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Mannerist Period of Art (mainly Italian art from around 1520-1600):

A reaction to the reality of the Renaissance Deliberately distorted forms for emotional or artistic effect Painting demanded an educated wit and was reflective of both artist and patron Artists express themselves with virtuoso techniques (manners)

Title Slide: Tintoretto: Christ at the Sea of Galilee, 1575 (shattered light and planes, white paint as highlighted shorthand)

Titian (Tiziano Vecellion) (1490-1576)At end of Ren, developed his own style that included different and stronger colors as well as stronger movement. Really see this in

Assumption of the Virgin, 1518 (brilliant color, 3 zones with upward movement)St. John the Evangelist on Patmos, 1547 (low vantage point, foreshortening,

silhouetted against sky)He also started using a strong diagonal line in his paintings, rather than the usual Ren horizontal and vertical lines

Pesaro Madonna, 1526 (with family of Pesaro, Madonna not central, diagonals)Bodies are twisted and muscular

Venus with her Mirror, 1555 (note the red hair-titian-colored hair)Venus and Adonis, 1560 (shows Venus from back—fill in your ideal of beauty)

Still did portraits, but started trend of showing his subject in a heroic context rather than just a straightforward portrait

Portrait of a Lady, 1555 (red hair) (DETAIL)Emperor Charles V at Muhlberg, 1548 (his patron, developed new style to show

leader in heroic context, not just sitting in a chair)Titian was recognized as a giant of painting in his time and received many accolades from various heads of state.

Giovanni Battista Rosso Fiorentino (1495-1540), Italy/FranceInfluenced by both Michelangelo and the northern Gothic (emotional) style, he added lots of strange effects using color and unnatural light with very broad brushstrokes. He also created elongated forms, which were popular for Mannerist painters.

The Descent from the Cross, 1521 (violent color, unnatural lighting, elongated forms, emotional)

Portrait of a Man, 1520s, (see brushstrokes, fills up picture, juts out, NG)Became court painter for Francis I of France, who had him decorate his new grand palace of Fontainebleu. He founded the Fontainebleu school of painting.

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Gallerie of Francis I, 1530-40, decorated the long halls of the Palace of Fontainebleu

Tintoretto (Jacopo Robusti) (1518-94), Italy (Venice)He is a huge example of the Mannerist style, with eerie colors, strange mysterious figures, broad brushstrokes. The effect is of a slightly off-kilter world and a very emotional one. He often painted from miniature wax models he shone light on and moved around to get different poses.

Conversion of St. Paul, 1545 (look at diaganols)Bacchus, Venus, and Ariadne, 1576 (floating in air, not grounded)Worship of the Golden Calf, 1560 (note the lines of white that emphasize folds in

cloth) DETAILThe Finding of the body of St. Mark, 1562 (eccentric setting, “ghost?”The Crucifixion, 1565 (huge canvas hung on wall—not a frescoThe Last Supper, 1594 (smoky, turbulent)

Even his portraits are strange—here is a man dressed up as St. George, and he’s shown looking back over his shoulder, twisted around. There is a dragon in the background too!

Portrait of a Man as St. George, 1540 (pose over the shoulder, dragon merely suggested while face is detailed)

Cecchino del Salviati (1510-63), Italy/FranceBathsheba Goes to King David, 1554 (fresco, improbable stairs, long figures,

muscular women, dream-like)

Jacopo Bassano (1517-1592), Italy (Venice)His work uses real peasants and animals for models and which added a certain realism to his paintings.

Miraculous Drought of Fishes, 1545 (bright colors, billowing cloak)Adoration of the Shepherds, 1568, (off-center, diagonals, dirty feet)

Paolo Veronese (Paolo Caliari) (1528-88), Italy)Feast in the House of Levi, 1573 (grandiose, might have been meant to be last

supper but had to change it to avoid Inquisition)

Giovanni da Bologna (Giambologna) (1529-1608), Italy (Medici)Sculptor who uses Mannerist ideas in his work

Abduction of the Sabines, 1583 (intertwined figures, movement upwards, emotion)

Mercury, 1567 (bronze, several made and disseminated throughout Europe, weightlessness, movement)

Christ Crucified, 1588 (bronze, NG)

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El Greco (Domenikos Theotokopoulos) (1541-1614) Originally from Crete, went to Italy then on to Toledo in Spain. He used color and motion to great dramatic effect, often claustrophobic in feel. He actually did not influence the Baroque period very much, and was really on re-discovered at the end of the 1800s.

