MA Thesis Communication Sciences - Why Enjoyment May Be More than the Pursuit of Pleasure
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Transcript of MA Thesis Communication Sciences - Why Enjoyment May Be More than the Pursuit of Pleasure
Why Enjoyment May Be More
than the Pursuit of Pleasure
On the Role of Prior Experience and Emotions
in Media Enjoyment
Rianne Wijmenga (1539817)
August 11th
2011
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Faculty of Social Sciences
Master’s thesis, department of Communication Science
Supervisor: prof. dr. Elly A. Konijn
Second reader: dr. Cees M. Koolstra
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ABSTRACT
This research tried to gain new insights in the sad movie paradox by combining the perspectives
of three earlier studies: 1) Nabi, Finnerty, Domschke, and Hull (2006) on the therapeutic effects
of media; 2) Konijn, Walma van der Molen, and Van Nes, (2009) on emotions bias perceptions;
and 3) Oliver and Raney (in press) on eudaimonic media use. Through a quasi-experiment
embedded in a questionnaire (N = 236) data were collected among adolescents, testing the
influence of prior experience with having been bullied, emotional responsiveness to thinking
about bullying, and being exposed to a bullying-related film clip on media preference, enjoyment,
coping, information value, perceived realism, and eudaimonic viewing motives. The results
showed that prior experience with having been bullied affected adolescents’ preference for
bullying-related films, and their enjoyment of it. Coping with emotions, and both perceived
realism and information value had a positive influence on enjoyment. Results are discussed
suggesting enjoyment is more than the pursuit of pleasure, because media use is affected by
users’ interest in gaining new insights through media.
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INDEX
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 4
Theoretical background .................................................................................................................... 7
Bullying, emotions, and media use .............................................................................................. 7
Insight through emotion theory .................................................................................................... 8
Coping with emotions ................................................................................................................ 10
The main hypotheses .................................................................................................................. 11
Enjoyment and coping styles ...................................................................................................... 13
Perceived realism and information value ................................................................................... 14
Eudaimonic viewing motivations ............................................................................................... 17
Method ........................................................................................................................................... 20
Participants ................................................................................................................................. 20
Design ......................................................................................................................................... 20
Stimulus materials ...................................................................................................................... 21
Measures ..................................................................................................................................... 23
Procedure .................................................................................................................................... 26
Results ............................................................................................................................................ 28
Preliminary analyses .................................................................................................................. 28
Testing H1: media preference .................................................................................................... 31
Testing H2: enjoyment ............................................................................................................... 33
Testing H3: coping with emotions ............................................................................................. 35
Analyzing the RQ: coping and enjoyment ................................................................................. 38
Testing H4: perceived realism and information value ............................................................... 40
Testing H5: perceived realism, information value, and enjoyment ........................................... 44
Testing H6: eudaimonic viewing motives .................................................................................. 46
Conclusions and discussion ............................................................................................................ 51
Conclusions ................................................................................................................................ 51
Discussion .................................................................................................................................. 52
Answering the research question ................................................................................................ 57
Limitations and future research .................................................................................................. 57
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ 60
References ...................................................................................................................................... 61
Appendix ........................................................................................................................................ 66
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INTRODUCTION
The words “entertainment” and “enjoyment” are frequently used together (Oliver & Raney, in
press). Sometimes the use of entertainment media even seems equal to media enjoyment.
Enjoyment also is a major focus of media psychology research (Vorderer, Klimmt, & Ritterfeld,
2004); the current study focuses on media enjoyment as well. But there is a gap in media
enjoyment research. Researchers seem to have a tendency to forget media consumers do not just
watch comedy films, or romantic films with a happy ending. People are also drawn to films that
scare them to death, or make them cry; not the kind of entertainment media that immediately
brings the word “enjoyment” into mind. Even people that themselves have experienced the most
difficult events someone can experience in life, like losing a loved one, seem to be able to endure
watching a film character experience something similar. Perhaps they even seek out such media
fare themselves?
The present research examines whether media enjoyment is more than the pursuit of
pleasure. Why should people want to watch a film about an experience that is associated with
negative emotions? The experience the present study is about is experience with having been
bullied by classmates. According to studies by Leymann (1996; Leymann & Gustafsson, 1996),
bullying is highly destructive for an individual who is a victim of this kind of behavior. The
negative actions inflicted on someone can lead to life-long damage (Leymann, 1996). Bullying has
even been connected to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Leymann, & Gustafsson, 1996).
This does not sound like a fun topic someone would want to watch a film about; especially not
when the media user in question is a bullying victim him- or herself.
The question why people enjoy counter-hedonic media is sometimes called the sad movie
paradox (Oliver, 1993). Several researchers already tried to explain the use of counter-hedonic
media (e.g., Kim & Oliver, 2011; 2007; Knobloch, Weisbach, & Zillmann, 2004; Knobloch, &
Zillmann, 2003). Nabi, Finnerty, Domschke, and Hull (2006) belong to the scholars who assume
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that media users may choose media for other reasons than just for pleasure. They studied the
therapeutic effects of TV viewing on feelings of regret, taking into account the difference
between people who actually cheating on their partner, and people who did not. By integrating
emotion theory into media theory, Nabi et al. (2006) offered a new approach to the issue of the
enjoyment of sad films in general, and to the enjoyment of media content that may confront
people with painful memories in particular.
The study by Nabi et al. (2006) provided us with interesting results. Their results showed
that watching a cheating-related TV show may help someone to cope with his or her feelings of
regret due to having cheated on one’s partner in the past. But the study lacked certain crucial
elements. Firstly, Nabi et al. (2006) did not use a specific measurement to measure coping with
emotions. They tested the coping of their participants through comparing their level of regret
prior to watching a cheating-related TV show with their level of regret after watching the show.
The conclusion that the show worked therapeutically because the feelings of regret were
diminished may seem a bit too simple, especially since it is well-known that people use media as
a distraction, trying to forget about their problems (Katz, Gurevitch, & Haas, 1973). In addition,
Nabi et al. (2006) assumed that gaining new insight made people enjoy the TV show, but they did
not measure how information participants gained from watching to the TV show. Nor did they
test the effect of gaining new insights on enjoyment.
The current research will draw on the study by Nabi et al. (2006). Yet in the present study
another emotional experience will be studied among a different target group, and an improved
research design will be used. Instead of studying the effect of having experience with cheating on
one’s partner, the present study will focus on the emotional experience of having been bullied by
classmates among adolescents. Although bullying occurs among all age groups, a large majority
of the research is targeted on minors, children and adolescents (Tokunaga, 2010; Espelage, &
Swearer, 2003). This study focuses on bullying among adolescents. Adolescents are large media
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consumers (Kaiser Family Foundation, 2010). To them it would probably make perfectly sense to
turn to media for coping with their emotions.
The improvement of Nabi et al.’s (2006) research design will consist of a measurement
for coping with emotions. The measurement will not replace the comparison of the level of
emotions prior to and after experience-relevant film exposure, but complement it. Additionaly,
the present study will introduce the insights of a study by Konijn, Walma van der Molen, and
Van Nes (2009), adding measurements of perceived realism and information value to the research
design. For both additions, their connection to enjoyment will be tested. Finally, since the
enjoyment of media through gaining information may point to having a meaningful life
experience, it is a small step to involving eudaimonic viewing motives. This will be done based
on a study by Oliver and Raney (in press).
