Mangosteen Manual

Practical Manual No. 9

MANGOSTEENGarcinia mangostana

Field Manual for

Extension Workers and Farmers

2006

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Copies of this handbook, as well as related literature, including a monograph and factsheet can be obtained by writing to the address below:

Southampton Centre for Underutilised Crops School of Civil Engineering and the Environment University of Southampton OR Highfield,Southampton SO17 1BJUnited Kingdom

International Centre for Underutilised Cropsc/o International Water Management Institute (IWMI) 127, Sunil Mawatha Pelawatte BattaramullaSri Lanka

ISBN: 0854328386 © 2006 Southampton Centre for Underutilised Crops Printed at RPM Print and Design, Chichester, England, UK

Citation: SCUC, (2006). Mangosteen, Garcinia mangostana, Field Manual for Extension Workers and Farmers. ICUC, Southampton, UK.

Original manuscript prepared by J.E. Eusebio and A.T. Carpio, and edited to an agreed format by D. Jackson.Line drawings in Part II by L. Jackson.

THE FRUITS FOR THE FUTURE PROJECT

This publication is an output from a research project funded by the United Kingdom Department for International Development (DFID) for the benefit of developing countries. The views expressed are not necessarily those of DFID [R7187 Forestry Research Programme].

A series of underutilised fruits are being researched and this is the Practical Manual No. 9 dealing specifically with Garcinia mangostana.

The opinions expressed in this book are those of the authors alone and do not imply any acceptance or obligation whatsoever on the part of ICUC, ICRAF or IPGRI.

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CONTENTS

PREFACE .........................................................................................................................V

1. INTRODUCTION TO MANGOSTEEN..........................................................................1

1.1 DESCRIPTION OF MANGOSTEEN 1

2. WHY GROW MANGOSTEEN?.................................................................................... 2

2.1 NUTRITIONAL VALUE 2 2.2 SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE 2 2.3 MEDICINAL VALUE 2 2.4 TIMBER 3

3. WHERE TO GROW MANGOSTEEN ........................................................................... 4

3.1 CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS FOR MANGOSTEEN 4 3.2 SITE REQUIREMENTS 5 3.3 LAND-USE SYSTEMS 5

4. WHAT TO GROW...................................................................................................... 6

4.1 SELECTED SUPERIOR PHENOTYPES 6 4.2 PROPAGULE TYPE 6

5. HOW TO GROW MANGOSTEEN .............................................................................. 7

5.1 PROPAGATION BY SEEDS 7 5.1.1 Seed selection 7

5.1.2 SEED TREATMENT AND GERMINATION 7 5.1.3 Sowing 7 5.1.4 Bagging of seedlings 8 5.1.5 Care of seedlings 8 5.1.6 Large planting materials (LPM) 8

5.2 VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION 8 5.2.1 Preparation of rootstock 9 5.2.2 Preparation of scion 9 5.2.3 Grafting procedure 9 5.2.4 Care of newly grafted seedlings in the nursery 9

5.3 FIELD ESTABLISHMENT 10 5.3.1 Site preparation 10 5.3.2 Drainage 10 5.3.3 Shade establishment and management 10 5.3.4 Preparing the planting hole 11 5.3.5 Planting out 11 5.3.6 Timing 11

5.4 FIELD MANAGEMENT 11 5.4.1 Weeding 11 5.4.2 Irrigation 12 5.4.3 Fertilising 12 5.4.4 Pruning 13 5.4.5 Flowering and fruiting 13 5.4.6 Intercropping 13

5.5 PROTECTION FROM PESTS AND DISEASES 14

6. HOW TO HARVEST MANGOSTEEN..........................................................................15

6.1 MATURITY AND HARVESTING 15

7. POST-HARVEST HANDLING AND PROCESSING .......................................................16

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7.1 SORTING AND GRADING 16 7.2 EXPECTED YIELDS 16 7.3 PACKAGING AND STORAGE 16

7.4 Processing 17 7.4.1 Canning 17 7.4.2 Crystallization 17 7.4.3 Freezing 17

8. MARKETING..............................................................................................................18

8.1 MARKETING POTENTIAL 18 8.2 PRICING 18

9. SOCIO-ECONOMICS .................................................................................................19

9.1 COST AND RETURN ANALYSIS 19

REFERENCES .................................................................................................................20

APPENDIX 1. NUTRITIONAL PROPERTIES OF MANGOSTEEN PER 100 G EDIBLE PORTION ..........................................................................................................21

APPENDIX 2. COST OF ESTABLISHING ONE HECTARE OF MANGOSTEEN ORCHARD.................................................................................................................... 22

APPENDIX 3. PROJECTED CASH FLOW (PHP) OVER TEN YEARS OF ONE HECTARE OF MANGOSTEEN ORCHARD .................................................................... 23

APPENDIX 4A. SUGGESTED FERTILIZATION SCHEDULE FOR MANGOSTEEN ............ 24

APPENDIX 4B. RECOMMENDED FERTILIZATION SCHEDULE FOR MANGOSTEEN IN MALAYSIA................................................................................................................ 24

APPENDIX 5. MAJOR PESTS AND DISEASES OF MANGOSTEEN AND THEIR CONTROL ......................................................................................................... 25

APPENDIX 6. HEALTH AND SAFETY WHEN USING CHEMICALS................................. 26

APPENDIX 7. MATURITY INDICES OF MANGOSTEEN ................................................ 27

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PREFACE

Fruits for the Future is a programme implemented by the International Centre for Underutilised Crops (ICUC). It is funded by the Forestry Research Programme (FRP) of the UK Department for International Development. ICUC is implementing this programme in collaboration with the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI), the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The goal of projects covered by the programme is to improve the livelihoods of the rural poor, particularly those with limited resources, by providing high yielding germplasm, high quality planting materials and appropriate technology for environmentally friendly, sustainable natural resources management. Project outputs will therefore result in increased income from smallholder lands and thus contribute to livelihoods.

Until specific projects were organized a major constraint was a lack of accessible practical information for those who advise fruit tree growers, not only on production but also with reference to products and local and regional marketing. This manual summarises important aspects of improved technology and also identifies products and opportunities to improve their marketing. Of course, products and their marketing vary both locally and regionally. India, Sri Lanka and Thailand have developed products and marketing strategies for both local and international markets; other countries do not possess this framework.

A number of people have been involved in the preparation of the manuscript. We would like to take this opportunity to thank Dr Felipe A. de la Cruz, University Researcher of the Institute of Plant Breeding, University of the Philippines at Los Banos (IPB-UPLB), for providing some data information and pictures of mangosteen. Thanks are also due to Mr Lauro M. Lapitan, Science Research Analyst of the Crops Research Division, Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCARRD), for facilitating the actual survey of mangosteen areas for documentation and illustration outputs.

Thanks also go to the authors and contributors on specific mangosteen management practices for contents, figures, and tables. Any opinions expressed in this manual are those of the people involved in the preparation of the manuscript and not the sponsoring organizations.

The techniques illustrated and explained in this manual may not be appropriate for all farmers since the goals and resources of each farmer are different. However, any concept underlying a technique is valid, although the specific techniques, products and market strategies may vary from farmer to farmer and country to country.

Editors, 2005

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1. INTRODUCTION TO MANGOSTEEN

This manual contains production practices and techniques described in a popular and technical style to address the needs of small and medium sized orchard practitioners, students, and researchers in mangosteen production.

Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana Linn.), dubbed the �finest fruit of the world�, has high potential for both domestic and export markets. The fruit�s dark violet or deep brownish-purple skin and white edible portion make it one of the most valuable fruits of the tropics. It is consumed fresh and also in processed forms. Many Westerners enjoy its delicious taste and consider it a health food.

1.1 Description of mangosteen

• The mangosteen is a small to medium height evergreen tree, 6�25 m tall with a straight trunk and evenly spaced branches, which form a conical crown.

