Management of Zoo and Park Birds - Avian Medicine | Avian...

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CHAPTER

The role of the veterinary staff in a zoological settinginvolves the active promotion of animal health and wellbeing in addition to the treatment of overt diseases. It isuncommon for a zoo veterinarian to be involved strictlyin avian medicine, although this may occur when a vet-erinarian is employed in a zoological garden that is abird park. More commonly, an avian veterinarian will beconsulted when problems with avian species areencountered in a mixed species zoologic collection.

The Purposes of a Zoo or Bird ParkA zoological garden or bird park, whether private oropen to the public, is a place where animals (birds) areexhibited. One of the most important concerns of thezoo is the appearance of the displayed animals. Zoos areconstantly under pressure from animal rights activists. Inmany countries, including the USA, zoological gardenshave legal requirements, including animal welfare rulesand legislation, to which they must adhere.

Additional purposes or goals of zoologic parks include:• Maintenance of the genetic pool of selected species.• Geographically orienting management and exhibition

of animals according to their natural distribution (eg,South American birds located contiguously).

• Gaining biologic and ecologic information regardingthe applicable species.

• Performing specific research projects in areas of nutri-tion, behavior, genetics and disease.

Management of

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Routine Zoo Veterinary WorkThe veterinarian’s work in a zoo involves adherence tostrict protocols including meticulous record keeping. Athorough understanding of the concepts and challengesof aviculture is required. Management, husbandry andmedical and surgical protocols must be developed andperformed (Table 42.1).

Medical EquipmentZoo veterinary equipment for the avian collection doesnot differ significantly from that encountered in a nor-mal exotic animal clinic (Table 42.2). Its availability willdepend on budget and ease of outside sourcing.Housing for hospitalized birds is outlined in Table 42.3.

Depending on local veterinary support, the zoo veteri-nary clinic may need a full range of surgical and diagnos-tic tools including microbiology, hematology, blood

chemistry and cytology, histopathology, toxicology, virol-ogy and special tests, some which may be submitted tooutside laboratories.

The Importance of Biology and TaxonomyRecent discoveries in zoology, field biology, morphology,ethology and DNA-based genetics need to be monitoredand, where appropriate, implemented into the medicalprotocols. Understanding these issues allows the zooveterinarian to form an idea about the correct husbandryconditions (eg, environment, temperature, diet) to pro-vide. Taxonomy of a closely related species for whichgood medical information is available will be invaluablein the approach to any novel species.

Table 42.1 | Recommended Veterinary Routines for Zoo and Park Birds

Daily Evaluate hospitalized patientsReview laboratory results receivedDevelop or alter treatment based on the aboveExamine nursery birds, park exhibits and breeding birds,making appropriate notes, examining individuals,obtaining samples and retrieving birds for hospitaliza-tion as needed

Perform any required surgeries Weekly

Interdepartmental meetings to review schedules andplans for routine procedures

MonthlyRoutine deworming and fecal examinationsVaccinations as appropriate

YearlyAnnual physical examination of every animal in the

park; plan further testing, if warrantedEvaluate unsuccessful breeding pairs

Table 42.2 | Recommended Medical Equipment for Zoo and Park Birds

EndoscopyBoth rigid (standard avian) and flexible (larger bird)endoscopes of various diameters

SurgeryStandard surgical equipment and facilities for exotics

AnesthesiaA portable anesthesia machine for larger patients such

as ratitesRadiologyA portable x-ray machine is often needed in a zoo

Ultrasound A portable ultrasound machine equipped with various

sized probes Cages, hospital cages and aviaries

A variety of enclosures for various avian patients isdesirable (see Table 42.3)

Table 42.3 | Recommended Cages for Different Avian Patients

Avian Patient Recommended Cage

Critically ill birds They need a warmed cage, ideally an Intensive CareUnit (ICU). This applies to any avian patient in criticalcondition. The hospital cage should be connected toan O2 delivery system, with the temperature andhumidity controlled.

Potential infectiouspatients

A zoo must have a special area for animals that maycarry an infectious disease. This area should be sepa-rate from the quarantine for incoming birds.

Psittacines See Chapter 7, Emergency and Critical Care.

Birds of prey(diurnal and nocturnal)

See Chapter 40, Management of Raptors.

