MAJOR COMPONENTS OF SOCIAL SCIENCES.pptx
Transcript of MAJOR COMPONENTS OF SOCIAL SCIENCES.pptx
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TWO MAJOR COMPONENTS OF
SOCIAL SCIENCES
1. Theoryworld of ideas, theories,
models2. Empirical researchworld of
observation and experience
PRESENTED BY: LIWAYWAY S. VILORIA
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Goals of Social Sciences
Explore, explain phenomena
prediction
Theoretical / Conceptual
World Empirical World
Strategies linking
Theoretical & Empirical
Worlds
Theory
before
Research
Research
before
Theory
Quantitative
Paradigm
Method
Qualitative
Paradigm
Method
Triargulation
( mixed / multiple
theories, methods,
data, researches ) Within Paradigm /
MethodBetween Paradigm /
Across method
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1. Theory-then-research2. Research-then-theory
3. Spiraling Strategy
Theory and research must
interact constantly Contrast between these
strategies are more apparent
than real
Theory-Then-Research Strategy
Idea Theory Design
Data Collection AnalysisFindings/Generalizations
Research-Before-Theory Strategy
Idea Design Data
Collection Theory AnalysisMajor Findings
Spiraling Strategy
Idea Theory Design Data
Collection and OrganizationAnalysis and Interpretation
Conclusion
Literature Review
( Note: see Berge, 1995:16)
RESEARCH STRATEGIES TO LINK
CONCEPTUAL AND EMPIRICAL
WORLDS
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SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEM
Theories
Direct Observations /Experiences
- Issues, difficulties,
current practices
Critical Review of
Professional Literature
- Familiarizes with the
current state of
knowledge (related to
the research topic)
- Contribute to
cumulative nature ofscientific knowledge
Concepts
Theories
Conceptual and Operational Definitions
Problems and hypotheses studied by others
Research methods used
Findings
Recommendations
FOCUS OF CRITICAL REVIEW & PROFESSIONAL /
RELATED LITERATURE
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Main Stages of the Research Process
Theory
Problem
Hypothesis
Research
Design
MeasurementData Collection
Data Analysis
Generalization
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Establishes the Directionfor the research
- Captures in a singlesentence or paragraph,the essence of the study
- Must be written as clearly andconcisely as possible
- Needs to be firmly grounded in theparadigm assumption ( basic indicator of agood purpose statement ) e.g. a goodqualitative purpose statement expresses /implies the assumptions of qualitativeparadigmi.e., language of qualitativeresearch and methodology of an emergingdesign based on experiences of individualsin the natural setting.
The Purpose Statement & All Caps
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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PROBLEM
- represents specific statements of the purposeof the study
Typically uses research questions, notobjectives or hypotheses
Ask one or two grand tour questions followedby not more than five to seven subquestionsto narrow the focus of the study but that donot constrain the qualitative researcher.
- Write not more than 12 questions in all(Miles&Huberman, 1984)
- These questions become topics explored ininterviews, observations, documents andarchival material
The question format might be related tospecific qualitative design types.
Begin the research questions with the wordswhat or how. Tell the reader that the studywill do one of the following, which convey the
language of an emerging design.- discover (e.g. grounded theory )
- explain or seek to understand (e.gethnography)
- explore the process (e.g case study )
- describe the experience (e.g. phenomenology)
Pose questions that use nondirectional
wording
- These questions describe, rather than relate
variables or compare groups.
- Delete words that suggest or refer a
quantitative study, words with a directional
orientation.
- e.g affect, influence, impact, determine, case
and effect.
Expect the research questions to evolve and
change during the study
Use open-ended questions without
experience to the literature or theory unless
otherwise dictated by a qualitative design
type.
Use a single focus and specify the researchsite in the research questions.
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QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH PROBLEM
- represents specific restatements of the
purpose of the study
In survey designs, these restatements of the purpose
of the study take the form of research of questions or
objectives
In experiments, they are hypotheses:
- may be a comparison between two or more groups in
terms of a dependence variable.
