AN

OVERVIEW PROJECT

ONMAGENTA PIGMENT ISOLATION FROM FUNGUS

FROM

SHRM BIOTECH PVT. LIMITED KOLKATA(JULY-AUGUST 2010)(JULY-AUGUST 2010)

SUBMITTED BY

ARKABRATA BANDYAPADHYAY

3RD YEAR

B.Sc (H) IN BIO-TECHNOLOGY

Under the supervision ofUnder the supervision of

Mr. Ashish RoyMr. Ashish Roy

(Project Coordinator)(Project Coordinator)

REGISTRATION NUMBER: 1586 of 2008-2009

ROLL NUMBER: BUR D BT 2009/O5

CONTENTS

Pageno.

ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………

INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………..

WHY MAGENTA PIGMENT? ...................................................................................................

PHISICS OF COLUR…………………………………………………………………………………..

PIGMENT………………………………………………………………………………………………

MAGENTA……………………………………………………………………………………………..

HUE……………………………………………………………………………………………………..

CMYK…………………………………………………………………………………………………...

VARIATION OF MAGENTA……………………………………………………....

MAGENTA DYE………………………………………………………………………………………..

PROCESS MAGENTA………………………………………………………………………………….

ELECTRIC MAGENTA ………………………………………………………………………………..

REVIEW OF LITERATURE……………………………………………………….

HISTORY OF MAGENTA….………………………………………………………

MAGENTA IN POPULAR CULTURE……………………………………………

COMICS BOOK………………………………………………………………………………………..

BUSINESS……………………………………………………………………………………………...

ASTRONOMY………………………………………………………………………………………….

FILM ……………………………………………………………………………………………………

MUSIC…………………………………………………………………………………………………..

PARAPSYCHOLOGY………………………………………………………………………………….

POLITICS……………………………………………………………………………………………….

MATERIALS AND METHOD……………………………………………………...

MATERIALS………………………………………………………………………….

INSRUMENT…………………………………………………………………………………………….

GLASS WARES………………………………………………………………………………………….

FIBERS……………………………………………………………………………………………………

CULTURE ………………………………………………………………………………………………..

CHEMICALS……………………………………………………………………………………………...

METHODS……………………………………………………………………………..

PREPARATION (100ml.) OF POTATO DEXTROSE AGAR (PDA)…………………………………...

PREPARATION(100ml.) OF CZAPEK’S BROTH MEDIA……………………………………………..

COLLECTING OF FUNGUS……………………………………………………………………………..

MAGENTA PIGMENT PRODUCTION PROCESS……………………………………………………..

QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF PIGMENT………………………………………………………...

PURIFICATION OF PIGMENT……………………………………………………..

PREPARATION OF SILICA GEL FOR TLC…………………………………………………………….

PREPARATION OF MOBILE PHASE……………………………………………………………………

PROCEDURE………………………………………………………………………………………………

RETARDATION FACTOR……………………………………………………………………………….

RESULT AND DISCUSSION…………………………………………………………

OBSERVATION OF MANGO TREE’S FUNGUS……………………………………………………….

OBSERVATION OF NEEM TREE’S FUNGUS………………………………………………………….

OBSERVATION OF JACK FRUIT TREE’S FUNGUS………………………………………………….

CONCLUTION…………………………………………………………………………

ADVANTAGES(Health and safety aspects of natural dyes)………………………...

LIMITATION…………………………………………………………………………...

REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………..

EXTARNAL LINKS…………………………………………………………………….

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I owe a great many thanks to a great many people who helped and supported me during

my project paper.

My deepest thanks to the project coordinator Mr.ASHISH ROY and also my collage

H.O.D Dr. Bidyut Bandhopadhaya the Guide of the project for guiding and correcting

various documents of mine with attention and care. He has taken pain to go through the

project and make necessary correction as and when needed.

I express my thanks to the Principal of University of Burdwan, for extending his support.

My deep sense of gratitude to Mr. Ashish Roy my project coordinator and collage H.O.D.

Mr. Bidyut Bndhopadhaya, SHRM BIO- TECH pvt. ltd. Kolkata support and guidance.

Thanks and appreciation to the helpful people at SHRM BIO- TECH pvt. ltd. Kolkata, for

their support.

I am greatly obliged to the director of SHRM who accommodated me for the training of

the organization.

I would also thank my Institution and my faculty members without whom this project

would have been a distant reality. I also extend my heartfelt thanks to my family, my

parents(Goutam Bandyapadhayay and Anulekha Bandyapadhyay),my sister(Angana

Bandyapadhyay) my friends and well wishers.