Cranes, storksand flamingos

Although these animals have totally different feedinghabits, they have similar hospital needs. Flooringmust provide adequate traction. Hard rubber matsare ideal since they can be disinfected. Flamingosmust be housed with access to the water and foodblend that they consume via filtration through theirbeaks.

Small passerines Some species may be very shy and easily stressed, soEnglish-style cages (with 3 solid walls) are preferred.

Ratites See Chapter 41, Management of Captive Ratites.

Penguins andauks

Penguins belong to the Order Sphenisciformes. Thereare 17 living species of penguins, divided into 6 genera. All penguin species live in the southernhemisphere. The term “auk” includes species of theAlcidae family, 21 species in the world, which includethe guillemot, or murre (Uria aalge), razorbill (Alcatorda) and puffin (Fratercula artica). Penguin and aukspecies require species-specific environments, butthey all need to swim, preferably in a relatively coldsaltwater pool. If a zoo includes penguins and/orauks among its species, an appropriate area shouldbe built for quarantine and hospitalization room(s).An ideal room for nursing these aquatic birds meetsthe following requirements:1. A saltwater pool within easy access of the birds.2. Environmental air and water temperatures cooled

to 0° C (32° F).3. Water and air filtration systems (to decrease the

potential for aspergillosis).

Anseriformes See Chapter 36, Management of Waterfowl.

Galliformes See Chapter 38, Management of Galliformes.

Columbiformes Pigeons and doves, like the two preceding groups, varyin size, husbandry and dietary requirements. For short-term nursing, they can be kept in cages similar to onesfor psittacines or birds of prey. Some of the shyest ofthe species (ie, the large crowned pigeons [Gouraspp.]) should be kept in a very quiet environment (see Chapter 37, Management of Racing Pigeons).


Chapter 42 | M A N A G E M E N T O F Z O O A N D P A R K B I R D S 993

Fig 42.1 | Cooperation with the gardeners helps achievepleasant looking cages, while avoiding toxic plants.

Fig 42.2 | Some bird species, such as these rockhopper pen-guins (Eudyptes crestatus), have extreme temperature and humid-ity requirements.

The Importance of TeamworkA common problem encountered during setup of a newexhibit or refurbishing an existing one is the lack ofteam work. Often the architects, biologists, curators,keepers and veterinarians have different perspectives onwhat the ideal exhibit should be for a given species, butall these points of view must be collated before thebuilding or refurbishing work begins. The basic issues ofan exhibit design should be addressed in the preplan-ning phase. Once the building work has started, it isoften impossible or too expensive to make changes.

Experienced, committed keepers understand the behav-ior and personalities of the animals. They know the dailycleaning and feeding routines and can offer importantsuggestions about materials best suited for furniture,fencing, drainage and access to aviaries. Keepers whowork with aggressive birds (eg, ratites and large cranes)can be helpful in developing solutions for their safetransport from the exhibit to holding areas.

The veterinarians and gardeners, or horticultural depart-ment if there is one, are involved in the selection andcontrol of the vegetation to be planted, thereby eliminat-ing the use of toxic plant species inside the exhibit (Fig 42.1).

Additionally, keepers’ suggestions are invaluable whenplanning service areas and pest control.

HHOOUUSSIINNGG Housing is one of the most important aspects of keepingbirds in a zoo. In an up-to-date setting, animals must notonly be healthy but also be exhibited in the most “natu-ral” environment possible.

Temperature and HumidityMost commonly kept zoo and park birds do well in the

average temperate climate, but exceptions do exist. Mosttropical birds, especially smaller ones, need tempera-ture-controlled housing for winter, in addition to warmspots, even during summer nights. There also are birdsthat need some accessible areas away from extreme heatto thrive during the summer months (Fig 42.2). Some ofthese species are easily identified (eg, penguins, snowyowls, gyrfalcons). Bird species that are represented indifferent climates by multiple subspecies, such as theperegrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) or the osprey(Pandion haliaetus), offer special challenges. It is betterto obtain a local subspecies in order to avoid stress dueto inappropriate climate.

Light Cycles

Most bird species are highly dependent on photoperiodfor their reproductive cycle, but other physiological issues(eg, molting) also are light-cycle dependent. This isimportant for birds originating from the extreme northernor southern latitudes and must be taken into considera-tion when designing an exhibit for these species.