Christ Cleansing the Temple, 1570 (drama, done in Venice)The Disrobing of Christ, 1579 (color, emotion, claustrophobic)The Burial of Count Orgaz, 1586 (color, supernatural, claustrophobic)Madonna and Child with St. Martina and St. Agnes, 1597 (elongated)View of Toledo, 1599St. Ildefonso, 1603 (strong colors and lines)Virgin of the Immaculate Conception, 1613 (elongated)Lacoon, 1614 (white bodies, unreal, statue had been found in 1506)

Baroque Art (all over Europe, about 1600-1750)

Baroque Art defines art created generally during these 150 or so years (baroque is probably from the Spanish for “asymmetrical or unusual pearl”). But within this time period and over the whole geography of eastern Europe (as well as New Spain), baroque works are quite different from each other. There are different varieties, so to speak, of baroque art, but they generally have the following things in common:

Title Slide:Rembrandt, The Mill, 1645 (influenced taste, dramatic silhouette and stormy sky, NG)

Naturalism: This was a deliberate reaction to Mannerism, which was often other-worldly and fantastic. It harkened back to the Renaissance masters and reflected the new scientific interests in the material world. This emphasis on the “real world” let in new subjects for painting, such as landscapes (idealistic or of a particular place in a particular time), still life and genre (everyday life—often of the lower classes). A geographic difference: Northern painters (mainly Protestant) tended to focus mostly on these new subjects because religious and mythological subjects had less interest to them (protestants generally did not want decoration in churches). Southern painters (mainly Catholic) still looked to the old topics (Flanders, thought it’s right next to the Dutch Republic, stayed Catholic and so would be more like the southern painters). And in a nod to scientific and mathematic discoveries, the oval replaced the circle, and the diagonal replaced the horizontal vanishing point.

Aelbert Cuyp, Avenue at Meerdervoort, 1652

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Peter Paul Rubens, The Meeting of David and Abigail, 1630 (fluid lines, colors, soft touches, NG)

Metaphorics: A good portion of the painters of the Baroque period used naturalism to convey metaphors for important ideas—making abstract ideas real in some way. Even a still life might represent an idea, such as “vanitas vanitatum” (vanity of vanities, all is vanity—the transient nature of pleasures here on earth). Symbols were used, as they had been in the Renaissance, to convey characteristics in portraits. And even portraits were made into metaphors as the subjects were often dressed up in costumes to represent some particular characteristic.

Jan Steen, Love Sickness, 1660 (doctor can’t cure what ails her—see cupid?)Rembrandt, Man in Oriental Costume, 1635 (costume drama, NG)

Complexity of Emotion: In portraits of contemporaries, as well as in the other works, an attempt is made to convey something about the psychological nature of the person, as seen in their emotions. Emotions weren’t all clear—David might regret his killing of Goliath. There is often a sense of tension in Baroque paintings that arises from psychological conflicts. And the art itself, for the Catholic painters, was meant to invoke emotions that would carry human beings closer to God. This too was an intentional aspect of Baroque Art—many painters were patronized by the Church during the Counter-Reformation. During this time, the Church wanted to convey not only the power and majesty of the Church but also to invoke the emotions of awe and ecstasy that a close relationship to God would bring. The Baroque painters did not reject the intense emotionalism of the Mannerist painters—they continued it with a different style.

Peter Paul Rubens, The Horrors of War, 1638 (diagonals, emotion, allegory)Gianlorenzo Bernini, Madonna with Child, ? (complex emotion, movement)

Sense of Humor: Many of the artists of the Baroque used broad humor and sly wit in their paintings, something which was unthinkable in earlier ages.

Sir Anthony van Dyck, Queen Henrietta Maria with Sir Jeffrey Hudson, 1633 (her color is not the stiff one—french fashion statement, dwarf and monkey, NG) DETAILJan Steen, The Village School, 1670

Sense of Infinity (Space and Time): This is of course influenced by the science and philosophy of this time. But it not only includes the use of distant horizons and wide-open skies, it also includes a psychological infinity—that of a single human expanding to meet the divine. The use of illusion to dissolve the barriers between the painting and the observer, or to make the walls and ceilings of a building seemingly expand on forever, is one part of this fascination with infinity.

Claude Lorrain, Landscape With Merchants, 1630 (NG)Pieter Hooch, Woman and Child in a Courtyard, 1660 (open windows and doors to infinity, NG)

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Peter Paul Rubens, Duke of Lerma, 1603 (beautiful horse, seems to come out of picture, diagonals and rhythmic curves)

Contrasts of Light and Dark: Many of painters used light to direct the viewers’ eyes, just as the Renaissance masters had used perspective. Dramatic contrasts between light and dark were also used to convey emotion. Lighting also would highlight certain aspects of the painting that seemed most important to the artist. Some painters also limited their color palette, even so as to use only various shades of whites and grays. This focused the attention on light as a tool for seeing.

Bartoleme Murillo, Girl with Gold Coin, 1650 (white palette, she’s about to say something)Rembrandt, Descent from the Cross, 1634 (light, diagonals, man with back to us—like us)

Movement: In many Baroque works, movement is emphasized. It is often sudden and violent, though it might also be simple and restrained. In many portraits, the subject appears to have paused in the midst of doing something to look up, and be captured as we do today with photographs. Even in landscapes and still lifes, movement is found in the play of light, or the shape of clouds.

Judith Leyster, Self-portrait, 1660Paulus Potter, Horses in a Field, 1650s

EARLIER BAROQUE:

Caravaggio (Michelangelo Merisi) (1571-1610), ItalyHe preferred realistic people to the strange figures in Mannerism and hired real people to be models. His approach coincided with and was supported by the Church’s movement towards involving people emotionally with religion during the Counter-Reformation. By making the people of the Bible look like real people, it brought the message of faith to everyday life. He was famous for his dramatic lighting and “staging” of his paintings, often with extreme facial expressions. He also used the diagonal to create “movement.”