By combining the three studies of Nabi et al. (2006), Konijn et al. (2009), and Oliver and
Raney (in press), the current research will integrate three recent innovative lines of research in
order to increase our understanding of how viewers may enjoy sad, gruesome, or terrifying media
offerings. The different perspectives should lead to an answer to the main research question of
the present study: Can enjoyment be more than the pursuit of pleasure? Two subquestions are
attached to this main question: What influence do media users’ prior experiences and emotional
responsiveness have on their preference for and enjoyment of experience-related counter-hedonic
media? and What is the effect of coping with emotions through media and the information value
of that media content on the enjoyment of it?
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THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
The present study will focus on the influence of prior experience and emotional responsiveness
when thinking about that experience on media preference and enjoyment, and to what extent this
affects the “learning experience” media can be. This section will start with looking into the
experience the present study focuses on: experience with having been bullied. The following
paragraphs will successively describe literature related to media preference and enjoyment,
coping with emotions, the perceived realism and information value, and eudaimonic viewing
motives. It will be argued that users do not just choose certain kinds of media to fulfil their
emotional needs. Media can also serve as a source of information about one’s emotions, and how
to handle them.
Bullying, emotions, and media use
The present study focuses on adolescents with experience with having been bullied. A widely used
definition of bullying is by one of the most prominent researchers on this type of child behavior,
Dan Olweus (1993). Olweus defines being bullied as repeatedly and over time being exposed to
negative actions of classmates, whereas a negative action can be described as some kind of
intentionally inflicted injury or discomfort upon another. These actions can be carried out by
physical contact, by words, or in other ways, such as intentional exclusion from a group (Olweus,
1993). Prior research on both bullying and media tended to focus on the negative influence of
media on bullying behavior (e.g., the emerging problem of cyberbullying; David-Ferdon &
Feldman Hertz, 2007; see review by Tokunaga, 2010). However, the present study will examine
whether media can also have a positive effect on adolescents who are victims of bullying behavior;
on how to handle of the emotions that are connected to bullying to be precisely.
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What kind of emotions are associated with bullying? Various researchers already studied
bullying among adolescents in relation to negative emotions (e.g., Hunter, Boyle, & Warden,
2004). Several studies showed having experience with being bullied results in feeling sad most
days (Glew, Fan, Katon, Rivara, & Kernic, 2005), or even really unhappy and distressed (Rigby,
2003). Furthermore, anger was connected to bullying (Ireland & Archer, 2004). Sadness and anger
may also be aroused by bullying-related media. However, no-one would connect these negative
emotions with media enjoyment. Based only on the above, adolescents would probably not be
interested in bullying-related media.
Taking Zillmann’s (1988) influential Mood Management Theory (MMT) into account
confirms the assumption. MMT posits that people use media to influence their affective states: to
alter negative moods as well as to maintain and prolong positive ones (Zillmann, 1988). An
important starting-point of this theory is the idea that people are driven by hedonistic desires, or,
stated differently, the pursuit of pleasure: people will always try to maximize pleasant feeling
states, and minimize unpleasant one. A large amount of research supports MMT (see review by
Oliver, 2003), and many researchers turn to MMT to make predictions about media use.
However, one may wonder why people would want to watch a film about an experience that is
associate with negative emotions.
Insight through emotion theory
Films about experiences that are associated with negative emotions may count as counter-hedonic
media: media that do not seem to meet the demands MMT, namely the pursuit of pleasure (Kim
& Oliver, 2007). Examples of counter-hedonic media are the horror film or the so-called
tearjerker: films that respectively intend to scare viewers with shock effects and usually lots of
blood, or to bring them to tears (Oliver, 1993). The present research follows a study by Nabi et al.
(2006) that tried to gain a bit more insight in the enjoyment of counter-hedonic media by
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studying the therapeutic effects of TV viewing. Nabi et al. focused on Zillmann’s (2000) attempt
to explain counter-hedonic media use. Zillmann (2000) identified four options people have when
confronted with counter-hedonic media: (a) avoidance of emotion-relevant media content, (b)
avoidance of entertainment media altogether, (c) watching informational/educational media
content to aid coping, or (d) exposure to entertainment media driven by informational needs. But
Zillmann (2000) made no suggestions about which option would be accurate in which situation,
and for whom.
Nabi et al. (2006) suggested that emotion theory may provide the additional information
necessary to make more precise predictions of which of Zillmann’s (2000) four options people
will choose when confronted with counter-hedonic media. Emotion theorists showed there is a
connection between negative emotional experiences, and both coping needs and information-
seeking goals (Nabi, 2003; 1999; Lazarus, 1991 in Nabi et al., 2006). Based on this, Nabi et al.
(2006) reasoned that emotion-relevant entertainment programs might serve as potential sources of
information for those seeking to cope with their distress. Therefore, media use may be affected by
the need to gather knowledge about how to cope with emotions, instead of being directed by
certain emotional needs (Nabi et al., 2006).
Nabi et al. (2006) pointed out specific theory on the emotion under investigation should
be used, as will be done in the present study. In their study, Nabi et al. focussed on the feelings of
regret that are connected to cheating on one’s partner, or being cheated on. According to them,
regret is associated with cognitive preoccupation, keeping a person stuck in a past experience,
and preventing him or her from moving forward (Landman, 1993 in Nabi et al., 2006). To deal
with cognitive preoccupation, it may be useful for someone to learning from past mistakes. This
is where media comes in. Nabi et al. (2006) reasoned that cheating-related media content can
provide people with the required information. Although reopening a wound is not pleasant, from
an informational standpoint experience-related entertainment can be enjoyable, since it might
help a person to move on with his or her life.
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Coping with emotions
The reasoning that Nabi et al. (2006) used may also be applied to the experience of having been
bullied and media use. Like people cannot move forward without dealing with their feelings of
regret, experience with having been bullied is connected to extreme emotions people want to deal
with (Rigby, 2003). Nabi et al. (2006) used the term coping to denote gaining new insights
regarding handling emotions. But what actually is coping? Coping originated from stress
research, and can be placed under the broad definition of emotion regulation (Garnefski, Kraaij &
Spinhoven, 2001). Emotion regulation can be specified as strategies that influence one’s
emotions; what we feel, how intense we feel it, and how we cope with these emotions (Gross,
1998). It is most often used to control the unpleasant effects of negative emotions, like anger,
sadness, or loneliness (Gross et al., 2006 in Konijn & Ten Holt, 2010). These emotions are also
linked to experience with having been bullied.
Coping specifically refers to behavior that protects people from being psychologically
harmed by problematic social experiences (Pearlin & Schooler, 1978). It may be defined as
“cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands that are
appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person” (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984 in
Gross, 1998, p.274). Two major functions of coping are distinguished: problem-focused coping
and emotion-focused coping (Compas, Orosan & Grant, 1993). Problem-focused coping
strategies refer to attempts to act on the stressor, the source of the (negative) emotion. Emotion-
focused coping, refers to attempts to manage the emotions associated with the stressor. The latter
is of importance for the present study, because of its focus is on dealing with emotions. Gaining
insights in how to deal with these emotions may happen through media use. Knowledge of how
to handle emotions that are upsetting may help someone to break out of the cognitive
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preoccupation caused by these emotions. In turn, this may lead to appreciation for, or even
enjoyment of the media content that provides one with the knowledge.