Flooring

Flooring is of primary importance in a birdhouse (Figs

42.3-42.5). When approaching bird management, theavian veterinarian must keep in mind two importantthings:

• Avian species have evolved with multiple anatomic andfunctional variations of the feet (eg, webbing, talons,feet for wading), which require the appropriate cagingmaterials in captivity.

• Birds are bipedal; therefore, damage to one footplaces 100% of the weight-bearing load on the remain-ing contralateral foot. For all but the smaller species,this increased load and decreased mobility can quicklylead to affliction of the plantar surface of the remain-ing foot.



Roofing

Some non-flying species (eg, ratites) do not need a roof.Also, some birds have limited ability to fly because theyhave been pinioned or their wings are regularly trimmed.This often applies to ducks, geese, swans, flamingos andsometimes cranes and storks. When a roof is designed,several factors are taken into consideration.

It is important to know if the birds will or will not be onexhibit. If so, the roof will have to be both effective andhave a natural look. “Invisible” nets are available andwork well in these cases. Because some species may biteand chew on the roof, this should be considered whenselecting roofing material.

Another factor is the ability of a species to climb andbecome trapped in a mesh roof. Roofing for birds ofprey and other birds that might become trapped inmesh can be made with wooden lathing strips, 2 cmthick and 10 cm wide. The strips are arranged horizon-tally, 5 cm apart, allowing resting birds to see the skyand receive fresh air, rain and snow, if advisable; whenthe birds are flying, this roof will appear as a solid wall

and the birds will not fly into it (Figs 42.6a,b).

Vegetation

Most bird species like plants and branches in theiraviaries for hiding, perching and nesting, but not alltrees are appropriate for planting. Normally, large zoosemploy botanists or experienced gardeners who canhelp veterinarians and curators select local plants suit-able for installation in large aviaries or exhibits.

Perches

Perches, whether provided alone or in conjunction withplanted trees, must offer a good base for both rest andexercise. Ideally, perches should provide a variety of tex-tures, diameters and elasticities. When perches are madeof a variety of different materials, sizes and shapes, theywill provide the birds’ feet with exercise, equal weightdistribution and natural nail trimming (Figs 42.7a-c).

Food and Water Delivery Systems

In most bird collections, food and water are providedtwice daily. During the summer and year long in warmclimates, food and water easily become polluted by bac-teria, fungi and protozoa and can be the source of seri-ous health problems. Feeding schedules and equipmentmust be adjusted according to the type of food (eg,seeds, dry, wet, fish, live food) used for the different birdspecies. In general, hygiene is the most important issue.Food and water bowls must be changed daily, and goodcleaning and disinfection procedures are necessary toavoid spreading pathogens from one enclosure toanother.

Fig 42.3 | Natural flooring and a proper diet promote healthyfeet, as in these demoiselle cranes (Grus [Anthropoides] virgo).

Fig 42.4 | Natural displays should include thedifferent plants that occur in a bird’s naturalhabitat. Marsh owl (Asio capensis) shown.

Fig 42.5 | Aquatic species, such as these little blue penguins(Eudyptula minor), need a proper pool to allow swimming andprevent foot problems.

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In some facilities, water is delivered through an auto-matic watering system. The system’s pipes must bechecked on a regular basis for hydrophilic bacteria, espe-cially Pseudomonas sp. Cleaning and disinfecting thepipes should take place on a regular basis. Naturalexhibits with a lake or waterfall as the main source ofthe birds’ water intake should have a high-quality filtra-tion system. Weekly bacteriologic and chemical tests (eg,nitrogen and chlorine) should be performed using oneof the available commercial kits. Using a dipping mediaa

for urine bacteriology allows identification of type andnumber of bacteria in the water.

Nests

For many species, nests are necessary for reproductionand may be a stimulus for breeding activity. Althoughsome exceptions do occur (eg, macaw and cockatiel),most psittacines will not breed without a nest box.

Searching for a nest site and building a nest can playimportant roles in mating behavior and breeding suc-

cess. Less commonly, species like king penguins(Aptenodytes patagonica) do not build nests but incu-bate their single-egg clutches on their feet, which arecovered by a skin fold. Even these birds need to be pro-vided with an adequate breeding area where they areprotected against weather and feel safe from actual orperceived threats, such as predators.

Choosing the best nest sites and adequate nest shapesfor different types of birds falls to the biologists andcurators, but the veterinarian’s medical input should beincluded in the decision-making process (Figs 42.8, 42.9).