Conversion of St. Paul, 1601Calling of St. Matthew, 1600Narcissus, 1599St. Francis, 1606St. Jerome, 1606Supper at Emmaus, 1606

Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598-1680), Italy

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A child prodigy, he had a papal commission by the time he was 17. He focused on the emotion of the most vivid part of an event. He was also an architect and designed the Piazza for St. Peter’s in Rome.

David, 1623 (body twisted, anger, motion)Apollo and Daphne, 1624 (realistic but fanciful too as she is half-human and half-

tree)Ecstasy of St. Therese, 1652 (glorious, emotion, light, body twisted) DETAILThrone of St. Peter, 1666Bust of Louis XIV, 1665

Sir Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640), FlandersWas the biggest name in Flanders and influenced all who came after him in that part of the HRE. He studied in Italy but returned to Flanders when his mother died. He was a very popular painter in his own lifetime, and also was a skilled diplomat during the Thirty Years War. He popularized painting in a “painterly” fashion-where you can see broad brushstrokes). He was sincerely religious but also enjoyed life.

Daniel in the Lions Den, 1614 (lions look at you, NG)The Fall of the Phaeton, 1604 (greek legend—seasons and time are horrified,

Zeus has to throw lightening bolt-shaft of light-to avoid destruction of earth—the tracks of the universe are disturbed, NG)

Deborah Kip and Her Children, 1629 (blue parrot for wealth but also allegory of mother’s love, NG) DETAIL

Descent from the Cross, 1617 (diagonals, motion, color)Raising of the Cross, 1610 (muscles)

The Dutch made landscape a subject in its own right and not just a setting for a story. (Perhaps it was the sense of fighting hard for their land against the Spanish Monarcy). Landscapes were both realistic and idealistic (with a glow of golden light that came from Italy not from the Netherlands climate). At first it was at a high eye level but then moved down. Also included cityscapes and even interiors of buildings.

Dutch also elevated genre painting, or scenes from everyday life. These often were focused on the lower classes. They also enjoyed painting “merrie companies” or group portraits.

Still-life appears around 1650. Inanimate objects had been a part of portraits and genre but now took prominence. Objects often represented values and were symbolic. Many artists specialized in certain subject matters—“banquets” “flower arrangements” “game and fish.”

Sir Anthony van Dyck (1599-1641) Dutch, but mainly in England

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Charles I wanted to be an artistic leader, like the Italians and the French, and he finally enticed van Dyck to come. He had made a reputation on his ability to do portraits for aristocrats that looked very lush.

Isabella Brant, 1621 (wife of his mentor, Rubens, NG)Portrait of Marchesa Elena Grimaldi Cattaneo, 1623 (when he was in Italy,

diagnonals of umbrella and staircase point to her face, NG)Charles I at the Hunt, 1635 (was “publicist” for monarch)Charles I on Horseback, 1640 (horse is coming out at you)Henri II de Lorraine, 1634 (very flamboyant, love lock, NG)The Virgin as Intercessor, 1628 (very different from portraits but made for a

private home’s altar, NG)

Gerrit von Honthorst (1590-1656), Dutch Rep.Did much of his study in Italy but worked in Dutch Republic. Followed Caravaggio with uses of light and dark.

Musicians on a balcony, 1622 (trompe l’oeil)Louise-Henriette as Diana, 1643The Banquet, 1620 (light and dark, silhouette of one diner, humor)The Dentist, 1622 (light, humor)

Frans Hals (1581-1666), Dutch Rep.He used a lot of dabs and dashes of paint, which close up look haphazard but make up the whole when looked at at a distance. He did not draw beforehand, like the Ren masters had done, but painted right the canvas. This became increasingly popular way to do art. He added a “joie de vive” to his characters, at least in his earlier years. He later influenced Impressionism.

The Laughing Cavalier, 1624Portrait of an Elderly Lady, 1633 (captures the strength of character, but realistic,

not idealized, NG)Portrait of a Gentleman, 1650 (3/4 portraits, more humble, NG)Adriaen von Ostade, 1646 (portrait of fellow artist, open hand, NG) DETAIL

(brushstrokes)Willem Coyens, 1645 (pose, informal yet formal, turned to face front, NG)Banquet of the St. George Civic Guard, 1616 (diagonals)Banquet of the St. George Civic Guard, 1627 (diagonals)

Willem Heda (1593-1680), Dutch Rep.Banquet Piece with Mince Pie, 1635 (meals as still life, tried to get the food to

glisten and look real, NG), DETAILStill life, 1649 (note the peeled lemon again—like a signature)

Jan van Goyen (1596-1656), Dutch Rep.View of Dordrecht from Dordtse Kil, 1644 (muted colors, golden glow, wide sky,

people are very incidental and small, NG)

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Horse Cart on a Bridge, 1648

Pieter Saenredam (1597-1665), Dutch Rep.Cathedral of St. John, 1646 (did almost all interiors, changes things slightly in

order to convey the soaring spaces, NG)

Georges de la Tour (1593-1652), FranceHis paintings, influenced by Caravaggio, often used a “single candle” as light for a painting. He used peasants as his models but infused them with a quality that made them seem universal rather than specific.

