Management techniques final2

PROGRAMME MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

Dr. HAR ASHISH JINDAL

JR

Contents

Definitions Project v/s Programme Need for management techniques Classification Management Techniques Conclusion

Definitions

Management means “the process of dealing with or controlling things or people”

Definition: “the art of securing maximum results with minimum of efforts so as to secure maximum prosperity and happiness for both employer and employee and give the public the best possible service.” (John F Mee.1963)

Technique: methods of accomplishing a desired aim or purpose.

Programme: integrated suite of related projects for wider group of people and often across a wider region , over a longer period of time and involve multiple strategies and projects.

Project

•Defined start and finish dates.•Focus is more on targets. Rather than benefits.

•Simpler; only have to focus on targets.•Projects are ‘ring fenced’.

Programme

More complex interface with the strategy

•Less well defined end date.•Focus is on delivering benefits and requires involvement after projects have ended.

•More interative with the external factors

What is need for management techniques

Detection: What is happenning ?? Evaluation : What is wrong or right?? Improvement: How can wrong be converted to

right?? Optimization: what is the best way for best

results?? Specification: for use appropriate resources,

objectives Control: control of resources Communication: proper dissemination of

information

Classification

Level of managements

Resources

LEVELS OF MANAGEMENT

Highest

Middle level

Lower level

Different Managemant techniques

Highest

• System analysis• Statistical trends• Cost Benefit analysis• Cost Effective Analysis• Programme Budgetting

Middle

• Statistical trends and forecasting• Manpower planning• Simulation Studies• System analysis• Cost Benefit analysis

Lower

• Network analysis• Work Study• Behaviour Science• Simulation studies

Information system and record linkage

Techniques used in management of resources

Human resource

• Organizational analysis and behaviour• Method Study• Work Measurement• Incentive scheme• Job analysis

Material

• Inventory control • Value analysis

Money

Time

• Network analysis• Method study• Work measurement

• Cost accounting• Cost benefit• Cost effective• Input- output • Programme budgetting

Various Management techniques


Highest


Middle


Lower



System analysis A system is a set of interacting or interdependent

components forming an integrated whole.

A system has nine characteristics: Components----------------------Subsystems Interrelated components A boundary A purpose An environment Interfaces Input Output Constraints

Input(Man , Material , Money)

Interrelationship

Components(essential Parts)

Output

Environment

Boundary

Interface(Interaction between environment and system)

System analysis

System analysis – decomposes a system into its component pieces for the purpose of studying how well those component parts work and interact to accomplish their purpose.

Systems design – a complementary technique (to systems analysis) that reassembles a system’s component pieces back into a complete system—hopefully, an improved system

This an appropriate course of action to choose alternatives in terms of cost effectiveness, re-examination of the objectives.

system analysis in Problem Solving

Systems Analysis

Systems Design

System analysis Done by:

1. Investigating problems

2. Searching out objectives

3. Finding alternative solution

The technique is used to study different factors in totality and also to study changes necessary for improvement.

System analysis for ADR

Statistical methods for management

Time trends and forecasting

Decision Tree


A time-series is a set of observations on a quantitative variable collected over time.

Examples Historical data on number of cases,

beneficiaries, costs etc.

Time trends is the practice of collecting information and attempting to spot a pattern, or trend, in the information.

In time trends, we analyze the past behavior of a variable in order to predict its future behavior.


Epidemiologist can construct endemic curves based on incidence of disease and also establish the likely limits of variations.

If the incidence of a disease exceeds the expectation by certain limits, the occurrence of an increased incidence or epidemic can be anticipated.

Forecasting the demands for the supplies of the material can be anticipated and a state of preparedness maintained

Decision theory

Decision theory is the body of analytical tools, including logic and mathematical models, using probability theory and diagrammatic presentation for use in decision making.

Future events, which may affect decision making, are shown diagrammatically.

It has enabled policy makers to study alternative health strategies logicically in disease screening , immunization etc.

Decision tree

Decision tree is a diagram that depicts key interactions among decisions and associated chance events, as the decision maker understands them.

The base of the decision tree, drawn horizontally is the starting point denoting an event which occurs by chance.

Branching of tree into two or more branches begins at the first chance event.

Cost – accounting

Provides basic data on cost structure of any programme.