DECLARATION

I DO HERE BY DECLARE THAT THIS DISSERTATION REPORT SUBMITTED BY ME ABOUT MAGENTA PIGMENT ISOLATION FROM FUNGUS, IS OF MY OWN AND NOT SUBMITTED TO ANY OTHER INSTITUTION OR PUBLISHED ANYWHERE ELSE.

ARKABRATA BANERJEE

REG NO.

ROLL NO.

DATE:

A BSTRACT

The fungus producing magenta was collected from different tree like

mango,neem,jack fruit etc. in nature and culture these fungus from different trees

on different PDA(potato dextrose agar) media plate. The fungal strain that

produced magenta pigment was closely related to Phoma herbarum. The type of

fibers added to Czapek’s medium influenced which pigments were produced. The

pigment was purified through TLC chromatography. The pigment structure was

partially determined. This is the first report of the production of magenta pigment

by a microorganism specifically in the presence of nylon-6 fibers, via an unknown

mechanism. This phenomenon raises the question of why and how the fungus

disperses the pigment inside the fiber and suggests that fabrics can be dyed using

microorganisms.

I NTRODUCTION

WHY MAGENTA PIGMENT?

Demand for natural instead of synthetic pigments for coloring fabrics, foods and

cosmetics is increasing. Unlike pigments that are synthetic, those from natural sources

allow subtle differences in tone because such pigments generally comprise various

color components. Microbes have recently received focus as sources of natural

pigments . Many fungal species produce pigments. Monascus fungi produce red or

yellow pigments that are used as food colorants. Hahella produces red, prodigiosin,

Ashbya produces yellow riboflavin , Phoma produces orange aza-anthraquinone and

Chromobacterium produces blue violacein. We discovered a fungus that produces

magenta pigment. We found that the produced colors were magenta, pink or green

depending on the type of fiber added to the culture medium. These findings indicated

that various fibers influence the metabolic pathways involved in the production of

secondary pigment metabolites.

PHYSICS OF COLOUR :

Electromagnetic radiation is characterized by its wavelength and its intensity.

When wavelength is with in visible spectrum the range of wavelength human can

perceive, approximately from 380 nm to 740 nm. It is known visible light. The science

of colour is called as chromatics.

PIGMENT :

A pigment is the material that changes the colour of light .it reflects as the

result of selective colour absorption. This physical process differs from Fluorescence,

phosphorescence and other forms of Luminescence in which the material itself emits

light. Many materials absorb certain wavelength of light that humans have chosen and

develop for use as pigments usually have special properties that make them ideal for

coloring other materials. A pigment has a high tinting strength relative to the materials

it colors. It must be stable form at ambient temperature.

Archaeologists have uncovered evidence that early humans used paint for

aesthetic purpose such as body decoration. Pigments and paint grinding equipment

believed to be between 350,000 and 400,000 years old have been reported in a cave at

twin Rivers, near Lusaka, Zambia. The earliest known pigments were natural

minerals.

Microbes have recently received focus as sources of natural pigments, many

fungal species produce pigments. Monascus fungi produces Red or yellow pigments

that are used as food colorants. Hahella produces red, Prodigiosin, Ashbya produces

Yellow Riboflavin, and Phoma produces Pink or Orange pigment.

MAGENTA :

Magenta is a colour made up of equal part of red and blue light. This would be

the precise definition of the colour as defind for computer display. It is pure chroma

on the colour wheel mid way between violet and rose. In HSV colour space, Magenta

has a Hue of 300˚C.

Magenta is not a spectral but an extra spectral colour. It can’t be generated by

light of single wavelength. Human being can only see as far as 380 nm in to the

spectrum i.e. as far as violet. The Hue Magenta is the complement of green. Magenta

pigment absorb green light, thus Magenta and green are opposite colour.

Magenta actually contains more purple pigment than Fuchsia that is actually

used to create Magenta. Magenta was invented in 1980. The colour originally called

as Fushin made from coal tar dyes in 1859. Besides being called original magenta, it is

also called Rich magenta. It is mixture of red and blue wavelength.

HUE :

Hue is one of the main properties of a colour defined technically as the degree to

which a stimulus can be described as red, green, blue, and yellow.