- may be a comparison between two or more
independent and dependent variables.
- may be descriptive questions to describe responses tothe independent and dependent variables.
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1. Develop the
hypotheses, questions, or
objectives from theory
- in the deductive
methodological process
of quantitative research,
they are test table
propositions deduced
from theory ( Kerlinger,
1979 ).
2. Keep theindependent and
dependent variables
separate and measure
them separately
- this procedure
reinforces the cause-
and-effect logic
quantitative research.
3. When writing this passage, select
one form.
- write questions, objectives or
hypotheses but not a combination.
Hypothesisdeclarative statement
of the relations between two or
more variables ( Kerlinger, 1979;
Mason and Bamble, 1989)
Research Questions- also poses a
relationship, but phrases the
relationship as a
question(Krathwohl, 1988)
Objectiveis the same relationship
statement in declarative form.
Mixing hypotheses with questions
or objectives conveys an informal
(and redundant) style of writing.
Guidelines in the Development of Quantitative Questions ,
Objectives and Hypotheses
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4. If hypotheses are used, consider thealternative forms for writing them andmake a choice based on the audience forthe research
Use the formal, traditional language towrite hence for the research
Use the formal, traditional language towrite hypotheses.
Null hypothesesstates that there is nosignificant relationship between or
among the variables
- or there is nosignificant differences between or amonggroups (Armstrong, 1974)
Alternative hypothesesstate a
direction for the relationship or thedifferences. This is used if the literaturesuggests a hypothesized direction for thevariables (Krathword, 1988).
Consider writing hypotheses in one offour forms:
a) literary null (concept oriented, no
direction)
b) literary alternative (concept oriented,
directional)
c) operational null (operational, no
direction)
d) operational alternative (operational,
directional)
Literacy formmeans that the variables willbe stated in abstract, concept-oriented
language
Operational formthe variables will be
stated in more specific language.
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5. Use major variables
other than demographics
as independent variables,
unless the study merits a
close examination of
demographic variables.
-Quantitative studies
verify a theory-
demographic variables
typically enter these
models as intervening or
mediating variables.6. Use the same pattern of
word order in the
questions, objectives, or
hypothesis to establish a
formal rhetorical style.
-Repeat Key phrases andorder the variables by
beginning with the
independent and
concluding with the
dependent variables.
-Example of word order with
independent variables stated
first.
1. There is no relationship
between use of ancillary
support services and
academic persistence of
nontraditional-aged college
women.
2. There is no relationship
between family support
systems and academicpersistence of nontraditional
aged college women.
3. There is no relationship
between ancillary support
services and family support
systems
7. Use this model for writing questions
or hypotheses:
Write descriptive questions (or
hypotheses) followed by multivariate
(or inferential) questions or hypotheses.
1. write description question(s) for
each independent and dependent
variable (and important mediating
variables, if necessary) in the study.
2. Descriptive questions are then
followed by multivariate questions
that relate variables and compare
groups.
3. Multivariable questions are
followed by questions that add any
mediating or controlled variables.
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X1 + Y1+
Z1_
X2 _ Y2
Two Groups, X1and X2, Are Compared in Terms of Z1, Controlling for the Effects
of Y1and Y2
Independent
Variable
Mediating
Variable
Dependent
Variable
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Researcher Tests a Theory
Researcher Tests Hypotheses or Research
Questions Derived from the Theory
Researcher Operationalizes Concepts or VariablesDerived from the Theory
Researcher Uses an Instrument to MeasureVariables in the Theory
The Deductive mode of Research in a Quantitative Study
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Paradigm - the theory dominant in any historical period
-helps understand phenomena
- advances assumption about the social world,
how science should be conducted, and what
constitute legitimate problems, solution, and
criteria of proof.
-
differ by discipline fields, and are oftencontested.
