Manila Policy Dialogue on Environment and...

Manila Policy Dialogue on Environment and Transport in the Asian Region

16-17 January, 2004, Manila, Philippines

MPD/S-3 : Issue Paper

Session 3: Emission Control for In-use Vehicles with Special Attention to Inspection and Maintenance

Drafted by: C.R.C Mohanty

Ken Shimizu Mitsuru Iida

Makiko Uchida

United Nations Centre for Regional Development

DISCLAIMER The contents of this draft issue paper do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the organizers or contributory organizations. The findings, interpretations, conclusions, and recommendations expressed in the draft issue paper represent the views of concerned author/s for possible discussions.

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Table of Contents Executive Summary……………………………………………………………………. 3p 1.0 Background……………………………………………………………………… 5p 1.1 What is the problem?………………………………………………………. 5p 1.2 Factors influencing in-use vehicle emissions……………………….……… 6p 1.3 Major regional initiatives/efforts in vehicle emission reduction…………… 6p 2.0 Major Technological Developments at International Level…………………... 6p 3.0 Emission Control Measures in Asia…………………..………………………… 6p 3.1 Emission standards and regulation…………………………………………. 7p 3.2 Inspection and maintenance (I/M) programmes……………………………. 9p 3.3 Fuel options………………………………………………………………… 17p 3.4 Transport Planning and traffic management ………………………………. 17p 3.5 Trade of in-use vehicles……………………………………………………. 17p 4.0 Items for Further Discussions/Activities……………………………………….. 18p References………………………………………………………………………………. 19p Appendices……………………………………………………………………………… 22p Appendix 1: Factors influencing motor vehicle emissions……………………… 22p Appendix 2: Major regional initiatives/efforts in vehicle emission reduction……. 23p Appendix 3: Major technological developments at international level…………… 26p Appendix 4: Emission standards for passenger cars, light commercial, and heavy-

duty new vehicles…………………………………………………….

30p Appendix 5: Emissions standards for in-use vehicles/motorcycles………………. 34p Appendix 6: Type of vehicle inspection and their frequency followed in Japan…. 45p Appendix 7: Trade of used vehicles from Japan to other countries…...………….. 47p

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Executive Summary Although several measures have been taken in recent years by the countries to control vehicular emissions in cities and urban areas, air quality in many Asian cities does not meet the WHO standards. Generally, factors influencing the motor vehicles emissions are: vehicle and fuel characteristics, fleet characteristics and operating characteristics. Many countries in Asia have developed their own vehicle control strategies. The vehicle emission reduction will require an integrated approach or strategy. The strategy should enable governments to (i) adopt standards that match technology levels for new vehicles and gradually tighten standards for in-use vehicles (ii) implement an effective I/M programme with QA/QC, (iii) adopt appropriate fuel standards and promote conversion to alternative fuel (iv) develop fiscal incentives for accelerated retirement of old vehicles, and (v) introduce appropriate policy instruments to regulate import of used vehicles. In order to monitor and regulate the emission of pollutants from vehicles, there are mainly three main approaches to emission standards available internationally – European, American, and Japanese standards. However, most of the Asian countries have inclined towards European standards for new cars and trucks. With regard to two and three wheelers (such as scooters and motor cycles), the standards adopted by India, Thailand, and Taipei, China are also seen as most advanced. Considering the number of in-use vehicles and the much longer average life span of the vehicles in Asia, control of emission from in-use vehicles is very vital for over all improvement of the air quality in the region. The main pollutants, which need to be regulated for in-use vehicles, are (i) PM, smoke, and NOx for diesel vehicles (ii) CO, HC, and NOx for gasoline vehicles, and (iii) CO, HC, PM, and smoke for two and three wheelers. There are various issues and challenges in regulating vehicle emissions in Asia. There are no harmonized standards for in-use vehicles in the region, so countries apply different standards for the same vehicle type of the same age. Another issue is also to regulate the type of testing that will be used to assess whether standards are being met for in-use vehicles. Furthermore, with regards to the two and three wheelers, in majority cases only CO and HC are regulated and PM is not regulated. Inspection and Maintenance (I/M) programmes to control emission from in-use vehicles are essential complement to emission standards for new vehicles. I/M programmes have potential to significantly reduce emissions of CO, HC, NOx, PM, and smoke emissions from the vehicles. Real world experience indicates that high quality I/M programmes can reduce CO and HC exhaust emissions by approximately 20 to 30%. Especially, in situation where no or low fuel quality and emission standards are set for all modes of transport, an effective I/M or road worthiness system (I/M + vehicle safety checks) can be one of the most cost effective ways of improving both air quality and the road safety. To ensure the effectiveness of an I/M programme, it is essential to target vehicle types as gross polluters and pollutants of great concern. It is therefore required to study the fleet characteristics before developing a full I/M programme. A comprehensive I/M programme requires major elements such as suitable test procedures, effective enforcement of vehicle compliance, adequate attention to repair procedures and mechanic training, routine quality control, enforcement of program requirements for inspectors and mechanics, periodic evaluation and review, and comprehensive vehicle model year coverage that includes older vehicles.

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Roadside testing can also complement a more comprehensive I/M inspection system, but not an alternative to it. Usually, the primary function of roadside testing is to identify gross polluting vehicles. Periodic road-side inspections are especially useful for enforcing vehicle smoke limits because of the visible nature of smoke emissions. There are several alternative approaches to reduce in-use vehicle emission such as – vehicle retrofitting, switching to alternative fuels, and mandatory retirement of old vehicles. Retrofit approach could be useful for old cars having little or no pollution controls. Retrofit programme for in-use vehicles require a sys tem engineering approach that includes a rigorous I/M programme, proper selection of catalyst and other pollution control devices, optimized catalyst location, and appropriate quality fuel. As the in-use standards are required to form the basis for routine vehicle emission inspection carried out as a part of the I/M programme or road-side testing programmes, there are many complex technical and policy issues and challenges that the policy makers in the region need to look into:

a. whether in-use standards adopted are based on the careful selection of I/M tests procedures and also on vehicle ages and technical specifications

b. whether I/M test procedures need to differ for vehicles with different pollution control technologies.

c. whether the difference between the pollutants from diesel (PM, smoke, NOx) and gasoline fuelled vehicle (CO, HC, NOx) has been taken into account while designing the I/M prgrammes

d. what type of I/M programme that need to be in place to address the problem of motorcycle pollution

e. whether the repair industry is sufficiently trained to carry out repair on vehicles which fail tests.

f. whether the required institutional capacity is in place to enforce and implement an effective I/M programme (with QA/QC).

Possible options for future consideration and discussion include short-term options such as defining I/M inspection requirements, introducing up-to-date and reliable vehicle registration system and licensing system for repair workshops to undertake forced emissions maintenance, ensuring quality assurance on spare parts, and launching public awareness programs. Medium-term options include consideration for introducing I/M fees and tax incentives, regular mandatory training courses covering test procedures, as well as ensuring vehicle manufacturers to provide sound training to service companies on how to maintain emission control systems. Long-term options include setting up I/M pilot projects for selected cities, developing and implementing long-term programme of cooperation, research, information exchange, know-how transfer from developed countries to developing countries, and establishing national network to collect and analyze all essential information regarding vehicle inspection and tests.

Use of imported vehicles or engines remain a problem in many countries in the region. There is a lack of restrictions by countries exporting used vehicles. In general the philosophy seems to be that it is up to each importing country to determine its own environmental priorities and to decide whether the social benefits of used vehicles outweigh the environmental and health risks. Possible options for future consideration and discussion include requiring imports to pass a stringent emissions requirements as a condition of vehicle registration and placing a high tax on imported used vehicles or engines.

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1.0 Background 1.1 What is the problem? Although several measures have been taken in recent years by the countries to control vehicular emissions in cities and urban areas, air quality in many Asian cities does not meet the WHO standards. The measures taken include tightening of new vehicle emission standards, lowering sulphur in diesel and petrol, phasing out leaded gasoline, lowering benzene in petrol, shifting public transport vehicles from diesel to CNG, etc. Even though these measures have lowered particulate and other pollutant emissions from vehicles and improved air quality in some cities, the air quality level remains at unaccepted level. The analysis of prevailing situation in Asia reveals the following issues that are usually obstacles to achieve significant progress in controlling vehicular pollution (both from new and in-use vehicles) in urban cities: Ø lack of integrated efforts of different government agencies Ø lack of enforcement of stringent vehicle (all types) emission standards Ø lack of enforcement or absence of required fuel quality norms (for example, benzene,

aromatic and olefin content in gasoline have not been specified in any of the related regulations in Indonesia).

Ø lack of appropriate auditing or programme for monitoring fuel quality Ø absence of appropriate inspection and maintenance (I/M) programme for all type of

vehicles and the required institutional framework Ø lack of economic incentives/disincentives programmes in promoting low pollution

vehicles Ø not all Asian countries have the facilities to carry out Type Approval Testing to

determine whether new vehicles entering the market meet the required emission standards

Ø transport plans do not link traffic management with pollution control. Ø lack of human or institutional capabilities, both in terms of number and technical

skill, for mobile source pollution management Ø import of second hand vehicle engines from the countries where stringent in-use

emissions and safety requirements have them obsolete It is very important that the governments develop a composite regulatory framework or integrated strategies in order to control vehicular emissions by addressing the following key elements: Ø appropriate standards matching technology levels for new vehicles Ø appropriate standards for in-use vehicles Ø appropriate inspection and maintenance (I/M) and safety check procedures,

including retrofit programmes for in-use/old vehicles with incentives Ø appropriate fuel standards and alternative fuel conversions Ø institutional issues in audit and quality control Ø accelerated retirement or phasing out of old vehicles with incentives Ø restricting and regulating import of used vehicles introducing appropriate policy,

including financial instruments

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It is not only that the entire responsibility lies with the Government, but also with the motor vehicle manufacturers and motor vehicle users. While motor vehicle users need to promote technological developments, the motor vehicle users need to conduct or cooperate with proper inspection and maintenance procedures and programmes. 1.2 Factors influencing in-use vehicle emissions Generally factor influencing the motor vehicles emissions are: vehicle and fuel characteristics, fleet characteristics and operating characteristics (See Appendix 1). The relative weight of these factors differs from place to place. For instance, Singapore’s strategy lies essentially in the use of improved fuel quality and engine design to ensure that lesser amounts of pollutants are emitted per vehicle. This pre-emptive approach has helped to keep Singapore’s air quality within international guidelines despite an increase in total vehicular population (National Environment Agency, Singapore, 2003). 1.3 Major regional initiatives/efforts in vehicle emission reduction Many countries in Asia have developed their own vehicle control strategies. Measures adopted to reduce motor vehicle pollution include diverting traffic away from heavily populated areas (e.g. by building ring roads around cities or restricting downtown traffic); converting high-use vehicles to cleaner fuels (e.g. converting buses to natural gas); improving vehicle maintenance; increasing the share of less polluting traffic modes; using more fuel efficient vehicles; installing catalytic control devices; and applying various economic instruments. Supply-side traffic management measures are aimed at reducing congestion (e.g. by improving road infrastructure) (UNEP/GEO-3, 2002). Enforcement and control strategies adopted in some selected Asian cities are described in Appendix 2. 2.0 Major Technological Developments at International Level Over the years, a number of technological developments have taken place with regard to emission control devices/systems and alternative fuels for vehicles. With the phase out of lead in gasoline and the adoption of more stringent emission standards, Asian countries may increasingly utilize and benefit from these technological developments. A brief overview of current vehicular emission control devices/systems and alternative fuel options is provided in Appendix 3. 3.0 Emission Control Measures in Asia The vehicle emission reduction will require an integrated approach or strategy, which should include at least the four key parallel processes as indicated in Fig 1 (in reality these processes are interlinked, but may not be sequential as shown in figure).

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Fig 1. Integrated strategy for vehicle pollution control (Source: ADB, 2003) Meeting certain emission standards is very much interlinked with the choice of vehicle technology, inspection and maintenance (I/M) procedures, and the fuel quality. For example, the adoption of Euro 1 standards for gasoline vehicles requires the use of unleaded gasoline. The adoption of Euro 2 standards for diesel vehicles will require the use of diesel with sulfur levels lower than 500 parts per million (ppm). Further reductions in sulfur levels in both gasoline or petrol and diesel fuel are linked with Euro 3, 4 and, for diesel trucks, Euro 5 standards (ADB, 2003). For another instance, Taipei (China) will effectively ban new two-stroke engine motorcycles in 2004 by making emission standards so tight that only four stroke engine motorcycles will qualify to meet them (Masami Kojima et. al, 2000). This is because new standards in Jan 2004 for HC emissions will be 2000 ppm as compared to the current standard of 9000 ppm (ADB, 2003). Two stroke engine vehicles can meet the emission standard that came into effect in 2000 in India only if oxidation catalysts are installed. The result will be an increasing switch over to four stroke engine two and three wheelers (Masami Kojima et. al, 2000)1. Also as vehicle technology advances to meet the required emission standards, more sophisticated inspection procedures such as loaded mode tests will be necessary to check the vehicle performance. 3.1 Emission standards and regulation In order to monitor and regulate the emission of pollutants from vehicles, there are mainly three main approaches to emission standards available internationally – European, American, and Japanese standards (See Appendix 4). However, most of the Asian countries have inclined towards European standards for new cars and trucks. With regard to two and three wheelers (such as scooters and motor cycles), the standards adopted by India, Thailand, and Taipei, China are also seen as most advanced. New vehicle standards are only beneficial in actual emission reductions from vehicles as they are driven in use. To minimize the deterioration of emissions controls that result from new vehicle standards and to assure that

1 Two-stroke engines typically have a lower fuel efficiency than four-stroke engines, with as much as 15-40 percent of the fuel-air mixture escaping from the engine through the exhaust port. These "scavenging losses" contain a high level of unburned gasoline and lubricant, which increases emissions of hydrocarbons and organic lead if gasoline is still leaded.

