Management 11e John Schermerhorn Chapter 15 Motivation Theory and Practice.

Management 11e John Schermerhorn

Chapter 15Chapter 15

Motivation TheoryMotivation Theoryand Practiceand Practice

Planning Ahead — Chapter 15 Study Questions

1. How do individual needs influence motivation?

2. What are the process theories of motivation?

3. What role does reinforcement play in motivation?

4. What is the link between job design and motivation?

Management 11e Chapter 15 2

Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?

Motivation—the forces within the individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work



Needs Unfulfilled physiological and psychological

desires of an individual Explain workplace behavior and attitudes Create tensions that influence attitudes and

behavior Good managers and leaders facilitate

employee need satisfaction



Hierarchy of needs theory Developed by Abraham Maslow Lower-order and higher-order needs affect

workplace behavior and attitudes Lower-order needs:

Physiological, safety, and social needs Desires for physical and social well being

Higher-order needs: Esteem and self-actualization needs

Desire for psychological growth and development


Figure 15.1 Opportunities for satisfaction in Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs



Hierarchy of needs theory Deficit principle

A satisfied need is not a motivator of behavior

Progression principle A need at one level does

not become activated until the next lower-level need is satisfied



ERG theory Developed by Clayton Alderfer Three need levels



ERG theory Any/all needs can influence behavior at one

time Frustration-regression principle

An already satisfied lower-level need becomes reactivated when a higher-level need is frustrated



Two-factor theory Developed by Frederick Herzberg Hygiene factors:

Elements of the job context Sources of job dissatisfaction

Satisfier factors: Elements of the job content Sources of job satisfaction and motivation


Figure 15.2 Herzberg’s two-factor theory



Acquired needs theory Developed by David McClelland People acquire needs through their life

experiences Needs that are acquired:



Acquired needs theory Need for Achievement (nAch)

Desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks

People high in (nAch) prefer work that: Involves individual responsibility for results Involves achievable but challenging goals Provides feedback on performance



Acquired needs theory Need for Power (nPower)

Desire to control other persons, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for other people

Personal power versus social power

People high in (nPower) prefer work that: Involves control over other persons Has an impact on people and events Brings public recognition and attention



Acquired needs theory Need for Affiliation (nAff)

Desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with other persons

People high in (nAff) prefer work that: Involves interpersonal relationships Provides for companionship Brings social approval


Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?

Process theories of motivation … How people make choices to work hard or not Choices are based on:

Individual preferences Available rewards Possible work outcomes

Types of process theories: Equity theory Expectancy theory Goal-setting theory



Equity theory Developed by J. Stacy Adams When people believe that they have been

treated unfairly in comparison to others, they try to eliminate the discomfort and restore a perceived sense of equity to the situation Perceived inequity Perceived equity


Figure 15.3 Equity theory and the role of social comparison



Equity theory People respond to perceived negative

inequity by changing … Work inputs Rewards received Comparison points Situation



Managerial implications of equity theory— Underpaid people experience anger Overpaid people experience guilt Perceptions of rewards determine motivational

outcomes Negative consequences of equity comparisons

should be minimized, if not eliminated Do not underestimate the impact of pay as a source

of equity controversies in the workplace Gender equity Comparable worth



Expectancy theory Developed by Victor Vroom Key expectancy theory variables:

Expectancy — belief that working hard will result in desired level of performance

Instrumentality — belief that successful performance will be followed by rewards

Valence — value a person assigns to rewards and other work related outcomes


Figure 15.4 Elements in the expectancy theory of motivation



Expectancy theory Motivation (M), expectancy (E), instrumentality

(I), and valence (V) are related to one another in a multiplicative fashion:

Motivation = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence

If either E, I, or V is low, motivation will be low



Managerial implications of expectancy theory— To maximize expectancy, managers should:

Select workers with ability Train workers to use ability Support work efforts Clarify performance goals



Managerial implications of expectancy theory— To maximize instrumentality, managers

should: Clarify psychological contracts Communicate performance-outcome possibilities Identify rewards that are contingent on

performance



Managerial implications of expectancy theory— To maximize valence in a positive direction,

managers should: Identify individual needs Adjust rewards to match individual needs



Goal-setting theory Developed by Edwin Locke Properly set and well-managed task goals

can be highly motivating Motivational effects of task goals:

Provide direction to people in their work Clarify performance expectations Establish a frame of reference for feedback Provide a foundation for behavioral self-

management Management 11e Chapter 15 27


Goal-setting theory Participation in goal setting

unlocks the motivational potential of goal setting management by objectives (MBO) promotes

participation when participation is not possible, workers will

respond positively if supervisory trust and support exist



Self-Efficacy Theory a person’s belief that he or she is capable of

performing a task Capability directly affects motivation

higher self-efficacy will have higher expectancy self-efficacy is linked to performance goal setting



Self-Efficacy Theory Enactive mastery

person gains confidence through positive experience

Vicarious modeling learning by observing others

Verbal persuasion encouragement from others that one can perform a task

Emotional arousal high stimulation or energy to perform well in a situation


Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?