It has three important purposes in health services

1. Cost control

2. Planning and allocation of people and financial resources.

3. Pricing of cost reimbursement.

Cost – accounting

Comparison can be made on the basis of cost accounting where there is variation in unit cost of similar types of services

Cost accounting is valuable management tool to identify inefficient services locate wasteful use of resources bring efficiency into health care system.

Cost – benefit analysis

Benefits are expressed in monetary terms to determine whether a given programme is economically sound and to select best out of several programmes.

Cost of sickness calculated from direct cost of treatment of patient and he being the non productive member of the society.

Once the cost of disease is known, the cost of preventive measures can be compared with it.

Cost – benefit analysis

Drawback:

Benefits can not always be expressed in monetary terms as in health field benefits are generally in terms of deaths or births prevented or illness avoided.

E.g .Cost benefit analysis of intensified programme against smallpox in India during period July 1973 to December 1975 has shown net benefit of Rs 1058 million.

Indoor pollution

Cost – benefit analysis of household energy interventions at global and regional levels

Cost – effective analysis

This is a better tool than cost benefit analysis.

Benefit is expressed in terms of result achieved rather than to express in monetary terms. eg. Number of lives saved.

Two ways in which analysis can be done :

1. A system which gives more units of effectiveness for a given rupee is more efficient.

2. A system which enables the attainment of effectiveness at minimum cost in terms of rupees is more effective.

Cost – effective analysis

DDT was the cost effective method accepted for the vector control

A budget helps

Want

Need

can

Budget

Stay within a limitControlForecastingDelegatePrioritise Wants,

Organise Needs,Within the realm of

what we Can

Planning Programming Budgeting System (PPBS)

The system focuses on funding those projects that will bring the greatest progress toward organisational goals for the least cost

Basically a Program and Planning Budgeting System

It is a link between planning and programming covering it into annual budget format.

Planning Programming Budgeting System (PPBS) Identification of goals and objectives for each

major area of activity - Planning Analysis of the programs proposed to obtain

organizational objectives - programming Estimation of the total costs for each project. Final analysis of alternative projects in terms of

costs, expected costs, expected benefits, and expected project lives.

Cost/benefit analyses are performed for each program - a portfolio of projects is selected for funding. - Budgeting

Zero base budgeting

Zero budget approach was developed by Peter Phyrr

Defined as an operating, planning and budgeting process which requires each officer to justify his budget from zero level upwards

No one gets a budget that he cannot justify on year to year basis

Fresh justification of funds is required to run a programme

Zero Based Budgeting

It begins with identifying all the constituent tasks that are involved in implementing a project and working out the resources and funding required by each.

Provides the opportunity to create organisation level budgets by rolling up project budgets.

Create centralised project level budgets from their sub-project budgets

Benefits

Accuracy of the budgets for individual tasks Participation in the process leads to ownership

and acceptance motivates managers to find cost effective

ways to improve operations. For Project Managers : flexibility to define their

project budgets independently For Financial Managers :ability to centrally

review the total project budget/s

Zero base budgeting

Drawbacks time-consuming Justifying every line item can be

problematic for departments with intangible outputs.

Requires specific training, due to increased complexity.

In a large organization, the amount of information backing up the budgeting process may be overwhelming.


Highest


Middle


Lower



Man power planning

38

It is the process of systematically reviewing human resource requirements to ensure that the number of the employees matches the required skills.

METHODOLOGY1. Forecasting demand2. Forecasting supply

3. Reconciling supply/demand 4. Monitoring manpower utilisation

Model/simulation study

Model : is a representation of the construction and working of some system of interest.

It is similar to but simpler than the system it represents.

A Simulation of a system is the operation of a model, which is a representation of that system.

Basic concept of management science in which there is symbolic representation of idealized situation.

It helps to understand how the factors in a situation affect one another.

Model/simulation study

An epidemiological model of typhoid fever was made to study transmission of infection at different levels.

Numerical values based on known evidence were assigned to parameters.

Changes were introduced in some parameters to study the effect of mass vaccination and improvement in general health and sanitation on incidence of typhoid.

Human papilloma virus vaccination programs reduce health inequity in most scenarios: a simulation study(BMC 2012,12:935)a total number of 3,793,902 scenarios. In 63.9% of scenarios considered, vaccination would lead to a better outcome for a population or subgroup with that combination of parameters. Regardless of vaccine effectiveness and coverage, most simulations led to lower rates of disease.