Inspection and maintenance (I/M)

Emission standards (technology)

Transport planning and demand management

Cleaner fuels

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vehicles achieve the full emission reductions that they are capable of, an in-use vehicle focus must include in-use standards (ADB, 2003). Considering the number of in-use vehicles and the much longer average life span of the vehicles in Asia, control of emission from in-use vehicles is very vital for over all improvement of the air quality in the region. The main pollutants, which need to be regulated for in-use vehicles, are: Ø PM, smoke, and NOx for diesel vehicles Ø CO, HC, and NOx for gasoline vehicles Ø CO, HC, PM, and smoke for two and three wheelers

Issues and major challenges for discussion: Harmonization of in-use standards: In Asia, not many countries have regulated emissions for in-use vehicles. In countries where such regulations exist, the pollutants that are regulated are different. As there are no harmonized standards for in-use vehicles in the region, the countries apply different standards for the same vehicle type of the same age. For instance, where the current standard for HC for in-use vehicles in Malaysia is 600-800 ppm, it is 10,000 ppm for Cambodia under the same idle test (See Appendix 5). Which testing method to adopt?: Another issue is also to regulate the type of testing that will be used to assess whether standards for being met for in-use vehicles. For instance, currently the idle test is being used for gasoline vehicles in the majority of countries and the free acceleration test is being used for diesel vehicles. Even though these tests are easy to carry out and the equipments required are cheap, the main disadvantage of these tests is that they do not give a good idea of whether the more sophisticated pollution control devices such as a catalytic converters, are operating properly. Usually loaded tests that use a dynamometer to simulate the work that an engine must perform in actual driving are more suitable for this purpose, but such tests will be expensive (ADB, 2003). No standard or regulation for PM for two and three wheelers: Emissions from the large and rapidly growing number of two and three wheelers are a major source of air pollution in the region. With regards to the two and three wheelers, in majority cases only CO and HC are regulated and PM is not regulated. Vehicle emissions of fine particles are particularly harmful because they occur near ground level, close to the people. Possible options/subjects for discussion: Ø set in motion a regional consultative process to harmonize in-use vehicle standards

for major pollutants and the required test procedures Ø without waiting for the outcome of the regional harmonization process, the countries

should tighten gradually in-use standards for all type of vehicles and it could be better to adopt realistic standards that could be achievable within appropriate time frame. For instance, Viet Nam is considering to gradually tighten the standards for both CO and HC for its main cities like Hanoi, Hi Chi Minh, Hai Phong, Da Nang [CO: 6.0 % (Dec 2002), 4.5% (2005), 3.0% (2008); HC: 1500 ppm (Dec 2002), 1200 (2005), 600 (2008) under idle test];

Ø countries could develop and adopt PM requirements for in-use two and three wheelers

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3.2 Inspection and maintenance (I/M) programmes Inspection and Maintenance (I/M) programes to control emission from in-use vehicles are essential complement to emission standards for new vehicles. I/M programmes have potential to significantly reduce emissions of CO, HC, NOx, PM, and smoke emissions from the vehicles. Real world experience indicates that high quality I/M programmes can reduce CO and HC exhaust emissions by approximately 20 to 30% (UNEP and OECD, 1999). Especially, in situation where no or low fuel quality and emission standards are set for all modes of transport, an effective I/M or road worthiness system (I/M + vehicle safety checks) can be one of the most cost effective ways of improving both air quality and the road safety. I in I/M: For gasoline or spark- ignition engine vehicles, the inspection element of an I/M programme typically includes a measurement of tailpipe of CO, HC, and NOx. For diesel engine vehicles, the inspection element usually focus on smoke and PM emissions. For two stroke engine motorcycles, inspection element focus on HC, CO, and PM. M in I/M: While much attention is being paid to inspection (I) in I/M, it is ‘M’ (maintenance/repair) that actually reduces emissions. The service or repair industry plays a crucial role in properly repairing the vehicles to meet the I/M requirements. Another important aspect is the quality assurance for spare parts that the service industry uses in the repair process. Benefits of I/M: I/M serve two purposes in a vehicle emission control programme: Ø first, they help identify maladjustments or any other mechanical problems in the

vehicles resulting high emission. Various researches have shown that the difference in CO and HC emissions between a properly adjusted and maintained engine and a poorly adjusted one can amount to a factor of four or more. Vehicle inspection can also ensure improved maintenance for vehicles and result a higher turn over of vehicles as well.

Ø second, important role is to help identify malfunctions and discourage tampering

with emission control equipment in vehicles. A damaged catalytic converter or malfunctioning oxygen sensor can increase HC and CO emissions from modern emission controlled vehicles by a factor twenty or more. Similar malfunctions can increase NOx emission by several folds. In diesel vehicle, a worn out or damaged fuel injection system can increase emission of PM at least twenty fold (World Bank, 1996).

One other benefit is I/M programmes have good potential for government revenue generation. Experiences around the world have demonstrated that while governments should regulate I/M programmes, the implementation of such programmes can be best carried out by the private sector. The combination of a charge to pay for the emission and safety certificate and a sticker with the test fee for the roadworthiness test, guarantees the government income for additional development funding, which is best achievable through a centralized I/M system where test and repair are separately carried out (Kolke/GTZ, 2002). The member of Asian

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Box 1: Benefits of Centralized I/M (test-only-stations): • allows government to implement I/M in the most effective,

simplest manner. • is less prone to corruption. • reduces investment costs, especially if one contractor carries

out the inspection at test-only -stations. • offers new business and job opportunities for local repair

workshops for maintenance work. (Source: Kolke/GTZ, 2002)

Box 2: Regulatory Requirements for Vehicle Safety • Steering system • Brake system • Wheels & tires • Lighting system • Gear & transmission system • Chassis & body • mirrors • others.

Development Bank Workshop on “Strengthening Vehicle Inspection and Maintenance” held on 7-9 November 2001 in Chongqing, PRC also recommended that centralized (test only systems) systems are more effective than decentralized I/M system. The Workshop also concluded that the decentralized systems, where test and repair are combined, are more difficult to audit and supervise resulting and are subject to corruption and poor quality control (ADB, 2003). General requirements of I/M: To ensure the effectiveness of an I/M programme, it is essential to target vehicle types as gross polluters and pollutants of great concern. It is therefore required to study the fleet characteristics before developing a full I/M programmes. For example, if particulate emissions from diesel vehicles and two-stroke motor cycles are of great health concern, the I/M programme should initially focus on controlling smoke emission from such vehicles. It is seen that some countries concentrate on I/M and roadworthiness tests for buses and commercial heavy-duty vehicles, while others initially concentrates on I/M for motorcycles. For example, I/M system for motorcycles will be more effective in cities where there are high proportions of the fleet (e.g., cities in Thailand, Indonesia, Viet Nam, and India). An inspection system should ideally combine I/M emission checks with vehicle safety checks. Considering the level of road accident related causalities and loss in the region, roadworthiness testing will be one of the best ways to improve road safety in developing countries in the region. A comprehensive I/M programme requires the following major elements: Ø suitable test procedures, supplemented by inspection of emission control systems Ø effective enforcement of vehicle compliance (for example, through the vehicle

registration process). Ø adequate attention to repair procedures and mechanic training. Ø routine quality control. Ø enforcement of program requirements for inspectors and mechanics, especially in

decentralized programs Ø periodic evaluation and review to identify problem areas and develop solutions. Ø comprehensive vehicle model year coverage that includes older vehicles

(Source: World Bank, 1996) Roadside testing can also complement a more comprehensive I/M inspection system, but not an alternative to it. Usually, the primary function of roadside testing is to identify gross polluting vehicles. The member of Asian Development Bank Workshop on “Strengthening Vehicle Inspection and Maintenance” held in Chongqing, PRC, recommended that policy

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Box 3: On-road Smoke Enforcement in Singapore as part of I/M In Singapore, it is an offence for vehicles to emit excessive smoke on the road. Vehicles with smoky emissions can be booked by the traffic police. NEA also mount spot checks on the road using video cameras to spot smoky diesel vehicles. The owners and drivers of vehicles which fail the ensuing chassis dynamometer smoke test standard of 50 HSU are fined and they are required to repair the vehicles and then send them for retests until they could pass the test standard. The enforcement programme against smoky diesel vehicles have been stepped up with the deployment of CISCO police officers in the daily enforcement checks on the road. Source: Country Report by National Environment Agency,

makers, part from priva tizing the inspection centres, should design the inspection fees to fully include the cost of an adequate roadside testing programme. Periodic road-side inspections are especially useful for enforcing vehicle smoke limits because of the visible nature of smoke emissions. One common cause of high smoke emissions in diesel engine is tampering with the maximum fuel setting on the fuel injection pump, which provides more fuel to the engine, increasing power output and smoke. But if the vehicle owners know when the vehicle will be inspected, they can adjust the fuel pump to its proper setting (known as “Clean for a Day syndrome”) immediately before the inspection, and then tamper afterwards. Roadside checks for smoke opacity are also appropriate for monitoring excess white smoke emission (resulting from using too much or wrong type of lubricating oil) from two stroke motorcycles. Such practices are more easily detectable by roadside inspection or visual screening than by a periodic I/M test. Singapore has one of the most effective roadside inspection programme for vehicle smoke control. Data requirement for I/M: Another aspect is the data requirements for I/M. In many developing countries existing data base are inadequate. Reliable data are required on the characteristics of the existing vehicle fleet such as number of vehicles, age, types of engines and emissions and should be registered in a central computerized database. The centralized database should be adapted with up-to-date test data of I/M and roadworthiness inspections. In order to reduce the possibilities of corruptions and fraud, some basic data items should be registered during the inspection. The following basic data, including the I/M and roadworthiness certificate with a ‘pass’ decision should be required for the periodical registration and should also be available at the testing location: Vehicle License plate number, make and model, manufacturer year, chassis identification number,

engine identification number

Vehicle owner

Name, address

Frequency of Inspection or Testing: The determination of inspection periods for different category of vehicles is also very crucial in controlling vehicular emission. A simple fact is that the higher the annual vehicle mileage performed by a vehicle category, the shorter the inspection interval should be. Another complex issue is that at what age of a vehicle the emission testing should initially start and the frequency to follow. For example, in Japan, inspections are conducted on a national level to check each individual motor vehicle at a regular interval. No motor vehicles are allowed to operate unless they pass the national inspection and obtain valid motor vehicle inspection certificate. Appendix 6 presents the type of inspection and the ir frequency followed in Japan.

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I/M requirement of motor cycles: Considering the growth of and heavy reliance on motorcycles in the region, they should also be monitored and tested on a regular basis. Two stroke engine motorcycles specifically emit substantial quantities of HC, CO, and PM. Ideally, motorcycles should comply with the same safety and emission requirements as passenger cars (Kolke/GTZ, 2002). Unfortunately requirements for emission tests for motorcycles are still under discussion in some countries because car pollution has always been higher in the agenda. Two-stroke engine motorcycles use high proportions of lubricating oil, usually up to 2 percent of the fuel. Unlike in the four-stroke engine, which has an oil sump, the lubricating oil in the two-stroke engine is introduced along with the air- fuel mixture. Since this does not get combusted in the engine, all of it is emitted through the exhaust. This unburned oil can heavily soil or even destroy the measuring equipment. Therefore hydrocarbon from oil must be trapped in front of the emission measurement cell to protect the measurement equipment. The shapes, exit angles and sizes of the exhaust tail pipes of two wheelers vary a great deal from model to model due to technical, packaging and aesthetic considerations. Therefore it is difficult to provide the connecting equipment for all types of motorcycles. For that reason the I/M concept for motorcycles can have some more practical problems (e.g. to have ready access to the right connector between tailpipe and measurement device for a variety of motorcycle tailpipe configurations), which are possible to solve (Kolke/GTZ, 2002). The policy makers should be aware of these issues. Therefore additional study is also required regarding potentially different I/M approaches for 2 stroke versus 4 stroke engines, and those using fuels such as gasoline, diesel, CNG or LPG. I/M test frequency is also very vital for controlling the motorcycle pollution. For example, Table 2 shows the schedule of compulsory motor vehicle inspection in Singapore. Table 2. Schedule of Compulsory Motor Vehicle Inspection in Singapore Age of motor cycle < 3 Years 3-10 Years > 10 Years Frequency Null Annually Annually Source: NEA/Singapore, 2002 Setting I/M standards: There are three main approached to standards setting: European, American and Japanese. Setting I/M standards should consists of two steps:

Step 1: identification and definition of the test procedures Step 2: definition of emission test standards

Appropriate test procedures should be in place so that vehicles with high emissions should not pass the I/M test. For example, NOx emissions at no- load conditions are negligible and therefore, a loaded test is necessary to measure NOx emission levels. Therefore, a high polluting vehicle may pass if the I/M test procedure is not efficient or sound or not carefully selected. On the other hand, vehicles with low emissions may also fail if test procedures are not technically sound or up-to-date. Another issue is the shift towards a “loaded test” rather