• The dark green shiny leaves are oblong to elliptical, 19�23 cm long and 7�10 cm wide.

• Only female flowers are produced on the ends of branchlets. They have four petals, which are yellow/green with red margins.

• The fruit is rounded and dark purple in colour when ripe. It is 4�7 cm in diameter and weighs 55�75 g.

• The rind or pericarp, almost 1 cm thick, encloses the edible part or aril, which consists of 5�7 snowy white segments.

• The segments contain 2�3 well-developed seeds. The small dark purple seed is enveloped by weak fibres, which extend to the aril.

• The pulp, which is very light and soft with an exquisite flavour, is best eaten fresh, preferably after chilling the fruit in a refrigerator.

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2. WHY GROW MANGOSTEEN?

See Technical Note 1 in Part II.

Mangosteen is comparatively easy to grow.

• It has few problems of pests and diseases.

• It can be grown in a wide variety of soil types provided water is available. With adequate water and fertilizer, trees can bear fruits twice a year.

• Cultural management techniques have been developed to address the problem of slow growth and the long period required to reach maturity.

2.1 Nutritional value

• The aril is a nutritious food containing high amounts of energy and vitamins (see Appendix 1).

• It can be processed into food preparations such as canned segments, candies, jam, pulp preserve, toppings and flavouring for ice cream, sherbet, and wine.

• The pulp and seed when boiled with sugar have a delicious nutty flavour.

2.2 Socio-economic value

• The yield of one hectare of mangosteen, receiving low levels of inputs and minimal care, can be 4 tonnes. (Source: http://www.da.gov.ph/agribiz/mangosteen.html)

• The price of PHP 20/kg or higher is likely to prevail in the future due to increasing demand in domestic markets.

• A farmer would be able to recover his investments in the 7th year and get a high cumulative income in the 10th year.

• High yields can be achieved through improved application of pruning, fertilization, irrigation and other farm-management practices.

2.3 Medicinal value

Most parts of the mangosteen tree can be used for medicinal purposes.

• The leaves and bark can be used as an astringent for the cure of aphtha or thrush, a fungal disease affecting the tongue and throat.

• A leaf infusion can be applied to wounds.

• The rind is effective in curing chronic intestinal catarrh.

• Rind consists of 7�15% tannin, and is used to tan leather and dye fabric black.

• Dried fruit rind is used pharmaceutically as an astringent.

• Seed contains 30% valuable oil used in skin preparations, soap and shampoo.

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• Fruits contain flavones and xanthones, which are compounds used in medicines and as anti-bacterial agents.

2.4 Timber

• The heartwood of the trunk is dark brown and strong, used for furniture making and in carpentry.

• It is used locally to make rice pounders.

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3. WHERE TO GROW MANGOSTEEN

See Technical Note 1b in Part II.

Mangosteen cultivation has long been limited to Southeast Asia, ranging from Indonesia eastwards to New Guinea and Mindanao (Philippines), and north via Peninsular Malaysia into the southern parts of Thailand, Myanmar, Vietnam, and Cambodia.

• Small orchards have been established in Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and the Philippines. These countries are now considered major mangosteen production areas of South East Asia.

• Mangosteen has spread to other tropical areas including Sri Lanka, South India, Central and South America, Australia, Brazil, and Florida, USA, where introductions have led to small-scale production.

3.1 Climatic requirements for mangosteen

Mangosteen is a crop of humid tropical environments. It thrives in high temperature and high humidity conditions.

• Mangosteen requires an uninterrupted water supply and a short dry season of 15�30 days, the latter to stimulate flowering.

• An annual rainfall of at least 1270 mm is necessary for good growth.

• Mangosteen thrives in a temperature range of 25�35°C. Below 20°C growth is very slow.

• Temperatures below 5°C and above 38�40°C may kill the tree.

• Relative humidity should be about 80%.

Table 1. Climatic requirements for cultivation of mangosteen

Climatic factor Minimum Maximum

Altitude (m)

Rainfall (mm)

Temperature (°C)

From sea level

1000 (with irrigation)

20

1500

2500 (evenly distributed)

38 (above this may kill the tree)

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3.2 Site requirements

Mangosteen can grow on a wide range of soils so long as they are not alkaline.

• Mangosteen is a shade-loving tree, and both leaves and fruit are susceptible to sunburn.Shade is critical during early vegetative growth.

Table 2. Suitable habitats for mangosteen

Characteristic Suitable habitat

Soil type Deep clay loam

Rich in organic matter

Does not tolerate limestone soils, sandy alluvial, or sandy soils

Drainage Porous, well drained

Avoid waterlogged soils

Soil pH Slightly acid pH 5.5�6.5

Aspect Withstands moderate winds

3.3 Land-use systems

• Individual trees may be grown in the backyard by smallholder farmers.

• Mangosteen may be grown in small orchards.

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4. WHAT TO GROW

See Technical Notes 2a and 3a in Part II.

4.1 Selected superior phenotypes

The seed of mangosteen is an asexual propagule and it is thought that most trees belong to a single clone (Richards 1990). This means there are no true varieties or cultivars of this fruit.

Mangosteen is only known as a cultivated species, although there have been occasional reports of wild specimens in Malaysia.

• There is one distinct variation known in the Sulu Islands. Compared with typical fruit, the fruit is larger, the rind thicker, the flesh more acid, and the flavour more pronounced.

• Different types have been found in other countries. However, tree and fruit characteristics, e.g. fruit size, acidity and flavour, may vary significantly depending on climatic environments.

4.2 Propagule type

Mangosteen may be propagated by either seed or vegetatively. The cleft graft has been found to be a particularly successful method.

• The seed of mangosteen bears a non-sexual embryo, hence it is true-to-type. Unlike other seeds, it develops even in the absence of pollination.

• The fruit from seedling trees is fairly uniform.

• A few seeds may give rise to two propagules per seed. Do not use propagules from these seeds.

• Vegetative propagation is necessary for the multiplication of seedless mangosteen, and grafting may be used.

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5. HOW TO GROW MANGOSTEEN


5.1 Propagation by seeds

On average, the fruit produces 4�8 arils (segments) with about 1 to 2 seeds. Seeds germinate well only under high seed moisture content.

• Viability is reduced when air moisture content falls below 20%.

• When sowing is delayed by 5 days, germination is reduced by 75%.

• If seeds need to be transported to distant places, they should be kept in moist coir dust or clean newspaper to prevent dehydration.

• To minimise deterioration, the seed may be stored in moist coir dust in airtight containers for up to 3 months.

• Seed can also be stored while inside the fruit for 3 to 5 weeks.

5.1.1 Seed selection

• Use only plump, large, and healthy seeds from mature fruits for propagation.

• Seeds from over-mature and decaying fruits give a low percentage of germination and survival.

5.1.2 Seed treatment and germination

• Before sowing, soak seeds in water for 12 hours to facilitate testa removal.

• Removing the testa helps to increase germination and produce uniform seedlings.

• Soaking the seeds in water for 24 hours will accelerate the rate of germination to within 10�20 days after sowing.

• In nurseries, sterilise the seeding medium to kill nematodes and fungi. Prepare a sterilisation box 10 x 2 m and 30 cm deep. Fill with seeding medium and cover with a plastic sheet for 3 days in the sunshine.

5.1.3 Sowing


• Sow seeds 5�10 cm deep and 2�3 cm apart in the seedbed, or in polythene plastic bags in a nursery.

• Provide the seedbed with 50�60% shade.

• The germination medium should consist of a mixture of one part each of fine sand, soil, and humus or decayed organic matter such as chicken dung or cow manure. The medium needs to be moisture retentive but well drained.

• Seeds can be sown in any position, but are normally laid horizontally.

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• Sprouting usually occurs in 2�3 weeks and is complete in about 6 weeks.