ADVANTAGES

Advantages highly valid Easy to compare alternatives Control experimental conditions Can study system with a very long time frame

Disadvantages expensive Difficult to summarize and statistically analyze

DISADVANTAGES

Information systems

Raw data when properly analyzed results in information and it is disseminated through the system known as information system

Function of information system is

1. Collection

2. Classification

3. Transmission

4. Storage

4. Retrieval

5. Transformation

6. Display of information

It provides up to date, reliable, complete and timely information to managers at various levels

Information process

Data collectionResources

Data transmissionManagement

Data processing Organizationalrules

Data analysis

Information for use in planning and management

feedbackmonitoring and evaluation

Health Information System

WHO proposes to categorize the health information system under five interrelated “subsystems”:

Epidemiological Surveillance (notifiable infectious diseases, environmental conditions, and risk factors)

Routine service reporting Special programmes reporting systems

(tuberculosis and leprosy control, MCH, school health)

Administrative systems (health care financing systems, health personnel systems, logistic systems)

Vital registration systems (births, deaths, and migratory movements)


Highest


Middle


Lower



Network analysis

It is a general name given to certain specific techniques which can be used for the planning, management and control of projects.

The basic principle of network analysis is to show diagrammatically the logical sequence in which different events necessary between the start and end point need to take place.

Network Analysis

STAFFRECRUIT

ED

EQUIPMENT

ORDERED

STAFFTRAINE

D

EQUIPMENT

INSTALLED

STARTPROVIDIN

GSERVICE

PLANSERVIC

E

4 months

2 months

1 month

START

TERMINALEVENT

1 month

10 months

2 months

Critical path

Critical Path

A, 6A, 6

F, 15F, 15

B, 8B, 8

C, 5C, 5

E, 9E, 9

D, 13D, 13

G, 17G, 17 H, 9H, 9

I, 6I, 6

J, 12J, 12

Longest path of the network is called critical path.

CPM network represent activities

PERT

Programme Evaluation and Review Technique

This is for more detailed planning and more comprehensive supervision

Shown by an arrow diagram representing logical sequence in which events must take place.

Difference between PERT & CPM

PERT

A probability model with uncertainty in activity duration

Multiple time estimates

For planning & scheduling research projects.

Does not usually consider costs

CPM

A deterministic model with well known activity time

Single/fixed estimate time

For construction projects & business problems.

Deals with cost of project schedules

Methods of behaviour science

Organizational design Personnel management Communication

Organizational design

Organization is a group of people who all work towards some common goal

Organization behaviour : in a health setup like PHC or CHC, it is behaviour of health volunteers, honorary workers, health workers, supervisors and also panchayati raj institution

Organization must be suited to its objectives and the needs

In health sector, it should be designed to meet the health needs and demands of people.

Should be reviewed every few years.

Personnel management

Skillful use of human resources1. Delegation of power / authority2. Proper methods of selection3. Training and motivation4. Division of responsibility5. Elimination of “square pegs in round holes” 6. Incentive for better work7. Opportunities for promotion and professional advancement.

Communication

Communication is a process of transfer of information from a person or persons to others

Elements

1. Source of information

2. Message or content of information

3. Channel of information

4. Receiver of information

5. feedback

Communication barriers Communication barriers

1. Physiological -difficulty in hearing

2. Psychological -level of intelligence, language

3. Environmental -noise, invisibility

4. Cultural - customs ,belief, religion

Communication barriers are responsible for : Delay in regular reporting and notification and

delay in compilation of statistics Delay in release of supplies and salaries

WORK STUDY Work Study is the systematic examination of carrying on

activities so as to improve the effective use of resources and to set standards of performance for the activities being carried out. (ILO)

It is the systematic study of work systems with the purposes of Developing the preferred system and Method ( with

lowest cost) Standardizing this system and method Determining standard time for the task Assisting in training the worker in the preferred Method

Work Study is a Tool Of Productivity Enhancement.

Techniques Of Work Study

METHOD STUDY

WORK MEASUREMENT

it simplifies the job and develops more economical method of doing it.

Measure the quantity of work involved in the method selected and calculate a standard time for doing it.