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than the “idle test” currently used in most I/M programme in Asia will require new, additional test equipment including chassis dynamometers to simulate the work of an engine that actually performs during driving. The cost of such equipments will make it very difficult for small scale workshops to take part in the implementation of an I/M programme. Table 3 below shows different I/M test procedures used for measuring different pollutants. Table 3: Measurement of pollutants by various I/M Test Procedures

Pollutants Test

CO HC NOx PM Smoke

Cost

Time per test per vehicle

No-Load short tests a. Idle b. Two statge idle

×

×

×

×

Very low Very low

Fast Fast

Steady-state Loaded tests (Acceleration Simulation Mode / ASM)

× × × Low Medium

VMass × × × Low Medium Transient Loaded (IM240) × × × High Medium Free Acceleration × Medium Fast Full Load × × × × × High Medium × = test used to measure the pollutant (Source: ADB, 2003) Tables in Appendix 4 lists a range of I/M emission test standards adopted by Asian countries for gasoline, diesel and motorcycles. In general, setting or tightening standards can result in two problematic situations:

a. Standards are set too stringently and most vehicles fail, placing a great strain on the service sector, the capacity of the inspection program, vehicle owners, as well as being politically unacceptable (error of commission).

b. Standards are set too loosely which results in little benefit from the program and

flagging public support (error of omission). Repair of vehicles after failing I/M Test : One of the major challenges in maintaining low emissions among in-use vehicles is to have well-trained and well-equipped vehicle repair technicians. This is an essential precursor to an effective I/M programme. The rate of change in vehicle technology has accelerated over last few decades, making it very difficult for repair industry to keep them updated, especially in developing countries of Asian region. For instance, with old technology vehicles, simple tools and on-the-job training were often enough to allow a mechanic to properly tune a carbureted vehicle. As the fleet moves towards fuel- injected computer controlled technology, this traditional approach is not longer adequate or valid. This could pose big challenges to the policy makers to create infrastructure to ensure more sophisticated training, and more advanced tools and equipments, including equipment subsidies.

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Vehicle retrofit programmes: There are several alternative approaches to reduce in-use vehicle emission such as – vehicle retrofitting, switching to alternative fuels, and mandatory retirement of old vehicles. Retrofit approach could be useful for old cars having little or no pollution controls. Retrofit programme for in-use vehicles require a system engineering approach that includes a rigorous I/M programme, proper selection of catalyst and other pollution control devices, optimized catalyst location, and appropriate quality fuel. Many countries, including some developed countries in the world, have adopted retrofit programmes. For example, by end of 1993, catalytic converters became mandatory equipment on all new cars in Hungary, whether imported or assembled domestically. The government hoped to persuade owners of older cars to install converters and offered financial assistance (up to 60 percent) of the cost to motorists who did so. In the case of California, in 1972, 100 vehicles were retrofitted with oxidation catalytic converters and each was driven for at least 20,000 miles. With the exception of two or three vehicles, which were misfueled with leaded gasoline, the results were excellent - HC and CO emissions were reduced by more than 70%. Germany conducted a voluntary retrofit program using tax credits as an incentive during the 1980s. A vehicle that had an approved system installed received a special certificate. Under such program it is estimated that approximately 800,000 cars in Germany have now been retrofitted (UNEP & OECD, 1999). Taking into account the much longer life span of the vehicles in Asia, carefully designed retrofit programmes with efficient I/M programme and combination of tax incentives could be considered as an option to reduce vehicle emission. Technical and policy issues and challenges in I/M Programmes for discussion: As technology advances, Asian countries face many issues and challenges with regard to I/M programmes. Many old vehicles are still running in Asian roads. On the other hand, modern vehicles remain absolutely dependent on proper functioning of vehicle components (fuel pump, fuel injector, air filter, engine block, exhaust pipe, catalytic converter, etc.) to keep the pollution level low. For instance, a minor malfunction in modern vehicles in the air and fuel or spark management system can significantly increase emissions. Similarly, a small number of vehicle fleet with serious and frequent malfunctions can drastically add to the pollution problem. Effective and technically sound I/M programme can identify these malfunctioning or polluting vehicles and ensure their repair, provided the government is willing and able to provide the required resources and support for I/M programme.

As the in-use standards are required to form the basis for routine vehicle emission inspection carried out as a part of the I/M programme or road-side testing programmes, there are many complex technical and policy issues and challenges that the policy makers in the region need to look into:

a. whether in-use standards adopted are based on the careful selection of I/M tests procedures and also on vehicle ages and technical specifications

b. whether I/M test procedures need to differ for vehicles with different pollution control technologies.

c. whether the difference between the pollutants from diesel (PM, smoke, NOx) and gasoline fuelled vehicle (CO, HC, NOx) has been taken into account while designing the I/M prgrammes

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d. what type of I/M programme that need to be in place to address the problem of motorcycle pollution

e. whether the repair industry is sufficiently trained to carry out repair on vehicles which fail tests.

f. whether the required institutional capacity is in place to enforce and implement an effective I/M programme (with QA/QC).

In more details the I/M issues in the region include: Policy/Institutional gap: Ø absence of effective institutional and administrative set up or mechanism to address

the I/M issues Ø lack of effort to introduce appropriate fee structure or economic instruments for I/M

programmes, including vehicle retrofit programmes Ø almost all countries in the region lack required capacity of regulating and

implementing I/M for two and three wheelers (ADB, 2003) Ø vehicle registration based enforcement is also very weak in the region for two and

three wheelers (ADB, 2003) Ø lack of public awareness programmes on potential benefits of I/M programme

towards public health Knowledge/Technical gap: Ø there have been very little efforts in the region to date any where in the region to

develop good short test for two and three wheelers. Aside from Taipei, PRC, other countries in the region lack technological capability to provide stat-of-the-art I/M stations for two and three wheelers (ADB, 2003).

Ø service industries in many countries lack required skill or technical know-how among mechanics and technicians. Also they lack required basic knowledge on different test procedures.

Ø NGOs in the region have very limited capacity in understanding the different emission standards, and the technicalities and limitations of different emission test procedures. This limits the effectiveness of these groups in pressuring government officials to assure that good quality I/M programmes are introduced. A good example of NGO initiation is that of a New Delhi based NGO, Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), which has recently prepared a comprehensive I/M plan [Motor Vehicle Inspection in the National Capital Region of Delhi: Recommendations for Short, Medium, and Long term] for active consideration of the Government of India.

Data/Information gap: Ø in most of the countries, there are no systematic centralized database system exist to

record and update the I/M test results of vehicles

16

Possible Options/subjects for discussion: Figure 3 outlines the elements of a successful I/M programme. (Source: Adapted from CSE, New Delhi, 2003) Short-term options for discussion: Ø define and establish I/M inspection requirements (emission limits, legal requirements

and principles of I/M, include audit procedures) for all gasoline and diesel vehicles, including 2/4 stroke-engine motorcycles

Ø introduce up-to-date and reliable vehicle registration system, with retirement of old vehicles accurately reflected

Ø display of the test certificates or stickers on vehicles must be introduced or monitored efficiently

Ø introduce licensing system for repair workshops to undertake forced emissions maintenance

Ø ensure quality assurance on spare parts. One approach could be to regulate parts suppliers to warranty the performance of their parts and to label warranty details on their packaging

Ø launch public awareness programmes to make people aware of what is going on with regard to I/M programmes

Ø establish regional networking for information sharing and exchange on va rious aspects of I/M

Medium term options for discussion: Ø consideration should be given to introduce I/M fees, tax incentives, lower

registration fees for cleaner vehicles, or establish linkage to vehicle insurance rates.

Box: Fuel incentives by the Delhi Government The Delhi Government offered financial incentives until March 2000 to replace autorickshaws 15 years old or older with new vehicles meeting the April 1996 emission standards. Although both two-stroke and four –stroke engines were permitted in principle, only two-stroke engine autorickshaws were available during this period. The incentive package consisted of complete exemption from sales tax (6 percent until 2000, when it was raised to 12 percent) and subsidized loans from the Delhi Finance Corporation. The loan repayment period, ranging from three to five years, could be negotiated. As of April 2000, the financial package is offered only for the replacement of old autorickshaws with new autorickshaws running on compressed natural gas or electricity. (Source: Kojima et al, 2000)

Public awareness

Strong enforcement

Government oversight and

auditing

Appropriate standards

and norms

Centralized testing

Privatized Inspector training

Appropriate test procedures

Appropriate trainings for

mechanic/technicians of

Good quality I/M

17

Ø introduce regular mandatory training courses covering test procedures, revised norms, etc. for the operators in inspecting agencies

Ø ensure vehicle manufacturers to provide sound training to service companies on how to maintain emission control systems

Long term options for discussion: Ø set-up I/M pilot projects for selected cities suffering from high vehicular pollution

and also to identify suitable emission limits for each group of vehicles. Ø develop and implement long-term programme of co-operation, research, know-how

transfer from developed countries to the developing countries, programme on training of transport managers and specialist dealing with problems in transport and environment.

Ø establish national network to collect and analyze all essential information regarding vehicle inspection and tests.

Ø liberalize trade in new vehicles to ensure access to technology which would enable consumers in Asia to meet tighter emission standards at lower costs.

Other options for discussion: Ø When low sulfur diesel fuel is introduced, strong consideration should be given to

retrofitting existing vehicles with oxidation catalysts (500 ppm maximum sulfur concentration in gasoline) or diesel PM filters (50 ppm maximum sulfur concentration in diesel) which can achieve significant and rapid PM reductions. To speed up the adoption of this technology, cost benefit studies should be conducted to help decision makers understand the potential benefits of this technology (ADB, 2003).

3.3 Fuel options See issue paper No. 4 3.4 Transport Planning and traffic management See issue paper No. 5 3.5 Trade of in-use vehicles Imported used vehicles or engines remain somehow a problem in many countries in the region. While there may be a lack of appropriate monitoring or regulations in countries exporting used vehicles, in general the philosophy seems to be that it is up to each importing country to determine its own environmental priorities and to decide whether the social benefits of used vehicles outweigh the environmental and health risks. In general, most countries import passenger cars that are less than 5 years old, and commercial vehicles less than 8 years old. Countries like Sri Lanka and Cyprus have restricted import of used cars more than 60 months old at the time of arrival, while Caribbean countries (except for the Bahamas) restrict import of used vehicles more than 5 yrs old. The objective of these restrictions is to protect the domestic auto industry and dealers as well as to reduce risks of negative environmental impacts (Recycle One, 2003). Furthermore, policy makers of importing countries need to be aware whether the available fuel quality and standards of I/M meet imported cars.

18

Reflecting the general pattern that the trade in used cars flows from more to less developed countries, Japan exports its used cars to several countries in Asia (See Appendix 7). In 2001, Japan exported 91,275 vehicles to Asia, which is 12% of the total number (730,265) of vehicles exported overseas. Used parts are also exported. In fiscal year 1995, Japan exported 154,936 tons worth of used parts overseas. Possible options for discussion: In order deal with the issues of export/import of used vehicles, the measures could possibly include: Ø require imports to pass a stringent emissions requirements as a condition of vehicle

registration Ø introduce appropriate regulations (for example, a high tax) on imported used

vehicles or engines 4.0 Items for Further Discussions/Activities Controlling vehicular emissions from both new and in-use vehicles will require governments to take an integrated approach to vehicular emissions control. The strategy should enable governments to (i) adopt standards that match technology levels for new vehicles and gradually tighten standards for in-use vehicles (ii) implement an effective I/M programme with QA/QC, (iii) adopt appropriate fuel standards and promote conversion to alternative fuel (iv) develop fiscal incentives for accelerated retirement of old vehicles, and (v) introduce appropriate policy instruments to regulate import of used vehicles. At the same time, efforts on part of motor vehicle manufacturers and motor vehicle users are also required. Motor vehicle manufacturers should promote the development of appropriate technology, while motor vehicle users need to conduct or cooperate with proper I/M procedures and programmes.

19

References: ADB (2003). Reducing Vehicle Emissions in Asia – Policy Guidelines for Reducing Vehicle Emission Asia, Asian Development Bank, Manila ADB (2003). Vehicle Emission Standards and Inspection and Maintenance – Policy Guidelines for Reducing Vehicle Emission Asia, Asian Development Bank, Manila ARIC (1999). Transport-Fact Sheet Series for Key Stage 4 and A-Level. http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/. Atmosphere, Climate & Environment Information Programme, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester CSE (2003). Motor Vehicle Inspection in the National Capital Region of Delhi: Recommendations for Short, Medium, and Long term. Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, 7 March 2003 Dilip Biswas (2001). CNG Conversion Program for Auto Rickshaws in Delhi. Paper presented at the ADB Regional Workshop: Reduction of Emissions from 2-3 Wheelers, 5-7 September 2001, Hanoi, Viet Nam Erin Mahoney and Carmen Tellez (2001). Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About Vehicle Emissions, but Were Afraid to Ask Part II of III. http://www.edmunds.com/news/feature/general/45922/article.html. 23 April 2001. Japan Automobile Research Institute (JARI) (2003). Vehicles in the Future. http://www.jeva.or.jp/ja/kuruma/engine/nenryo.html. Japan Automobile Research Institute (JARI) (2003). What is an Electric Vehicle? http://www.jeva.or.jp/ja/denki/nakama/hev-01.html. Kae Inoue (2003). Hybrids fuel ambition at Toyota – Automaker plans to roll out a ‘green’ sport-utility vehicle. Herald Tribune. 18 June 2003. Karim Nice (2000). How Catalytic Converters Work. http://auto.howstuffworks.com/catalytic-converter2.htm KEI, SEI, UNEP, and WHO (2002). Bench Marking Urban Air Quality Management and Practices in Major and Mega Cities of Asia – Stage 1, 2002, Korean Environment Institute, Republic of Korea. Shigeru Kashima, 2003. The inappropriate utilization and recycling of used vehicles and spare parts from Japan to East Asian countries: current status of the increase in global environmental impacts and prevention strategies (Japanese research project). Chuo University. Feasibility study (2001-02) funded from the Ministry of Environment- Japan, global environmental research general promotion funds (Unpublished research work). Lawrence Tse (year unknown). Alternative Fuel Vehicle. http://visionengineer.com/env/alt_fuel.shtml.