Nest Hygiene

Depending on the species, nests can easily become dirtywith excrement from the offspring. Parasites and bacteriaproliferate in this organic medium. Consequently, selec-tion of bedding material is important. In general, bed-ding material should be clean and free of pathogens.Inadequate bedding material has been reported as acause of aspergillosis in neonatal parrots and other avian

Figs 42.6 a,b | A properly designed roof for flying birds (ie, birds of prey) will appear to the birds as openair or solid, depending on perspective.

Fig 42.7 | A selection of branches and other natural perches to exercise the feet is a must in exhibits for wild species. a) Great greyowl (Strix nebulosa). b) Red-tailed black cockatoo (Calyptorhynchus banksii). c) A variety of branches in an aviary.

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a b

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species. Ectoparasites can be avoided by adding 5% car-baryl powder to the bedding material at the beginning ofthe breeding season. Bedding material should be rou-tinely tested for bacterial and fungal contamination. Toxicsubstances also can cause problems in this respect. Woodshavings, widely used as nest bedding, must exclude thepresence of paints, resins and wood preservatives.

The condition of the bedding material must be moni-tored during the breeding season. This should be under-taken in cooperation with the curator or animal keeperin order to not disturb the breeding pair. In somespecies, like lories and lorikeets that feed on a liquid-based diet resulting in voluminous stools, it may be nec-essary to change or add new bedding material duringegg incubation or while the young are still in the nest.For these birds, a specially designed nest box has provento be effective against pollution. Instead of a woodenfloor, the nest box is built using wire mesh, allowing theliquid feces to drop through and ensuring better ventila-tion (Fig 42.10).

Cleaning and disinfecting the nest after the breedingseason should be carried out carefully. Wooden nestboxes may require replacement. Natural trunks should

be cleaned as carefully as possible, and appropriate dis-infecting solutions, which allow the birds to use thenesting site again, should be used. In species like thegentoo penguin (Pygoscelis papua), which uses stonesfor nesting, the stones should be removed and carefullycleaned after the breeding season. Permanent nestingsites, eg, caves for puffins (Fratercula arctica) or othercave-breeding species, must be designed for ease ofcleaning and disinfecting. The design of a nest should bea compromise between the natural breeding behavior ofthe species, its specific hygiene requirements and thecaptive situation (Figs 42.11a,b).

Controlling the Nest SiteNests should be designed in a way that allows evaluationof parents, eggs and chicks (Fig 42.12). In case of irregu-larities in the behavior of the parents, evaluating and/orremoving the offspring may be necessary.

Risks to the OffspringLeaving the nest for the first time after weaning is a riskysituation for young birds, and fractures or other trau-matic injuries can occur. Therefore, nests should bedesigned to minimize the risk of fledglings flying intowire mesh or other dangerous structures of the cage. Tohelp prevent such accidents, tree branches can beplaced in front of the nest a few days before fledging.

DDIISSEEAASSEESS

Identification of Sick AnimalsRoutine controls include daily rounds during which allthe aviaries and exhibits are inspected, and, if war-

Fig 42.9 | Empty trunks can be used as nests forselected species. Shown is a palm trunk nest pro-vided to Pesquet’s parrots (Psittrichas fulgidus).

Fig 42.8 | Nest sites should meet species-specific needs. A dia-mond dove (Geopelia cuneata) is shown.

Fig 42.10 | A nest box for lories, built using wire mesh for thefloor, allows the liquid feces to drop and ensures better ventilation.



Figs 42.11 a,b | In an exhibit housing cave nesters and bird species that build nests using stones, special attention tothe hygiene involved in such an exhibit is required. Shown are gentoo penguins (Pygoscelis papua) on a nest and apair of Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti) in the cave nest.

a b

ranted, samples are collected for laboratory evaluation(see Table 42.4).

Species-specific Diseases

Viral diseases tend to be more species-specific than bac-terial or fungal diseases. In parrots, one might seepsittacine circovirus, avian polyomavirus or Pacheco’sdisease. Other viral diseases that are specific to selectedbird groups and encountered in zoo settings are avianpoxvirus infections and herpesvirus infections (HV).