The main hypotheses
The theory outlined in the previous paragraphs leads to the main hypotheses of the present study,
related to media preference, media enjoyment, and coping. First, it is assumed that adolescents
will be interested in watching bullying-related films. Both adolescents with experience with
having been bullied and adolescents who were not bullied will experience negative emotions
when they think about being bullied themselves. Bullying-related films may help them to gain
insights in how to handle these emotions. This effect will probably be stronger among
adolescents with experience with having been bullied, since they have their actual experience to
deal with. Following MMT, adolescents without experience with having been bullied will
probably anticipate the negative effect watching a bullying-related film will have on their mood.
This would probably diminish their interest in bullying-related media. It seems likely to assume
the effect of prior experience is affected by the level of emotions adolescents experience when
thinking about bullying. Based on this, the following hypotheses were formulated relating to
media preference:
H1a: Adolescents who were bullied will be more interested in watching bullying-related
films than those without experience with having been bullied.
H1b: Emotional responsiveness when thinking about bullying will interact with experience
with having been bullied, such that the effect of H1a will be larger among those high on
negative emotions than among those low on negative emotions.
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Although watching a bullying-related film may bring back painful memories, adolescents who
have been bullied may be able to endure it to gain new insights about how to handle the negative
emotions they experience due to the bullying. This will probably also be the reason why they enjoy
a bullying-related film. MMT will once more diminish this enjoyment among adolescents without
experience with having been bullied. Again, it seems likely to assume both effects are stronger
among adolescents high on negative emotions than on adolescents low on negative emotions.
Based on this, the following hypotheses were formulated relating to media enjoyment
H2a: Adolescents who were bullied will enjoy watching a bullying-related film clip more
than those without experience with having been bullied.
H2b: Emotional responsiveness when thinking about bullying will interact with experience
with having been bullied, such that the effect of H2a will be larger among those high on
emotions than among those low on emotions.
The present study will look into the effects of experience with having been bullied and emotional
responsiveness on coping with bullying-related emotions. Adolescents who actually experienced
bullying by classmates will probably have more to cope with than those without experience with
bullying. The actual bullying victims have to protect themselves from the emotional
consequences of a problematic social experience (Garnefski, Kraaij & Spinhoven, 2001). But
having no experience with bullying does not mean those adolescents do not get emotional when
being confronted with bullying-related media. So they may use media to cope with those
emotions. Regarding being either high or low on emotions when thinking about bullying, it
would also make sense that more emotions to cope with would lead to more coping. This effect is
possibly even stronger among adolescents that actually experience having been bullied than
among adolescents who have no experience. Based on this, the following hypotheses were
formulated relating to coping with emotions
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H3a: Adolescents who were bullied will score higher on coping than adolescents without
experience with having been bullied.
H3b: Emotional responsiveness when thinking about bullying will interact with experience
with having been bullied, such that the effect of H3a will be larger among those high on
negative emotions than among those low on negative emotions.
Enjoyment and coping styles
Nabi et al. (2006) assumed that being able to cope with emotions would automatically result in
media enjoyment. This appears to be a logical assumption: knowing how to deal with negative
emotions makes life easier. Hence, one enjoys the source of this information. This may also be
connected to the assumptions of MMT: using media to minimize unpleasant feeling states
(Zillmann, 1988). Knowing how to deal with negative emotions implies minimizing these
negative emotions, which results in feeling better.
However, there is not enough research on this topic to confirm this statement. There are a
lot of different ways people may handle their emotions; a lot of different emotion regulation
strategies people may use. Research showed different strategies were associated with different
outcomes (Garnefski, Kraaij, & Spinhoven, 2001). This may possibly affect the media
enjoyment. Examples of emotion regulations strategies that are of relevance to this study are
rumination and reflection. Both are a kind of self-attentiveness, and associated with identity
exploration: what does someone think about oneself (Luyckx, et al., 2007; Trapnell & Campell,
1999). The motivations of both strategies are different. Rumination is defined as neurotic self-
attentiveness, motivated by perceived threats, losses, or injustices to the self. Reflection was
designated as intellectual self-attentiveness, motivated by curiosity or epistemic interest in the
self (Trapnell & Campell, 1999). When described in terms of emotion regulation, rumination
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would translate to hanging onto negative emotions. Someone who reflects on his or her emotions
would try to find out what went wrong, and what can be learned out of the situation (Luyckx, et
al., 2007).
The use of both strategies was associated with different outcomes. Rumination tended to
be associated with higher levels of neuroticism, depressive symptoms, and anxiety symptoms
(Nolen-Hoeksema, Parker, & Larson, 1994). Reflection is related to higher levels of personal
identity, perspective-taking, and openness to experience (Luyckx et al., 2007). When “learning” a
certain strategy through media use, the outcomes of the strategy may also affect the enjoyment of
the media content. Reflecting on one’s emotions may therefore be associated with a more positive
outcome, and may therefore have a positive effect on media enjoyment, that ruminating one’s
emotions. To examine this assumption, the following research question will be implemented:
RQ: What is the relationship between enjoying media content about bullying and coping
styles, in particular the coping strategies rumination and reflection?
Perceived realism and information value
To make predictions about how informative people think certain media content is, it is essential
to measure the information value of that content. To do this, the present study introduces the
study by Konijn, Walma van der Molen, and Van Nes (2009). They defined information value as
“the weight or importance a viewer ascribes to the content that reaches him or her via a media
program (both in words, sounds, and images) and the judgment of the importance of that content
for one’s own life or worldview” (p. 316).
Prior research assumed the information function of media, and that media influence how
people perceive the world around them (e.g., Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, & Signorielli, 2002;
Shapiro & Lang, 1991). Especially with the blurring of borders between fact and fiction on
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television and in films, people may increasingly use entertainment media as reliable source of
information (Konijn et al., 2009). Besides “learning” facts about their environment, people may
also “learn” about emotions by watching films. For example, using media can serve as a so-called
vicarious experience: viewers of narrative media content adopt the perspective of the characters,
and experience emotions that reflect their evaluation of events from the characters' perspective
(Bartsch & Viehoff, 2010).
Every media experience is personal and may differ from one person to the other. The
information value that is perceived by a user is also subjective, and may be influence by several
other factors. This is where a study by Konijn et al. (2009) comes at hand. They investigated
whether emotions induced in TV-viewers would increase viewers’ perception of realism in a fake
documentary and affect the information value that viewers would attribute to its content. Their
study demonstrated that experiencing emotions while watching visual media may bias the
perceptions of its content. The information value of a fake documentary was influenced by the
emotions viewers experience while watching. The induction of negative emotions in viewers lead
participants to perceive the documentary as more realistic and holding more information than
viewers who did not experience such emotions. This may apply to the bullying-related emotions
in this study as well.
Besides being influenced by emotions, Konijn et al (2009) also found that perceived
realism was a better predictor of how informative viewers thought a television segment was than
how it was framed, either reality-based or fiction. The effect of perceived realism on information
value may also be of importance for this study. With having the experience with a certain
situation, people may gain a more critical attitude towards the media content. They know what
the situation is like in real life. The media content would need to meet their higher demands,
while people without experience will more easily believe what they see on screen. Perhaps people
with experience also feel like there is less for them to learn about the situation than there is for
people without experience. The present study suggests that adolescents with experience with
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having been bullied will perceive lower levels of realism when watching the bullying-related film
clip than adolescents without experience with having been bullied. In turn, this may affect the
information value they attribute to the film.