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Lawrence Tse (year unknown). Fuel Cell Vehicles. http://www.visionengineer.com/env/fcv.shtml. Masami Kojima et. al. (2000). Improving Urban Air Quality in South Asia by Reducing Emissions from Two-Stroke Engine Vehicles, South Asia Environment Unit, The World Bank, Washington, D.C. Ministry of Environment et. al. - Government of Japan (2002). Motor Vehicle Environmental Control in Japan, Japan. Ministry of Communications (21 Aug 2003). Communications from Deputy Director General of International Cooperation Department / Ministry of Communications, People’s Republic of China National Environment Agency, Republic of Singapore (2002). http://app10.internet.gov.sg/scripts/nea/cms/htdocs/ National Environment Agency, Republic of Singapore (2003). Singapore Country Report, submitted by Strategic Planning & Research Department, National Environment Agency of Republic of Singapore, August 2003. National Fuel Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine (year unknown). What is a Fuel Cell and How Does It Work. http://www.nfcrc.uci.edu/fcresources/FCexplained/FC_howItWorks.htm. Nissan Motor Corporation (year unknown). Technology and Engineering. http://www.nissan.com.my/cor/why/environment/clean.htm. Recycle One Inc. (2003). Study Report on the Shredding and Export of Used Vehicles. April 2003. Tokyo. Reinhard Kolke / GTZ (2002). Inspection and Maintenance and Roadworthiness (Module 4b of Sustainable Transport: A Source Book for Policy-makers in Developing Cities). GTZ. Toyota Motor Corporation (year unknown). Can Dolphins Show Us a Smarter Way to Get Around? (Advertisement). Toyota Motor Corporation (2003). The Energy that Runs Hybrid Cars. http://www.toyota.co.jp/en/k_forum/english.html. The Fifth Toyota Environmental Forum. UNEP and OECD (1999). Older Gasoline Vehicles – In Developing Countries and Economies in Transition: Their Importance and the Policy Options for Addressing Them, UNEP Division of Technology, Industry and Economics (DTIE) and OECD, Paris. UNEP (2002). Global Environment Outlook-3 – Past, Present, and Future Perspectives. Nairobi, Kenya U.S. Department of Energy, Clean Cities International Program (2002), India Trip Report, January 15-24, 2002, Washington, D.C.

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U.S. EPA (1995), EPA I/M Briefing Book: Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About Inspection and Maintenance”, Report No. EPA-AA-EPSD-IM-94-1226, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air and Radiation, Washington D.C. World Bank (1996). Air Pollution from Motor Vehicles – Standards and Technologies for Controlling Emissions, The World Bank, Washington, D.C.

22

Appendix 1: Factors influencing motor vehicle emissions. 1. Vehicle/Fuel Characteristics Ø Engine type and technology-two-stroke, four-stroke; Diesel, Otto, Wankel, other

engines; fuel injection, turbocharging, and other engine design features; type of transmission system

Ø Exhaust, crankcase, and evaporative emission control systems in place-catalytic converters, exhaust gas recirculation, air injection, Stage II and other vapor recovery systems

Ø Engine mechanical condition and adequacy of maintenance Ø Air conditioning, trailer towing, and other vehicle appurtenances Ø Fuel properties and quality-contamination, deposits, sulfur, distillation

characteristics, composition (e.g., aromatics, olefin content) additives (e.g., lead), oxygen content, gasoline octane, diesel cetane

Ø Alternative fuels Ø Deterioration characteristics of emission control equipment Ø Deployment and effectiveness of inspection/maintenance (WM) and anti- tampering

(ATP) program 2. Fleet Characteristics Ø Vehicle mix (number and type of vehicles in use) Ø Vehicle utilization (kilometers per vehicle per year) by vehicle type. Ø Age profile of the vehicle fleet Ø Traffic mix and choice of mode for passenger/goods movements Ø Emission standards in effect and incentives/disincentives for purchase of cleaner

vehicles Ø Adequacy and coverage of fleet maintenance programs Ø Clean fuels program

3. Operating Characteristics Ø Altitude, temperature, humidity (for NO, emissions) Ø Vehicle use patterns-number and length of trips, number of cold starts, speed,

loading, aggressiveness of driving behavior Ø Degree of traffic congestion, capacity and quality of road infrastructure, and traffic

control systems Ø Transport demand management programs

Source: Faiz and others 1995; Faiz and Aloisi de Larderel 1993

23

Box: Enforcement against smoky vehicles in Singapore In mid-August 1999, NEA introduced the use of video camera to capture smoky vehicles on tape. The vehicles being captured for smoky vehicles are issued with compound fine under the Regulation 19(1) Environmental Pollution Control (Vehicular Emissions) Regulations 1999 . The compound fine amounts are as follows: No. of Offences Vehicles Motorcycles 1st Offence S$150 S$70 2nd Offence S$300 S$100 3rd Offence S$500 S$150 Malaysia registered diesel vehicles with smoke emission more than 50 HSU are also issued compound fine and smoke emission more than 70 HSU are turned back to Malaysia. (Source: NEA, 2002)

Box : Bangkok’s Initiatives for Air Pollution Control • Providing free car engine tune-up service stations for

the public. • Publishing car engine maintenance manuals for public

distribution • Setting up black smoke inspection points in 50

districts jointly with the traffic police. • Setting up six mobile black-smoke inspection units in

6 areas. • Setting up motorcycle white smoke and noise level

inspection units in the inner area of Bangkok. • Reporting about air pollution in critical areas in

cooperation with Pollution Control Department through the display boards and air quality reports to promote pollution-free streets.

• Designating pollution-free streets, which prohibited single occupant-vehicles. Originally, there were 3 streets, later increased to 8 streets.

• Paving road shoulders to reduce dust. • Enforcing windscreens for buildings which were under

construction. • Enforcing dust controls for trucks by covering loads

and cleaning wheels. • Putting up campaign boards to inform the public on

various measures being implemented. • Designating car-free streets to reduce air pollution. • Improving fuel quality by joint efforts to reduce air

pollution. Source: KEI, SEI, UNEP, and WHO (2002).

Appendix 2: Major regional initiatives/efforts in vehicle emission reduction Bangkok: As proof of the Government’s commitment to improve air quality, Thailand adopted some of the strictest standards for vehicle emission. Due to large number of motor cycles in Bangkok, Thailand has adopted the second and third stage motorcycle emission standards of Taipei, PRC. Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) declared 1999 as the Air Pollution Mitigation Year and implemented the 13 measures as indicated in the Box: Singapore: Singapore’s initiatives to control vehicular emission are a notable example in the region. The use of green vehicles, coupled with transport schemes such as the vehicle quota system, electronic road pricing, and a good public transport system ensure Singapore’s air quality stays within international guidelines. The National Environment Agency, together with the Land Transport Authority, has implemented a multi-prolonged to control smoke emissions from motor vehicles (See Box). The programme and measures adopted are: Ø setting of stringent emission standards for type-approval to ensure that only low-

emission vehicles can be registered for use

Ø require the use of cleaner fuel, such as unleaded fuel and diesel with low sulphur content of below 0.05%.

Ø require all in-use vehicles to undergo mandatory periodic inspections (I/M) and pass smoke emission test.

Ø carry out stringent enforcement actions against smoky vehicles on the roads

Ø Educate vehicle owners on proper vehicle maintenance to prevent smoke emission.

Beijing: The Beijing Municipal Government is ordering city vehicles to convert to liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and compressed natural gas (CNG). In early 1999, officials stated that by 2000, 3,600 buses and 14,000 taxis in Beijing would run on either LPG or CNG fuels and 49 gas stations would offer the cleaner fuels. Assessment of the success of this measure has not been evaluated as yet (KEI, SEI, UNEP, and WHO (2002). Effective 1 July 2004, People’s Republic of China will be adopting some improved emission standards (CO, HC,

24

HC+NOx, and smoke) for Type Approval of all types of vehicles (Ministry of Communications, 21 Aug 2003). Busan: The Busan Metropolitan Government in Republic of Korea is currently considering the following plans in order to control vehicular emissions: Ø increasing the number of compressed natural gas (CNG) buses on the road to 1800

by 2010 and create public awareness campaigns to stimulate the use of natural gas vehicles.

Ø enlarging the current subway system and other modes of public transport. Ø supporting the switching of small town buses and garbage trucks from using diesel

fuel to LPG Ø introducing stricter tests for emissions from diesel vehicles Ø enforcing stricter vehicle emission inspections giving priority to smoke-emitting

heavy duty vehicles like buses Ø giving free vehicle emission tests and distributing public information about the

impact from vehicle emissions Ø issuing local ordinance on idling vehicles

(Source: KEI, SEI, UNEP, and WHO (2002). Hong Kong: Hong Kong, PRC Government has adopted an integrated motor vehicle emission control strategy which has 5 major elements: clean alternatives to diesel vehicles; stringent vehicle emission and fuel standards; strengthened emission inspection; strengthened enforcement against smoky vehicles; and education and publicity. At the end of 1998, 75 per cent of petrol cars were fitted with 3-way catalytic converters and using unleaded petrol. Hong Kong’s diesel vehicle emission standards are in line with European standards. Hong Kong’s motor diesel standard is the cleanest in Asia with a sulphur content of 0.005 per cent (KEI, SEI, UNEP, and WHO (2002). Chongqing, PRC : Chongqing, PRC with ADB’s assistance (RETA 5937: Reducing Vehicle Emission in Asia) has prepared a comprehensive Action Plan for strengthening vehicle inspection and maintenance. The Action Plan, which has both short and long term objectives, has addressed the key elements such as: emissions standards for in-use vehicle, the test system for in-use vehicles, test station equipment and human capacity, maintenance and repair management system, capital sources for the I/M system, public awareness for the I/M system, and data management. Greater Jakarta: Indonesia with ADB’s assistance (RETA 5937: Reducing Vehicle Emission in Asia) has prepared an integrated vehicle emission reduction strategy, which includes a comprehensive Action Plan for Greater Jakarta. The Action Plan, which has both short and long term actions and lead actors/cooperative agencies, has addressed the key elements such as: air quality management, cleaner fuel, vehicle standards and vehicle technology, inspection and maintenance and transport planning. Viet Nam: Viet Nam with ADB’s assistance (RETA 5937: Reducing Vehicle Emission in Asia) has prepared an integrated action plan to reduce vehicle emission, which includes a comprehensive Action Plan for Viet Nam. The Action Plan, which has both short and long term actions, has focused on the key elements such as: tightening vehicle emissions

25

standards, type approval/testing facility, strengthening inspection and maintenance, fuel composition changes, study and promote alternative fuel consumption, traffic management, integrated action plan to reduce vehicle emissions, awareness raising, and institutional strengthening Taipei: Environmental Protection Agency (EAP) of Taipei, PRC has one of the most comprehensive air quality management systems in Asia. Bureau of Environmental Protection (EPB) projects in 2001, included: Ø an examination of diesel vehicles exhaust fumes, Ø an electric motorcycle promotion programme, Ø publicizing periodic examinations of motorcycle exhaust, Ø auditing and assessment of motorcycle exhaust Ø periodic examination of petrol stations in Taipei, PRC, and Ø control and investigation of air pollution from mobile sources through roadside

inspection of motorcycles. Future strategies to control mobile sources in Taipei, PRC include: Ø promotion of low-pollution vehicles (electric motorcycles, electric bicycles,

liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) cars, compressed natural gas (CNG) buses, and those automobiles powered by other alternative fuels);

Ø surveys on pollution characteristics to facilitate formulating control counter measures;

Ø replacement of high-pollution vehicles with ones that comply with stricter emissions standards;

Ø promotion of automobile pollution control devices through subsidies of diesel exhaust upgrades;

Ø reduction of motorcycle pollutant emissions through regular inspections, regulations and publicity campaigns; and

Ø medium-to- long term control strategies for mobile sources. New Delhi: In July 1998, the Supreme Court of Delhi mandated the use of alternative fuels, such as compressed natural gas (CNG) in all commercial vehicles, as a measure to curb vehicular emissions. As a result, the population of CNG driven vehicles (buses, 3 wheelers/autos, and taxis) have increased (See Fig #) rapidly, accompanied with an extensive network of CNG stations. As of January 2002, there are 87 stations, broken down into 20 mother stations, 15 daughter booster stations, 36 daughter stations, and 16 online stations. Furthermore, CNG is 40 % cheaper compared with diesel, and 68% cheaper than gasoline (U.S. Department of Energy, 2002).