Some HV may be extremely dangerous for flocks of sen-sitive species. HV are generally pathogenic for a singlegroup of birds, but other bird families, even those notvery taxonomically close, may sometimes be susceptible.For example, pigeon herpesvirus causes disease inpigeons, Arctic falcons and sometimes in owls. Typically,herpesvirus infections cause neoplastic, hemorrhagic ornecrotic lesions. A group of these diseases causesnecrotic hepatosplenitis in falcons, eagles, owls, cranes,storks and pigeons.

When an outbreak of disease occurs in a zoo, bird move-ment should be limited.

Multi-species Diseases Most bacterial and viral infections potentially are trans-mittable through many avian species and orders. In thisrespect, an extremely strict routine for disinfection ofselected areas in the zoo (eg, food preparation, chickhand-rearing station, quarantine and, of course, the hos-pital) is important. A good strategy for avoiding bacterialresistance to disinfectants is to rotate the use of three tofour different disinfectants; at selected times, a fogger fordisinfecting the most unreachable spots also can be used.

It is extremely important to know the most commoninterspecific diseases in order to rate the risk of cross-species transmission in case of an outbreak. Bacterialexamples are Mycobacterium avium, Yersinia pseudotu-berculosis, Salmonella spp., Pasteurella multocida,Chlamydophila psittaci, Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiaeand Listeria monocytogenes.

Paramyxovirus-1(PMV-1) is distributed worldwide, andall bird species are considered susceptible to PMV-1.Influenza A viruses have been recovered from several dif-ferent bird orders, including species very common inzoos and bird parks, such as Anseriformes, Galliformes,Falconiformes, Psittaciformes, Sphenisciformes and Grui-formes. It also has been recovered from some mammals.

Introduced Diseases The introduction of new animals may lead to the introduc-tion of unexpected diseases. The chance of introducing adisease through ectoparasites or other pests traveling withthe crates, cages or boxes of newly arrived animals alsomust be considered; hence, it is important to institutestrict quarantine measures and thorough disinfection (if

Fig 42.12 | Nests should be designed in a way that allowscontrol of parents, eggs and chicks. A great grey owl (Strix nebulosa) with a 1-day-old chick is shown.

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not destruction) of crates, cages or boxes used for theimportation of animals.

Zoonosis

The incidence of diseases acquired by humans frombirds is low (Table 42.5). The most frequent diseases ofconcern are usually chlamydiosis and salmonellosis.Quarantine and strict hygiene measures are the onlyeffective methods for avoiding bird-to-human transmis-sion of diseases. Most zoonoses are transmitted via thefecal/oral route. Birds in contact with visitors should betested on a regular basis for potential zoonoses, andresults must be archived to prove negative test results incase of a new occurrence. Positive birds should beremoved from visitor contact for security reasons andtreated or euthanized as appropriate.

QQUUAARRAANNTTIINNEEQuarantine guidelines have been established by theAmerican Zoo and Aquarium Association (www.aza.org)and should be adapted to each situation. Quarantinemeasures include all birds that are newcomers to thecollection (and those that return after being on loan toanother facility or from a different exhibit). All newcom-ers are subjected to a minimum 6 weeks’ quarantine

period. Multiple quarantine rooms of varied sizes shouldbe available for this purpose. All quarantine roomsshould have separate, low-pressure ventilation systems.After a short, 2- to 4-day period of adaptation, each birdis subjected to a thorough medical examination, whichincludes the procedures listed in Table 42.6.

Birds may be integrated into the collection after the quar-antine period in the absence of any detectable disease orinfection. Special attention should be paid to behaviorand feeding of new animals in the first weeks of quaran-tine. Food and water should be supplied in a mannerequivalent to the animals’ former feeding conditions atthe original facility. Changes to the food and feedingschedule should be made gradually to avoid stress to thebirds. A separate keeper for the quarantined birds is pre-ferred to avoid disease transmission. Separate clothes,boots and hand and shoe disinfection baths are critical.

CCOOMMMMOONN SSEENNSSEE NNUUTTRRIITTIIOONNWorking in a zoo presents the veterinarian with a varietyof different species, often with very unusual or special-ized diets. In most circumstances, specific commercialdiets are not readily available. Hence, it is important towork jointly with other professionals such as zoologists,biologists and nutritionists in an effort to customize themost appropriate diet for a given species.