• Water the seeds regularly and maintain high humidity.

5.1.4 Bagging of seedlings

• At two- to three-leaf stage, and when the leaves are mature, transplant the seedlings from the nursery bed to individual polythene bags of 20 x 30 cm.

• Remove the seedling from the seedbed by holding it at its base with one hand, lifting it slowly while digging with the other hand using a blunt stick or trowel.

• Mix the medium: equal parts of sterilised fine sand, soil, and humus.

• Half-fill the plastic bag with the medium, tapping it on the ground once or twice to compact the medium.

• Set the seedling on top of the soil at the middle of the bag, and then add more medium up to the brim of the bag.

5.1.5 Care of seedlings

• Irrigate seedlings after bagging, making sure that medium is fully saturated.

• Watering over a long period can cause plant nutrients to be leached from the soil.

• If leaves show yellowing and to replace leached nutrients, apply nitrogen fertilizer such as ammonium sulphate or urea at the rate of 2�4 g per seedling every month, supplemented by foliar fertilizer application every 7�14 days.

5.1.6 Large planting materials (LPM)

This method promotes the rapid growth of seedlings in the nursery to the desired size of 100�170 cm or taller.

• Transfer seedlings to bigger polythene bags measuring 30 x 40 cm or 40 x 40 cm within a year of transplanting to ensure roots have adequate space to grow.

• Use fertile medium high in organic matter.

• Set the plants in the nursery at two plants/m2 to allow faster growth of the seedlings.

• Grow the plants in the nursery until 1.5�2.0 m tall (5�7 ft) before field planting.

• Before moving plants from the nursery for field planting, gradually remove the shade material to acclimatise the plants to the field environment. This reduces mortality in the field.

5.2 Vegetative propagation


Cleft grafting has been found to be highly successful.

• Plants for rootstocks should be in a state of active growth.

• Compatible rootstocks include G. mangostana, G. kydia, G. venulosa, and G. morella.

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5.2.1 Preparation of rootstock

• Select rootstocks from plants that have been propagated from seedlings and are highly vigorous, about 1.5�2 years of age, about 30�40 cm in height, and with the same stem diameter as that of the scion (1.6�2.0 cm).

• Grafting is more successful by having the same stem size for rootstock and scion, because the cambiums or growing tissue can match closely.

• Put potted seedlings for rootstocks in a shaded area and precondition them by applying 2�4 g of ammonium sulphate per seedling 15�20 days before grafting.

5.2.2 Preparation of scion

• Normally, select scions from a healthy mother tree, choosing healthy terminal shoots with semi-hardwood stems (having two semi-hard leaves).

• However, if large quantities of scions are required, side shoots can be used.

• Remove the leaves of selected scions 5 to 7 days before cutting.

• The stem diameter of the scion should match the stem diameter of the rootstock.

• The scions must be 6�12 cm long, to include a portion of the mature twig. Use a sharp knife, pruning shears, or tree pruner to cut the scion.

• Wrap scions immediately in moistened newspaper or fresh banana bracts to prevent drying.

• If the scion source is far from the nursery, the scions can be stored in a styrofoam box to keep them fresh.

• For better results, graft scions to the rootstock on the same day they are collected.

5.2.3 Grafting procedure

• Cut the selected rootstock just above the axil of the last two lower leaves using a clean, sharp knife. The cut must be at right angles to the stem.

• Make a vertical slit on the rootstock at the centre of the cut surface to a depth of 2�3 cm, enough to accommodate the scion.

• Slice the basal end of the scion into a gently sloping wedge about 2�3 cm long, by cutting two opposite sides with a swift stroke in one direction downwards.

• The wedge-shaped scion is inserted into V-shaped opening/slit on the rootstock, making sure that both rootstock and scion are in contact.

• Wrap the completed graft with Parafilm or polythene plastic strips about 1.5 cm wide and 30�40 cm long. Wrap from the insertion point down until the whole length of the slit is covered.

• Tie carefully to avoid movement at the point of union and to prevent moisture from entering the graft.

• Cover the plant with a clear plastic bag and place under shade

• If a mist chamber is available the plastic bag is not necessary.

5.2.4 Care of newly grafted seedlings in the nursery

• The newly grafted plants must be kept under 75% shade.

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• A high relative humidity is essential to promote callus growth at the cut surfaces and to prevent drying of the scion.

• Water the plants regularly but do not drench the bud.

• After a new shoot emerges, about one month after grafting, remove the plastic cover.

• Plastic binding should remain on the grafted plant until union is observed, normally in 30�40 days.

• Gradually expose the grafted plants to direct sunlight to �harden� them.

• The plant is hardened when the youngest leaves are mature or dark green.

• It is not recommended to transplant grafted seedlings with new flushes of young leaves. At this stage, the plant is vulnerable to stress. Transplant between flushes.

5.3 Field establishment

See Technical Note 5a in Part II.

5.3.1 Site preparation

• For backyard or small-scale production, mark out the planting sites with stakes. Generally 7 X 7 m is recommended between planting sites.

• Clear an area of 2 m diameter around the planting site of trees, shrubs and weeds in preparation for digging planting pits.

5.3.2 Drainage

A well drained soil ensures deep and extensive root development, provides good root aeration, and prevents waterlogging and disease occurrence such as root rot.

• If the soil is clayey and prone to waterlogging after heavy rainfall, the field must be provided with a good drainage system prior to planting.

• Primary drainage canals (80�100 cm wide and 50�100 cm deep) 100�120 m apart may be dug.

• Secondary drainage canals (50 cm deep and 25�30 m interval) may be dug between the rows of plants if necessary.

5.3.3 Shade establishment and management

• Mangosteen requires partial shading to reduce sunlight by 40 to 60% within the first three years of establishment, which is then gradually reduced to full exposure to obtain optimum growth.

• In areas with a pronounced dry season, it is a good practice always to grow mangosteen under partial shade.

• Shade with mixed stands of crops such as banana, cassava and papaya.

• Banana planted at a density of 1,200 per ha can readily provide 40�60% shade within four to six months after planting. Ideally, plant banana four to six months ahead of mangosteen.

• Using banana as shade for mangosteen provides income or food from the second to the fourth year of planting, before mangosteen bears fruit.

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• Temporary shade can be provided with coconut fronds or bamboo baskets while waiting for bananas to grow.

5.3.4 Preparing the planting hole

• It is recommended that LPM of height 100�150 cm (or two- to three-year-old plants) be used for field establishment.

• Smaller seedlings shorter than 70 cm are not recommended for field planting, because growth may be severely stunted and field mortality may be very high.

• A distance of 7 x 7 m is recommended for a population of 200 plants per ha. If equipment access is required, spacing of 11 x 11 m is recommended.

• In poor soils, dig holes of 1 x 1 x 1 m.

• On fertile soils, smaller holes of 60 x 60 cm may be dug.

• Fill half of the hole with a 50:50 mixture of fertile soil and decayed organic matter.

• Digging and filling with undecayed organic matter may be done a month before planting to promote decomposition of organic matter and weathering of the soil around the hole.

5.3.5 Planting out

• When planting out, remove the ball of soil containing the plant from the polythene bag and position it in the hole with minimum disturbance.

• Fill the remaining space with topsoil or compost up to the level of the ground.

• Support the seedling with a stake.

5.3.6 Timing

• Mangosteen is best planted at the onset of the rainy season to acclimatise the plants in the field before the onset of the dry season.

• If late planting is unavoidable, prepare a basin around the tree and water regularly.

5.4 Field management


5.4.1 Weeding

There are various ways of keeping weeds down in the orchard.

• Slash weeds around the base of the plants, combined with mulching.

• Mulching keeps the soil moist and prevents the germination of weeds.

• Spread the mulch from a distance of 30 cm from the main stem to the diameter of the canopy.