Figure 1. Population of CNG driven vehicles in Delhi

27263 (88%)

2450

(18%)

2901

(35%)

11005

(82%)

3565

(12%)

5452

(65%)

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

Buses 3-Wheelers

/Autos

Taxis

Popula

tion

CNG population

(August 2001)

Conventioal

(Petrol + Diesel)

fuelled

population

(Source: D. Biswas, 2001) (Note: % � Percentage of total vehicles of each category)

26

Appendix 3: Major technological developments at international level I. Vehicle emission technology

There are a variety of technical measures and devices available for controlling and reducing vehicular emissions. Of these measures, the catalytic converter is one of the most effective devices. Nowadays, most modern cars are equipped with “three-way catalytic converters”, termed as such for helping to reduce the “three” regulated emissions of carbon monoxide, VOCs, and NOx molecules (Figure 1). The converter uses two different types of catalysts, a reduction catalyst and an oxidization catalyst, both consisting of a ceramic structure coated with a metal

catalyst (usually platinum, rhodium and/or palladium). The reduction catalyst uses platinum and rhodium to reduce NOx emissions by taking the nitrogen atom from the NO or NO2 molecule, thereby freeing the oxygen in the form of O2, and binding the nitrogen atoms to form N2. The oxidation catalyst reduces unburned hydrocarbons and CO by burning (oxidizing) them over a platinum and palladium catalyst. The control system that monitors the exhaust stream makes sure that there is enough oxygen in the exhaust to allow the oxidization catalyst to burn the hydrocarbons and CO and to ensure that the engine is running at close to the stoichiometric point. An oxygen sensor tells the engine computer how much oxygen is in the exhaust, enabling the engine computer to increase or decrease the amount by adjusting the air to fuel ratio (Nice, 2000). To be effective, the three-way catalytic converter requires the careful computer control of air-fuel ratio. Computer systems now control features that used to be controlled by vacuum switches or other devices in earlier emission control systems. These include computerized fuel injection and ignition systems. The computerized fuel injection system involves the use of an electronically controlled valve, capable of opening and closing many times per second, to inject pressurized fuel into the engine. The engine computer utilizes a number of sensors, including the oxygen sensor mentioned above, to provide the right amount of fuel. Computerized ignition systems can control the timing of the spark, which can ensure energy efficiency and reduce emissions (Nice, 2000). Computer controlled engine systems are not only more resistant to tampering and maladjustment than mechanical controls, but can also reduce the tendency for emissions to increase over time (World Bank, 1996). In addition to the catalytic converter, popular emission control devices installed on cars include the positive crankcase ventilation (PCV) system, canisters for controlling evaporative emissions, exhaust gas recirculation, and the air injection system. The purpose of the PCV system is to remove gas vapors from the crankcase during the normal combustion process, and to redirect them into the air/fuel intake system to be burned during combustion. The device not only prevents the fumes from diluting the oil in the crankcase, which can be destructive to the engine, but reduces hydrocarbon emissions as well (Mahoney and Tellez, 2001).

Figure 1: Schematic of A Catalytic Converter (Source: ARIC, 1999)

27

Gasoline evaporates relatively easily, making it necessary to control evaporative emissions. Venting the fuel tank to the atmosphere through a canister of activated charcoal allows the charcoal to absorb hydrocarbon vapors, prevent ing them from escaping into the air. The absorbed hydrocarbons are stripped from the charcoal, and burned into the engine, while the canister is regenerated or “purged” by drawing air through it into the intake manifold when the engine is running (World Bank, 1996). Exhaust gas recirculation involves returning exhaust air to the fuel inlet, which results in a reduction in peak engine temperatures and emissions of NOx from petrol vehicles. CO and HC levels are also reduced. The air injection system reduces excessive HC emissions by injecting air into the exhaust manifold to ignite any unburned fuel (ARIC, 1999). II. Cleaner/alternative fuels Use of cleaner/alternative fuels, such as hydrogen, compressed natural gas (CNG), liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), dimethyl ether (DME), biodiesel (Fatty Acid Methyl Esters), bioethanol, biogas (methane), ethyl tertiary-butyl ether (ETBE) and diesel/water emulsion, in the existing internal combustion engine is considered to reduce emissions (Lawrence Tse). Environmental impact of clean-energy vehicles is lower than conventional vehicles and use of cleaner/alternative fuels will substitute petroleum oil. In order to use the above cleaner/alternative fuels, automakers are making efforts to develop clean-energy vehicles today. Hybrid engine vehicles One of clean-energy vehicles is a hybrid engine vehicle driven by a combination of a fuel engine and an electric motor. A hybrid system saves fuel by storing energy and adjusting to each situation. Reducing the load on a fuel engine is effective to reduce exhaust emission and noise (JARI). The system significantly reduces both fuel consumption and exhaust emissions. In Japan, Toyota Motor Corporation is the first automaker to sell hybrid engine vehicles commercially in 1997 and has been taking the initiative in developing clean-energy vehicles (Figure 2). Honda Motor Corporation also released its hybrid engine vehicles in Japan and the United States in late 1999 and Nissan Motor Corporation plans to sell hybrid engine vehicles in 2006. Hybrid engine vehicles can be refueled at existing service stations, so there is no need to establish new infrastructure (JARI).

Figure 2. Goals of Hybrid Synergy Drive Development

In developing Hybrid Synergy Drive, Toyota sought ways to strengthen engine and motor power, raise electric power, and improve energy management for more efficient and effective control of the energy made available. The benefits are world leading environmental performance and more powerful acceleration for a higher “fun to drive”quotient. (Source: A Guide to Hybrid Synergy Drive, Toyota Motor Corporation, 2003)

28

Fuel cell vehicles A fuel cell vehicle is also a clean-energy vehicle. A fuel cell is a device which generates electric energy through electrochemical reactions between hydrogen and oxygen and only emits water as a byproduct (Nissan Motor Corp.) (Figure 3). Fuel cells are environmental-friendly and energy saving. Compared to conventional gasoline engine vehicles which only utilize 10 to 20 percent of energy generated by its fuel for driving, fuel cell vehicles can utilize more than 40 percent of the energy (JARI). Although high costs and a lack of hydrogen fuel stations still make its practical application difficult, many automakers, such as Daimler Chrysler, Opel, Peuget, Ford, Toyota and Honda have produced prototype fuel cell vehicles with respect to their environmentally friendly nature (Lawrence Tse). Nissan Motor Corporation is also engaged in research and development of fuel cell vehicles (Nissan Motor Corp.). III. Vehicle inspection and maintenance programmes The effectiveness of vehicle inspection and maintenance programs can also be enhanced by the use of technology such as the on-board diagnostic system (OBD) and the Remote sensing system. In recent years, vehicle engine and emissions control systems have become increasingly complicated, making the repair of malfunctioning systems more difficult. Unfortunately, several emission-related malfunctions may go undetected, under current inspection and maintenance program designs, especially malfunctions related to nitrogen oxides, since current I/M programs do not test for these emissions. In California, regulations requiring the OBD, a system designed to identify and diagnose emission-related malfunctions in vehicles equipped with sophisticated electronic engine control systems, have been strengthened through the adoption of second-generation requirements. Under the additional requirements, the vehicle’s computer system is required to detect failures or efficiency loss in the major emissions-related components and systems as well as to detect engine misfires (World Bank, 1996). Another technology, which may well improve the effectiveness of vehicle emissions control programs, is Remote sensing. It involves the technique of measuring the absorption of a beam of infrared light by the carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons in a vehicle’s exhaust plume (Fig 4). The computer calculates the ratios of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons to carbon dioxide in the exhaust, which enables the further calculation of concentrations of hydrocarbons and

Figure 4: Illustration of Remote Sensing System for CO and HC Emissions (Source: U.S. EPA, 1995)

Computer

IR Source

Video I.D. Camera

Detector Radar Gun

(Source: National Fuel Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine)

Figure 3. Structure of a fuel cell

29

carbon monoxide in the exhaust at the moment when the vehicle passes the remote sensing device. Cities such as Chicago and Mexico City have used remote sensing to characterize the statistical distribution of their vehicle emissions (World Bank, 1996).

30

Appendix 4: Emission standards for passenger cars, light commercial, and heavy-duty new vehicles New Vehicle Standards in Asia

(Source: “Global Initiative on Transport Emissions”, Partners for Cleaner Fuels and Vehicles, UN (November 2002), http://www.un.org/esa/gite/cleanfuels/asia.pdf)

31

Recent European Union (EU) emissions standards I. Emission limits for passenger cars Table 1: Emission Limits for Gasoline Cars (g/km)a Gasoline As fromb CO HC NOx Euro 1c 1/7/1992 4.05 0.66 0.49 Euro 2c 1/1/1996 3.28 0.34 0.25 Euro 3 1/1/2000 2.30 0.20 0.15 Euro 4 1/1/2005 1.00 0.10 0.08 CO = carbon monoxide, g/km = gram per kilometer, HC = hydrocarbons, NOx = nitrogen oxides a “Euro 3 and 4” (Directive 98/69/EC): Standards also apply to light commercial vehicles (<1305 kg) bThe above dates refer to new vehicle types; dates for new vehicles are one year later c As measured on new test cycle for application in year 2000

Table 2: Emission Limits for Diesel Cars (g/km)a

Diesel As fromb CO HC NOx PM

Euro 1c 1/7/1992 2.88 0.20 0.78 0.140 Euro 2c 1/1/1996 1.06 0.19 0.73 0.100 Euro 3 1/1/2000 0.64 0.06 0.50 0.050 Euro 4 1/1/2005 0.50 0.05 0.25 0.025 CO = carbon monoxide, g/km = gram per kilometer, HC = hydrocarbons, NOx = nitrogen oxides, PM = particulate matter a “Euro 3 and 4” (Directive 98/69/EC): Standards also apply to light commercial vehicles (<1305 kg) bThe above dates refer to new vehicle types; dates for new vehicles are one year later c As measured on new test cycle for application in year 2000 II. Emission limits for light commercial vehicles (Classes N1, N2 and N3) Table 3: Emission Limits for Light Commercial Vehicles [N1 Class (<1350 kg)] (g/km)

N1 As from Fuel type CO HC NOx HC + NOx PM

Euro 1a 1/10/1994 All 2.72 — — 0.97 0.140 Gasoline 2.20 — — 0.50 —

Euro 2a 1/1/1998 Diesel 1.00 — — 0.60 0.100 Gasoline 2.30 0.20 0.15 — —

Euro 3 1/1/2001 Diesel 0.64 — 0.50 0.56 0.050 Gasoline 1.00 0.10 0.08 — —

Euro 4 1/1/2006 Diesel 0.50 — 0.25 0.30 0.025

CO = carbon monoxide, g/km = gram per kilometer, HC = hydrocarbons, NOx = nitrogen oxides, PM = particulate matter a For Euro 1 and 2 the weight classes were N1 (<1250 kg), N2 (1250-1700 kg) and N3 (>1700 kg)

32

Table 4: Emission Limits (g/km) for Light Commercial Vehicles [N2 Class (1305-1760 kg)]





Euro 4 1/1/2006 Diesel 0.63 — 0.33 0.39 0.04

CO = carbon monoxide, g/km = gram per kilometer, HC = hydrocarbons, NOx = nitrogen oxides, PM = particulate matter a For Euro 1 and 2 the weight classes were N1 (<1250 kg), N2 (1250-1700 kg) and N3 (>1700 kg) Table 5: Emission Limits (g/km) for Light Commercial Vehicles [N3 Class (>1760 kg)]





Euro 4 1/1/2006 Diesel 0.74 — 0.39 0.46 0.06

CO = carbon monoxide, g/km = gram per kilometer, HC = hydrocarbons, NOx = nitrogen oxides, PM = particulate matter a For Euro 1 and 2 the weight classes were N1 (<1250 kg), N2 (1250-1700 kg) and N3 (>1700 kg)

III. Emissions limits for heavy duty vehicles Table 6: Emission Limits for Heavy Duty Vehicles (g/kWh)

As from Test cycle CO Total HC Non-Methane

HC NOx Particulate Matter

0.612 <85 kW

Euro 1 1/10/1993 13-mode 4.5 1.10 — 8.0 0.36 >85 kW

Euro 2 1/10/1996 13-mode 4.0 1.10 — 7.0 0.15a ESCc 2.1 0.66 — 5.0 0.10 0.13b

Euro 3 1/1/2000 ETCd 5.5 0.78 1.6 5.0 0.16 0.21b ESCc 1.5 0.46 — 3.5 0.02

Euro 4 1/10/2005 ETCd 4.0 0.55 1.1 3.5 0.03 ESCc 1.5 0.46 — 2.0 0.02

Euro 5 1/10/2008 ETCd 4.0 0.55 1.1 2.0 0.03

Note: “Euro 1 and 2”: Directive 91/542/EEC; “Euro 3, 4 and 5”: Council position December 1998 and agreed with the European Parliament CO = carbon monoxide, HC = hydrocarbons, g/kWh= gram per kilowatt-hour, NOx = nitrogen oxides aUntil 30/11/1998 the particulate limit for engines <700 cc per cylinder and with a rated power speed of more than 3000 rpm was 0.25 g/kWh bFor engines <750 cc per cylinder and with a rated power speed greater than 3000 rpm cMeasured on the European Standard Cycle (ESC) dMeasured on the European Transient Cycle (ETC)