CMYK :

The best places to start when trying to understand the colour spectrum is with the

CMYK colour model which is composed of cyan that is a bluish green colour,

magenta is a purplish red colour, yellow that is medium yellow and key which is

black. The CMYK colour model is newer to the industry compared to the more

traditional RGB or red, green, blue model.

V ARIATION OF M AGENTA

Magenta is a purplish pink colour evoked by light with less power in yellowish

green wavelength then in blue and red wavelength. The hue magenta is the

complement of green. Magenta pigment absorb green light, thus magenta and green

are opposite colour.

The three variation of magenta pigment are;

1. MAGENTA DYE (ORIGINALVARIATION)

2. PROCESS MAGENTA (PIGMENTMAGENTA) (PRINTER MAGENTA)

3. ELECTRIC MAGENTA (ADDTIVE SECONDARY MAGENTA)

1. MAGENTA DYE :

Before printer’s magenta was invented in the 1890 for CMYK printing and

electric magenta was invented in 1980 for computer display. Magenta dye colour is

also called Rich Magenta. Magenta was one of the first aniline dyes discovered

shortly after the Battle of Magenta (1859). The colour was originally called Fuchine

or Roseine, but for marketing purpose in 1860 the colour name was changed to

magenta.

2. PROCESS MAGENTA :

In colour printing, the colour called Process Magenta or Pigment Magenta. It

is one of the primary pigment colours which along with yellow and cyan constitute the

3 subtractive primary colours of pigment. The secondary colours of pigment are blue,

green, and red. As such the CMYK printing process was invented in 1890. Process

Magenta is not an RGB colour, and there is no fixed conversion from CMYK to RGB.

3. ELECTRIC MAGENTA :

For computer colour radiation, that specific Hue of magenta composed of

equal part of red and blue light was termed the WEB colour fuchsia and was assigned

as an alias for the RGB code of magenta on the list of standardized web colours

“ELECTRIC” Magenta and fuchsia are exactly same colour. Some time Electric

Magenta is called “ELECTONIC” Magenta.

R eview of literature

Dyeing has almost ceased to exist as a traditional art. In this 20 th century the

importance of colour is our lives seems to be realizing less and less. It has been

forgotten that strong and beautiful colour, such as used to abound in all everyday

things is an essential to the full joy of life.

A DYE can generally describe as a colored substance that has an affinity to

the substrate which it is being applied. Both dye and pigment appear to be colored

because; they absorb some wavelength of light. The first human made (synthetic)

organic dye, Mauveine, was discovered by William Henry Perkin in 1856. Many

thousand of synthetic dyes have since been prepare. Synthetic dyes quickly replaced

the natural traditional dyes.

One aspects of the invention relates to a process for preparing a magenta or Azo

pigment involving the steps of coupling at least one diazonium component of one or

more aromatic amine where R is a lower alkyl group or a Hydro carboxyl group.

The present invention relates to metabolized Azo blue shade red to magenta

pigment suitable for use as a coloring agent. Methods of making and using the

metalized azo magenta pigment and plastic coating and inks. According to the present

invention magenta exhibit high tinctorial strength while simultaneously exhibiting

good heat stability, light fastness.

In the middle of nineteenth century all dyes available to man came from

natural sources. Most of these were vegetable extract and few were animal product.

Today however practically all dyes are synthetic. They are prepared from aromatic

compound. If a natural dye did not have the chemical grouping necessary to react with

the chemical grouping of a particular fabric, which the fabric couldn’t dyed with that

material. According to present invention contain few (no more than about one)

Halogen atom or pigment molecule. So the metalized azo magenta pigment is

environmentally friendly. The azo pigment of present invention are prepared by

initially diazotizing one or more aromatic amines suitable for use in this invention and

there after coupling diazonium component with a coupling component suitable for use

in this invention to form described dye.

H ISTORY OF M AGENTA

Magenta is the first aniline dye discovered shortly after the battle of Magenta

(1859).This occurred near the town of magenta in Northern Italy. The colour was

originally called Fuchsine or rosine but for marketing purpose in 1860 the colour

name was change to Magenta after the battle.

The history of Magenta dye is very intresting. Egyptian mummies have been found

wrapped in cloth dyed from the madder plant.

Alexander the great is supposed to have deceived the Persians into thinking that his

armies were wounded by sprinkling his solder with a red dye, probably madder juice,

which contain the dye alizarian.

The dark blue indigo dye has been known for over 4000 years, when Romans invaded

England, they found that the country was inhabited by the ancient people called picts.

They tattooed and painted themselves with indigo. Latin meaning of Briton is painted

man.