• Materials that may be used include dry grasses, leaves and coconut husks, and pseudo stems of bananas.

• For perennial grasses and weeds growing further from the base of the plant, remove by hoeing or apply glyphosate. Avoid spraying the trees.

• Practise intercropping with food crops or bananas for the first few years.

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• Biological control agents such as leguminous cover crops, sheep, or chickens may also be used.

5.4.2 Irrigation

Mangosteen needs an abundant supply of water. Soil moisture maintained at field capacity at all times gives optimum growth of the plants. An orchard that does not receive abundant rainfall (more than 150 mm /month) throughout the year must be provided with supplementary irrigation during dry months.

• Young plants may require 2�3 litres of water every other day during dry months and this may be increased from 7�10 litres three times a week during the immature stage.

• During initial fruiting stage, 30�50 litres of water per application are needed.

• In prolonged dry periods, trees may require 100�200 litres of water per plant every three days.

• Allowing a water stress period of 3-4 weeks two months before flowering is expected will stimulate flowering.

Any of the following irrigation methods can be adopted:

• Hosepipe into basin

• Furrow irrigation method

• Drip irrigation method

• Sprinkler irrigation method

5.4.3 Fertilising

Mangosteen is responsive to fertilizer applications. In the absence of detailed field experiments, soil nutrient sampling or leaf sampling to determine fertiliser requirements, the information in Appendix 4 a and 4b give guidelines for a fertilizer schedule.

• For backyard production, farmyard or organic manure will provide adequate nutrients.

• For more intensive production, inorganic and foliar fertilisers should be used.

• The slow growth of mangosteen can be overcome by a combination of the application of granular fertilizer every two months to the soil around the base of the plants with monthly foliar fertilizer application.

• A high fertilizer rate during the immature stage in the field can shorten the juvenile period from six years to four years.

• Broadcast inorganic fertilizer onto a wet soil surface around the base of the plants, covering the radius of the canopy. Weed the area before applying fertilizer.

• On a sloping field, fertilizer may be forked in on the uphill side of the plant to minimise wastage of fertilizer by run-off due to heavy rains.

• During fruiting, foliar fertilizer may be applied to supplement inorganic fertilizers, to increase the size of the fruits and the total yield.

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5.4.4 Pruning

The tree remains in a juvenile stage until 16 pairs of laterals have been produced. No pruning is needed at this stage except to remove dead or broken laterals.

Remove small tertiary branches that bear leaves, are not exposed to sunlight, and are in the inner part of the canopy.

Pruning is performed to achieve the following objectives:

• Formative � remove weak branches, particularly those inside the tree canopies and smaller stems growing along the larger ones or in between two large stems.

• Corrective � intertwining branches, branches with narrow angles and watersprouts should be removed.

• Stems close to the ground must be pruned to allow easier movement of people in and out of the orchard while performing various farm operations.

Severe pruning is not recommended as it might reduce the total number of branches and bearing shoots.

Pruning is done usually after harvest. This will give ample time for the tree to prepare for its next season�s flowering.

5.4.5 Flowering and fruiting

Mangosteen has been reported to flower in alternate years, similar to other perennial crops e.g. mangoes.

• The plant requires a stress period of about 3�4 weeks to ensure uniform flowering.

• After a dry period of three or more weeks, mangosteen can be induced to flower by applying irrigation water.

• Flowering can be induced during off-season, depending on plant vigour and climate, and in combination with proper pruning, adequate nutrition and irrigation.

• In Southern Thailand it was observed that application of paclobutrazol 3 months before natural flowering increases flowering by almost 10%.

• Foliar spray application of a mixture of 0.25% thiourea and 3% dextrose in 20 litres of water induces flushing of a further 80%.

• Extensive flowering can produce a large number of fruits that are below the minimum size of 80 g. Flower- and fruit-thinning activities are recommended to remedy such a situation.Small fruit can also be caused by low plant nutrients, poor soil conditions or water stress during the fruit growing period

• Flower and fruit thinning depends on the past history of the tree. If overbearing is suspected, reduce the number of fruits initially by 25%, at golf ball size and observe the difference in fruit size at harvest.

5.4.6 Intercropping

Various crops can be planted together with mangosteen. Aside from traditionally raising the crop under coconut, other fruit crops and fast growing perennial crops can also be planted when and where space is available.

• Coconut farms are highly suitable for mangosteen intercropping.

• This is commonly supplemented by planting banana, especially during the first two years of establishment.

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• Other fruit crops with which mangosteen may be intercropped include durian, rambutan, langsat, jackfruit and many others. This also offers potential for increasing the income of farmers.

5.5 Protection from pests and diseases


Only a few insect pests affecting mangosteen have been reported, possibly due to its bitter sap.

See Appendix 5 for a list of potential pest and disease problems and their control.

Common pests include:

• Tussock caterpillar (Eupterote favia Cramer), which feeds on the leaves.

• Coconut scale insect (Aspidotus destructor Sig.), which forms colonies underneath the leaves causing leaf yellowing and stunted growth.

• Leaf miner (Phyllocnistis citrella), which burrows into the leaves. If the infestation is not serious, leaf miner can be controlled by biological agents.

• In isolated cases plants may be infested by mites, mealy bugs and ants.

• Mites damage the fruit surface with small bites and scratches, making it unattractive for market.

• Ants on trees, trunk and branches can damage the growing tips and inhibit new growth.

Growers should monitor new flushes as they emerge for evidence of insect feeding damage.

• Insecticides containing Bacillus thuringiensis are effective in controlling leaf-eating caterpillars.

• Azadirachtin extract from neem plants is also found to be effective in controlling leaf eating caterpillars in Thailand.

The diseases of mangosteen include gummosis, anthracnose, bacterial blight, and sooty mould.

• Fruits with gamboge have a bitter taste and are completely inedible.

• Gummosis is caused by the yellow latex produced by the branches of the fruit itself, and seeps into its flesh giving it a bitter taste.

• Fruits exposed to strong sun may also exude latex.

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6. HOW TO HARVEST MANGOSTEEN


6.1 Maturity and harvesting

When provided with appropriate care and management, mangosteen bears fruit five to six years after field planting, especially if trees are established using LPM. It takes about 5 months from flowering to fruit ripening.

• In Malaysia, maturity indices are established in 7 peel-colour stages, shown in Appendix 7.

• In Thailand, the maturity index is based on peel colour, in which 6 colour stages are identified.

• Pick fruits that have turned violet, or approximately 113�119 days after flower opening. Pick every 2�3 days.

• Hand picking is desirable to prevent fruit from falling to the ground, damaging the peel.

• Damage due to impact is one of the most serious problems in mangosteen, reducing fruit quality.

• If trees are too tall, use a long pole with a hook and a basket to prevent the fruit from falling to the ground.

16

7. POST-HARVEST HANDLING AND PROCESSING


7.1 Sorting and grading

Fruits of uniform high quality in appearance and taste are necessary to increase buyers� willingness to try the fruits and buy them.

• Remove irregularly shaped fruits, fruits damaged by insects, and those exhibiting even minor symptoms of decay.

• Common defects of mangosteen include thrips injury, mealy bugs under sepals, mites injury, fruit-spotting bug lesions, sunburn/sunscald, wind rub, fruit cracking, gamboge and translucent flesh.

• The cause of gamboge is often confused with damage due to impact. In affected fruit, latex is found in the aril and the surrounding tissue even in ripe fruit.

• If there is excess rain during the harvesting season, there is a higher incidence of translucent disorder. Remove fruit with this disorder.

The quality characteristics of mangosteen fruits required by markets can be described as follows:

• Large size � 100 g per fruit or 8�10 fruits per kg.

• Skin of the fruit clean, normally smooth, no markings from disease or insect damage.

• Rind of medium thickness, not hard and pulp pale and white, soft and appealing.