As mentioned above, Konijn et al (2009) showed that the induction of negative emotions
in viewers lead participants to perceive the documentary as more realistic and holding more
information than viewers who did not experience such emotions. It may be argued that when
people have experience with a certain situation that arouses negative emotions, they may perceive
an experience-related films as more realistic than people that have no experience and are just
aroused with anticipated emotions. Regarding the different exposure conditions, adolescents that
reflect on their emotions may regard the information value and perceived realism as higher than
their rumination colleagues. Reflection is associated with being more likely to look for the
information value of something (Luyckx et al., 2007). Adolescents in the reflection condition
may be more willing to learn than adolescents in the rumination condition. Based on this, the
following hypotheses were formulated related to perceived realism and information value:
H4a: Adolescents who were bullied will 1) perceive lower levels of realism and 2)
attribute less information value to the bullying-related film clip than adolescents without
experience with having been bullied.
H4b: Adolescents who are high on negative emotions will 1) perceive higher levels of
realism and 2) attribute more information value to the bullying-related film clip than
adolescents low on negative emotions.
H4c: Adolescents in the reflection film clip condition will 1) perceive higher levels of
realism and 2) attribute more information value to the bullying-related film clip than
adolescents in the rumination film clip condition.
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In addition to the direct influence of prior experience and emotional responsiveness on perceived
realism and information value, this study will also examine whether a relationship can be found
between the latter variables and enjoyment. Besides Nabi et al. (2006), various researchers also
showed learning something from media can lead to the enjoyment of that media content. For
example, the above mentioned vicarious learning experiences have proven to be gratifying for
media users (e.g., Busselle & Bilandzic, 2009). The following hypothesis was formulated related
to the relationship between enjoyment and both perceived value and information value:
H5: Both perceived value and information value will have a positive influence on
enjoyment.
Eudaimonic viewing motivations
It is a small step to involving eudaimonic viewing motives when trying to provide more insight in
the sad movie paradox, as this study is attempting. Emotions that may affect media use can be
associated with the pursuit of pleasure (MMT; Zillmann, 1988). But emotions can also be
functional within the broader context of social and cognitive gratification (Bartsch & Viehoff,
2010). People may also enjoy media because it can help them in their search for deeper insight,
meaning, and purpose in life (Bartsch & Viehoff, 2010). The term to describe these kinds of
motivations is “eudaimonia” (Oliver, 2008; Waterman, 1993): gaining happiness through striving
to become a better person.
While both hedonism and eudaimonia were already under discussion in the Ancient Greece
(Bartsch, 2010), studying eudaimonic viewing motives and emotions in addition to hedonistic
motivations is one of the recent developments in Media Psychology (Oliver & Woolley, 2010). In
early uses and gratification studies, individuals reported using media as a means of experiencing
beauty and raising morale, in addition to using media for purposes of entertainment and relaxation
18
(Katz et al., 1973). Eudaimonia is not new in connection to research on film either. Individuals’
interest in viewing films to experience strong emotions and to understand how others think and feel
was also identified as a motivation for enjoying films by Tesser, Millar, and Wu (1988).
To complement Nabi et al., this study chooses to use the approach of Oliver and Raney (in
press) as starting-point for gaining insight in eudaimonic media use motivations. Oliver and Raney
(in press) tried to broaden the conceptualization of entertainment motivations; to identify pleasure-
seeking as a motivator, but also to recognize the notion that individuals may choose media for
eudaimonic reasons. They characterized eudaimonic concerns as “meaningfulness-seeking”. This
may be linked to the new therapeutic insights that media may provide according to Nabi et al. But
according to Oliver and Raney, the eudaimonic need for insight is broader than the fulfilment of
needs focused on the self. So people may choose certain media content not just to “learn” how to
handle their emotions, but to find answers to meaning-of-life questions.
Although eudaimonic motivations can explain the enjoyment of counter-hedonic media,
Oliver and Raney (in press) also believe insight in issues of the meaning of life may, at times, be
somewhat painful. But the viewing of a film may result in simultaneously experiencing both
negative and positive affect. Similarly, Nabi et al. (2009) suggested that the confrontation with
painful memories may be endured to gain the new therapeutic insights that media may provide.
Viewers may be aware of the reopening of wounds that might occur when they turn to media
content about something painful they have experience with. They are willing to endure it in favour
of their search for deeper insight, and meaning, specifically about that painful experience.
Perhaps this reasoning also works the other way round: when confronted with media
content that brings back painful memories, viewers will willingly choose to enjoy the content for
eudaimonic reasons. They will try to use it in their dealing with their bullying experience. The
present study will test this, assuming bullied adolescents will score higher on eudaimonic viewing
motivations than adolescents without experience with having been bullied. The same will probably
apply to adolescents who are more emotional when thinking about bullying.
19
Thirdly, the present study will compare the different viewing conditions. Eudaimonic
viewing motivations may also be more common among adolescents who reflect on their emotions
than among adolescents who use rumination as coping strategy. Prior research already associated
reflection with more meaningful life experiences and working on one’s identity (Trapnell &
Campell, 1999). This suggestion is supported by findings of Oliver and Raney (in press), who also
connected eudaimonia with more contemplative and reflective tendencies. This lead to the
following, those being the final hypotheses of this study related to eudaimonic viewing motives:
H6a: Adolescents who were bullied will score higher on eudaimonic viewing motives than
adolescents without experience with having been bullied.
H6c: Adolescents who are high on negative emotions will score higher on eudaimonic
viewing motives than adolescents who are low on negative emotions.
H6c: Adolescents in the reflection film clip condition will score higher on eudaimonic
viewing motives than adolescents in the rumination film clip condition.
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METHOD
To test the hypotheses, a quasi-experiment embedded in a questionnaire was developed.
Adolescents attending secondary schools the Netherlands participated in the study. Besides
answering questions about their experience with having been bullied, and emotional
responsiveness when thinking about bullying, they were randomly assigned to the experimental
part of the questionnaire: the exposure to two different bullying-related film clips. After the
exposure to the film clip, the dependent variables of this study were measured. Further details are
explained below.
Participants
For this study, three different secondary schools were visited in the north of the Netherlands. A
total of 236 students participated in the experiment. The participants were between 11 and 19
years old (M = 15.12, SD = 1.85), and the majority had a Dutch cultural background (94.1%).
52.1% was female, 47.9% was male. Regarding educational level, the largest group of
participants indicated to attend so-called “higher general continued education” (havo, 38.1%),
followed by pre-university secondary education (vwo, 27.5%), and the so-called theoretical
learning path of “preparatory middle-level vocational education” (vmbo theoretische leerweg,
20.8%). The smallest group attented a grammar school (gymnasium, 10.6%). The data collection
took part in June and July 2011.
Design
Like the study by Nabi et al. (2006), this study was split up in two parts: one part testing one
hypothesis prior to the bullying-related film clip exposure, and the other part for testing
21
hypotheses after the exposure, it can be regarded as a mixed design study. To the first part of the
study, on preference for storylines about bullying, belonged a 2 (experience with being having
been bullied: yes or no) x 2 (emotional responsiveness to thinking about bullying: high or low)
between-participants design. Participants were distributed among the different conditions based
on their scores on the bullying questions and the questions about how emotional they were when
thinking about being bullied. In the second part of the study a 2 (experience with having been
bullied: yes or no) x 2 (emotional responsiveness to thinking about bullying: high or low) x 2
(bullying-related exposure: rumination or reflection) between-participants design was used.