33

IV. Relevant fuel specification limits Table A.7 Relevant Gasoline and Diesel Fuel Specification Limits

2000 2005 Gasoline

RVP summer 60 — Aromatics 42 35 Benzene 1 — Olefins 18 — Oxygen 2.7 — Sulfur 150 50

Diesel Cetane no. (min) 51 — Density 15°C 845 — Distillation 95°C 360 — Polyaromatics 11 — Sulfur 350 50

RVP = Reid vapor pressure (Source: ADB, 2003)

34

Appendix 5: Emissions standards for in-use vehicles/motorcycles Table 1: Emissions Standards for In-Use Gasoline Vehicles

Country Effectivity CO (%) HC (ppm) Test Bangladesh — 24.0

g/km 2.0 g/km Dynamic Cambodia Current 4.5 10,000 Idle

0.5 — Low idle or in accordance with manufacturers’ specifications

Hong Kong, China

Current

0.3 High idle, = 1± 0.03 or in accordance with manufacturers’ specifications

India Current 3.0 Idle Indonesia Current 4.5 1200 Idle Malaysia Current 3.5-4.5 600-800 Idle Nepal Current 3.0 1000 — Pakistan Current 6.0 Idle Philippines Before 1997 January 4.5 800 Idle Philippines 1997 3.5 600 Idle Philippines

2003 0.5

100 Low idle At high idle CO limit = 0.3 ( = 1± 0.03) or in accordance with manufacturers’ specifications

PRCa Current 4.5 900 Idle PRCb Current 4.5 1200 Idle Singapore Current 3.6-6 Idle Sri Lanka Before 1998 4.5 1200 Low idling Sri Lanka After 1998 3.0 1200 Low idling Thailand Before 1993 November 4.5 600 Idle Thailand After 1993 November 1.5 200 Idle Viet Namc Proposed 2002 December 6.0d 1500 Idle Viet Namc Proposed 2005 4.5e 1200 Idle Viet Namc Proposed 2008 3.0f 600 Idle CO = carbon monoxide, g/km = gram per kilometer, HC = hydrocarbons, ppm = parts per million, % = v/v a For light duty vehicles bFor heavy duty vehicles c Applicable in Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh, Hai Phong, Da Nang dRest of country CO limit = 6.5% e Rest of country CO limit = 6.0% f Rest of country CO limit = 4.5%

35

Table 2: Emissions Standards for In-Use Diesel Vehicles Country Effectivity Smoke (HSU) Test Bangladesh — 65 — Cambodia Current 50 —

60 Free acceleration Hong Kong, China

Current

50 Loaded lug down test on a chassis dynamometera India Current 65 Free acceleration Indonesia Current 50 Free acceleration Malaysia Current 50 — Nepalb Current 65 — Pakistan Current 40 Free acceleration Philippines Current 2.5 m-1 Free accelerationc Philippines 2003 1.2 m-1 Free accelerationd PRC Current 4.5 Rb Free acceleration Singapore Current 50 — Sri Lanka Current 65 Idle Sri Lanka Current 75 Free acceleration Thailand Current 45% Opacity - Free acceleration Thailand Current 35% Opacity - loaded Thailand Current 50% Filter test – free acceleration Thailand Current 40% Filter test – loaded Viet Name Current 72 Idle Viet Namf Current 85 Idle Viet Namg 2005 72 Idle HSU = Hartridge smoke unit, m -1 = light absorption coefficient, Rb = Filter or Bosch smoke meter unit a For vehicles apprehended under the Smoky Vehicle Control Program bFor vehicles manufactured in 1995 and beyond c For naturally aspirated engines, limit is 2.5 m -1 for turbo-charged engine and 4.5 m-1 for a 1,000 m increase in elevation dFor naturally aspirated engines, limit is 2.2 m-1 for turbo-charged engine and 3.2 m-1 for a 1,000 m increase in elevation e Applicable in Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh, Hai Phong, Da Nang f Rest of country g Limit is 50 HSU for newly registered vehicles starting 2005

36

Table 3: Emissions Standards for In-use Motorcycles in Asia

Standards Country Effectivity Vehicle Type

CO (%) HC (ppm) Remarks

Bangladesh — — 24 g/km 2 g/km Under discussion

Cambodia current 2- and 4-stroke 4.5 10,000 Idle test India current 2- and 4-stroke 4.5 9,000 Idle test Indonesia current 2-stroke 4.5 3,000 Idle test current 4-stroke 4.5 2,400 Idle test Philippines current 2- and 4-stroke 6 — Idle test PRC before 2003 July 2-stroke 4.5 8,000 Idle test before 2003 July 4-stroke 4.5 2,200 Idle test after 2003 July 2-stroke 4.5 4,500 Idle test after 2003 July 4-stroke 4.5 1,200 Idle test

Beijing before 2001 January 2-stroke 4.5 8,000 Idle test after 2001 January 2-stroke 2 3,500 Idle test before 2001 January 4-stroke 4.5 2,200 Idle test

after 2001 January 4-stroke 2 500 Idle test

Sri Lanka current 2- and 4-stroke 6 — Low-idling

Taipei, China current 2- and 4-stroke 4.5 9,000 Idle warm test

2004 January 2- and 4-stroke 3.5 2,000 Idle cold test

Thailand current 2- and 4-stroke 4.5 10,000 Idle test for CO and HC; 30% white smoke limit; free acceleration for white smoke

Viet Nam current 2-stroke 4.5 10,000 Idle test Viet Nam current 4-stroke 4.5 1,500 Idle test CO = carbon monoxide, HC = hydrocarbons, g/km = gram per kilometer, ppm = parts per million, % = v/v

(Source: ADB, 2003）

37

Table 4. Japanese Standards Table 4. 1 Motor vehicle exhaust emission standards (Source: Ministry of the Environment Japan, 2002)

Standards under current regulations New standards Category Test mode Pollutant Year Standards Year Standards

Notes

CO 2000 1.27 (0.67) HC 2000 0.17 (0.08) 10/15M

(g/km) NOx 2000 0.17 (0.08) CO 2000 31.1 (19.0) HC 2000 4.42 (2.20)

Pass

enge

r ca

rs

Four-cycle and two-cycle 11M

(g/test) NOx 2000 2.50 (1.40)

Two-cycle vehicles are currently not manufactured.

CO 1998 8.42 (6.50) 2002 5.11 (3.30) HC 1998 0.39 (0.25) 2002 0.25 (0.13) 10/15M

(g/km) NOx 1998 0.48 (0.25) 2002 0.25 (0.13) CO 1998 104 (76) 2002 58.9 (38.0) HC 1998 9.50 (7.00) 2002 6.40 (3.50)

Four-cycle mini-sized 11M

(g/test) NOx 1998 6.00 (4.40) 2002 3.63 (2.20)

Regulation introduced from Oct. 1, 2002.

CO 1975 17.0 (13.0) HC 1975 15.0 (12.0) 10/15M

(g/km) NOx 1975 0.50 (0.30) CO 1975 130 (100) HC 1975 70.0 (50.0)

Two-cycle mini-sized 11M

(g/test) NOx 1975 4.00 (2.50

Currently not manufactured.

CO 2000 1.27 (0.67) HC 2000 0.17 (0.08) 10/15M

(g/km) NOx 2000 0.17 (0.08) CO 2000 31.1 (19.0) HC 2000 4.42 (2.20)

Light-duty (GVW � 1.7 t)

11M (g/test) NOx 2000 2.50 (1.40)

CO 2001 3.36 (2.10) HC 2001 0.17 (0.08) 10/15M

(g/km) NOx 2001 0.25 (0.13) CO 2001 38.5 (24.0) HC 2001 4.42 (2.20)

Medium-duty (1.7 t < GVW � 3.5 t) 11M

(g/test) NOx 2001 2.78 (1.60) CO 2001 26.0 (16.0) HC 2001 0.99 (0.58)

Gas

olin

e an

d L

PG v

ehic

les

Truc

ks a

nd b

uses

Heavy-duty (GVW > 3.5 t)

G13M (g/kWh) NOx 2001 2.03 (1.40)

Weight classification changed under the 2001 regulation. (Before the change) Medium-duty: 1.7 t < GVW � 2.5 t Heavy-duty: GVW > 2.5 t (After the change) Medium-duty: 1.7 t < GVW � 3.5 t Heavy-duty: GVW > 3.5 t

CO 1986 2.70 (2.10) 2002 0.98 (0.63) HC 1986 0.62 (0.40) 2002 0.24 (0.12) Small-sized 1997 0.55 (0.40) 2002 0.43 (0.28) NOx Medium-sized 1998 0.55 (0.40) 2002 0.45 (0.30) Small-sized 1997 0.14 (0.08) 2002 0.11 (0.052)

Pass

enge

r ca

rs

10/15M (g/km)

PM Medium-sized 1998 0.14 (0.08) 2002 0.11 (0.056)

CO 1988 2.70 (2.10) 2002 0.98 (0.63) HC 1988 0.62 (0.40) 2002 0.24 (0.12)

NOx 1997 0.55 (0.40) 2002 0.43 (0.28) Light-duty (GVW � 1.7 t)

10/15M (g/km)

PM 1997 0.14 (0.08) 2002 0.11 (0.052)

CO 1993 2.70 (2.10) 2003 0.98 (0.63) HC 1993 0.62 (0.40) 2003 0.24 (0.12)

NOx 1997/98 0.97 (0.70) 2003 0.68 (0.49) Medium-duty (1.7 t < GVW � 2.5 t)

11M (g/test)

PM 1997/98 0.18 (0.09) 2003 0.12 (0.06)

1997 Manual transmission 1998 Automatic transmission

CO 1994 9.20 (7.40) 2003/04 3.46 (2.22) HC 1994 3.80 (2.90) 2003/04 1.47 (0.87) Direct injection

1997 GVW � 2.5 t 1998 2.5 t < GVW � 12 t 1999 GVW > 12 t

NOx Indirect injection

1997-99 5.80 (4.50) 2003/04 4.22(3.38)

Die

sel v

ehic

les

Truc

ks a

nd b

uses

Heavy-duty (GVW > 2.5 t)

D13M (g/kWh)

PM 1997-99 0.49 (0.25) 2003/04 0.35 (0.18)

2003 2.5 t < GVW � 12 t 2004 GVW > 12 t

CO 1998/99 20.0 (13.0) HC 1998/99 2.93 (2.00) Four-cycle Two-wheeled

(g/km) NOx 1998/99 0.51 (0.30) CO 14.4 (8.00) HC 5.26 (3.00)

Tw

o-w

heel

ed

vehi

cles

Two-cycle Two-wheeled (g/km) NOx 0.14 (0.10)

1998 First-class motor-driven cycles (50 cc or less) Mini-sized two-wheeled vehicles (250 cc or less) 1999 Second-class motor-driven cycles (125 cc or less) Small-sized two-wheeled vehicles (over 250 cc)

CO 2003 6.50 (5.0) HC 2003 1.95 (1.5)

NOx 2003 10.4 (8.0) 19 kW � rated engine output < 37 kW

8M (g/kWh)

PM 2003 1.04 (0.8)

CO 2003 6.50 (5.0) HC 2003 1.69 (1.3)


8M (g/kWh)

PM 2003 0.52 (0.4)

CO 2003 6.50 (5.0) HC 2003 1.30 (1.0)


8M (g/kWh)

PM 2003 0.39 (0.3)

CO 2003 4.55 (3.5) HC 2003 1.30 (1.0)

NOx 2003 7.80 (6.0) Die

sel s

peci

al v

ehic

les

130 kW � rated engine output < 560 kW

8M (g/kWh)

PM 2003 0.26 (0.2)

Notes: 1. CO = carbon monoxide; HC = hydrocarbons; NOx = nitrogen oxides; PM = particulate matter. 2. Figures not in parentheses are maximum levels per vehicle. Figures in parentheses are average levels for vehicle type. 3. “Small-sized” diesel vehicles are those with an equivalent inertia weight of 1.25 tons (vehicle weight of 1.265 tons) or less; “Medium-sized” diesel vehicles are those with an equivalent inertia weight over 1.25 tons (vehicle weight of 1.265 tons).

39

Table 4.2 Future motor vehicle exhaust emission standards

(target levels set by the fifth report) (Source: Ministry of the Environment Japan, 2002)

Suggestion of the latest report Category Test mode Pollutant Target

year Target level

Notes:

CO 2005 (1.15)

NMHC 2005 (0.05)

Pass

enge

r car

s

Two-cycle and four-cycle

NOx 2005 (0.05)

CO 2007 (4.02)

NMHC 2007 (0.05) Four-cycle mini-sized

NOx 2007 (0.05)

CO 2005 (1.15)

NMHC 2005 (0.05) Light-duty (GVW � 1.7 t)

NOx 2005 (0.05)

CO 2005 (2.55)

NMHC 2005 (0.05) Medium-duty (1.7 t < GVW � 3.5 t)

New test mode1 (g/kWh)

NOx 2005 (0.07)

CO 2005 (16.0) NMHC 2005 (0.23)

Gas

olin

e an

d L

PG v

ehic

les

Tru

cks

and

buse

s

Heavy-duty vehicles (3.5t < GVW)

New test mode2 (g/kWh) NOx 2005 (0.70)

CO 2005 (0.63) NMHC 2005 (0.024)

Small-sized 2005 (0.14) NOx

Medium-sized 2005 (0.15)

Small-sized 2005 (0.013)

Pass

enge

r car

s

PM Medium-sized 2005 (0.014)

CO 2005 (0.63) NMHC 2005 (0.024)

NOx 2005 (0.14) Light-duty (GVW � 1.7 t)

PM 2005 (0.013)

CO 2005 (0.63) NMHC 2005 (0.024)

NOx 2005 (0.25)

Medium-duty (1.7 t < GVW � 3.5 t)


PM 2005 (0.015) CO 2005 (2.22)

NMHC 2005 (0.17) NOx 2005 (2.0)

Die

sel v

ehic

les

Tru

cks

and

buse

s

Heavy-duty (3.5t < GVW)


PM 2005 (0.027)

Weight classification will be changed under the 2007 regulation. (Before the change) Medium-duty vehicles: 1.7 t < GVW � 2.5 t Heavy-duty vehicles: GVW > 2.5 t (After the change) Medium-duty vehicles: 1.7 t < GVW � 3.5 t Heavy-duty vehicles: GVW > 3.5 t

CO = carbon monoxide; HC = hydrocarbons; NOx = nitrogen oxides; PM = particulate matter.