• No sign of gum from the rind or rough skin.

• No sign of bruising or rotten pulp.

7.2 Expected yields

See Section 2.2 (page 2).

7.3 Packaging and storage

Mangosteen fruit can easily be damaged through rough handling during harvest and post harvest procedures. Great care must be taken to handle the fruit carefully to avoid bruising which causes the pulp to turn from cream to brown.

Packaging or containerisation is necessary to deliver the fruits without damage to consumers in the best possible physical condition.

• Fruits are packed in rattan baskets or plastic containers padded with newspaper or any appropriate lining materials.

• In retail stores, fruits are often tied together in bundles of 20�25.

17

• After sorting, the fruits may be carefully placed in a well-ventilated room or packed in wooden boxes of 20 to 35 kg capacity.

• When stored at room temperature of 25�35°C, the fruits have a shelf life of 5�7 days.

• At low temperature storage of 13°C, the fruits may remain fresh for two weeks.

• Fruits may be kept for four weeks at 13°C by coating or waxing the whole fruit.

• Weight loss can be retarded when fruits are individually wrapped with cling wrap, without affecting sweetness, aroma and overall flavour.

7.4 Processing

Besides fresh consumption, mangosteen flesh can be commercially processed into various products such as jams, candies, bars and pastilles, frozen mangosteen, and mangosteen in heavy syrup.

7.4.1 Canning

• Canned fruits command high prices in Japan and other countries.

• Open ripe fruits, cutting the rind into half (equatorially), to check the quality of the flesh.

• Discard fruits with damaged flesh.

• Can and weigh the flesh of the fruits.

• Seal two to three fruits into a can for export.

• The canned mangosteen can be promoted as a snack health food.

Mangosteen fruits offer a number of home-made food preparations, including crystallized mangosteen, compressed mangosteen, and preserved mangosteen.

7.4.2 Crystallization

• Crystallised mangosteen is very popular in Thailand.

• It is prepared from fruits collected at the blood-line stage, peeled under water, crystallized and then skewered onto wooden sticks.

7.4.3 Freezing

Quick freezing of mangosteen maintains fruit quality. Freezing can also maintain flavour and volatile substances in the product at nearly the same level as for the fresh fruit.

• Deep-freezing at -18 to -27°C can extend the storage life of mangosteen up to six months.

• In Thailand, half-rind frozen mangosteen is more acceptable than whole rind.

• Polystyrene (PS) foam tray wrapped with sticker film is found to be the most suitable package for whole rind frozen fruits for retail markets.

• Frozen mangosteen is now commercially available.

18

8. MARKETING


8.1 Marketing potential

Mangosteen is a seasonally available fruit. The fruit is marketed for a period of six to ten weeks.

• Malaysia: June to August and December to February.

• Sri Lanka: lowland areas May to July, or in highland areas September to October.

• Philippines: August to October.

There is high demand for mangosteen in both domestic and export markets.

• The price offered for mangosteen in Hong Kong, Singapore and Europe is high and very profitable.

• Currently, the major importers of mangosteen in Asia are Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Singapore, which source their supply mainly from Malaysia and Thailand.

• The Middle East, South Korea, and Japan are potential markets due to a receptive clientele with high purchasing power.

8.2 Pricing

• Short and abrupt supply often leads to wide price fluctuation with higher prices at the start and end of the season.

• Prices fall at mid-season due to the abundance of mangosteen available at this time and/or a drop in the quality of fruits.

Mangosteen is considered a minor fruit crop in many of the producing countries with production inadequately meeting local demand. The following prices were for fresh mangosteen in the Philippines in 2001:

• Farm gate prices during in-season production in major sites of production ranged from PHP30�45 per kg.

• Prices in open fruit stalls in major cities of Mindanao ranged from PHP90�120 per kg.

• Prices outside the main sites were generally higher.

• Farm gate prices tended to increase during the off-season, ranging from PHP70�90 per kg.

• In Manila, prices varied from PHP100�150 per kg during in-season production.

• Low per capita consumption for mangosteen can be attributed to high fruit prices, which makes it too expensive for ordinary consumption. Increases in production may lead to lower prices and higher consumption in the future.

• Mangosteen is mainly grown by smallholders, which has led to the irregular supply of fruits.

19

• After harvest, the fruits are also brought to markets in big baskets. They are sold by piece or by weight.

• Marketing problems exist, such as non-standardization of product quality and grades. This makes exporting the fruits difficult.

• In cities, mangosteen is mainly sold in small quantities at fruit stalls by the roadside.

9. SOCIO-ECONOMICS

9.1 Cost and return analysis

See Appendices 2 and 3.

In the Philippines, the following costs and returns have been analysed.

• As a monocrop, total establishment cost during the first year is PHP53,166 (1025 US$) per hectare.

• Major expenses include purchase of planting materials, labour, and irrigation.

• At a farm gate price of PHP12, a farmer could recover these investments by the 8th year and get a cumulative net income of PHP224,644 (4331 US$) by the 10th year.

• At a farm gate price of PHP20, recovery of farmer�s investments could be by the 7th year, with a higher cumulative net income of PHP521,644 (10,057 US$) by the 10th year.

• The cumulative cost of production for 10 years is PHP145,156 (2800 US$)which includes the cost of establishment, fertilization, ring weeding, pruning, spraying, fungicides, insecticides, herbicides, irrigation and harvesting.

20

REFERENCES

Anabesa, M.S. 1992. Maturity indices of mangosteen. Phil J. Crop Science. 17 (3): 115-116 Anabesa, M.S. T.S. Capirig and A. Regulacion, 1998. Modified atmosphere packaging of mangosteen. Dept.

Agri. Reg. Field Unit XI, Davao City, Angeles, D.E. 1994. Propagation and production of mangosteen. Dept. Horti. UPLB-CA Laguna 13 pp Burkill, I. H. 1935. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula Crown Agents for the

Colonies, England Coronel, R. E. 1982. Promising Fruit Crops of the Philippines. UPLB, Laguna, pp 301-322 Cox, J.E. K. 1976. Garcinia mangostana � Mangosteen, In: The propagation of Tropical Fruit Trees. RJ

Garners and S.A. Chaudri. (eds.) Common Agr. Bur. Slough: England, pp. 361 � 374 Esguerra, E.B. 1999. Postharvest handling updates on mangosteen. In: proc. First Mindanao Fruit Industry

Conference. Nov. 23-25, 1999, Apo View Hotel, Davao City Goh, H.K.L., A.N. Rao and C.S. Lah. 1990. Direct shoot bud formation from leaf explants of seedlings and

mature mangosteen Garcinia mangostana L trees, Plant Sci. (Limerick) 68 (1):113-122.Horn, C.L. 1940.Existence of only one variety cultivated mangosteen explained by asexually formed seed,

Science, 92:237-238 Hassan N.M. 1994. Overview of the current status and direction in the expansion of durian and mangosteen

in Malaysia.. In proc. Mindanao-wide training and symposium-workshop on durian and mangosteen. University of Southern Mindanao, Kabacan, Cotabato, Feb. 8-10, 1994.

Intengan, C. L. 1968. Food Composition Table Recommended for Use in the Philippines. Food Nut. Res. Inst. Handb. 1. Nat. Sci. Dev. Board, Manila.

Javier, F.B. 1991. Cleft grafting and in-vitro propagation of mangosteen. Paper presented in the Centenary Conference of Bioresources, Univ. Ethnology Development and Sustainability. Univ. of Western Sydney, Australia, July 14-19, 1991.