FortuneTeller, 1632 (everyday people)The Newborn, 1640Christ in the Carpenter’s Shop, 1640The Repentant Magdalen, 1640 (skull and mirror –vanitas, light, palette) DETAIL

Nicolas Poussin (1593-1665), FranceHe was a strong leader of the classical vein of the Baroque period. He preferred to look for an ideal synthesis of form and subject matter, using light and mood to help. He did try to do landscapes but just didn’t like to not have a story involved! His work greatly influenced other painters who preferred the classical tradition and in fact his work was “codified” as the “French way” to paint for some time (which is what the Impressionists later rebelled against).

Assumption of the Virgin, 1626 (movement, balanced, harks back to Ren Masters)Dance to the Music of Time, 1638 (allegory)Baptism of Christ, 1641 (lots of symbolism)Feeding of the Child Jupiter, 1640 (color on primary subject)Landscape with Diogenes, 1647 (need people in it to tell story)The Holy Family on Steps, 1648 (Joseph in shadow)

Louis Le Nain (1593-1648), FranceSeemed to specialize in painting the bourgeoisie—the upwardly mobile section of society.

A French Interior, 1645 (quiet, peasants)Landscape with Peasants, 1640 (upwardly mobile peasants, infinity)The Cart, 1641 (the very distant horizon)

Claude Lorrain (1600-1682), FranceHe loved landscapes and did little else. He studied in Italy and actually spent the largest portion of his life there.

Landscape with Dancing Figures, 1648Italian Coastal Landscape, 1642 (ideal past)Judgment of Paris, 1646 (landscape of Italy, where he studied, more classic like

Poussin, NG)

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Ulysses Returning Chryseis to Her Father, 1648 (really just an excuse to paint Bay of Naples)

Francisco Zurbaran (1598-1664), SpainFuses mysticism and realism into vibrant art.

St. Lucy, 1630 (combination of spiritual with material—she is very nicely dressed, NG)

St. Jerome with St. Paula and St. Eustochium, 1650 (NG)Adoration of the Magi, 1640 (traditional subject, but Mary is off-center)Hercules Fighting the Cretan Bull, 1630s (created series for Philip IV, not his

usual interests, see how he comes out of the picture diagonally)

Diego Rodriguez de Silva y Velazquez (1599-1660), SpainAdmired Rubens and Titian, and emulated them. He did a lot of portraits. He preferred to paint directly to the canvas rather than do preliminary drawings. He was a young genius who at age 24 became official court painter for Philip IV. So he was famous and successful all his life. He also painted so that close-up it looked like a jumble of color and brushstrokes but from a distance you can see the whole.

The Needlewoman, 1650 (not deep shadows and contrasts, more simple and subtle, fingers suggest repetitive motion, unfinished painting—only face is completed, NG)

Philip IV, 1632 (was court painter)Surrender of Breda, 1634 (historical event painting—conveyed a “real” event

rather than a pageant)Las Meninas (The Maids of Honor), 1657 (Infanta Margarita with 3 maids in

waiting and 1 guard and 2 dwarfs, Velazquez is painting in a makeshift studio and king and queen are in mirror—are they where we are?, and where does the door in the back go? In the background—two Rubens paintings that depict what happens to artists who pretend to be God.)

LATER BAROQUE

Aert van der Neer (1603-1677), Dutch Rep.Specialized in night scenes.

Moonlit Landscape with Bridge, 1650 (light, darkness, drama—his specialty, NG) DETAIL

Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-1669), Dutch Rep.Was naturalist painter who liked to dress his subjects up in costumes. He was fascinated by psychology—what makes a man tick? He painted tons of self-portraits no because he had a big ego but because he was exploring how to show the

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inner person in the face. He was very religious but also rooted in real life. He enjoyed teaching and always had pupils. He was well-known, respected and well-off (until later in his life when his expensive tastes forced him to auction off his belongings).

The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Tulp, 1632Philosopher in Meditation, 1632The Nightwatch, 1642 (preparing to go to work, not static)A Polish Nobleman, 1637 (man in costume, probably not a real portrait but an

exercise in trying to portray psychology of a person, NG)Portrait of a Lady with an Ostrich-Feather Fan, 1660 (NG)Man in a Golden Helmet, 1650 Self-portrait, 1630 (copper etching)Self-portrait, 1634Self-portrait, 1659 (NG)Self-portrait, 1661

Jan de Heem (1606-1684), Dutch Rep.He studied in the Dutch republic but spent a good portion of his time in Flanders.

Still Life of Books, 1628Vase of Flowers, 1660 (still life, flowers all mean something, could not be real—

they bloom at different times, well balanced and complimentary, butterfly=resurrection, window reflection in vase-NG)

Adriaen van Ostade (1610-1685), Dutch Rep.The Alchemist, 1661 (diagonal, open window at end)The Cottage Dooryard, 1673 (vines mean togetherness, dignified peasants, NG)Merrymakers at an Inn, 1674

Jan Vermeer (1632-1675), Dutch Rep.He was not particularly appreciated during his lifetime and was not really “discovered” until the 1900s. He is a calm observer of domesticity, which gives a sense of permanence and significance. He used cool colors of blue and yellow and a “pointille” effect (scattered highlights. He was a friend of the person who was working with optics at this time (Leeuwenhoek) and may have used lenses in his work.

