell)

Electrical,

valves, pumps

" " Cold-rolled 104 110 5B81

(Rockwell)"

ree-cutting brassCu 62.0, Zn 35.5,

Pb 2.5Cold-drawn 44 70 18

B80

(Rockwell)

Screws, nuts,

gears, keys

ickel silver

ASTM B112)

Cu 65.0, Zn 17.0,

Ni 18.0

Annealed 25 58 40 70 Hardware

" " Cold-rolled 70 85 4 170 "

ickel silver

ASTM B149)

Cu 76.5, Ni 12.5,

Pb 9.0, Sn 2.0Cast 18 35 15 55

Easy to

machine;

ornaments,

plumbing

upronickel

ASTM B111,

171)

Cu 88.35, Ni 10.0,

Fe 1.25, Mn 0.4Annealed 22 44 45

Condensor, salt-

water pipes

" "Cold-drawn

tube57 60 15 "

upronickel Cu 70.0, Ni 30.0 Wrought Heat-exchangeequipment,

valves

unce metal[7]

opper Alloy

83600 (also

nown as "Red

rass" or

composition

metal") (ASTM

Cu 85.0, Zn 5.0,

Pb 5.0, Sn 5.0

Cast 17 37 25 60
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62)

un Metal (knowns "red brass" in

US)

Varies Cu 80-

90%, Zn


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Corrosion Resistance. Nickel-base alloys offer excellent corrosion resistance to a wide range of corrosivemedia. However, as with all types of corrosion, many factors influence the rate of attack. The corrosivemedia itself is the most important factor governing corrosion of a particular metal.

Low-Expansion Alloys Nickel was found to have a profound effect on the thermal expansion of iron. Alloys

can be designed to have a very low thermal expansion or display uniform and predictable expansion overcertain temperature ranges.

ron-36% Ni alloy (Invar) has the lowest expansion of the Fe-Ni alloys and maintains nearly constantdimensions during normal variations in atmospheric temperature.

The addition of cobalt to the nickel-iron matrix produces alloys with a low coefficient of expansion, aconstant modulus of elasticity, and high strength.

Electrical Resistance Alloys. Several alloy systems based on nickel or containing high nickel contents areused in instruments and control equipment to measure and regulate electrical characteristics (resistance

alloys) or are used in furnaces and appliances to generate heat (heating alloys).

Types of resistance alloys containing nickel include:

Cu-Ni alloys containing 2 to 45% Ni Ni-Cr-Al alloys containing 35 to 95% Ni

Ni-Cr-Fe alloys containing 35 to 60% Ni

Ni-Cr-Si alloys containing 70 to 80% Ni

Types of resistance heating alloys con-taining nickel include:

Ni-Cr alloys containing 65 to 80% Ni with 1.5% Si

Ni-Cr-Fe alloys containing 35 to 70% Ni with 1.5% Si + l% Nb

Soft Magnetic Alloys. Two broad classes of magnetically soft materials have been developed in the Fe-Nisystem. The high-nickel alloys (about 79% Ni with 4 to 5% Mo; bal Fe) have high initial permeability and lowsaturation induction.

Shape Memory Alloys.Metallic materials that demonstrate the ability to return to their previously definedshape when subjected to the appropriate heating schedule are referred to as shape memory alloys. Nickel-itanium alloys (50Ni-50Ti) are one of the few commercially important shape memory alloys.

Superalloys::

uperalloys are metallic materials for service at high temperatures. Particularly in the hot zones of modern gas turbines

sed in airplanes, such materials are needed to improve fuel efficiency, which requires the alloys to withstand higher

emperatures and stresses. One of the most important requirements is resistance against high temperature creep. Other

rucial material properties are crack resistance, stiffness, as well as an ability to resist oxidation and an acceptable density.

he availability of such superalloys led during past decades to a steady increase in the turbine entry temperatures and theend is expected to continue.


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reep resistance is dependent on slowing the speed of dislocations within the crystal structure. The body centered cubic

amma prime phase [Ni3(Al,Ti)] present in nickel and nickel-iron superalloys presents a barrier to dislocations. Chemical

dditions such as aluminum and titanium promote the creation of the gamma prime phase. The gamma prime phase size

an be finally controlled by annealing. Cobalt base superalloys do not have a strengthening secondary phase like gamma

rime. Many other elements, both common and exotic, can be present; chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, aluminium,

rconium, niobium, rhenium, carbon or silicon are just a few examples.

he largest applications of superalloys are the following: aircraft and industrial gas turbines; rocket engines; space

ehicles; submarines; nuclear reactors; military electric motors.