Participants were were randomly assigned to the bullying-related exposure conditions they when
started the online questionnaire. The dependent variables of this part of the study were the
enjoyment of a bullying-related film clip, coping through media (i.e., either coping through
rumination or reflection), evaluation of the film clip with regard to perceived realism and
information value, and eudaimonic motivations for watching a film.
Stimulus materials
The bullying-related exposure consisted of a 4:30-minute clip from the Dutch television film
Bluebird (2004) by Mijke de Jong. This film is about Merel, a highly talented thirteen year old
girl, who gets bullied at school. Since she doesn’t confide in anyone about the bullying, she has
to deal with it on her own. This makes her balance on the thin line between what’s right and
what’s wrong. There were several reasons why Bluebird was chosen. First of all, it was a film
about bullying, appropriate for adolescents. Besides that, the film is not well known in the
Netherlands; it’s theatrical release in 2005 attracted just 2 000 visitors. Although the film was
broadcasted on Dutch television twice (in 2004, and in 2010 on an early Sunday morning in
August), it is not likely that many students are familiar with the film, so they will not be
influenced by prior knowledge about the entire film.
22
Two clips were edited from segments of the film Bluebird to represent the different
coping conditions, rumination and reflection. The clips contained three bullying scenes, in which
Merel was (1) told she smelled, (2) beaten, and (3) found her new bike completely destroyed.
These scenes were followed by some kind of response by the protagonist. The responses were
different for both coping conditions. In the rumination clip, Merel responded to the bullying by
crying, and scratching over all the faces of her classmates in their school photograph. In the
reflection clip, Merel secludes herself from other people, and seems to be lost in her own
thoughts. The variations were emphasized by an introduction in which it was explained that
Merel either didn’t like to think about the bullying (the rumination condition) or actually did like
to take long walks to think about her life (the reflection condition; see the whole questionnaire in
the Appendix). After watching one of the film clips, participants completed several manipulation
check questions about the film clip.
As a way of validating the self-reports of participants about having been bullied, a
“manipulation check” using the film clip was integrated in the questionnaire. This “check” was
based on Nabi et al. (2006), and investigated whether bullied participants identified more with the
bullied protagonist of the film clip than participants who had no experience with bullying. It
would make sense that participants who indicate they were bullied will identify more with the
bullied protagonist of the film clip, which would validate the division of the participants in a
group with experience with having been bullied and a group without experience. Five questions
were asked based on Cohen’s (2001) identification items, and they referred to both positive and
negative values (three positive, two negative). Examples of items were “I think I can understand
Merel”, and “For Merel’s sake, I hope the film will have a happy ending”. The items were rated
on a five-point scale of 1 (doesn’t apply to me at all) to 5 (does apply to me very well) and the
scale proved to be reliable (Cronbach’s α = .72, M = 3.22, SD = .88).
23
Measures
Preference for storylines about bullying. As the researchers did in Nabi et al. (2006),
media preference was operationalized by asking participants to rate storylines on a five-point
scale of 1 (I don’t want to watch this at all) to 5 (I really want to watch this). The eight storylines
used in this study were introduced as storylines of films. They were based on actual films or
books that are popular among adolescents, for example the novel Spijt! by Carry Slee (1996), and
the Dutch football film In Oranje (directed by Joram Lürsen, 2004). The actual plot descriptions
were adjusted and protagonist names were changed so participants wouldn’t recognize the
originals straight away, and they all had an open ending. Three out of eight were storylines about
bullying; the scores on these storylines were combined into a preference variable (Cronbach’s α =
.75, M = 2.63, SD = 1.02). The other five, used as a distraction, were about becoming a famous
dancer, having a fatally ill mother, moving to another town, divorcing parents, and about
continuing with your live after the death of a parent (Cronbach’s α = .74, M = 2.49, SD = .89).
The storyline of Bluebird was not part of the eight storylines (for the eight storylines and the rest
of the questionnaire, see the Appendix). Pretesting the storylines among adolescents that were not
participating in the actual study showed bullying storylines were significantly preferred (M =
3.37, SD = .63) over the storylines about other topics (M = 2.94, SD = .52), t(16) = 2.39, p < .05.
So when testing the influence of the independent variables on the preference for storylines about
bullying, the preference for other storylines should be entered into the regression as covariate.
Enjoyment. The extent to which the participants enjoyed watching the film clip was
measured on a five-point scale of 1 (doesn’t apply to me at all) to 5 (does apply to me very well).
The four enjoyment items were based on the enjoyment items in Nabi at al. (2006). Two out of
four questions referred to negative values. Examples of the items are “I liked the film clip”, and
“I didn’t enjoy watching the film clip”. The item “To me watching the film was unpleasant” (“Ik
24
vond het onplezierig om naar het filmpje te kijken”) was deleted to improve the reliability of the
scale, but the Cronbach’s alpha remained a bit low (Cronbach’s α = .64, M = 2.56, SD = .94).
Coping. To measure coping through either rumination or reflection, a shortened version
of the Rumination-Reflection Questionnaire (RRQ; Trapnell & Campbell, 1999) was used. The
RRQ was translated in Flemish by Luyckx (2007), and adjusted for Dutch participants by Den
Hamer (work in progress). In the current study, the RRQ consisted of twelve items: six
rumination questions and six reflections questions, both positively and negatively formulated (a
total of seven positive and five negative items). Participants were asked to indicate how much the
items applied to them personally on a five-point scale of 1 (doesn’t apply to me at all) to 5 (does
apply to me very well). The general statements of the RRQ were adjusted to fit the watching
experience. Examples of items are “This film clip makes me worry about how I behaved in a
certain situation” (rumination), and “After watching the film clip, I would like to think about my
life” (reflection). The rumination items were combined into a single variable for coping by
rumination (Cronbach’s α = .63, M = 2.01, SD = .62), and the reflection items were combined
into a single variable for coping by reflection (Cronbach’s α = .74, M = 2.57, SD = .78).
Perceived realism. The levels of realism participants perceived while watching the
bullying-related film clip were measured using the perceived realism items from Konijn et al.
(2009). The items were rated on a five-point scale of 1 (do not agree at all) to 5 (totally agree),
and adapted to fit the content of the Bluebird film clip. Examples of items are “The film clip
provided me with an unrealistic image of bullying in school”, and “The story about Merel is
fabricated.” Items reflected both positive and negative values (two positive and two negative),
and provided a reliable variable for perceived realism (Cronbach’s α = .75, M = 3.61, SD = .86).
Information value. The information value of the clip was measured using the information
value items from the study of Konijn et al. (2009). The items were rated on a five-point scale of 1
(do not agree at all) to 5 (totally agree) and reliable (Cronbach’s α = .72, M = 3.66, SD = .75).
Obviously, the statements were adapted to fit the content of the Bluebird film clip, for example
25
“The film makers give their viewers meaningless a picture of bullying in school”, and “The film
clip didn’t teach me anything about bullying or being bullied.” Items reflected both positive and
negative values, two positive and three negative.