The Milkmaid, 1658 DETAIL (pointille)Girl with the Pearl Earring, 1665The Love Letter, 1668A Lady Writing, 1665 (this is like a camera lens with the foreground and

background slightly hazy while the middle ground is clear and has highlights , NG)A Woman Holding a Balance, 1664 (back wall has picture of last judgement, her

face is serene, she is waiting for it to balance—her life?, NG) DETAIL

Jan Both (1618-1652), Dutch Rep.

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Italianate Evening Landscape, 1650 (NG)

Nicolaes Berchem (1620-1683), Dutch Rep.Landscape with Two Horses, 1666View of an Italian Port, 1660 (NG)

Aelbert Cuyp (1620-1691), Dutch Rep.Domestic Fowl, 1650sHorsemen and Herdsmen with Cattle, 1660 (NG)Road Near a River, 1650s (what’s around the bend?)

Paulus Potter (1625-1654), Dutch Rep.A Farrier’s Shop, 1648Four Bulls, 1650s

Jan Steen (1626-1679), Dutch Rep.Very popular in Holland still. Versatile. Used color in interesting ways.

The Dancing Couple, 1663 (affectionate, happy, funny, NG) DETAILThe Harpsichord Lesson, 1660 Rhetoricians by the Window, 1666Life of Man, 1665 (is it a play?)

Jacob van Ruisdael (1628-1682), Dutch Rep.Loved to paint trees, to give them character. Extremely popular landscape artist in his time and much imitated.

Forest Scene, 1655 (man is inconsequential, NG)Country House in a Park, 1675 (NG)The Windmill at Wijk bij Duurstede, 1670 (like the one on our tapestry)

Gabriel Metsu (1629-1667), Dutch Rep.The Intruder, 1660 (symbols, NG) Detail

Pieter de Hooch (1629-1684), Dutch Rep.The Bedroom, 1660 (NG)Mother Lacing Her Bodice, 1660 (open door)A Dutch Courtyard, 1660 (NG)

Willem van der Velde the Younger (1633-1707), Dutch Rep.

Harbour Landscape, 1653

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Meindart Hobbema (1638-1709), Dutch Rep.A Farm in the Sunlight, 1668 (NG)Hut Among the Trees, 1664 (NG)A View on a Highway, 1665 (NG)

Jan van Huysum (1682-1749), Dutch Rep.Still Life with Flowers and Fruit, 1715 (NG)

Pierre Puget (1620-1694), FranceMilo of Croton, 1682 (reproduction in bronze at NG)Self-portrait, ?

Fra Andrea Pozzo (1642-1709), Italy’Apotheose of St. Ignazio, 1690 (illusions) DETAIL

Bartoleme Esteban Murillo (1616-1682), SpainTwo Women at a Window, 1660 (women looking at window, smiling or laughing

—at us?, NG)Boys Eating Fruit, 1646 (humor)Return of the Prodigal Son, 1670 (servant carrying clothes is brightest part of

picture, emphasis on charity, NG)

Giambattista Tiepolo (1696-1770), Italy, worked in HREA bridge to the Rococo artists, his work sits in both worlds

Apollo Pursuing Daphne, 1755 (NG)St. Roch Carried to Heaven by Angels, 1745 (NG)Wealth and Benefits of the Spanish Monarchy Under Charles III, 1762 (NG)Palace at Wurzberg, 1751-3 DETAIL

Rococo (about 1720-1780)

Opulence and Sophisticated Wit Playfulness and Sentiment Carefree romance Still want complexity in design Asymmetry

Rococo: combination of French rocaille (shell) and barocco (Italian for Baroque style)

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Title Slide: Francis Boucher, Summer Pastoral, 1749

Jean-Antoine Watteau (1684-1721), FranceOne of the most influential painters of the Rococo period. Most of his most “care-free” paintings also have a small sense of wistfulness—he is dying of consumption (tuberculosis). Loved asymmetry.

The Love Song, 1717A Halt During the Chase, 1720Embarkation for Cythera, 1717 (not really, they are leaving the island where

Venus was born—lighthearted entertainment, no moral)Italian Comedians, 1720 (inspired others to explore the relationship between art

and theater as well, NG)

Jean-Marc Nattier (1685-1766), FranceMadame de Caumartin as Hebe, 1753 (portrait in costume, vessel is like one from

Pompeii being excavated, NG)

Jean-Baptiste Oudry (1686-1755), FrancePortrait of the Marquis de Beringhen, 1722 (still life of hunt matched with a

portrait and a landscape all in one, combination of elegance and keen attention to detail, NG)

Francis Boucher (1703-1770), FranceUsed light but rich pastel colors. His patroness was Madame de Pompadour. He also designed stage sets and was intrigued and influenced by the theater. His work is often charming but superficial.