RESEARCH PARADIGMS
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Focus the topic by describing it
succinctly, drafting a working title,
and considering whether it is
researchable.
FOCUSING THE STUDYFocus for the studythe central concept being examined in a scholarly study may emerge from:
In a single sentence describe the focus concisely
working title helps focus the direction of research
working title may be modified as one proceeds with a project.
be brief and avoid wasting words.
eliminate unnecessary words such as An approach to and A Study of.
use a single title or a double title ( Wilkinson, 1991)
title must not be longer than 12 words
eliminate mot articles and prepositions
make sure it includes the focus or topic of the study
extensive literature receive
suggestions from colleagues, advisors,
researchers practical experiences
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Criteria for Determining the Researchability of the topic
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Triangulation
use multiple methods of data collectionand analysis
these methods might be drawn from withinmethods approaches (i.e. different types ofquantitative data collection strategiese.g.survey and experiment)
between methods qualitative andquantitative data collection procedures (e.g.in-depth interviews and a survey)
(Jick, 1979; Grant and Fine, 1992)
Observations may be supplemented withstructured, quantitative observations
mixing of ethnography and experimental
research survey research and qualitative procedures
TRIANGULATION METHOD
/
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Two-phase designconsist of aqualitative phase and a separatequantitative phase of the study. Thisclearly separates the two paradigms.
Dominant-less dominant designplacesthe study within a single, dominant
paradigm with one small component ofthe overall study drawn from thealternative paradigm.
E.g. * experimental study with smallqualitative interview component in thedata collection
* qualitative observationfollowed by a quantitative survey of asample from a population
MixedMethodology Designinvolvesmixing aspects of the qualitative andquantitative paradigm at all or manymethodological steps in the design.
Conceptan abstraction- a symbol- a
representation of an object or one of its
properties, or of a behavioral phenomenon.
Functions of Concepts
1. Provide a common language, whichenables scientist to communicate with
one another
2. Concepts give scientists a perspective- a
way of looking at phenomena
3. Concepts allow scientists to classify their
experience and to generalize from them4. Concepts are components of theories-
they define a theorys content and
attributes
MODELS OF TRIANGULATION/COMBINED DESGINS
Twophase design
Dominantuse dominant design
Mixedmethodology design Concepts
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Conceptual Definitions Definitions thatdescribe concepts by using other concepts;or by using primitive terms (concrete andcannot by defined by other concepts) and
derived terms constructed by usingprimitive terms
Operational Definition describes a set of
procedures to establish the existence ofthe phenomenon described by theconcept.
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Theory provides explanation to the hypotheses,questions or objectives (basically in a quantitative
study) Given its importance in the conceptualization of
research, it is introduced in the design process.
Definition of theory in Quantitative paradigm a set ofinterrelated constructs (variables), definitions, andpropositions that presents a systematic view ofphenomena by specifying relations among variables,with the purpose of explaining natural phenomena(Krlinger, 1979)
interrelated set of constructs (or variables) are formed
into propositions or hypothesis that specify therelationships among variables
relationships among variables-specified in terms ofmagnitude or direction
systemic view-might be an argument, a discussion, ora rationale that helps explain (or predict phenomena)that occur in the world.
Theoretical rationale an idea add to systemic viewof phenomena by Lebovits and Hagedorn (1977:17)-
means specifying how and why the variables andrelational statements are interrelated
Terms that may be used to refer to thepassage/section in a quantitative study that discussesits theorical foundation:
Theory base
Theoretical rationale
Theoretical perspective
Bases for Classification of Theories
1. Breadth or scopea) Grand theories ( explain large categories of phenomena,
common in the natural sciences-e.g. Darwing Theory ofevolution)
b) Middle-range theories (fall between workinghypotheses of everyday life and grand theories-e.g. lifespan development Theories, deviance theories)
c) Substantive theories restricted to a particular setting,group, time, population, or problem.