Method Study

It is the systematic recording and critical examination of ways of doing things in order to make improvements.

STEP I : JOB/TASK/PROCESS SELECTION Economic Considerations Technological Considerations Human Considerations

STEP II : RECORDING THE FACTS

STEP III : CRITICAL EXAMINATION PURPOSE : for which the activity is done PLACE : at ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, SEQUENCE : in ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, PERSON : by whom ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, MEANS : by which ,, ,, ,, ,, ,,

Work Measurement

It is the application of techniques designed to establish the time for a qualified worker to carry out a task at a defined rate of working.

THUS it determines how long it should take to carry

out the work

Work Measurement

Other management techniques

Inventory control

Inventory Control is the supervision of supply, storage and accessibility of items in order to ensure an adequate supply without excessive oversupply.

Inventory control Helps in maintaining an optimum level of the

all resource at least possible cost. Determine appropriate levels of holding

inventories, ordering sequence & the quantities, so that the total costs incurred are minimized.

Inventory control

ABC analysis VED analysis FSN analysis SDE analysis

Value analysis

Value is a broad term often used to denote cost and Price.

Value can be divided into the following classifications :- Use or Functional Value:- the properties and

qualities which accomplish a use, work or service.·

Cost Value :- The sum of labour, material and various other costs required to produce it.

Value analysis

VA is defined as systematic study of the function of a material, part , component to identify areas of unecessary costs that can be eliminated without impairing the capacity of the items.

Benefits : A reduction in cost of existing products or

systems. Prevention of unnecessary cost in new

products or systems.

Management by objectives (MBO)

Management by objectives (MBO) is a process of defining objectives within an organization so that management and employees agree to the objectives and understand what they need to do in the organization in order to achieve them.

The essence of MBO is participative goal setting, choosing course of actions and decision making.

Management by objectives (MBO)

Benefits Employees tend to have a clear understanding of

the roles and responsibilities expected of them Subordinates tend to have a higher commitment

to objectives Better communication and Coordination between

superiors and subordinates Drawbacks

Setting up of targets is in reality not participatory but top management hand down targets

Targets become priorityDistribution of family welfare targets to different districts in a State considering past performance, special conditions like drought, unrest. The targets were then distributed among several sub

district units on similar lines. The same cycle repeated in subsequent year.

Management by exceptions Management by Exception is a "policy

by which management devotes its time to investigate only those situations in which actual results differ significantly from planned results.

The idea is that management should spend its valuable time concentrating on more important items (such as shaping the project's future strategic course).

Management by exceptions Benefits

It reduces the amount of financial and operational results that management must review, which is a more efficient use of their time.

This type of management can be powerful when it is necessary to process lots of data in order to make managerial decisions.

Drawbacks This policy of management result in myopic

behavior.

Situational analysis

This method described as ‘where are we now’, is the means by which a company can identify its own strengths and weaknesses as they relate to external opportunities and threats.

It is an integral component of the management process to find out what the existing situation is, analyze the same, identify, which aspects needs changing, and then plan accordingly.For example, studies regarding Measles, immunisation and disease:

situation analysis in a resettlement area of east delhi 1998 reveal one fifth of the children aged 12 months or above were not immunized against measles at all and coverage of 74%.

SWOT analysis

It involves identifying the internal and external factors that are favorable and unfavorable to achieve a objective.

SWOT analysis

Benefits Source of information for strategic

planning. Helps in setting of objectives for strategic

planning Helps in identifying core competencies of

firm Drawbacks

Categorizing aspects might be very subjective

It may cause organizations to view circumstances as very simple which organizations might overlook

Logical Framework

The Logical framework (Logframe) is a method found useful for bringing about clarity in the process of planning, monitoring and evaluation.

It compresses the entire programme being proposed in a summary format.

The Log frame consists of a matrix of 16 cells

Conclusion

To achieve the most without wasting the resources in experimentation there is need for devising and introducing techinques that bring maximum results with limited resources.

MOTTO:The Right technique ,at the right place,at the right time, at the right cost, by the right methods.

References

Management techniques – Dr. S.L Goel Epidemiology and management health

care for all- Sathe WHO document on Modern Management

techniques -1977 journal article BMC :Human papilloma

virus vaccination programs reduce health inequity in most scenarios: a simulation study -2012

WHO Health research system analysis .pdf

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