Kanchanapoom, K and Kanchanapoom M. 1998. Mangosteen, In: Shaw P.E., Chan, Jr. H.T. and Nagi, S. (ed.) Tropical and Subtropical Fruits, AgSCience Inc. USA 191-216

Macmillan, H.F. 1943. The Tropical Planting and Gardening, With Special Reference to Ceylon. 5th ed. Macmilla and Co.m, London

Mahabusarakam W. Phongpaichit, S. and Weriyachitra, P. 1983. Screening of antifungal activity of chemicals from Garcinia mangostana. Songklanakarin J. Sci. Technol, 5:341-342

Morton, J. F. 1987. Fruits of warm climates. Creative Resource Systems, North Carolina, USA pp 301-304 Nakasone, H.Y. and Paull, R.E. 1998. Tropical Fruits. Crop Production Science in Horticulture No. 7. CABI:

359-369.Namuco, L.O. 1999. Nursery practices and propagation of mangosteen. Dept. Horti. UPLB-CA. 3 pp Normah M.N., A.B. Nor-Azza and R. Alludin. 1995. Factors affecting in vitro shoot proliferation and ex-vitro

establishment of Mangosteen, Plant Cell Tissue and Organ Culture 3(2):291-294Pamplona, P.P. and M.E. Garcia 2001. Handbook on mangosteen production. Practices in the ASEAN,

University of Southern Mindanao, Kabacan, Cotabato, Philippines, 60 pp Verheij, E.W.M. (1992) Garcinia mangostana In: Verheij and Coronel (eds.) Edible Fruits and Nuts. PROSEA

No.2 Bogor, Indonesia, pp. 175-181 Villanueva, M.V. 1996. Effects of media composition on the in-vitro culture of different explants of

mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.) B.Sc. Thesis Dept. Horti UPLB-CA, Laguna Wahyono S., Astuti P., Artaoma, W.T. 1999. Characterization of a bioactive substance alpha-mangosten

isolated from the hull of Garcinia Mangostana L. Indonesian J. Pharmacy, IU. Yaacob, O. and Tindall, H.D. 1995. Mangosteen Cultivation. FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper No.

129. FAO, Rome Yapwattanaphum, C. Subhadrabandhu, S., Sugiura, A. Yonemori, K., and Utsunomiya, N. 2002. Utilisation of

some Garcinia species in Thailand. Acta Horticulturae 575(2):563-570

21

APPENDIX 1. NUTRITIONAL PROPERTIES OF MANGOSTEEN PER 100 G EDIBLE PORTION (Source: Intengan et al. 1968)

Constituents Quantity

Edible portion % 26

Food energy cal 76.00

Protein g 0.7

Fat g 0.8

Carbohydrate g 18.6

Fibre g 1.3

Ash g 0.2

Calcium, mg 18.0

Phosphorus, mg 11.0

Iron, mg 0.3

Thiamine, mg 0.06

Riboflavin, mg 0.01

Niacin, mg 0.4

Ascorbic acid, mg 2.0

22

APPENDIX 2. COST OF ESTABLISHING ONE HECTARE OF MANGOSTEEN ORCHARD (Source: Pamplona, P. P. and Garcia, M. E., 2001)

Items Cost (PHP)

A. Materials

1. 220 pcs 2.0 to 2.5 yr plants at PHP150/pc

2. Fertilizer, 2 bags 14-14-14 at PHP400/bag

3. 616 stakes for shading

4. Coconut fronds for shading

5. Lining and tying materials

Sub-total

B. Labour

1. Land preparation

2. Laying out

3. Hauling and distribution of planting materials

4. Planting and fertilizer application

5. Construction of shade

Sub-total

C. Irrigation

Materials and labour

TOTAL

33,000

800

308

300

200

34,608

1,800

362

240

616

540

3,556

15,000

53,166

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APPENDIX 3. PROJECTED CASH FLOW (PHP) OVER TEN YEARS OF ONE HECTARE OF MANGOSTEEN ORCHARD

(Source: Pamplona, P. P. and Garcia, M. E., 2001)

In projecting the gross income, two assumptions are made for prices: PHP12 and PHP20 per kg.

IncomeYear Expenses

PHP12.00/KG PHP20.00/KG

Yearly Cumulative Yearly Cumulative Yearly Cumulative Yearly Cumulative Yearly Cumulative

1 59,038 59,038 - - - - - - - -

2 6,202 65,240 - - - - - - - -

3 6,168 71,408 - - - - - - - -

4 6,570 77,978 - - - - - - - -

5 7,172 85,151 7,200 7,200 27 (77,951) 12,000 12,0004,827

(73,151)

6 9580 94,731 19,200 26,400 9,620 (68,331) 32,000

44,00022,420

(50,731)

7 10,200 104,931 38,400 64,800 28,200 (40,131) 64,000

108,00053,800

3,069

8 12,000 116,931 76,800 141,600 64,800 24,669 128,000 236,000 116,000 119,069

9 14,130 131,061 115,200 256,800 101,070 125,739 192,000 428,000 177,870 296,939

10 15,095 146,156 144,000 370,800 128,905 224,644 240,00

0668,000

224.905

521,844

Assumption: Number of trees per hectare at 7 x 7 m = 204 trees

24

APPENDIX 4a. SUGGESTED FERTILIZATION SCHEDULE FOR MANGOSTEEN

(Source: Pamplona, P. P. and Garcia, M. E., 2001)

Year Rate per tree*

Organic Inorganic Foliar spray**

1st 5 kg every six months

1.25 g every three months of 16-20-0, 14-14-14 or 16-16-16

Every two weeks

2nd 10 kg every six months

250 g every three months of 16-20-20, 14-14-14 or 16-16-16

Every two weeks

3rd to 5th 15 to 25 kg every six months

500�750 g every three months of 16-20-0, 14-14-14 or 16-16-16

Once a month

6th to 10th 30 to 50 kg every six months

1.5 to 2.0 kg of 20-16-16 immediately after harvest

1.5 to 2.0 kg of 16-24-24 a month after flowering

2.0 to 2.5 kg of 16-24-24 after flower emergence

2.0 to 2.5 kg of 16-24-30 at 50-60 days after fruit set

Two to four sprayings of 20-10-10 immediately after harvest at weekly intervals

Weekly spraying of 21-21-21 from fruit set to maturity

10th and beyond

50 kg every six months

2.0 to 2.5 kg of 20-16-16 immediately after harvest

2.0 to 2.5 kg of 16-24-24 a month before flowering

2.5 to 3.0 kg of 16-24-30 at 50-60 days after fruit set

Two to four sprayings of 20-10-10 immediately after harvest at weekly intervals

Weekly spraying of 21-21-21 from fruit set to maturity

* It is assumed that the establishment is of 2.5�3.0 years old LPM.

** High in micronutrients

APPENDIX 4b. RECOMMENDED FERTILIZATION SCHEDULE FOR MANGOSTEEN IN MALAYSIA

Source: Malaysian Agriculture Research and Development Institute (MARDI) 2004

YEAR N:P:K:Mg Compound Fertiliser Amount/tree/year (Kg) (Applied 3 times /year)

1

2345678

8 onwards

15:15:15

15:15:1512:12:17:212:12:17:212:12:17:212:12:17:212:12:17:212:12:17:212:12:17:2

0.5

1.01.52.02.53.04.05.06.0

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APPENDIX 5. MAJOR PESTS AND DISEASES OF MANGOSTEEN AND THEIR CONTROL

Pests Damage Control

Leaf eater

Stictoptera sp.

(Noctuidae)

Larval stage eats young leaves and shoots. Often occurs in nursery. High populations may consume all the leaves.

Spray with systemic insecticide such as dimethoate.

Spray at two-week intervals.

Leaf miner

Phyllocnistis citrella

(Lynotiidae)

Larvae often found on young shoots. Larval stage makes tunnels in the epidermis.

Insecticides containingBacillus thuringiensis are effective in controlling leaf-eating caterpillars. Also Azadirachtin extract from neem plants is found effective.

Only spray with fenthion if infestation is very high.

Fruit borer

Curculio sp.