Allegory of Painting, 1765 (NG)The Love Letter, 1750 (idyllic, shepherdesses are wearing silk, NG)Madame Bergeret, 1746 (garden setting, roses, youth, his later portrait of

Madame Pompadour was modeled after this one, NG)Marquise de Pompadour, 1759

Claude-Joseph Vernet (1714-1789), FranceThe Shipwreck, 1772 (public loved it, like looking at a car wreck today, NG)A Seashore, 1776

Etienne-Maurice Falconet (1716-1791), FranceVenus of the Doves, 1760s (NG)Louis the XV, 1760sPeter the Great, 1777 (first rearing horse statue)

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Jean-Baptiste Greuze (1725-1805), FranceInnocence, 1790 (sentimental)

Jean Honore Fragonard (1732-1806), FranceAnother of the great French Rococo painters, Fragonard also had a slight tinge of humor when painting his fluffy pictures of the aristocrats at play (he wa a student of Boucher for a while). Later in life he began painting with more of a sense of morals and sentimentality.

Blindman’s Bluff, 1765, (NG) DETAILThe Swing, 1765 (looking from above, nature is untamed but not harmful, NG)A Visit to the Nursery, 1784 (sentimental, NG)A Young Girl Reading, 1776 (NG)

Nicolas de Largilliere (1656-1746), FranceYoung Man with His Tutor, 1685 (NG)

Giovanni Paolo Panini (1692-1765), ItalyInterior of St. Peter’s, Rome, 1754 (big tourist attractions, he publicized them and

sold to tourists, NG)Interior of the Pantheon, 1754 (NG—the dome of NG is modeled after this dome)

Giovanni Antonio Canal (Canaletto) (1697-1768), ItalyEntrance to the Grand Canal, Venice, 1744 (for the tourists of Venice, NG)The Square of St. Mark’s, 1744 (was in Castle Howard, NG)Regatta on the Grand Canal, 1732English Landscape with a Column, 1754 (NG)

Hubert Robert (1733-1808), FrancePont du Gard, 1787Finding of Lacoon, 1773The Old Bridge, 1775 (bridges connect past and present—people use the bridge in

their everyday lives, but it reflects the past as well, NG) DETAIL

William Hogarth (1697-1764), EnglandRealist and social critic if influenced by the rococo artists of his time. Started native school in England after centuries of being influenced by other nationalities

Scene from the Beggar’s Opera, 1729 (NG)The Shrimp Girl, 1740Marriage ala Mode, 1743

Jean-Baptiste-Simeon Chardin (1699-1779), France

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House of Cards, 1735 (he is just about to remove his hand to see if it will stay—fleetingness of life, NG) DETAIL

The Young Governess, 1739 (pose is like house of cards, but she is doing something, NG)

Soap Bubbles, 1734 (like house of cards, insubstantial, NG)The Attentive Nurse, 1738 (NG)Prayer Before Dinner, 1744

Petro Longhi (1702-1785), ItalyThe Faint, 1744 (slightly satirical of decadance of an upperclass life in Venice,

but was appreciated by that upper class for getting all the details right, NG)The Tooth Puller, 1746The Little Concert, 1746The Patrician Family, 1752

Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723-1792), EnglandLady Elizabeth Delme and Her Children, 1779 (warm colors, realistic clothes of

kids, attentive dog, NG)Lady Caroline Howard, 1778 (NG)

Thomas Gainsborough (1727-1788), EnglandMaster John Heathcote, 1772 (Rapid brush strokes with multi-colored paint, NG)

DETAILThe Honorable Mrs. Thomas Graham, 1779 (NG)Mrs. Richard Sheridan, 1787 (NG)

George Romney (1734-1802), EnglandMiss Juliana Willoughby, 1783 (dramatic diagonal, with classic styling, NG)

Johann Zoffany (1734-1810), German (worked in England)

The Lavie Children, 1770 (added action to add interest and sentiment, NG)

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Architecture:

BaroqueBuildings of the period are composed of great curving forms with undulating facades, ground plans of unprecedented size and complexity, and domes of various shapes. Many works of baroque architecture were executed on a colossal scale, incorporating aspects of urban planning and landscape architecture.

Rococo:In those Continental contexts where Rococo is fully in control, sportive, fantastic, and sculptured forms are expressed with abstract ornament using flaming, leafy or shell-like textures in asymmetrical sweeps and flourishes and broken curves; intimate Rococo interiors use the picturesque, the curious, and the whimsical, expressed in plastic materials like carved wood and above all stucco. Interior décor matched the walls and ceiling, so that furniture, and works of metal and porcelain present a unified ensemble. The Rococo palette is softer and paler than the rich primary colors and dark tonalities favored in Baroque tastes.