Mark Antony’s flight from the crucial naval battle of Actium was especially

conspicuous because he fled in Cleopatra’s barge, which was carrying snails, known

for their colour Royal purple.

M agenta in H uman c ulture

COMICS BOOKS :

Magenta is a fictional character in the DC Comics' series Teen Titans.

BUSINESS :

Magenta is a color trademark of Deutsche Telekom AG, parent company of T-Mobile

ASTRONOMY :

Fig:Artist's vision of a spectral class T brown dwarf

Astronomers have reported that spectral class T brown dwarves (the ones with the

coolest temperatures) are colored magenta because of absorption by sodium and

potassium atoms of light in the green portion of the spectrum.

FILM :

Magenta is a fictional character ("a domestic") in the Rocky Horror Picture Show.

MUSIC :

There is a song called Magenta on the 1998 album Blue Wonder Power Milk by

Hoover phonic.

Magenta is the title of a spoken word song by Ken Nordine on his 1967 Colors

album.

PARAPSYCHOLOGY :

To psychics who claim to be able to observe the aura with their third eye, someone who has a magenta aura is usually described as being artistic and creative. It is reported that typical occupations for someone with a magenta aura would be such professions as artist, art dealer, actor, author, costume designer, or set designer.

POLITICS :

The color magenta is used to symbolize anti-racism by the Amsterdam-based anti-racism Magenta Foundation.

In Spain, magenta is used as the official color of the UPyD "Union, Progress and Democracy" political party.

M ATERIALS AND M ETHOD

: MATERIALS :

1. INSTRUMENTS:

Chemical balance

pH meter

Autoclave

Laminar airflow for aseptic condition

Incubator

Refrigerator for keeping stock solution and chemicals

Hot air oven

Shaker

Microscope

2. GLASS WARES:

Test Tubes

Volumetric flacks and beaker for media preparation

Conical flasks and Petri dishes (culture vessels)and Forceps

3. FIBERS:

Cotton

Silk and polyester (Polyethyleneterepthalate)

Filter paper

4. CULTURE:

For production for pigment fungus was cultivated in the following media.

Potato dextrose agar (PDA)

Czapek’s agar

5. CHEMICALS:

Detergent

Ethanol, Methanol,Isopropanol and Ethyl acetate and n-Hexane.

: METHODS :

1. PREPARATION (100ml.) OF POTATO DEXTROSE AGAR (PDA):

Potato -- 20g.

Dextrose -- 2g.

Distilled water -- as required as for 100ml. media

Agar -- 2g.

Now peel off the potato and cut into short pieces then boil it with 50ml. of distilled Water

and after boiled filter it with cheese cloth to separate the water and potato.Then measured

the boiled water in measuring cylinder and then add the extra distilled water In the

measuring cylinder upto 100ml.Then add Dextrose and Agar.

Media are commonly sterilized by autoclaving culture media in glass container sealed

with cotton plug or aluminium foil. Then autoclaved at 15 lbs and 121ºC for 15 to 40

mins. The pressure shouldn’t exceed 20 psi as higher pressure may lead to the

decomposition of carbohydrate and the component of the medium.

2. PREPARATION(100ml.) OF CZAPEK’S BROTH MEDIA:

Sodium nitrate -- 0.2g.

Dipotassium hydrogen phosphate -- 0.1g.

Magnesium sulphate -- 0.05g.

Potassium chloride -- 0.05g.

Ferrous sulphate -- 0.001g.

Sucrose -- 3g.

Distilled water -- 100 ml.

At first added sodium nitrate, dipotasium hydrogen phosphate,magnesium

chloride,ferrous sulphate,sucrose into 40ml. of distilled water and potassium chloride into

10ml.of distilled water and Then both of these solution mixed in measuring cylinder and

then added distilled water upto 100ml.

Media are commonly sterilized by autoclaving culture media in glass container sealed

with cotton plug or aluminium foil. Then autoclaved at 15 lbs and 121ºC for 15 to 40

mins.The pressure shouldn’t exceed 20 psi as higher pressure may lead to the

decomposition of carbohydrate and the component of the medium.

Fig: Czapek’s Broth.

3. COLLECTING OF FUNGUS:

Fungus was collected from plant like Mango tree,Neem tree,Jack fruit tree .

4. MAGENTA PIGMENT PRODUCTION PROCESS:

The collected fungus from 3 different trees were grow on three different Petri plates with

PDA(potato dextrose agar) media for screening of fungus having the capability to

produce Magenta Pigment.Then the three plates were store in the dark room at 25ºC for 7

days.