2. Form of presentationshows a causal ordering of variables
a) A series ofifthen statements that explain whyindependent variables influence or cause the dependentvariables (e.g. Homanstheory of interaction, 1950: 112,118, 120)
b) a series of hypotheses [e.g. Hopkins (1964) theory of theinfluence processes involves 5 variables and 15propositions]
3. Levels of Abstraction (Parsons and Shils)
a) Ad hoe classificatory systems
b) Categorical system ( Parsonsanalysis of Social Action)
c) Conceptual frameworks
d) Theoretical Systems
e) function- deals with static or dynamic phenomena
f) Structure logical systems of thought w/ closely levelinterrelationships, or
- closely defined set of propositions
Use of a Theory in Quantitative Paradigm of
Research
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Parsms, Social ActionTheory
Behavior attributes -goal oriented, occurs ingroup situations,
mormatively regulated,involves expenditure,
energy
Forms of SocialSystems
PersonallySystem
CulturalSystem
SocialSystem
These behavior
attributes constitute a
social system
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Conceptual FrameworkThird levelof Theory
Systematic placement/arrangement ofdescriptive categories in a broad structureof explicit propositions, statements ofrelationships between two or moreempirical properties, to be accepted orrejected
Conceptual modelan abstractrepresentation of reality that ordersand simplifies our views of reality byrepresenting its essential characteristics
delineates those aspects of the real worldconsidered to be relevant to the probleminvestigated
make a explicit the significant relationshipsamong those aspects
enables the researcher to formulate empirically
testable propositions regarding the nature ofthree relationships
After testing, and achieving a betterunderstanding of some parts of the real world,the scientist may decide to change the model toconform with his or her new insights.
also used to gain insight into the phenomena
that the scientist cannot observe directly.
tools for explanation and predictions
often changed to represent reality moreaccurately and to incorporate new knowledge.
critical attribute of a scientific model is that itcan be tested empirically; that is, it can be
proved false and changed or discarded.
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Key Components
Establishing the problem leading to thestudy (1stand/ or 2ndparagraph)
Casting the problem within a largerscholarly literature
Discussing deficiencies in the literatureabout the problem
Targeting an audience and noting thesignificance of the problem for this
audience
INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
Sets the stage for the entire study
Provides background information for the research
Establishes a framework for the research
PARTS OF INTRODUCTION to the STUDY
1STand/2ndParagraphsCreates readersinterests and Establish the problem or issuethat leads to the study
Problemissue that emerges from theliterature, theory or practice that
creates/leads to a need
for the study.
- rationale for the study
3rdParagraph - Discusses the literature that hasaddressed the problem
Review entire volumes of research, not
single or isolated studies
Casts the problem within the ongoingdialogue in the literature (place the in-textreferences
at the end of the paragraph or at the endof the Summary about several studies)
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3rdparagraph
Literature About the Problem
review entire volumes of research, not single, isolated studies about the problem
cast the problem within the larger literature / ongoing dialogue in the literature
4thParagraphDiscuss deficiencies in the past literature
Write about areas overlooked by past studies, including topics, special statistical
treatments, and significant implications.
Discuss how the present study addresses these deficiencies and provides a unique
contribution to the literature
5thParagraphTarget the Audience
End the introduction by discussing the significance of the problem for a specific audience.
- may consist of a short phrase or a longer passage
- may address diverse audience: (practitioners, other researchers, or policymakers)
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Write an opening sentence that stimulate and conveys to which a broad readership can relate
Specify the problem (dilemma, issue leading to the study)
What issue serves as a strong need / justification to conduct the study?
Indicate why the problem is important
Focus the problem on the Key concept being tested quantitatively or explored qualitatively.
In quantitative studythis concept is the dependent variable
In qualitative studythis is the main phenomenon of interest
As a general rule, refrain from using quotes in the lead sentence.
This rule may be relaxed in the qualitative studies written form a literary style.
Refrain from using idiomatic expressions or trite phrases (e.g sacred cow)
Consider numeric information for impact
Consider short sentences for impact