Many of the industrial nickel-based superalloys contain alloying elements, including chromium, aluminium, and titanium,

so molybdenum, tungsten, niobium, tantalum and cobalt.

Titanium and its alloys::itanium has the following advantages:

Good strength

Resistance to erosion and erosion-corrosion

Very thin, conductive oxide surface film

Hard, smooth surface that limits adhesion of foreign materials

Surface promotes dropwise condensationommercially pure titanium with minor alloy contents include various titanium-palladium grades and alloy Ti-0,3Mo-

,8Ni (ASTM grade 12 or UNS R533400). The alloy contents allow improvements in corrosion resistance and/or

rength.

itanium-palladium alloys with nominal palladium contents of about 0,2% Pd are used in applications requiring excellent

orrosion resistance in chemical processing or storage applications where the environment is mildly reducing or fluctuates

etween oxidizing and reducing.

Alloy Ti-0,3Mo-0,8Ni (UNS R533400, or ASTM grade 12) has applications similar to those for unalloyed titanium but

as better strength and corrosion resistance. However, the corrosion resistance of this alloy is not as good as the titanium-

alladium alloys. The ASTM grade 12 alloy is particularly resistant to crevice corrosion in hot brines.

itanium alloy compositions of various titanium alloys. Because the allotropic behavior of titanium allows diverse

hanges in microstructures by variations in thermomechanical processing, a broad range of properties and applications

an be served with a minimum number of grades. This is especially true of the alloys with a two-phase, +, crystalructure.

he most widely used titanium alloy is the Ti-6Al-4V alpha-beta alloy. This alloy is well understood and is also very

olerant on variations in fabrication operations, despite its relatively poor room-temperature shaping and forming

haracteristics compared to steel and aluminium. Alloy Ti-6Al-4V, which has limited section size hardenability, is most

ommonly used in the annealed condition.

ther titanium alloys are designed for particular application areas. For example:


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Alloys Ti-5Al-2Sn-2Zr-4Mo-4Cr (commonly called Ti-17) and Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-6Mo for high strength in heavysections at elevated temperatures.

Alloys Ti-6242S, IMI 829, and Ti-6242 (Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-2Mo) for creep resistance

Alloys Ti-6Al-2Nb-ITa-Imo and Ti-6Al-4V-ELI are designed both to resist stress corrosion in aqueous saltsolutions and for high fracture toughness

Alloy Ti-5Al-2,5Sn is designed for weldability, and the ELI grade is used extensively for cryogenic applications

Alloys Ti-6Al-6V-2Sn, Ti-6Al-4V and Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al for high strength at low-to-moderate temperatures.Welding has the greatest potential for affecting material properties. In all types of welds, contamination by interstitial

mpurities such as oxygen and nitrogen must be minimized to maintain useful ductility in the weldment. Alloy

omposition, welding procedure, and subsequent heat treatment are highly important in determining the final properties of

welded joints.

ome general principles can be summarized as follows:

Welding generally increases strength and hardness

Welding generally decreases tensile and bend ductility

Welds in unalloyed titanium grades 1, 2 and 3 do not require post-weld treatment unless the material will be highly

ressed in a strongly reducing atmosphereWelds in more beta-rich alpha-beta alloys such as Ti-6Al-6V-2Sn have a high likelihood of fracturing with little or no

lastic straining.

itanium and titanium alloys are heat treated for the following purposes:

To reduce residual stresses developed during fabrication

To produce an optimal combination of ductility, machinability, and dimensional and structural stability(annealing)

To increase strength (solution treating and aging)

To optimise special properties such as fracture toughness, fatigue strength, and high-temperature creep strength.

Refractory Metals::

Refractory metals are a class ofmetals that are extraordinarily resistant to heat and wear. Refractory metals are said to

e poorly resistant to oxidation and corrosion.[1] The definition which elements belong to this group differs. The wider

efinition includes 10 elements of the Group 4,Group 5Group 6 excluding the transuranium element but including the

Group 7 elementrhenium, while some definitions include the five metals tungsten, molybdenum, niobium, tantalum and

henium.

he high melting point makes them useful in many applications. Household incandescent bulbs contain refractory metals

n their tungsten filaments, and nearly all manufactured goods, particularly those containing metal or electronics, containr were produced using refractory metals.

efractory metals are used in lighting, tools, lubricants, nuclear reaction control rods, as catalysts, and for theirchemical

r electrical properties. Because of their high melting point, refractory metal components are neverfabricatedby casting.

he process ofpowder metallurgy is used. Powders of the pure metal are compacted, heated using electric current, and

urther fabricated by cold working with annealing steps. Refractory metals can be worked into wire,ingots,bars, sheets or

oil.

summary
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Ferrous Metals Chooser Chart

Name Composition Properties Uses

Mild Steel0.15 to0.30% carbon Tough, high tensile strength, ductile.