Notes: 1. For vehicles with a gross vehicle weight of 3,500 kg or less, the standard will be applied to the following values: From 2005: the sum of the value obtained under 11-mode multiplied by 0.12, and the value obtained under 10/15-mode multiplied by 0.88. From 2008: the sum of the value obtained under the new test mode shown in the figure 2-4 in the cold cycle multiplied by 0.25, and the value obtained under 10/15-mode multiplied by 0.75. From 2011: the sum of the value obtained under the new test mode in the cold cycle multiplied by 0.25, and the value obtained under the new test mode in the hot cycle multiplied by 0.75.

2. For vehicles with a gross vehicle weight over 3,500 kg, the standard will be applied to the value obtained under the new test mode based on the mode shown in the figure 2-5 in the hot cycle.

40

Table 4.3 History of exhaust emission control for vehicles in use (Source: Ministry of the Environment Japan, 2002)

1. Idling CO and HC regulations

Carbon monoxide Hydrocarbons

Fuel Type Vehicle Category 1998/99

regulations 1998 regulation 1999 regulation Before 1998/98

regulations 1998 regulation 1999 regulation

Mini-sized two -wheeled vehicles and first-class motor-driven cycles (four-cycle) – 4.5 % ← – 2,000 ppm ←

Mini-sized two -wheeled vehicles and first-class motor-driven cycles (two -cycle) – 4.5 % ← – 7,800 ppm ←

Small-sized two -wheeled vehicles and second-class motor-driven cycles (four-cycle) – – 4.5 % – – 2,000 ppm

Gasoline

Small-sized two -wheeled vehicles and second-class motor-driven cycles (two -cycle) – – 4.5 % – – 7,800 ppm

Four-wheeled mini-sized vehicles (four-cycle) 4.5 % 2.0 % ← 1,200 ppm 500 ppm ← Four-wheeled vehicles (two -cycle) 4.5 % ← ← 7,800 ppm ← ← Four-wheeled special vehicles 4.5 % ← ← 3,300 ppm ← ←

Gasoline and LPG

Other four-wheeled vehicles 4.5 % 1.0 % ← 1,200 ppm 300 ppm ←

2. Black smoke regulations (no load, rapid acceleration)

Fuel Type Vehicle Category Before 1993/94

regulations 1993 regulation 1994 regulation 1997 regulation 1998 regulation 1999

regulation Passenger cars with an EIW of 1.25 t or less 25% ← ← Passenger cars with an EIW of over 1.25 t ← 40%

← 25% ← Trucks with a GVW of 1.7 t or less 25% ← ← Trucks with a GVW over 1.7 t but not exceeding 2.5 t (manual transmission) 25% ← ←

Trucks with a GVW over 1.7 t but not exceeding 2.5 t (automatic transmission)

40% ←

← 25% ←

Trucks with a GVW over 2.5 t but not exceeding 3.5 t 25% ← ← Trucks with a GVW over 3.5 t but not exceeding 12 t ← 25% ←

Diesel

Trucks with a GVW over 12 t

50 %

← 40% ← ← 25%

41

Table 5: US EPA Standards Table 5.1 Federal Certification Exhaust Emission Standards for Light-Duty Vehicles (Passenger Cars) and Light Light -Duty Trucks:

Federal Test Procedure (FTP), Cold CO, and Highway & Idle Tests (grams/mile) (Source: USEPA, 2000) Vehicle Emission Vehicle Useful Life

Type Category 5 Years / 50,000 Miles 10 Years / 100,000 Miles

THC[2,5,39] NMHC[3] NMOG CO[35,39] NOx PM[29] HCHO THC[2,5] NMHC[3] NMOG CO[38] NOx PM[29] HCHO

Federal LDV Tier 0 0.41 [6] 0.34 - 3.4 1.0 [4] 0.20 -

[37,40,43] Tier 1 [28] 0.41 0.25 - 3.4 [7] 0.4 0.08 - - 0.31 - 4.2 [9] 0.6 0.10 -

LDT1 Tier 0[26] 0.80 [6] 0.67 - 10 1.2 [4] 0.26 -

[37,40,43] Tier 1 - 0.25 - 3.4 [7] 0.4 0.08 - [26,28] 0.80 0.31 - 4.2 [9] 0.6 0.10 -

LDT2 Tier 0[26] 0.80 [6] 0.67 - 10 1.7 [4] 0.13 -

[37,40,43] Tier 1 - 0.32 - 4.4 [8] 0.7 0.08 - [26,28] 0.80 0.40 - 5.5 0.97 0.10 -

Federal LDV TLEV [28] 0.41 - [1,31] 0.125 3.4 [34] 0.4 0.08 0.015 - - [1,31] 0.156 4.2 [34] 0.6 [32] 0.08 0.018

National [36,40,41] LEV[42] [28] 0.41 - [1,31] 0.075 3.4 [34] 0.2 0.08 0.015 - - [1,31] 0.090 4.2 [34] 0.3 [32] 0.08 0.018

Low ULEV[42] [28] 0.41 - [1,31] 0.040 1.7 [34] 0.2 0.08 0.008 - - [1,31] 0.055 2.1 [34] 0.3 [32] 0.04 0.011

Emission ZEV 0.00 0.00 0.000 0.0 [34] 0.0 0.00 0.000 0.00 0.000 0.000 0.0 [34] 0.0 0.00 0.000

Vehicle LDT1 TLEV - - [1,31] 0.125 3.4 [34] 0.4 0.08 0.015 [26,28] 0.80 - [1,31] 0.156 4.2 [34] 0.6 [32] 0.08 0.018

(NLEV) [36,40,41] LEV[42] - - [1,31] 0.075 3.4 [34] 0.2 0.08 0.015 [26,28] 0.80 - [1,31] 0.090 4.2 [34] 0.3 [32] 0.08 0.018

Program ULEV[42] - - [1,31] 0.040 1.7 [34] 0.2 0.08 0.008 [26,28] 0.80 - [1,31] 0.055 2.1 [34] 0.3 [32] 0.04 0.011

ZEV 0.00 0.00 0.000 0.0 [34] 0.0 0.00 0.000 0.00 0.000 0.000 0.0 [34] 0.0 0.00 0.000

LDT2 TLEV - - [1,31] 0.160 4.4 [34] 0.7 0.08 0.018 [26,28] 0.80 - [1,31] 0.200 5.5 [34] 0.9 [32] 0.10 0.023

[36,40,41] LEV[42] - - [1,31] 0.100 4.4 [34] 0.4 0.08 0.018 [26,28] 0.80 - [1,31] 0.130 5.5 [34] 0.5 [32] 0.10 0.023

ULEV[42] - - [1,31] 0.050 2.2 [34] 0.4 0.08 0.009 [26,28] 0.80 - [1,31] 0.070 2.8 [34] 0.5 [32] 0.05 0.013

ZEV 0.00 0.00 0.000 0.0 [34] 0.0 0.00 0.000 0.00 0.000 0.000 0.0 [34] 0.0 0.00 0.000

Federal LDV LEV [28] 0.41 - [30] 0.075 3.4 [34] 0.2 - 0.015 - - [30] 0.090 4.2 [34] 0.3 [10] 0.08 0.018

Clean [37,40,41] ILEV [33] [28] 0.41 - 0.075 3.4 [34] 0.2 - 0.015 - - 0.090 4.2 [34] 0.3 [10] 0.08 0.018

Fueled ULEV [28] 0.41 - [30] 0.040 1.7 [34] 0.2 - 0.008 - - [30] 0.055 2.1 [34] 0.3 [10] 0.04 0.011

Vehicle ZEV 0.00 0.00 0.000 0.0 [34] 0.0 0.00 0.000 0.00 0.000 0.000 0.0 [34] 0.0 0.00 0.000

(CFV) LDT1 LEV - - [30] 0.075 3.4 [34] 0.2 - 0.015 [26,28] 0.80 - [30] 0.090 4.2 [34] 0.3 [10] 0.08 0.018

Program [37,40,41] ILEV [33] - - 0.075 3.4 [34] 0.2 - 0.015 [26,28] 0.80 - 0.090 4.2 [34] 0.3 [10] 0.08 0.018

ULEV - - [30] 0.040 1.7 [34] 0.2 - 0.008 [26,28] 0.80 - [30] 0.055 2.1 [34] 0.3 [10] 0.04 0.011

ZEV 0.00 0.00 0.000 0.0 [34] 0.0 0.00 0.000 0.00 0.000 0.000 0.0 [34] 0.0 0.00 0.000

LDT2 LEV - - [30] 0.100 4.4 [34] 0.4 - 0.018 [26,28] 0.80 - [30] 0.130 5.5 [34] 0.5 [10] 0.08 0.023

[37,40,41] ILEV [33] - - 0.100 4.4 [34] 0.4 - 0.018 [26,28] 0.80 - 0.130 5.5 [34] 0.5 [10] 0.08 0.023

ULEV - - [30] 0.050 2.2 [34] 0.4 - 0.009 [26,28] 0.80 - [30] 0.070 2.8 [34] 0.5 [10] 0.04 0.013

ZEV 0.00 0.00 0.000 0.0 [34] 0.0 0.00 0.000 0.00 0.000 0.000 0.0 [34] 0.0 0.00 0.000

42

Vehicle Emission Vehicle Useful Life

Type Category 5 Years / 50,000 Miles 11 Years / 120,000 Miles

NMHC [3] NMOG CO[35,39] NOx [8] PM HCHO THC[2,5,39] NMHC [3] NMOG CO[38] NOx PM HCHO

LDT3 Tier 0 0.80 [6] 0.67 - 10 1.7 [4] 0.26 -

Tier 1 0.32 - 4.4 0.7 - - 0.80 0.46 - 6.4 0.98 0.10 -

LDT4 Tier 0 0.80 [6] 0.67 - 10 1.7 [4] 0.13 - Federal

[37,40,43] Tier 1 0.39 - 5.0 1.1 - - 0.80 0.56 - 7.3 1.53 0.12 -

LDT3 LEV - [30] 0.125 3.4 0.4 - 0.015 - - [30] 0.180 5.0 0.6 [10] 0.08 0.022

0-3750 ILEV [33] - 0.125 3.4 0.2 - 0.015 - - 0.180 5.0 0.3 [10] 0.08 0.022

ALVW ULEV - [30] 0.075 1.7 0.2 - 0.008 - - [30] 0.107 2.5 0.3 [10] 0.04 0.012

LDT3 LEV [30] 0.160 4.4 0.7 - 0.018 - - [30] 0.230 6.4 1.0 [10] 0.10 0.027

3751-5750 ILEV [33] - 0.160 4.4 0.4 - 0.018 - - 0.230 6.4 0.5 [10] 0.10 0.027

ALVW ULEV - [30] 0.100 2.2 0.4 - 0.009 - - [30] 0.143 3.2 0.5 [10] 0.05 0.013

Federal Clean Fueled Vehicle (CFV) Program

[37,40] LDT4 LEV - [30] 0.195 5.0 1.1 - 0.022 - - [30] 0.280 7.3 1.5 [10] 0.12 0.032

5751-8500ILEV [33] - 0.195 5.0 0.6 - 0.022 - - 0.280 7.3 0.8 [10] 0.12 0.032

ALVW ULEV - [30] 0.117 2.5 0.6 - 0.011 - - [30] 0.167 3.7 0.8 [10] 0.06 0.016

Table 5.2 Federal Certification Exhaust Emission Standards for Heavy Light-Duty Trucks: Federal Test Procedure (FTP), Cold CO, and Highway & Idle Tests (grams/mile)

(Source: USEPA, 2000)

43

Footnotes to the tables of emission standards

1. NMHC FOR DIESEL CYCLE VEHICLES 25. PC/LDV & LDT1 COMBINED WITH LDT2 FOR SFTP PHASE-IN

2. THCE FOR METHANOL VEHICLES 26. STANDARDS APPLY AT A USEFUL LIFE OF 11 YEARS / 120,000 MILES

3. THCE FOR TIER 0 METHANOL VEHICLES, NMHCE FOR OTHER ALCOHOL VEHICLES 27. GASOLINE AND DIESEL VEHICLES ONLY

4. APPLIES TO DIESEL VEHICLES ONLY 28. TOTAL HC COMPLIANCE STATEMENT ALLOWED (IN LIEU OF TEST DATA)

5. DOES NOT APPLY TO CNG VEHICLES 29. PARTICULATES COMPLIANCE STATEMENT ALLOWED FOR NON-DIESEL CYCLE

6. CNG VEHICLES ONLY VEHICLES (IN LIEU OF SUPPLYING ACTUAL TEST DATA)

7. 1.0 FOR DIESEL-FUELED VEHICLES THROUGH 2003 MODEL YEAR 30. SPECIAL NMOG STANDARDS APPLY TO DUAL & FLEXIBLE FUEL VEHICLES, SEE