Fundamentals of reinforcement theory Focuses on the impact of external

environmental consequences on behavior Law of effect — impact of type of

consequence on future behavior



Operant conditioning: Developed by B.F. Skinner Applies law of effect to control behavior by

manipulating its consequences



Operant conditioning strategies: Positive reinforcement

Increases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of a pleasant consequence

Negative reinforcement Increases the frequency of a behavior through the

contingent removal of an unpleasant consequence



Operant conditioning strategies: Punishment

Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the contingent presentation of an unpleasant consequence

Extinction Decreases the frequency of a behavior through

the contingent removal of an pleasant consequence



Successful implementation of positive reinforcement is based on Law of contingent reinforcement —

Reward delivered only if desired behavior is exhibited

Law of immediate reinforcement — More immediate the delivery of a reward, the

more reinforcement value it has



Schedules of reinforcement: Continuous reinforcement administers a reward each

time a desired behavior occurs Intermittent reinforcement rewards behavior only

periodically Acquisition of behavior is quicker with continuous

reinforcement Behavior acquired under an intermittent schedule is

more permanent Shaping is the creation of a new behavior by positive

reinforcement of successive approximations to it Management 11e Chapter 15 38


Guidelines for using punishment: Tell the person what is being done wrong Tell the person what is being done right Match the punishment to the behavior Administer punishment in private Follow laws of immediate and contingent

reinforcement


Figure 15.5 Applying reinforcement strategies: case of total quality management


Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and motivation?

Job A collection of tasks performed in support of

organizational objectives

Job design The process of creating or defining jobs by

assigning specific work tasks to individuals and groups

Jobs should be designed so that both performance and satisfaction result



Job simplification Standardizing work procedures and

employing people in well-defined and highly specialized tasks

Simplified jobs are narrow in job scope and low in job depth

Automation Total mechanization of a job Most extreme form of job simplification


Figure 15.6 Basic job design alternatives


Please insert figure 15.6 herePlease insert figure 15.6 here


Job rotation and job enlargement: Expands job scope Job rotation

Increases task variety by periodically shifting workers among jobs involving different task assignments

Job enlargement Increases task variety by combining two or more

tasks previously assigned to separate workers Horizontal loading



Job enrichment Building more opportunities for satisfaction

into a job by expanding its content Increases job depth by adding work planning

duties normally performed by a supervisor



Job characteristics model Satisfaction and performance are influencec

by three critical psychological states: Experienced meaningfulness of work Experienced responsibilities for work outcomes Knowledge of actual results of work activities



The three critical psychological states are influenced by five core job characteristics: Skill variety Task identity Task significance Autonomy Feedback



How to improve core job characteristics: Form natural units of work Combine tasks Establish client relationships Open feedback channels Practice vertical loading


Figure 15.7 Designing jobs using the core characteristics model


Source: Reprinted by permission from J. Richard Hackman and Greg R. Oldham, Work Redesign (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1980), p. 90.

Please insert figure 15.7 herePlease insert figure 15.7 here


Flexible working hours Any work schedule that gives employees

some choice in the pattern of their daily work hours Core time — all employees must be at work Flextime — allows employees to schedule around

personal and family responsibilities



Potential benefits of flexible working hours: People have greater autonomy in work

scheduling while ensuring maintenance of work responsibilities

Organizations can attract and retain employees who have special non-work responsibilities

Worker morale may be improved



Compressed workweek Allows a full-time job to be completed in less

than the standard 5 days of 8-hour shifts Benefits — more leisure time, lower commuting

costs, lower absenteeism, and potentially improved performance

Disadvantages — increased fatigue, family adjustment problems, increased scheduling problems, possible customer complaints, and union opposition



Job sharing One full-time job is split between two or more

persons

Work sharing An agreement between employees to cut

back their work hours to avoid layoffs or termination



Potential advantages of work sharing Trained and loyal workers can be retained

while temporarily cutting labor costs Continued work but with reduced earnings

for those who would otherwise be laid off

Potential disadvantages of work sharing Employees who might otherwise be

protected by seniority may suffer an income loss



Telecommuting A work arrangement that allows a portion of

scheduled work hours to be completed outside of the office

Hoteling Virtual offices



Potential advantages of telecommuting: Freedom from

Constraints of commuting Fixed hours Special work attire Direct contact with supervisors

Increased productivity Fewer distractions Being one’s own boss Having more personal time



Potential disadvantages of telecommuting: Working too much Having less personal time Difficulty in separating work and personal life Less time for family Feelings of isolation Loss of visibility for promotion Difficulties supervising

work-at-home employees from a distance



Contingency workers Part-time workers who supplement the full-

time workforce, often on a long-term basis

Part-time work Work done on any schedule less than the

standard 40-hour workweek and does not qualify person as a full-time employee



Implications of part-time work: Provides employers with flexibility in

controlling labor costs and dealing with cyclical labor demands

Temporary workers may lack commitment and be less productive

Contingency workers are often paid less and don’t receive important fringe benefits


Chapter 15 Case

The Three Doctors: Determined to succeed

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Management 11e John Schermerhorn Chapter 15 Motivation Theory and Practice.

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