In addition to the foods manufactured specifically forpsittacines, diets are also commercially available formynah birds, canaries, small finches, pigeons, thrushes,cranes, emus, flamingos, game birds, ostriches, water-fowl, aquatic ducks and toucans. Other diets are oftenused according to “local traditions,” “avicultural myths”and keepers’ experiences, which may or may not beideal. For best results, a veterinarian should work with anutritionist in developing a feeding plan.

Imitation of natural nutrition can be very successful, butthis may not always be possible or desirable for the fol-lowing reasons:

• Some or all diet components are not available.

• Nutritional requirements in captivity are different fromthose in the wild.

• Some foods cannot be digested in the absence ofother unknown or unavailable items.

• Birds do not recognize the offered diet as food.

If a diet for birds has to be revised, especially in cases ofbirds for which little accurate data are available or whenbirds have been fed for a long time on an alternate diet,discretion is needed. Generally speaking, if a bird flockhas been fed a locally developed diet for a prolongedperiod, it can be assumed that the diet and general man-agement were reasonable if the birds maintain good

Table 42.4 | Routine “On-site” Check for Park andZoo Birds

1. Behavior Look for any behavioral changes (the bird is quieter,sleeps, is nervous, turns away from the partner).

2. Physical posture The bird sits hunched over. The bird sleeps standing on both feet (healthy birdsusually sleep on one foot). The bird wags tail (indicates respiratory diseases oregg retention).

The bird favors its extremities (one or both wings arehanging down slightly; the bird obviously tries not tostrain one of its feet).

3. Plumage At the first stage of a disease, birds quite often ruffle afew neck or head feathers (which also may be just athreatening posture).

4. Eyes At the very beginning of a disease, the animal’s eyesare slightly — very slightly — closed. You will have totake a very close look. At the same time, the eyes areno longer shining. Seriously ill birds may have the eyescompletely closed.

5. Stool Pay attention to the quantity, color and consistency.Increased or reduced stool quantity may indicate a disorder. Also feces’ color and consistency should be monitored.

6. Ingestion of food and water Is the ingestion of food and water normal? Does thebird eat or drink more or less than usual?



physical condition. Normal laboratory examinationresults, successful reproduction, good quality featheringand a normal physical examination would warrant agradual and cautious approach to dietary alterations (seeChapter 4, Nutritional Considerations).

BBEEHHAAVVIIOORRAALL CCOONNSSIIDDEERRAATTIIOONNSS

In zoo and bird park collections, particular attentionshould be given to the choice of animals occupyingneighboring cages due to potential incompatibilityamong species or individuals and aggressive or challeng-ing behavior during the breeding season. This is particu-larly true for some parrot species, such as the hawk-headed parrot (Deroptyus accipitrinus), which seems tobe affected by the presence of other pairs of the samespecies. Male macaws (Ara spp.) are protective of theirpartners during the breeding season, and a neighboringmale of the same species may affect the mating behaviorof the pair and create a stressful situation that can com-promise breeding success; males are more occupiedwith challenging each other than with breeding.

On the other hand, parrot families such as white cocka-toos (Cacatua spp.) appear to benefit from the presenceof conspecific birds. If they are housed to allow visualand vocal contact, they will display and call to each other,and this situation might contribute to breeding success.

Sound knowledge of the natural behavior of the speciesis helpful when choosing the most suitable species to beneighbors. Sometimes it is only a question of common

sense when choosing neighboring birds so that one ofthe species is not stressed, especially in a zoo collectionwhere birds and their natural predators are maintained.An incorrect choice can create a stressful situation for theanimals and will lead, at best, to the abnormal appear-ance and behavior of the animals. In most circumstances,a stressed bird will soon become a sick bird as well.

MMIIXXEEDD SSPPEECCIIEESS EEXXHHIIBBIITTSS

The idea of keeping different species in a mixed exhibitis common in zoos. The major challenge is to weigh thebenefits and risks that a mixed exhibit can offer. It iseasy, practical and economically more convenient to useone enclosure to display different species. Further, amixed exhibit can be more attractive and educational forvisitors, and a combined species exhibit can have a posi-tive effect on the physical and mental behavior of theanimals. From an educational point of view, most zoosprefer that animals belonging to the same geographicalarea be shown in the same mixed exhibit.

Despite these advantages, the negative points of a mixed-species exhibit are the risk of aggression among the ani-mals and competition for position, space and food in theexhibit itself. It is important to be knowledgeable regard-ing the natural environment and behavior of the speciesto be combined and even more important to know thetemperament of the individual animal in a mixed-species exhibit.