The spreading of fungus on media plate have to perform in laminar air flow for aseptic

condition.

Fig: Mango tree’s fungus on PDA media.

After 7 days fungus that produce Magenta Pigment on agar plate were isolated and

Cultured in different Czapek’s broth(100ml.) media having different fibers like

cotton,silk and polyester(all this fibers were added in same amount),and incubated for 15

days.

Fig: Magenta Pigment produced by mango tree’s fungus on PDA media.

Fig: Magenta Pigment produced in Czapek’s broth using cotton and silk.

The fibers were cut into small pieces and sterilized with the help of Autoclave.

After 15 days the pigment was collected differently in glass container from three fibers

(cotton,silk,polyester) by pressing the fibers.

5. CHEAKING OF PRODUCTIVITY or QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF

PIGMENT:

Collected three different pigment from three different fibers were treated with 200ml. of

Methanol and then dried out in air to obtained the powder dye(Magenta Pigment).

Fig: Extraction of magenta pigment by using methanol

Point Noted: all the petri plates were used after store

these plates in hot air oven for minimum 10 mins.

And when the pigment was added in the Czapek’s

broth media,this task have to perform in Laminar air flow for aseptic condition.

Sterilizing the culture vessel and instruments(Glass culture vials, metal instruments can

be sterilized by properly wrapped with aluminium foil before sterilization and

autoclaving under steam at a pressure of 15 lbs and temperatures of 121ºc for 15 mins.

The instrument used for aseptic manipulation is usually made of metal. Normally

instruments such as forceps, scalpels, needles and spatula are sterilized by dipping in

95% ethanol followed by flaming and cooling.)

6.PURIFICATION OF PIGMENT:

TLC (thin layer chromatography) is used for the purification of magenta pigment.

Thin layer chromatography (TLC) is a simple, quick and inexpensive procedure that

gives the chemist a quick answer as to have many component are in a mixture.

Thin layer chromatography is also used to support to identity of a compound in a

mixture when the Rf of a compound is compared with the Rf of a known compound

(run on the same TLC plate).

A TLC plate is a thin of glass, metal or plastic which is coated with a Thin Layer of a

solid adsorbent (usually silica, alumina). A small amount of the mixture to be

analyzed is spotted near the bottom of this plate.

The TLC plate is then placed in a shallow pool of a solvent in a developing chamber

so that only the very bottom of plate is in the liquid. This liquid, or the eluent is the

mobile phase and it slowly rises up to the TLC plate by capillary action.

As the solvent moves past the spot that was applied. Equilibrium is established for

each component of mixture between the molecule of that component which is

adsorbed on solid and molecule which are in solution. When the solvent has reached

the top of the plate, the plate is removed from developing chamber, dried and the

separated component of the mixture. If the compounds are colour visualization is

straight forward.

Usually the compounds are not coloured so, UV lamp is used to visualize the plate.

The retardation factor or Rf is defined as the distance travelled by the compound

divided by the distance travelled by the solvent.

(a) PREPARATION OF SILICA GEL FOR TLC PLATE:

Take one spoon of silica gel in a beaker and add 5o ml of water in to it. Then add a

small pinch of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Mix the solution thoroughly and then spread it

on to the glass plate by a glass rod.

(b) PREPARATION OF MOBILE PHASE:

Mobile phase for thin layer chromatography is a mixture of three solution i.e.

Butanol,water and glacial acetic acid. At first take 12 ml of Butanol then 1 ml of water and

one drop of Glacial acetic acid in the chromatographic chamber and cover it.

(c) PROCEDURE:

For purification of pigment TLC (Thin Layer Chromatography) is used. The crude

pigment isolated was then loaded on the TLC plate and the pure pigment was observed. For

his procedure at first TLC plate and Mobile phase (Butanol, water and Glacial acetic acid)

was prepared. Then the pigment which was washed with Methanol was loaded on the TLC

plate with the capillary tube and TLC plate was put in the mobile phase and kept it for some

time until the mobile phase run up to one third of the TLC plate and then removed he plate

from developing

chamber (MOBILE PHASE) and dried. The main magenta band on the TLC plate was

analyzed H-NMR or by spraying Ninhydrin solution over the TLC plate and observed the

magenta band by analyzing the Rf values.