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The roots of baroque styles are found in the art of Italy, and especially in that of Rome in the late 16th century. A desire for greater clarity and simplification inspired a number of artists in their reaction against the anticlassical Mannerist style, with its subjective emphasis on distortion, asymmetry, bizarre juxtapositions, and biting colors. Annibale Carracci and Michelangelo Merisi, called Caravaggio, were the two artists in the forefront of the early baroque reforms, which they accomplished in two ways. Caravaggio's art is one of strict naturalism; his paintings often include types drawn from everyday life engaged in completely believable activities. The school that developed around Carracci, on the other hand, attempted to rid art of its mannered complications by returning to the High Renaissance principles of clarity, monumentality, and balance. This baroque classicism remained important throughout the century. Meanwhile, a third baroque style developed in Rome about 1630, the so-called high baroque; it is generally considered the most characteristic mode of 17th-century art, with its exuberance, emotionalism, theatricality, and unrestrained energy.

Although the protobaroque painter Federigo Barocci (1528-1615) made successful attempts at simplifying his compositions, the first artists to undertake a systematic reform were of the Carracci family. Annibale, his brother Agostino (1557-1602), and their cousin Ludovico (1555-1619) were Bolognese artists who had an enormous impact on the art of the baroque's greatest center, Rome. Annibale arrived there in 1595. Having already become famous for his frescoes in Bologna, he was commissioned to execute the ceiling painting (1597-1600) in the Galleria of Rome's Farnese Palace, his most significant work and a key monument in the development of the classical or ideal, baroque manner, of which Annibale was the chief initiator. This style appealed to such artists as Guido Reni, Domenico Zampieri, called Domenichino, and Francesco Albani (1578-1660), who were trained by the Carracci at their workshop in Bologna. Other baroque classicists, such as the French painters Nicolas Poussin and Claude Lorrain, came from abroad to work in Rome. Also drawn to Rome was Caravaggio, who became the principal rival of Annibale. Works such as the Calling and the Martyrdom of Saint Matthew (circa 1599-1600, San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome) found sympathetic response, and Caravaggio came to be the guiding spirit behind an entire school of baroque naturalists. Naturalism was spread throughout Italy in the first two decades of the 17th century by such native masters as Orazio and Artemisia Gentileschi, Bartolomeo Manfredi (circa 1580-c. 1620), and Caracciolo, called Battistello (1570-1637), and later by foreigners working in Italy, including the French painter Valentin de Boulogne (c. 1591-c. 1632), Gerrit van Honthorst from the Netherlands, and the Spaniard Jusepe de Ribera. Although of lesser importance in Italy after about 1630, baroque naturalism continued to have an enormous impact throughout the rest of the century in all parts of Europe.

Another turning point in the history of baroque painting took place in the late 1620s. Many artists attempted to introduce greater liveliness and drama into their works to create illusions of limitless space (illusionism). In 1625-27 Giovanni Lanfranco (1582-1647) painted the enormous dome of the church of Sant' Andrea della Valle in Rome with his Assumption of the Virgin. Although this fresco was inspired by Correggio's Renaissance

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ceilings in Parma, it virtually overwhelmed contemporary spectators with its exuberant illusionistic effects and became one of the first high baroque masterpieces. Lanfranco's work in Rome (1613-30) and in Naples (1634-46) was fundamental to the development of illusionism in Italy.

The illusionistic ceiling fresco was a particularly important medium for high baroque painters. Pietro Berrettini, called Pietro da Cortona, developed it to an extraordinary degree in works such as the ceiling (1633-39) of the gran salone of Rome's Barberini Palace. In 1676-79 Giovanni Battista Gaulli, also called Baciccio (1639-1709), painted The Triumph of the Name of God on the ceiling of the Ges[[breve]] Church in Rome. In 1691-94 Andrea Pozzo (1642-1709) painted The Entrance of Saint Ignatius into Paradise for the ceiling of Sant' Ignazio, Rome, with the same theatricality, drama, and emotion that had characterized high baroque painting throughout the century.

Among the first major architects of the early baroque was Carlo Maderno, who is known principally for his work on St. Peter's. Between 1606 and 1612 he completed the nave extension and facade of this structure, begun approximately 100 years earlier by Donato Bramante. Building activity also occurred in centers outside Rome during the early decades of the century. Francesco Maria Ricchino (1583-1658), in Milan, and Baldassare Longhena (1598-1682), in Venice, both designed central-plan churches. Longhena's Santa Maria della Salute (begun 1631) has been noted for its extravagantly ornate exterior and its superb site at the entrance to the Grand Canal. Especially theatrical is the work of Guarino Guarini in Turin. His Capella della Santa Sindone (Chapel of the Holy Shroud, 1667-94) astounds the observer with its intricate geometric forms derived from Islamic buildings in the unusually high dome. Aside from Bernini, the major architects of the later Roman baroque were Francesco Borromini and Carlo Rainaldi (1611-91). Together they designed Sant' Agnese (begun 1652) in Piazza Navona. The elegantly undulating facade of Borromini's San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane (1665-67) in Rome, with its convex and concave rhythms echoing those of the interior, might be called the quintessence of Italian baroque architecture.

Spanish architecture of the early baroque often continues the pattern of the muted severe style of the monastery-palace of El Escorial (1563-82) near Madrid, as in the Buen Retiro Palace (begun 1631, now destroyed) in Madrid. Cano's facade for Granada Cathedral (designed 1667) contains classical elements but, in its surface decoration, points the way to the rococo. The most ornate baroque buildings are found in Andalusia. Seville's Hospital of Los Venerables Sacerdotes (1687-97), designed by Leonardo de Figueroa (1650-1730), is typical. In the rest of the country the Churrigueresque style, a wildly exuberant baroque mode named for the Churriguera family of architects, is evident in richly adorned buildings in Barcelona, Madrid, and especially Salamanca.