(Curculionidae)

Larvae burrow into fruit from mature to ripe stage. Borer eats into mesocarp, aril and seed. Larvae move out of the fruit and pupate in the soil, later becoming adult beetles.

No control recommendation available.

Destroy all affected fruit to reduce beetle population in the field.

Diseases

Stem canker

Zignolla garcineae

The disease infects branches and stems. Leaves become wilted and drop causing the plant to die. Stems become cankerous.

Plants infected by this fungus must be completely eradicated. Infected parts should be burned to stop the spread of disease.

Sooty mould

Corticum salmonicolor

Infects branches, causing leaves to wilt. Affected areas turn pink.

Improve aeration and sunlight penetration by pruning overlapping branches will reduce infection. Scrape and paint affected parts with Tridemorth (Calicin).

26

APPENDIX 6. HEALTH AND SAFETY WHEN USING CHEMICALS

In general, the use of chemicals should be minimised. Where their use is necessary the rules in the box below should be followed.

The following chemicals are examples of those that can be used for control pests and diseases in mangosteen and the relevant health and safety advice for each. For a complete list of chemical controls and precautions for use, please check with your local extension or agricultural office.

DIMETHOATE and FENTHION

Active ingredients: Both chemicals are organophosphates.

Handling and storage: Protective clothing (face mask, goggles, gloves and overalls) should be worn and washing facilities should be available.

Environmental impact: Moderately toxic to humans and animals through ingestion, inhalation and through contact with the skin. It is also very toxic to birds, fish and bees. It is biodegradable and undergoes rapid degradation in the environment. It is highly soluble in water and is not toxic to plants.

BENLATE

Active ingredients: Benomyl

Handling and storage: Users should wear protective clothing and avoid contact with the skin and eyes. The chemical may irritate the eyes, nose throat and skin. It should be stored in an airtight container and kept away from water or fire.

Environmental impact: Relatively non-hazardous to honey bees, but toxic to fish.

Rules to follow when using chemicals:

• Do not splash chemicals in the eyes, on skin or clothes. • Do not drink or breathe in the vapours. • Do not eat while preparing and applying chemicals. • Wash hands thoroughly after use. • Wear protective clothing where available (gloves, overalls, rubber boots, etc.). • Store chemicals always in their original containers and keep them away from

water and fire. • Keep chemicals away from children.

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APPENDIX 7. MATURITY INDICES OF MANGOSTEEN

(Source: Federal Agricultural Marketing Authority (FAMA) of Malaysia)

Maturity Index Peel Colour Description

1 Yellowish green Immature fruit

Very heavy latex on skin

2 Greenish yellow Maturing fruit

Heavy latex on skin

Not ready for harvest

3 Reddish yellow Almost mature fruit

Moderate latex on skin

Not recommended for harvest

4 Yellowish red Mature fruit

Slight latex on skin

Suitable for export as fresh fruit

5 Reddish brown Almost ripe fruit

Very little or no latex stain

Suitable for export as fresh fruit and deep freezing

6 Brownish purple Ripe fruit, no latex on skin

Suitable for deep freezing and local market

7 Dark purple Over-ripe fruit

Not suitable for export

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Why Grow the Mangosteen Tree?

© 2006 Southampton Centre for Underutilised Crops, UK

Mangosteen can be grown for food, income generation and medicinal purposes.

Most parts of the tree can be used.

1. For nutritious food

Fruit:

Fruit segments eaten as desert.

Highly nutritious fruit pulp contains vitamin C.

2. For income

Fruit segments:

Fresh fruit sold in markets.

Processed into canned segments, candies, jam,

pulp and preserve.

Flavouring for ice cream, sherbet and wine.

Rind:

Use for soap, shampoo and conditioner.

Wood:

Coarse, heavy and very strong.

Used for furniture construction.

Used in carpentry.

3. For medicinal value

Leaf:

Infusion to cure wounds.

Rind:

Cure for diarrhoea and dysentery.

Cure for intestinal catarrh.

For skin infections.

Seed:

Contains 30% valuable oil.

Bark and leaves:

Astringent to cure thrush.

Roots:

Extracts used to regulate menstruation.

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1. Climate requirements

Rainfall

Best average: 1000�2500 mm per year.

Can survive at 800�1000 mm per year.

Cannot survive at less than 800 mm.

Requires a short dry season of 15�30 days

to stimulate flowering.

Temperature

Best average 25�35°C.

Below 20°C growth is very slow.

Cannot survive low temperatures.

Where to Grow the Mangosteen Tree

2. Altitude

From sea level to 1500 m.

3. Soils

Will grow on a wide range of soils from deep clay to medium loams.

High in organic matter.

PH 5.5�6.5. Will not tolerate limestone soils.

Must have good drainage; cannot tolerate waterlogging for long periods.

Mangosteen grows mainly in humid tropical countries � Malaysia, the Philip-

pines, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Indonesia and many other countries of

South-East Asia.

It is also being established in Central and South America, and Australia.

800

1000

2500

mm

Tree survives

Best growth

20

25

35

°C

Best growth

Slow growth


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What to Grow

- Seeds -

The seeds of mangosteen are produced asexually. This means no cross-

fertilization needs to take place for seeds to develop.

The seedlings are genetically identical to the parent tree. They breed true to

type.

It may take 8�15 years before the tree bears fruit, depending on conditions.

Do not use these seedsSeeds from over-mature and decaying

fruit give low germination and survival.

1. Choosing seed

Use these seeds Select plump seeds that are 1.0�2.0 g in

weight and collected from mature fruit

growing on healthy mother trees.

2. Stages in seed propagation

Pick mature fruit from good bearing tree.

Sow seeds within 1-5 days of collecting.

Place seeds in moist coir

dust or sphagnum moss.


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2. Seed treatment

Sow seeds within 1�5 days after removal from fruit for better germination.

Before sowing, soak seeds in water for 12 hours and carefully remove the thin

shell or membrane around the seed (testa). This helps germination and gives

uniform seedlings.

OR

Soak in water for 24 hours.

Germination can take from 10�25 days, depending on conditions.

How to Grow the Mangosteen Tree

- Seed Propagation -

1. Looking after seed

If you need to transport the seeds from field to nursery:

Wrap in moist coir fibre or dust OR moist newspaper

To store seeds for up to 3 months:

Store in coir fibre or dust in airtight container.


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What to Grow

- Scions and Rootstocks -

Gives good harvest of fruit

with good shape and internal

qualities.

Abundant flowers.

High natural fruit set.

No pests or disease.

Strong trunk.

Root system adapted to soil

conditions.

Big crown.

1. Collecting from trees

A scion or bud stick is a shoot with good characteristics from a parent plant.

A rootstock is a young plant with strong root growth, adapted to local conditions.

Mature tree with desired characteristics:

3. Scion collection and preparation

Cut bud stick (scion) from terminal shoot of mature fruit-bearing

mother tree. Shoot should have 2 semi-hardwood leaves.

2. Rootstock preparation

Collect seed and sow (see Note 2).

Seedling is ready for grafting when 20�24

months old or when stem is 1.6�2.0 cm

thick.

Equipment needed

Secateurs

Clean, sharp knife

Plastic tape


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- Vegetative Propagation -

Step 2

Cut the shoot off at a

right angle leaving a

smooth flat surface stub.

Step 8

Cover graft with plastic bag

and place under 75% shade.

Step 7

Wrap the graft with plastic

tape.

Step 4

Cut a scion (about 6�

12 cm) from mother

plant.

Step 5

Cut base of scion into

a sloping wedge about

2 cm long.

Step 6

Insert the scion into the

opening in the root-

stock.

Step 3

Then make a vertical cut (2.0�

2.5 cm) down the middle of

the stub to make a V-shaped

opening for the scion.

Step 1

Choose a rootstock at 2 leaf

stage (about 30�35 cm high,

2 years old) from seedlings

propagated from seeds.