Fig: Pure Magenta

(d) RETARDATION FACTOR (Rf):

The Retardation factor or Rf is defined as the distance traveled by the compound(solute)

divided by the distance traveled by solvent.

Rf = Distance traveled by solute / distance traveled by Mobile phase.

R ESULT AND D ISCUSSION

1. OBSERVATION OF MANGO TREE’S FUNGUS:

The fungus from mango tree grew well and quickly on PDA media in 7 days.They

formed redish color pigment on media.These fungus formed colonies were relatively

biger than other.The redish color pigment gives magenta color in Czapek’s broth with

fiber.

This time the cotton give more magenta pigment than other.

Silk gives magenta pigment less than cotton.

Polyester gives magenta pigment more than silk but less than cotton.

2. OBSERVATION OF NEEM TREE’S FUNGUS:

The fungus from neem tree grew quite slowly than mango tree’s fungus on PDA Media

in 7 days.But these fungus not produced pigment on PDA.

3. OBSERVATION OF JACK FRUIT TREE’S FUNGUS:

The fungus from jack fruit tree grew goodly and fast on PDA media in 7 days.They

formed pinkish color pigment on media.These fungus formed colonies were bigger but

not more than mango tree’s fungus colonies. The pinkish color pigment gives magenta

color in Czapek’s broth media with fiber.

This time the cotton gives more pigment than other.

Silk gives magenta pigment less than cotton.

Polyester gives magenta pigment more than silk but less than cotton.

C ONCLUSION

Thus, this study concludes that pigment production depends on the nature of medium,

the culture condition along with its temperature and the source of fungus also.

Physiological test also suggests some of the property of the isolated pigment. It was

identified that the fungus produced magenta and other pigments on Czapek’s agar in the

presence of various fibers

A DVANTAGES (Health and safety aspects of natural dyes)

Though all Natural dyes are not 100% safe, they are less toxic than their synthetic counter

parts. Many of the Natural dyes like turmeric, annatto and saffron are permitted as food

additives. Many natural dyes have pharmacological effects and possible health benefit.

1. They are obtained from renewable sources. Natural dyes cause no disposal

problems, as they are biodegradable.

2. Practically no or mild reactions are involved in their preparation.

3. They are unsophisticated and harmonized with nature.

4. Many natural dyes have the advantage that even though they have poor wash

fastness ratings, they don’t stained the adjacent fabrics in the washing process

because of the non subtractive nature of the dye towards the fabric.

5. An exception to this is turmeric, which shows substantvity for cotton.

6. Natural dyes are cost effective.

7. It is possible to obtain a full range of colours using various mordents.

L IMITATION :

The limitations of natural dyes that are responsible for their decline are

1. Availability

2. Colour yield

3. Complexity of textile dyeingprocess

4. Reproducibility of colour shade.

Beside these there are other technical drawbacks of natural dyes,

1. Limited number of suitable dye

2. Great difficulty in blending.

3. Non standardized

4. In adequate degree of fixation.

5. Water pollution by heavy metals and large amount of organic substances.

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Nakashima, T., Kurachi, M., Kato,Y.,Yamaguchi, k.,and Oda, T.(2005)

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Omura Bay of in Japan and several biological activity of pigment produced by

this isolates. Microbiol. Immunol., 49, 407-415.

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protease activity of Monascus purpureus as affected by salt, Sodium Nitrate,

Poly Phosphate and various Sugars. J.Appl. Microbiol., 88, 31-37.

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sequence of fungal ribosomal RNA genes for phylogenetics. In PCR protocols,

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Rttori, D. and Duran, N. (1998) Production, extraction and purification of

violacein: An antibiotic pigment produced by Chromobacterium violaceum.

World J. Microbiol.Biotechnol. , 14, 685-688.

Shin, C.S., Kim, H.J., Kim, M.J., and Ju, J.Y.(1998) Morphological change and

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Stahmenn, K.P., Arst, H.N., Jr., Althofer, H., Revuelta, J.L., Monschau, N.,

Schlupen, C., Gatgens, C., Wiesenburg, A., and Schlosser, T. (2001)

Riboflavin, overproduced during sporulation of Ashbya gossypii, protects its

hyaline spores against ultraviolet light. Environ. Microbiol., 3,545-550.

E XTERNAL L INKS

How the color magenta was discovered in 1859 through research into coal

tar (aniline) dyes.

Pictures of actual aniline dye samples in various shades of magenta.

Color Tribe List of colors

Magenta is a product of the brain rather than a spectral frequency

Magenta Ain't A Colour