Because of low carbon content it can not

be hardened and tempered. It must be casehardened.

girders, Plates, nuts andbolts, general purpose.

High

Speed

Steel

medium carbon,tungsten, chromium

and vanadium.

Can be hardened and tempered. Can bebrittle. Retains hardness at high

temperatures.

Cutting tools for lathes.

Stainless

Steel

18% chromium, and8% nickel added.

Corrosion resistant Kitchen draining boards.Pipes, cutlery, aircraft.

HighTensile

Steel

Low carbon steel,,nickel,and

chromium.

Very strong and very tough. Gears, shafts, engine parts.

High

Carbon

Steel

0.70% to 1.40%carbon.

The hardest of the carbon steels. Lessductile, tough and malleable.

Chisels, hammers, drills,files, lathe tools, taps and

dies.

Medium

Carbon

Steels

0.30% to 0.70%

carbon.

Stronger and harder than mild steels. Less

ductile, tough and malleable.

Metal ropes, wire, garden

tools, springs.

Cast Iron

Remelted pig ironwith small amounts

of scrap steel.

Hard, brittle, strong, cheap, self-lubricating.

Whitecast iron, grey cast iron, malleable

cast iron.

Heavy crushing machinery.Car cylinder blocks, vices,

machine tool parts, brakedrums, machine handle and

gear wheels, plumbing

fitments.

Non-Ferrous Metals Chooser Chart

Name Composition Properties Uses

Aluminium Pure Metal Greyish-White, soft,malleable, conductive toheat and electricity, It iscorrosion resistant. It

can be welded but thisis difficult. Needs

special processes.

Aircraft, boats, windowframes, saucepans,

packaging and insulation,pistons and cranks.

Aluminium alloys-

Duraluminium)

Aluminium +4%

Copper+1%Manganese

Ductile, Malleable,

Work Hardens.

Aircraft and vehicle parts.

Copper Pure metal Red, tough, ductile,High electrical

conductor, corrosionresistant, Can work hard

Electrical wire, cables and

conductors, water and

central heating pipes andcylinders. Printed circuit


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or cold. Needs frequentannealing.

boards, roofs.

Brass 65% copper +35%zinc. Very corrosive, yellowin colour, tarnishes very

easily. Harder thancopper. Good electrical

conductor.

Castings, ornaments,valves,forgings.

Lead Pure metal The heaviest commonmetal. Soft, malleable,bright and shiny when

new but quicklyoxidizes to a dull grey.

Resistant to corrosion.

Protection against X-Ray

machines. Paints, roofcoverings, flashings.

Zinc Pure metal A layer of oxideprotects it from

corrosion, bluish-white,easily worked.

Makes brass. Coating for

steel galvanized

corrugated iron roofing,tanks, buckets, rust-proofpaints

Tin Pure metal White and soft,corrosion resistant.

Tinplate, making bronze.

Gilding metal85% copper+15% zinc. Corrosion resistant,

golden colour, enamels

well.

Beaten metalwork,jewellery.

BibliographySITES::


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atschool.eduweb.co.uk/trinity/projects/material/ferrous.html

www.design-technology.org/CDT10metalslesson.htm

www.ebook-search-engine.com/manufacturing-processes-for-engineering-kalpakjian-ebook-pdf.html

www.matbase.com/material/ferrous-metals/

www.google.com

www.yahoo.com

http://www.wikipedia.org/

BOOKS::

Manufacturing processes for engineering materials- Kalpakjian

Materials and processes in manufacturing- DeGARMO
http://atschool.eduweb.co.uk/trinity/projects/material/ferrous.htmlhttp://www.design-technology.org/CDT10metalslesson.htmhttp://www.ebook-search-engine.com/manufacturing-processes-for-engineering-kalpakjian-ebook-pdf.htmlhttp://www.matbase.com/material/ferrous-metals/http://www.google.com/http://www.yahoo.com/http://www.wikipedia.org/http://atschool.eduweb.co.uk/trinity/projects/material/ferrous.htmlhttp://www.design-technology.org/CDT10metalslesson.htmhttp://www.ebook-search-engine.com/manufacturing-processes-for-engineering-kalpakjian-ebook-pdf.htmlhttp://www.matbase.com/material/ferrous-metals/http://www.google.com/http://www.yahoo.com/http://www.wikipedia.org/

ManPro Project-Utkarsh Prabhat

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Transcript of ManPro Project-Utkarsh Prabhat