Spanish Baroque in the New World

The art of the New World in the 17th century followed lines similar to that of the Iberian countries. Among the major centers in Spanish America were Mexico, Guatemala (especially Antigua), and Peru (Cuzco and Lima). The art of Brazil followed the patterns

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set by Portugal. In painting, the styles of Caravaggio, Zurbar.n, and Murillo had tremendous impact. Paintings of the Cuzco school combined indigenous decorative forms with European-like figures. Sculptural decoration from native sources also served as an integral part of the interiors and exteriors of the hundreds of baroque churches constructed in a flamboyant and exaggerated Churrigueresque mode, in all parts of the New World at this time.

Until about 1650, Dutch sculpture remained Mannerist; a strongly baroque exuberance was then introduced by Flemish sculptors, most notably by Quellinus with his work for the interior and exterior of the Amsterdam Town Hall. The building, now the Royal Palace, was begun in 1648 to the plans of Jacob van Campen (1595-1657). It epitomizes the pervasive taste of the time for a classicism based on the published designs of the 16th-century Italian architect Andrea Palladio.

The architect Inigo Jones studied Palladian classicism in Italy, as is evident in his Banqueting House (1619-22, London), with a spectacular ceiling painting, Allegory of Peace and War (1629), by Rubens. Sir Christopher Wren also journeyed to Italy, and his plans for Saint Paul's Cathedral (begun 1675, London) reveal his study of Bramante, Borromini, and other Italian Renaissance architects. Wren, who was in charge of the rebuilding of London after the fire of 1666, influenced the course of architecture in England and its North American colonies for over a century.

The Palace of Versailles (begun 1669), created for Louis XIVóthe Sun Kingóby Louis Le Vau, AndrÈ Le NÙtre, and Le Brun, is the single most important French baroque architectural monument. It is dedicated to the Sun King, and in its measured classical forms, complex gardens, and sumptuous interiors glorifies the power of the monarchy; it gave rise to imitations by dozens of other rulers throughout Europe. A similarly grandiose project was the enlargement (1660s-'70s) of the Louvre by Le Vau, Le Brun, Claude Perrault (1613-88), and others, a work of great restraint and subtlety.

Balthasar Permoser (1651-1732), a Bavarian, assimilated high baroque styles in Italy and brought them to Dresden, where he became its leading baroque sculptor. His festive sculptures for the Zwinger Pavilion (begun 1711), the Dresden Palace's grandiose extension by Matth[[perthousand]]us P^ppelman (1662-1736), account for much of the structure's beauty. In Vienna, as in Dresden, baroque architecture found favor with the ruling court on a spectacular scale. One of Austria's greatest baroque architects, Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, demonstrated his understanding of Italian forms in his masterpiece, the opulent Karlskirche (1716-37) in Vienna. Its elaborate forms and striking silhouette portend the exuberant rococo style that permeated Austrian and German art for the next hundred years.

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The Baroque was defined by Heinrich Wölfflin as the age where the oval replaced the circle as the center of composition, centralization replaced balance, and coloristic and "painterly" effects began to become more prominent.

Painters and sculptors built and expanded on the naturalistic tradition reestablished during the

Renaissance. Although religious painting, history painting, allegories, and portraits were still

considered the most noble subjects, landscapes, still lifes, and genre scenes were painted by

such artists as Claude Lorrain, Jacob van Ruisdael, Willem Kalf, and Jan Vermeer. Caravaggio

and his early followers were especially significant for their naturalistic treatment of unidealized,

ordinary people. The illusionistic effects of deep space interested many painters, including Il

Guercino and Andrea Pozzo. Other baroque painters opened up interior spaces by representing

long files of rooms, often with extended views through doors, windows, or mirrors, as in the

works of Diego Velázquez and Vermeer.

Color was manipulated for its emotional effects, ranging from the clear calm tones of Nicholas

Poussin, to the warm and shimmering colors of Pietro da Cortona, to the more vivid hues of

Peter Paul Rubens. A heightened sense of drama was achieved through chiaroscuro in the

works of Caravaggio and Rembrandt. Carracci and Poussin portrayed restrained feeling in

accordance with the academic principles of dignity and decorum. Others, including Caravaggio,

Rubens, and Rembrandt depicted religious ecstasy, physical sensuality, or individual psychology

in their paintings.

Buildings of the period are composed of great curving forms with undulating facades, ground plans of unprecedented size and complexity, and domes of various shapes, as in the churches of Francesco Borromini, Guarino Guarini, and Balthasar Neumann. Many works of baroque architecture were executed on a colossal scale, incorporating aspects of urban planning and landscape architecture. This is most clearly seen in Bernini's elliptical piazza in front of St. Peter's in Rome, or in the gardens, fountains, and palace at Versailles, designed by Louis Le Vau, Jules Hardouin-Mansart, and André Le Nôtre.