Eudaimonic viewing motives. The eudaimonic motives for watching the film clip were
measured with the eudaimonia items by Oliver & Raney (in press). The items were adjusted to fit
the film clip watching experience, and rated on a five-point scale of 1 (do not agree at all) to 5
(totally agree). Examples of items are “I like this film clip because it focuses on meaningful
human conditions”, and “I’m very moved by this film clip, because it’s about the search for
greater understanding in life”. The scale appeared to be quite reliable (Cronbach’s α = .82, M =
2.11, SD = .89) after deleting two items: “I don’t like it about this film clip that it makes me think
about being bullied” (“Ik vind het niet prettig dat dit filmpje mij stil doet staan bij gepest
worden”) and “I don’t like film clips like this, that make me reflect on things” (“Ik heb helemaal
niets met een filmpje als dit, dat mij aan het denken zet”).
Experience with having been bullied. Bullying experience was operationalized through
peer victimization, victimization by classmates to be precisely. Participants were asked to rate the
seven items of the peer victimization scale (VIC) by Schwartz, Farber, Chang, and Lee-Shim
(2002) on a five-point scale of 1 (never) to 5 (daily). Examples of items are “How often do your
classmates hit or kick you?”, and “How often do your classmates ignore you?” After the items,
there was the opportunity to respond to the previous items, in case people would really want to
get something off their chest. This open ended question was not compulsory. As a scale for
experience with having been bullied, the VIC was very reliable (Cronbach’s α = .89, M = 1.54,
SD = .65). To be able to talk about participants with out without experience with having been
bullied, a median split (Mdn = 1.29) was conducted to divide the variable in two equal groups,
representing “bullied” and “not bullied”.
Emotional responsiveness when thinking about bullying. Emotional responsiveness was
operationalized following Nabi et al. (2006). The emotions that had to be rated on a scale of 1
26
(doesn’t apply to me at all) to 5 (does apply to me very well) were angry, out of energy, fearful,
and sad. All items were negatively valenced, and rated by all participants (both with and without
experience with having been bullied, measuring anticipated emotions among the non-bullied
participants). For this study, the items were adapted to match bullying: “When I think about being
bullied myself, it makes me feel…”. After these items participants were given the opportunity to
respond to the previous items, again in case people would really want to get something off their
chest. This open ended question was not compulsory. The scale conducted with the emotion item
was very reliable, (Cronbach’s α = .84, M = 2.03, SD = 1.00). At the very end of the
questionnaire the same emotion questions were asked again, also resulting in a reliable scale
(Cronbach’s α = .86, M = 2.20, SD = 1.09). To be able to talk about participants high or low on
negative emotions, a median split (Mdn = 1.75) was conducted to divide the variable in two equal
groups, representing “high on negative emotions” and “low on negative emotions”.
Procedure
Upon arriving at a school, the participants were invited in the computer classrooms, where the
questionnaire was available via a link to the Examine website (Roelofsma, Bottema, & Smeets,
2005). Prior to starting the questionnaire, a teacher introduced the researcher, and she herself
introduced the study as a study about adolescents and sad media. With starting the questionnaire,
the participants were randomly assigned to one of the two experimental exposure conditions.
After a short introduction and some notifications, participants started with demographic
questions, and some for this study irrelevant questions about their TV viewing habits. These
questions were asked first, since it seemed a bit confrontational to start off with asking
participants about ever being bullied. The peer victimization questionnaire was next, followed by
the items on how one felt when thinking about being bullied. Then, a list of eight storylines was
presented, which participants were asked to rate in terms of how interested they were in watching
27
each. After completing this, participants watched the film clip, either the rumination or the
reflection version of it, followed by some questions testing whether they actually paid attention to
the clip. Next, they were asked to indicate how much the film clip inspired them to either
ruminate their emotions or reflect to reflect on them. Then they had to provide how realistic and
informative they found the film clip, and how much they enjoyed the clip, both in general and on
an eudaimonic level. The questionnaire ended with repeating the questions on how they felt when
thinking about being bullied. In the final screen of the questionnaire, the respondents were
thanked for their participation. Overall, the session lasted about fifteen minutes.
28
RESULTS
As described above, this study focuses on the effects of experience with having been bullied
among adolescents, the level of emotional responsiveness when thinking about bullying, and
watching either the rumination or the reflection version of a bullying-related film clip.
Hypotheses were formulated in terms of the influences on preference for bullying storylines,
enjoyment, coping, information value, perceived realism, and eudaimonic viewing motives.
Several hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to test the hypotheses.
Preliminary analyses
Prior to conducting the analyses to test the hypotheses, some preliminary analyses were
conducted. To check whether the “manipulation” of experience with having been bullied worked,
a “manipulation check” analysis was conducted. The results were tested with an analysis of
variance (ANCOVA) with experience with having been bullied as independent variable, and
identification with the protagonist of the film clip as dependent variable. The results showed that
participants who had experience with bullying identified marginally significantly more with the
protagonist in the film clip (M = 3.35, SD = .88) than participants were not bullied in the past (M
= 3.12, SD = .86), F(1,234) = 3.87, p = .05. These results support the reasonable validity of the
self-report measure of experience with having been bullied.
To check for relationships between the dependent and the independent variables in this
study, a correlation analysis was run. The analysis concerned all variables that would be used to
test the hypotheses and research question: the independent variables experience with having been
bullied, and emotional responsiveness when thinking about bullying, and the dependent variables
preference for watching films about bullying, enjoyment, coping through both rumination and
reflection, perceived realism, information value, and eudaimonic viewing motives. To check the
29
relation between the two types of storylines, the preference for watching other storylines was also
added to the analysis.
Table 1 – Means, and standard deviations of, and correlations
between all variables relating to H1-6 and the RQ
M
SD
BE
ER
BSP
OSP
EN
RUM
REFL
PR
IV
EU
bullying experience (PE)
1.54
.65
1
emotional responsiveness (ER) 2.03 1.00 .36** 1
bullying storyline preference (BSP) 2.63 1.02 .25** .27** 1
other storyline preference (OSP) 2.49 .89 .09 .24** .73** 1
enjoyment (EN) 2.56 .94 .12^ .23** .42** .36** 1
coping through rumination (RUM) 2.01 .62 .32** .31** .32** .33** .35** 1
coping through reflection (REFL) 2.57 .78 .17** .32** .43** .43** .48** .61** 1
perceived realism (PR) 3.61 .86 .12^ .22** .18** .12^ .34** .26** .30** 1
information value (IV) 3.66 .75 .06 .19** .21** .14* .31** .27** .38** .69** 1
eudaimonic viewing motives (EU) 2.44 .80 .32** .45** .50** .41** .51** .45** .55** .32** .31** 1
Note. ^ p < .10, * p < .05, ** p < .01
In the correlation analysis most of the correlations were significant (see Table 1), indicating there
are relationships between the variables that can be tested. Five correlations were just marginally
significant, or not significant at all, three of which are of relevance to the hypotheses testing in
this study. The correlations between experience with having been bullied and both enjoyment (r
= .12, p < .10), and perceived realism (r = .12, p < .10) were only marginally significant, and the
correlation between bullying experience and information value (r = .06, p = .33) was not
significant at all. This may affect the testing of H2 and H4; especially the testing of H4, since the
non-significant correlation between experience with having been bullied and information value
might indicate there is no relation between these variables at all.