8. DOES NOT APPLY TO DIESEL-FUELED VEHICLES 40 CFR 88.104-94(h) & (i)

9. 1.25 FOR DIESEL-FUELED VEHICLES THROUGH 2003 MODEL YEAR 31. DUAL & FLEXIBLE FUEL VEHICLES MAY MEET NEXT HIGHER (LESS STRINGENT)

10. DIESEL-FUELED VEHICLES ONLY NMOG STANDARD WHEN OP ERATING ON GASOLINE.

11. METHANOL AND ETHANOL VEHICLES ONLY 32. 0.10 GM/MILE PARTICULATE STANDARD APPLIES TO NON-DIESEL VEHICLES

12. GASOLINE VEHICLES ONLY 33. SPECIAL EVAPORATIVE REQUIREMENTS APPLY (5.0 GRAMS MAX WITH THE

13. 0.7 THROUGH MODEL YEAR 1997 EVAPORATIVE SYSTEM DISCONNECTED)

14. 1.0 THROUGH MODEL YEAR 1997 34. HIGHWAY NOx EMISSIONS SHALL NOT EXCEED 1.33 TIMES THE APPLICABLE FTP

15. 1.1 THROUGH MODEL YEAR 1997 (CITY) NOx STANDARDS

16. 1.5 THROUGH MODEL YEAR 1997 35. COLD CO EMISSIONS FOR GASOLINE FUELED VEHICLES SHALL NOT EXCEED 10.0

17. 1.3 THROUGH MODEL YEAR 1997 GR/MI (LDV, LDT1, LDT2) OR 12.5 GM/MI (LDT3 & LDT4) AT 50K MILES

18. 1.8 THROUGH MODEL YEAR 1997 36. CALIFORNIA OBD-II SYSTEM REQUIRED, REF 40 CFR 86.1717-99

19. 2.0 THROUGH MODEL YEAR 1997 37. FEDERAL OBD SYSTEM REQUIRED BEGINNING WITH 1994 MODEL YEAR VEHICLES,

20. 2.8 THROUGH MODEL YEAR 1997 REF 40 CFR 86.1806-01

21. 1.48 FOR DIESEL-FUELED VEHICLES 38. IDLE CO EMISSIONS FROM GASOLINE, METHANOL, CNG & LPG TRUCKS SHALL

22. 2.07 FOR DIESEL-FUELED VEHICLES NOT EXCEED 0.50 PERCENT EXHAUST GAS AT 120K MILES/11 YEARS

23. OTHER EQUIVALENT SCHEDULES ALLOWED. COMPLIANCE STATEMENT ALLOWED (IN LIEU OF ACT UAL TEST DATA)

24. PC/LDV MAY BE COMBINED WITH LDT1 & LDT2 FOR TIER 1 PHASE-IN

44

Footnotes to the tables of emission standards - Continued

39. CERTIFICATION SHORT TEST (CST) EMISSIONS FROM GASOLINE VEHICLES SHALL NOT EXCEED 100 PPM HC OR 0.50 PERCENT EXHAUST GAS CO AT IDLE AND 2500 RPM AT 4K MILES; COMPLIANCE STATEMENT ALLOWED (IN LIEU OF DATA)

40. TIER 1, NLEV & CFV VEHICLES MUST MEET TIER 1 EMISSION STANDARDS AT HIGH ALTITUDE; TIER 0 VEHICLES MUST MEET SPECIAL HIGH ALTITUDE STANDARDS; COMPLIANCE STATEMENT ALLOWED (IN LIEU OF ACTUAL TEST DATA)

41. NLEV AND CFV (LDV, LDT1, LDT2) VEHICLES MUST MEET SPECIAL 50 DEG F EMISSION STANDARDS AT 4K MILES (NOT APPLICABLE TO DIESEL, CNG, OR HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES); REF. 40 CFR 86.1708 & 1709-99 (b)(1)(iv)

42. SPECIAL INTERIM IN-USE EMISSION STANDARDS APPLY TO 1999 LEV AND 1999 TO 2002 ULEV VEHICLES; REF. 40 CFR 86.1808 & 1809-99(C) AS CORRECTED IN EPA GUIDANCE LETTER VPCD-98-03, APRIL 8, 1998.

43. TIER 0 AND TIER 1 EMISSION STANDARDS DO NOT APPLY TO ETHANOL VEHICLES

44. SMALL VOLUME MANUFACTURER EXEMPT UNTIL LAST YEAR OF PHASE-IN. 45. NOT APPLICABLE TO LOW VOMUME MANUFACTURERS (MANUFACTURERS WITH ANNUAL NATIONWIDE SALES OF CARS & LLDTs OF 40,000 UNITS OR LESS) 46. EARLY CREDITS AVAILABLE, REF. 40 CFR 86.1710-99(C)(7) & (8) AS CORRECTED IN EPA GUIDANCE LETTER VPCD-98-03, APRIL 8, 1998. 47. COMPLIANCE REQUIRED FOR NLEV AND CFV FLEXIBLE FUELED VEHICLES UNDER DEFEAT DEVICE REGULATIONS, REF. 40 CFR 86.1809-01 48. WAIVERS ALLOWED IF CERTIFIED TO ORVR STANDARDS, REF. 40 CFR 86.1810-01(L) 49. MUST MEET ANSI/AGA NGV1 RECEPTICLE REQUIREMENTS, REF. 40CFR 86.1810 (K) 50. WAIVERS ALLOWED; REF 40 CFR 86.1810-01(M) 51. 2.6 GRAMS PER TEST AT HIGH ALTITUDE PRIOR TO 1996 MODEL YEAR

45

Abbreviations used in the tables of emission standards

ALVW Adjusted Loaded Vehicle Weight

CFV Clean Fueled Vehicle CNG Compressed Natural Gas

CO Carbon Monoxide

E10 A mixture of 10% ethanol and 90 % gasoline

E85 A mixture of 85% ethanol and 15 % gasoline

FTP Federal Test Procedure

GVWR Gross Vehicle Weight Rating

HCHO Formaldehyde

HDV Heavy-duty Vehicle [California definition] [federal definition]

HLDT Heavy Light-duty Truck

ILEV Inherently Low Emission Vehicle

LDT Light-duty Truck [California definition] [federal definition]

LDT1 Light-duty Truck 1




LDV Light-duty Vehicle

LLDT Light Light-duty Truck

LEV Low Emission Vehicle

LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas (Propane)

LVW Loaded Vehicle Weight

MDV Medium-duty Vehicle

M10 A mixture of 10% methanol and 90 % gasoline

M85 A mixture of 85% methanol and 15 % gasoline

NLEV National Low Emission Vehicle

NMHC Non-methane Hydrocarbon

NMOG Non-methane Organic Gases

NOx Nitrogen Oxides

ORVR Onboard Refueling Vapor Recovery

PC Passenger Car

PM Particulate Matter

SFTP Supplemental Federal Test Procedure

SULEV Super-Ultra-Low-Emission Vehicle

THC Total Hydrocarbon

THCE Total Hydrocarbon Equivalent

TLEV Transitional Low-Emission Vehicle

TW Test Weight

ULEV Ultra -Low-Emission Vehicle

ZEV Zero-Emission Vehicle

46

Appendix 6: Type of vehicle inspection and their frequency followed in Japan Type of Motor Vehicle Inspection and their Cycle in Japan

Inspection Cycle / Valid period of motor vehicle inspection certificates

Cycle→ Vehicle Category↓

Initial Inspection (for a vehicle that is to be used for the first time)

Renewal Inspection (for a vehicle to be used after its certificates expires)

Private passenger cars

3 years 2 years

Gross vehicle weight < 8 tons

2 years

1 year

Trucks

Others

1 year 1 year

Large sized special motor vehicles , etc.

2 years 2 years

Passenger cars for business use, motor vehicles seating 11 or more passengers, etc.

1 year 1 year

(Source: Ministry of Environment / Government of Japan (2002). Also the processes involved both in initial of motor vehicle inspection and registration, and the subsequent renewal inspection in Japan are given in Fig 1 and 2 respectively.

Figure 1. Initial vehicle inspection and registration process in Japan (Source: MoE-Japan, 2002)

Dea

ler

Purchase

contract Other required

documents

Type designated vehicles

User

Other vehicles

Completion inspection certificate

District Transport Bureau

Omission of presentation of actual vehicles

Issuance of motor vehicle inspection certificate


Presentation of actual vehicles

Other required documents

(Inspection and registration)

Use

r

(Inspection and registration)

47

Figure 2. Renewal inspection process in Japan (Source: MoE-Japan, 2002)


Certificate of conformance to safety standards

Periodical checks and maintenance records


Type designatedvehicles

User (in person)

Certified garage


Omission of presentation of actual vehicles


Use

r

Checks �

Maintenance �

Completion inspection

Checks �

Maintenance

Renewal of valid periods

Use

r






48

Appendix 7:Trade of used vehicles from Japan to other countries Figures: Number of used vehicles exported from Japan to Asian countries

Figure 1. Number of used passenger cars exported from Japanto respective Asian countries in 2001

3 3 13 23 38 78 111942 986 1114

1792 2013

3907

7679

93909862

11099

0

10000

20000

Nepal

Vietn

amLa

osIndia

Cambo

dia

China

Mya

nmar

Indo

nesia

Brune

i

Mon

golia

Kore

a

Sing

apor

e

Thailand

Sri L

anka

Banglad

esh

Malay

sia

Philipp

ines

(Source: Ministry of Environment, Japan)

Num

ber

of

exp

ort

ed in-use

vehic

les

Figure 2. Number of used trucks exported from Japanto respective Asian countries in 2001

4 9 18 26 30 49 252 275 330

12271810

2983

45154816

8129

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

Viet

nam

China

Brune

i

Laos

Mon

golia

Kore

a

Australia

Thailand

Mala

ysia

Indo

nesia

Mya

nmar

Bang

lades

h

New Z

ealand

Sri L

anka

Philip

pine

s


Num

ber

of

exp

ort

ed in-use

tru

cks

49

Figure 3. Number of used buses exported from Japanto respective Asian countries in 2001

4 9 18 26 30 49 252 275 330

12271810

2983

4816

75818129

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

Viet

nam

China

Brune

i

Laos

Mon

golia

Kore

a

Australia

Thailand

Mala

ysia

Indo

nesia

Mya

nmar

Bang

lades

h

Sri L

anka

Sing

apore

Philip

pine

s


Num

ber

of ex

port

ed in-

use

bus

Figure 4. Number of used two-wheeled vehicles exported from Japanto respective Asian countries in 2001

6 9 10 29 57 157 205 882

40595291

7408

14507

17916

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

14000

16000

18000

20000

Mya

nmar

China

Indo

nesia

Mon

golia

Mala

ysia

Sing

apore

Viet

nam

Bang

lades

h

Kore

a

Thailand

Philip

pine

s

Cambo

dia

Sri L

anka


Num

ber

of ex

port

ed in-

use

two-w

heel

ed v

ehic

les

50

Table 1: Number of used cars exported from Japan to other countries (By area) 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Asia 79,174 90,235 77,719 78,740 87,584 91,275 East 18,937 24,070 28,224 36,584 56,268 57,947

Europe 40,457 88,265 100,699 92,757 97,599 108,646 N. America 47,213 40,792 31,573 154,871 224,749 220,740 C. America 24,383 37,210 29,811 29,999 34,507 38,280 S. America 32,313 64,540 90,255 53,989 52,600 44,770

Africa 19,475 18,497 21,233 20,224 25,852 31,606 Oceania 123,825 103,752 117,239 144,779 125,441 137,001

Total 385,777 467,361 496,753 611,943 704,600 730,265

(Source: Japan Used Car Exporters Association) Table 2 Estimates of exports of used vehicles and parts from Japan to other countries (FY 1995)

Unit: tons

Vehicle Type Used vehicles Used spare

parts Total Used vehicles 260,361 0 260,361

Used parts①： engines/transmissions 68,513 0 68,513

Used parts②：tires 12,112 56,693 68,804 Used parts③：others 442,980 0 442,980

Passenger cars

Lead scraps：batteries 233 686 919 Used vehicles 27,743 0 27,743

Used parts①：engines/transmissions 78,364 0 78,364

Used parts②：tires 11,365 65,658 77,023 Used parts③：others 186,374 29,966 216,340

Trucks and Buses

Lead scraps：batteries 219 999 1,217 Used vehicles 63,064 0 63,064


Used parts②：tires 269 903 1,172 Used parts③：others 9,587 0 9,587

Two-wheeled vehicles

Lead scraps：batteries 5 31 37 Used vehicles 351,168 0 351,168


Used parts②：tires 23,746 123,254 147,000 Used parts③：others 638,942 29,966 668,908

Total

Lead scraps：batteries 457 1,716 2,173 (Source: Kashima, 2003)

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