Cleft grafting

Cleft grafting has been carried out successfully and plants show desirable

characteristics, e.g. early fruit bearing.

Some plants may show undesirable characteristics, e.g. stunted growth, non-upright

shoot development or bent stems.


If a small number of seedlings are required, a smallholder can produce his own plants

from seed.

For larger plantings, grafted mangosteen plants may be used.

They can be purchased from a government or commercial nursery as the

grafting technique takes a lot of practice.

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- Nursery Establishment -

For seedling trees the nursery may be under a tree.

Or construct a temporary nursery using grass or leaves for shade.

Selecting the nursery site

It should be:

On level ground with good drainage.

On raised beds to assist drainage.

Close to regular water supply.

Sheltered from wind.

Not liable to flooding.

Protected from stray or domestic animals with fence.


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4. Large planting materials (LPM)

Some people use LPM to speed up growth in the field.

Transplant into large plastic bags 30 x 40 cm.

Grow to 1.5�2.0 m tall before field planting.


- Seedling Establishment -

2. Transplanting

Transplant into plastic bags 20 x 30 cm

when seedlings are at 2�3 leaf stage.

3.

Care of seedlings

Water seeds daily.

Remove weeds weekly.

Apply 4�5 g urea fertiliser to each seedling once a month, and foliar fertiliser: 5

g urea plus 15 g triple superphosphate in 1 litre water monthly, from 90 days af-

ter germination.

1. Sowing

Seedbed: sow seed 5�10 cm deep

and 2�3 cm apart in the row, with

10 cm between rows.

Seedbed should be 1.0 m wide and

3 m long.

Seeding medium

1 part fine river sand 1 part top soil 1 part humus

OR Sow in plastic bags in the nurs-

ery.

Provide 50�60% shade.

OR Transplant into nursery bed at 30�40

cm apart.

Note: Seeds are usually placed on their

sides in the soil, but this is not essential.


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1. Land preparation

Remove shrubs, roots and weeds before ploughing.

If land is flat and liable to waterlogging, construct drainage ditches.


- Transplanting -

5. Planting

Disturb root system as little as

possible. Roots can easily be-

come damaged.

Transfer seedlings from nursery

with large root ball.

Remove from plastic bags with

great care.

Construct shade over plant.

Keep in place for 2 years.

3. Time to plant

Plant at beginning of rainy season.

2. Spacing

Back yard:

8 x 10 m (125 trees/ha).

Commercial planting:

7 x 7 m (204 trees/ha).

OR

6 x 8 m (208 trees/ha).

4. Planting hole

Prepare planting hole 1 month before

planting seedling.

Hole size:

On fertile soil 60 x 60 x 60 cm.

On poor soil 1 x 1 x 1 m.

Add 50% organic matter to soil.

Add phosphate fertiliser.


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8. Windbreaks

Windbreaks such as Casaurina or Eugenia (jamolan) help protect mangosteens.

Intercrop trees also provide wind protection.


- Field Management -

7. Intercropping

For the first few years intercrop with bananas or plant under coconut.

1. Flowering

Tree needs a stress period of 3�4

weeks to induce flowering.

2. Pruning

Little required except to remove

dead and diseased branches and

branches very close to the

ground.

3. Mulching

Use grass or rice husks.

(Beware of fire)

4. Weeding

Keep area under tree free of weeds.

6. Fertiliser (Only guidelines can be given. See Appendix 4a & b)

Apply in planting hole:

Farmyard manure 20�40 kg.

Phosphorus 800 g.

Fruit-bearing trees (rate per tree):

Every 6 months, 50 kg manure.

One month before flowering, 2�2.5 kg 16:24:24 N:P:K.

50�60 days after fruit set, 2.5�3 kg 16:24:24 N:P:K.

5. Irrigation

Establishment: 2�3 litres of water every

other day.

Fruiting stage: 30�50 litres every 2�3 days.

Dry period: 100�200 litres every 2�3 days.


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1. Major pests Leaf eater (Noctuidae).

Leaf miner (Lyontiidae).

Fruit borer

(Curculionidae).

Pick off caterpillars and

infected leaves as soon

as you see them.

Dimethoate and Fenthion (organo-phosphates) may be used to

spray against mealy bugs, scale insects and leaf miners.


- Pests and Diseases -

2. Major diseases

Stem canker: root out and burn infected trees.

Sooty mould: improve aeration in the orchard.

Infected areas may be painted with tridemorth.

Benlate (active ingredient � benomyl) may be used for anthracnose and

black canker.

3. Safety precautions if using chemicals

Check with Extension or Agricultural Office before using chemicals.

Moderately toxic to humans and animals through contact and ingestion.

Wash yourself carefully after use. Wear protective clothing:

Respirator Goggles Gloves Boots Overalls


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Harvesting

3. Fruit picking

Pick fruit every 2�3 days as fruit ripen over a 2�3 month period.

Use ladder to reach high-up fruit (be careful to lean against strong

branches),

OR

Use a picking pole. Try not to

allow fruit to drop to the

ground.

2. Fruit maturity

When to harvest mangosteen � Maturity Index (MI)

Pick fruit for export when MI 4�5.

Pick fruit for fresh local market at MI 5�6.

Pick fruit for freezing at MI 5�6.

1. Time to first harvest

Mangosteen usually begin to bear fruit between 6 and 15 years after field plant-

ing, depending on propagation method, cultural practices and climate.

Maturity

Index Peel colour Description

1 Yellowish green Immature fruit

Very heavy latex on skin

2 Greenish yellow

Maturing fruit

Heavy latex on skin

Not ready for harvest

3 Reddish yellow

Almost mature fruit

Moderate latex on skin

Not recommended for harvest

4 Yellowish red

Mature fruit

Slight latex on skin

Suitable for export as fresh fruit

5 Reddish brown

Almost ripe fruit

Very little or no latex stain

Suitable for export as fresh fruit and deep freezing

6 Brownish purple Ripe fruit, no latex on skin

Suitable for deep freezing and local market

7 Dark purple

Over-ripe fruit

Suitable for home consumption

Not suitable for export or freezing

Picking pole


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Post-harvest Handling

3. Storage

At ambient temperatures mangosteen have a storage and market life of one week.

13�25°C is the ideal temperature range for transit to markets or packhouse.

At 9�12°C mangosteen will store for 4 weeks.

Transport to local market in baskets or

bundles of c.20�25 fruits tied together.

Clean skins of gum and check for insects below sepals.

Place 24 fruits in cardboard box (25

x 37.5 x 7.5 cm) with ventilation

holes.

Select similar-sized fruits and wrap in tissue paper or foam mesh.

2. Packaging for supermarkets

1. Collecting

Place fruit into a rattan basket or plastic container with padding inside.

Place container under shade for better keeping.

Cover 4 fruits on foam tray (13 x

13 cm) with PVC and put 6 trays

into box.


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Marketing and Economics

1. Local markets

Mangosteen fruits are usually sold fresh at local markets.

Most production is by smallholders.

Supplies and quality standards vary widely, giving fluctuating prices.

3. International markets

Most exports go to the regional markets of Hong Kong, Singapore and other cities in

Asia.

Access to large volumes of good quality fruit is needed for exports to Europe.

4. Economics

Example returns from mangosteen plantings in Sri Lanka. (See also Appendices 3 & 4)

Source: Crop Enterprise Budgets, Division of Agriculture, Economics and Planning, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, May 1992.

Years

1 2�7 8�10 11�14 15�20 21�30

Total cost (LKR) 28440 14185 9170 13770 25570 34870

No. of fruits 6000 25000 80000 125000

Grossincome(LKRs

12000 50000 160000 250000

Net benefit (LKR) -28440 -14185 2830 36230 134430 215130

2. Urban markets


Mangosteen Manual

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Transcript of Mangosteen Manual