Besides that, there was also a significant correlation that may affect the testing of the
hypothesis: the correlation between the two types of storylines in the questionnaire (r = .73, p <
.01). This high correlation may suggest there was not too much difference between participants’
preference to watch films about either bullying or other topics, which may have consequences for
30
the testing of H1. Using a repeated measures t-test, participants’ preference for bullying-related
storylines was compared to their preference for other storylines. Participants were significantly
more interested in storylines about bullying (M = 2.63, SD = 1.02) than in storylines about other
topics (M = 2.49, SD = .89), t(235) = 2.90, p < .01. Since the pretest also showed participants
significantly preferred the bullying storylines, preference for other storylines was entered into the
regression that was used for testing H1, to control for the influence of this variable.
As final part of the preliminary analyses, the hierarchical regressions that were going to be
conducted were run including the demographic variables age, gender, and education as
covariates. The results of the regression analyses showed that the covariate age and education had
to be excluded when testing the influences on bullying storyline preference, coping through
reflection, information value, perceived realism, and eudaimonic viewing motives. The
influences of these covariates were not significant (see the results of the concerning regressions
below for the values of the excluded covariates). The results were different regarding the analyses
with enjoyment and coping through rumination as dependent variables. The covariate education
was not included in the regression testing the influence on enjoyment, t(236) = .54, p = .59,
b(SEb) = .05 (.08), = .04, and the covariate age was not included in the regression testing the
influence on rumination, t(236) = -.09, p = .93, b(SEb) = -.002 (.02), = -.01. Based on these
results, it makes sense to enter the covariate gender into all the regressions. Besides that, the
covariate age will be entered into the regression with enjoyment as dependent variable, and the
covariate education will be entered into the regression with rumination as dependent variable.
To summarize this section, a few things can be concluded from the preliminary analyses.
First of all, the “manipulation” of experience with having been bullied was not that successful,
which means conclusions regarding the influence of prior experience should be drawn carefully.
Besides that, the preliminary analyses showed that the preference for other storylines should be
taken into consideration when testing the hypothesis about the preference for bullying storylines.
31
Finally, the results showed the importance of including gender in the testing of all the hypotheses.
The testing of hypotheses will be next.
Testing H1: media preference
To test H1, a hierarchical regression was conducted with preference for bullying storylines as
dependent variable, with gender and preference for other storylines in Block 1, experience with
being bullied and emotional responsiveness when thinking about bullying in Block 2, and the
interaction-effect between experience and emotions in Block 3. The covariates age, t(236) = -
1.67, p = .10, b(SEb) = -.04 (.03), = -.08, and education, t(236) = -.40, p = .69, b(SEb) = -.03
(.07), = -.02, were not included, because those influences were not significant.
Table 2 – Hierarchical regression analysis (Block 2 and 3) of the influences
on preference for bullying storylines
variable t p b(SEb)
gender
1.66
.10
.16 (.10)
.08
preference other storylines 15.45 .00 .78 (.05) .68
bullying experience 3.67 .00 .27 (.07) .17
emotional responsiveness .45 .66 .02 (.05) .02
gender
1.62
.11
.15 (.10)
.08
preference other storylines 14.58 .00 .78 (.05) .68
bullying experience 3.31 .00 .48 (.15) .31
emotional responsiveness 1.70 .09 .16 (.10) .16
experience X emotions -1.71 .09 -.08 (.05) -.24
Note. R² Block 2 = .75, R² Block 3 = .76
H1a stated that adolescents who were bullied would be more interested in watching bullying-
related films than those without experience with being bullied. The results of the regression
showed there was a significant influence from experience with having been bullied on preference
32
for storylines about bullying, t(236) = 3.67, p < .01, b(SEb) = .27 (.07), = .17 (see Table 2).
Participants who were bullied were more interested in watching bullying-related films (M = 2.77,
SD = .96) than those without experience with being bullied (M = 2.51, SD = 1.06). Thus, H1a was
confirmed: participants who were bullied were more interested in watching bullying-related films
than those without experience with being bullied.
H1b stated that emotional responsiveness would interact with experience with having been
bullied, such that the effect of H1a would be larger among those high on negative emotions than
among those low on negative emotions. The results showed no significant main influence of
emotional responsiveness, t(236) = .475, p = .66, b(SEb) = .02 (.05), = .02. But when controlling
for the interaction between experience and emotions, this effect was marginally significant, t(236)
= 1.70, p < .10, b(SEb) = .16 (.10), = .16. Participants high on negative emotions were slightly
more interested in bullying storylines (M = 2.79, SD = .96) than participants low on negative
emotions (M = 2.43, SD = 1.06). The interaction between experience and emotions was just
marginally significant as well, t(236) = -1.71, p < .10, b(SEb) = -.08 (.05), = -.24. Participants that
were bullied and low on negative emotions were more interested in storylines about bullying (M =
2.54, SD = 1.08) than participants who were also low on negative emotions, but had no experience
with bullying (M = 2.37, SD = 1.04). Among participants high on negative emotions, participants
who were bullied were also more interested in storylines about bullying (M = 2.91, SD = .86) than
participants who had no experience with bullying (M = 2.67, SD = 1.05; see Figure 1). Thus, H1b
was confirmed: there was an interaction between experience with having been bullied and
emotional responsiveness, causing the effect as claimed in H1a to be slightly larger among
participants high on negative emotions than among those low on negative emotions.
33
Figure 1 – Influence of the interaction between experience with having been bullied and
emotional responsiveness on preference for bullying storylines
Testing H2: enjoyment
To test H2, a hierarchical regression was conducted with enjoyment as dependent variable, the
covariates age and gender was entered in Block 1, experience with having been bullied,
emotional responsiveness when thinking about bullying, and the exposure conditions in Block 2,
the interaction-effect between the independent variables in Block 3, and the three-way interaction
in Block 4. The covariate education was not included, because its influence was not significant,
t(236) = .54, p = .59, b(SEb) = .05 (.08), = .04.
H2a stated that adolescents who were bullied would enjoy watching a bullying-related film
clip more than those without experience with being bullied. The results showed a non-significant
main influence of experience with having been bullied, t(236) = 1.15, p = .25, b(SEb) = .11 (.10),
= .08 (see Table 3). Thus, H2a was rejected: there was no difference between participants with and
without experience regarding their enjoyment of the bullying-related film clip.
34
Table 3 – Hierarchical regression analysis (Bock 2 and 3) of the influences on enjoyment
variable t p b(SEb)
age 2.96 .00 .09 (.03) .19
gender 4.45 .00 .53 (.12) .28
bullying experience 1.15 .25 .11 (.10) .08
emotional responsiveness 2.00 .05 .13 (.06) .13
exposure condition 1.36 .18 .16 (.11) .08
age 4.50 .00 .53 (.12) .29
gender 3.01 .00 .10 (.03) .19
bullying experience .98 .33 .20 (.20) .14
emotional responsiveness 1.68 .09 .25 (.15) .27
exposure condition -1.30 .20 -.42 (.33) -.23
experience X emotions -1.34 .18 -.08 (.06) -.27
experience X exposure 1.75 .08 .33 (.19) .31
emotions X exposure .26 .80 .03 (.12) .04
Note. R² Block 2 = .39, R² Block 3 = .41
H2b stated that emotional responsiveness would interact with bullying experience, such that the
effect of H2a would be larger among those high on negative emotions than among those low on
negative emotions. The results showed a marginally significant main influence emotional
responsiveness when thinking about bullying on enjoyment, t(236) = 2.00, p < .10, b(SEb) = .13
(.06), = .13. Participants who were high on negative emotions enjoyed the film clip more (M =
2.70, SD = .91) than participants low on emotions (M = 2.38, SD = .94). In the interaction model,
there was even more influence of emotional responsiveness, t(236) = 1.68, p < .10, b(SEb) = .25
(.15), = .27. But the model that included the interactions did not explain more of the variability
in enjoyment than the model without the interactions, R² = .41, R² = .02, Fchange (3,227) = 1.84,
p = .14. This was reflected in the non-significant interaction between experience with having
been bullied and emotional responsiveness, t(236) = -1.34, p = .18, b(SEb) = -.08 (.06), = -.27.