To successfully develop a mixed-species exhibit, specificguidelines should be followed:

• Avoid combining animals that occupy the same ecolog-ical niche because they will compete for space andfood. Try to use all the space of the enclosure, com-bining terrestrial species with arboreal and/or aquaticspecies.

• Primates are always problematic to combine in mixed-species exhibits due to their inquisitive nature and thefact that they are often aggressively territorial in captiv-ity. Nevertheless, there are examples of birds success-fully exhibited with primates. Golden lion tamarins

Disease Etiology

Bacterial

Campylobacteriosis Campylobacter jejuni

Colibacillosis Escherichia coli

Erysipeloid Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae

Listeriosis Listeria monocytogenes

Miscellaneous bacterialinfections

Klebsiella spp., Pseudomonas spp., Vibrio spp.

Pasteurellosis Pasteurella spp.

Psittacosis Chlamydophila psittaci

Salmonellosis Salmonella typhimurium

Tuberculosis Mycobacterium avium, M. genavense

Yersiniosis Yersinia pseudotuberculosis

Mycotic

Aspergillosis Aspergillus fumigatus

Cryptococcosis Cryptococcus neoformans

Dermatophytosis Trichophyton gallinae, Microsporum gypseum

Histoplasmosis Histoplasma capsulatum

Viral

Influenza A Orthomyxovirus type A

Newcastle disease Avian Paramyxovirus type 1

West Nile virus Flavivirus

Table 42.6 | Recommended Medical Check-up forBirds in Quarantine

• Bacteriological analysis (cloacal, choanal, tracheal)• Mycological analysis (cloacal, choanal, tracheal)• Parasitological analyses (endo- and ectoparasites)• Checking for viral infections, (eg, circovirus and polyoma-

virus in the case of parrots and Newcastle disease forall birds)

• Checking for Chlamydophila (test for antigens and antibodies)

• Hematological and blood chemistry analysis• Other tests, depending on the species

Table 42.5 | Zoonotic Diseases Potentially Present in aBird Park

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(Leontopithecus rosalia), screech owls (Otus spp.)and red-capped cardinals (Paroaria spp.) have suc-cessfully been housed together.

• Avoid housing closely related species together in orderto prevent the risk of hybridization.

• Provide an abundance of items the animals may com-pete for: perches and branches of different sizes, feed-ing points, nesting areas and shadows. For example,when keeping multiple hummingbirds together, a birdcan be harassed by its cage mates when there areinsufficient feeders (although occasional mock fightsare normal behavior in hummingbirds).

• Provide the animals with the option of hiding fromothers, when necessary, by offering visual barriers suchas plants and rocks.

• Avoid combining species that can be antagonistic innature.

• Combine animals of different sizes when working withanimals occupying the same niche. Large species havea tendency to accept the presence of small animals.Nevertheless, the smaller species may challenge thelarger if the species is of a particularly aggressive orprotective nature. Aggressive species can be combinedwith others only in a very large exhibit.

Combining birds of different sizes requires additionalconsideration. For example, very small nocturnal birds ofprey (eg, Athene spp., Glaucidium spp.) can be housedwith some waterfowl, but particular care should be takenwhen combining toucans (Ramphastidae) with passer-ines or other small birds like doves, to avoid predation.Cranes, waterfowl, ibises and storks are often displayedtogether. Some parrots also may be kept together inwalk-through aviaries. Several lory (Loriidae) species arecommonly housed together in an aviary exhibit.

For birds that have the same or similar diets, or the dietof one species represents part of the diet of another,adequate distribution of food can be accomplished byproviding feeding sites accessible to only one of thespecies (eg, flying vs non-flying species) or providing thebirds with additional feeding sites.

Some examples of successful mixed-species exhibitsinclude:

• Bali mynah (Leucopsar rothshildi) with Asian glossystarling (Aplonis panayensis), Prevost’s squirrel (Cal-losciurus prevostii) and mouse deer (Tragulus spp.)

