Manifest Destiny:In the 1890s, a growing number of Americans began to advocate for US expansion to secure new markets & raw materials. Other industrial powers had already established colonies and there was a concern that the US would be left behind. Senator Henry Cabot Lodge was a leading expansionist in Congress and Alfred T. Mahan was an influential naval strategist that advocated for the US to build a strong navy and to establish colonies around the world.

Hemispheric Hegemony:In the 1880s & 1890s, the United States worked to shore up its dominance in Latin America. Sec of State James Blaine promoted regional economic cooperation at the Pan-American Congress, while President Grover Cleveland invoked the Monroe Doctrine when the US was attempting settle the Venezuela Border Dispute. This robust defense of hemispheric hegemony discouraged further European interest in the region for many years.

Hawaii & Samoa:Americans had long known the strategic value of the Hawaiian Islands as a military base & refueling station along the trade routes to Asia. By the 1890s,American missionaries & businessmen had expanded their economic, political, and social influence in Hawaii. Relations had deteriorated leading to the rise of a nationalistic monarch, Queen Liliuokalani, and later a rebellion by Americans in 1893. While initial efforts at annexation were rejected, Hawaii was annexed in 1898 on the eve of the war with Spain. Tensions with Britain & Germany over Samoa revealed the dangers of engaging in imperialistic pursuits.

Controversy over Cuba:Longtime Cuban resistance to Spanish rule led to atrocities on both sides that were sensationalized by yellow journalism in the US. While President Cleveland resisted calls for intervention, President McKinley ultimately challenged Spain after sensationalized accounts of Spanish insults in the media and the 1898 sinking of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor.

Splendid Little War:While Secretary of State John Hay might have called it the “Splendid Little War” because of its short duration and minimal casualties, the Spanish-American War exposed some significant logistical & readiness concerns in the US military. The experience also provided further evidence of ongoing racial tensions in the US.

Seizing the Philippines:As the Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Theodore Roosevelt was an ardent expansionist who preempted the coming war with Spain by directing the US Pacific squadron to Manila Harbor with orders to attack the antiquated Spanish fleet if war was declared. The commander, George Dewey, became a national hero after the one-sided victory. Action in the Philippines caused some Americans to question the purpose of the war – Cuban freedom or colonies?

The Battle for Cuba:Early moves by Spain during the war forced American commanders to alter their plans exposing how unprepared the US was for war. Later, combat in Cuba allowed Theodore Roosevelt, who had raised a volunteer regiment of cavalry called the Rough Riders, to become a national hero. After the Spanish fleet was destroyed, Spain surrendered. The U.S. occupied Cuba and acquired Puerto Rico and Guam.

Puerto Rico and the United States:For centuries Spain had controlled Puerto Rico. By the 1890s, the Puerto Ricans had attained a large degree of independence. The US occupation of Puerto Rico ends in 1900 and a colonial government is established giving the US considerable control over the island’s affairs. In 1917, Puerto Ricans pressured the US for greater autonomy. The Jones Act made Puerto Rico a territory and its people citizens of the US. The sugar industry will flourish and come to dominate the economy with its access to American markets, which dramatically increases Puerto Rican dependence on the US.

Debate over the Philippines:Unlike the new colonies in the Caribbean, some Americans were concerned about acquiring the Philippines. McKinley justified annexation as best for the Filipinos and the image of the US among the world’s imperial powers. Senate ratification of the $20 million for the Philippines provided an opening for anti-imperialists who argued that annexation was an immoral violation of US commitment to freedom, that if ratified would have a detrimental impact on the US economy and place in the world. Imperialists saw annexation as a positive good for both the psyche and economy of the nation. Wm. Jennings Bryan used the treaty to frame the 1900 presidential election only to discover that the majority of Americans appeared to support US expansion.

Governing the Colonies:While some colonies posed few administrative problems, allowing them to be fast-tracked for territorial status; others, like Cuba were more challenging. General Leonard Wood led efforts to modernize Cuba, laying the foundation for US economic domination – especially in the sugar industry. In 1901, Cuba was forced to accept the Platt Amendment, which granted the US authority to control Cuban foreign policy, intervene as needed in Cuban affairs, and keep military bases. Massive US investment and economic dominance sparked Cuban resentment and the occasional rebellion, which required the deployment of US troops.

The Philippine War:Ironically, the conflict to subdue the Philippines was far longer and bloodier than the Spanish-American War. Led by Emilio Aguinaldo, Filipinos were rebelling against Spain at the time of the Spanish-American War. Initially welcomed, Filipinos ultimately rebelled against US annexation.In the ensuing guerrilla campaign, the US engaged in military tactics that it had condemned the Spanish for using in Cuba. In 1901, William Taft was appointed as colonial governor and moved to modernize and open the islands to US economic development. Taft also began the policy of gradually granting Filipinos local autonomy.

The Open Door:The acquisition of the Philippines amplified US interest in trade with China. China had been divided into foreign “concessions” by imperial powers from Europe & Japan, and the US feared being left out. Sec of State Hay wrote the Open Door notes in 1900, which proposed that the US and all nations had the right to trade freely in China without establishing and maintaining spheres of interest. Inaction and rivalry among the imperial powers allowed this policy recommendation to become a reality. The Boxer Rebellion unified the foreign powers against the ultra-nationalist movement and ultimately strengthened the Open Door policy.