• Bali mynah with chevrotain (Tragulus napu)

• Goffin’s cockatoo (Cacatua goffini) and Eleonora’scockatoo (Cacatua g. eleonora) with bettongs(Bettongia penicillata)

• Emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae) and cassowary(Casuarius spp.) with red kangaroo (Macropus rufus)and dama wallaby (Macropus eugenii)

• Crowned crane (Balearica spp.), marabou stork(Leptoptilos crumeniferus), storks (Ciconia spp.) andostrich (Struthio camelus) with giraffe (Giraffacamelopardis) and antelope (Tragelaphus spp. andGazella spp.)

• Yellow weaver (Ploceus subaureus), black-wingedbishop (Euplectes hordaceus), golden-breasted starling(Cosmopsarus regius) and speckled pigeon (Columbaguinea) with dik-dik (Madoqua dirkii).

WWOORRKKIINNGG ((SSHHOOWW)) BBIIRRDDSS Most zoo parks and some zoos have bird shows and/orwalk-through aviaries, putting both visitors and birds intodirect contact. The potential risk of bird-to-human andhuman-to-bird disease transmission has been addressed.

The training and working schedules of show birds arereadily accepted by some animals that benefit both men-tally and physically from this activity, but other birds maybe stressed by this routine. This work-derived stress willinfluence the birds’ immune systems and make themmore susceptible to both infectious and non-infectiousdiseases. In this respect, good teamwork with trainers isimportant in identifying subtle changes before theybecome problems.

Generally speaking, show birds are individually examinedtwo to four times per year. This examination includes adiscussion with the trainers and careful inspection of theresting area where the birds live. Tests for major viral dis-eases are performed when a new bird is introduced tothe group and then repeated as needed (see “Quaran-tine”). Birds are regularly screened for parasites, espe-cially if they are free-flying animals. Blood tests, includingCBC and basic biochemistries, are performed annually.Tests for chamydiosis and other bacterial diseases areperformed at least twice a year, especially when directcontact with visitors occurs. Finally, a fecal screening forthe presence of acid-fast bacteria is performed annuallyon free-flying animals.

CCOOMMMMOONN AACCCCIIDDEENNTTSS AANNDDEESSCCAAPPEESSZoo birds are exposed to some of the same risks as petand aviary birds, such as poisoning, foreign body inges-tion and aggression by cage mates. Situations may beunique to zoo settings.

Aggression can be inflicted by a conspecific bird or by acage mate belonging to a different species (Fig 42.13)

(see “Mixed-species Exhibits”). In the case of trauma,therapy follows emergency protocols.

When a bird escapes and flies into a dangerous animal’sexhibit, it will probably be killed. If the predator is not

1000

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dangerous to humans (eg, small felids or canids), thebird can be netted and removed. In any other case,measures should be taken to anesthetize the predatorand avoid further escape of the bird by putting a net infront of the hiding place before attempting to rescue itor being ready with a water hose to soak the bird’sfeathers to prevent further escape.

VVEETTEERRIINNAARRIIAANNSS AANNDD BBIIRRDD CCOONNSSEERRVVAATTIIOONN It is believed that a natural rate for extinction is aboutone species every 100 years. But since 1800, more than100 bird species have become extinct, which is 50 timeshigher than the natural rate. Zoo veterinarians mustbecome more involved in bird conservation programs,to prevent disease and other factors from contributingto species extinction (Fig 42.14).

Veterinarians’ contributions to conservation programscan also include clinical care for individuals of highlyendangered species (the highest standard veterinary care

must be provided) and the design and implementationof breeding and release programs.

Domestically bred birds must be fully evaluated for dis-eases prior to becoming part of a reintroduction pro-gram. A health check for psittacines might include thefollowing: physical examination, complete blood countanalysis, fecal parasitology, cloacal and choanal cultures,radiographs and endoscopy (biopsy) as well as testing foravian influenza, circovirus, paramyxovirus, herpesvirus,Chlamydophila, adenovirus and avian tuberculosis.

The veterinarian may lend his or her expertise to therelease program and subsequent monitoring and han-dling of the subject birds.

Product Mentioned in the Texta. Uriline, bioMérieux SA, 69280 Marcy-l’Etoile, France, Phone +33-4-

78872000, http://www.biomerieux.com

Fig 42.13 | A conspecific bird can inflict injury due to aggres-sion. A bite wound on the wing of a Humboldt penguin(Spheniscus humboldti) is shown.

Fig 42.14 | Spix macaws (Cyanopsitta spixii) are the mostemblematic endangered parrot species.



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