Thus, H2b was rejected: emotional responsiveness did not interact with experience with having
35
been bullied, although participants were high on negative emotions enjoyed the film clip more
than participants that were low on negative emotions.
Testing H3: coping with emotions
To complement Nabi et al. (2006), a measure for coping was introduced in the current study. But
prior to testing the hypotheses connected to this, the emotional responsiveness of the participants
when thinking about bullying prior to watching the bullying-related film clip were compared to
their emotional responsiveness after watching the clip, like Nabi et al. did to measure coping. A
repeated measures analyses of variance (GLM Repeated Measures) was conducted with
emotional responsive prior to and after watching as the within-subject factors, and experience
with having been bullied as the between-subjects factor. The results of the analysis showed that
participants that were bullied were significantly more emotional after watching (M = 2.42, SD =
1.11) than prior to watching (M = 2.28, SD = 1.09), F(1,234) = 15.36, p < .01. They were also
significantly more emotional than the participants without experience with bullying, F(1,234) =
11.25, p < .01, who in turn were also more emotional after watching (M = 2.03, SD = 1.04) than
prior to watching (M = 1.83, SD = .87). These results would suggest the bullying-related film
clip did not help participants cope with their emotions, but made them more emotional.
Next, the hypotheses about coping through either rumination or reflection were tested
using the measured coping data. Two hierarchical regressions were conducted, one with coping
through rumination as dependent variable, the other with coping through reflection as dependent
variable. In both regressions, the covariate gender was entered in Block 1, experience with having
been bullied, emotional responsiveness when thinking about bullying, and the exposure
conditions in Block 2, the interaction-effect between the independent variables in Block 3, and
the three-way interaction in Block 4. In the regression with rumination as dependent variable the
covariate age was not included, because its influence was not significant t(236) = -.09, p = .93,
36
b(SEb) = -.002 (.02), = -.01, while both the covariates age, t(236) = 1.10, p = .27, b(SEb) = .03
(.03), = .07, and education, t(236) = .24, p = 81, b(SEb) = .02 (.07), = .02, were not included
in the regression with reflection as dependent variable.
Table 4 – Hierarchical regression analysis (Block 2 and 3)
of the influences on rumination, and on reflection
Rumination Reflection
variable
t
p
b(SEb)
t
p
b(SEb)
gender
1.76
.08
.14 (.08)
.11
4.40
.00
.42 (.10)
.27
education -2.72 .01 -.14 (.05) -.17 - - - -
bullying experience 3.55 .00 .22 (.06) .23 .83 .41 .06 (.08) .05
emotional responsiveness 3.54 .00 .15 (.04) .24 3.60 .00 .18 (.05) .24
exposure condition .18 .86 .01 (.07) .01 -1.36 .18 -.13 (.09) -.08
gender
1.77
.08
.14 (.08)
.11
4.37
.00
.42 (.10)
.27
education -2.51 .01 -.13 (.05) -.15 - - - -
bullying experience -.34 .73 -.04 (.13) -.05 .70 .49 .11 (.16) .09
emotional responsiveness -.59 .56 -.06 (.10) -.09 1.37 .17 .17 (.12) .22
exposure condition -1.17 .24 -.25 (.21) -.20 -1.25 .21 -.33 (.27) -.22
experience X emotions 2.23 .03 .09 (.04) .43 -.38 .71 -.02 (.05) -.07
experience X exposure .52 .60 .07 (12) .09 .10 .92 .02 (.16) .02
emotions X exposure 1.03 .31 .08 (.08) .17 .89 .37 .09 (.10) .15
Note. Rumination: R² Block 2 = .43, R² Block 3 = .46
Reflection: R² Block 2 = .43, R² Block 3 = .43
H3a stated that adolescents that were bullied would score higher on coping with emotions than
adolescents without experience with bullying. The results of the regression with rumination as
dependent variable showed a significant influence of experience with having been bullied on
rumination, t(236) = 3.55, p < .01, b(SEb) = .22 (.06), = .23 (see Table 4). Participants with
experience with bullying scored higher on coping by ruminating their emotions (M = 2.14, SD =
.67) than participants without experience with bullying (M = 1.91, SD = .56). But the results of
the regression with reflection as dependent variable showed no significant influence of
37
experience with having been bullied on reflection, t(236) = .83, p = .41, b(SEb) = .06 (.08), =
.05. Thus, H3a was confirmed for the coping strategy rumination, but rejected for the coping
strategy reflection: participants who were bullied scored higher on coping through rumination
than participants without experience with bullying, but as high on coping through reflection.
H3b stated that emotional responsiveness would interact with bullying experience, such
that the effect of H3a would be larger among those high on negative emotions than among those
low on negative emotions. First, the results of the regression with rumination as dependent
variable showed a significant main influence of experience with having been bullied on
rumination, t(236) = 3.54, p < .01, b(SEb) = .15 (.04), = .24. Participants who were high on
negative emotions scored significantly higher on coping by ruminating their emotions (M = 2.12,
SD = .65) than participants who were low on negative emotions (M = 1.87, SD = .55). The results
of the regression with reflection as dependent variable also showed a significant main influence
of experience with having been bullied on reflection, t(236) = 3.60, p < .01, b(SEb) = .18 (.05),
= .24. Participants who were high on negative emotions scored higher on coping by reflection on
their emotions (M = 2.73, SD = .74) than participants who were low on negative emotions (M =
2.37, SD = .78).
But H3b was not about the main effect of emotional responsiveness, but claimed there
would be an interaction with prior experience. Including the interaction variables into the
regression explained more of the variability in coping for rumination, R² = .46, R² = .02, Fchange
(3,227) = 2.26, p < .10, but not for reflection, R² = .43, R² = .004, Fchange (3,228) = .41, p = .75.
The latter was reflected by the non-significant influence of the interaction experience with having
been bullied and emotional responsiveness on reflection, t(236) = -.38, p = .71, b(SEb) = -.02
(.05), = -.07. But the interaction had a significant influence on rumination, t(236) = 2.23, p <
.05, b(SEb) = .09 (.04), = .43. Participants that were bullied and low on negative emotions
scored higher on coping through ruminating their emotions (M = 2.02, SD = .55) than participants
38
who were also low on negative emotions, but had no experience with bullying (M = 1.79, SD =
.53). Among participants high on negative emotions, participants who were bullied also scored
higher on rumination (M = 2.21, SD = .73) than participants who had no experience with bullying
(M = 2.03, SD = .56; see Figure 2).
Figure 2 – Influence of the interaction between experience with having been bullied
and emotional responsiveness on coping through rumination
Thus, H3b was confirmed for the coping strategy rumination: there was an interaction between
experience with having been bullied and emotional responsiveness, although the effect did not
seem to be larger among those high on negative emotions than among those low on negative
emotions as the hypothesis claimed. Regarding the coping strategy reflection, H3b was rejected:
emotional responsiveness did not interact with experience with having been bullied, although
participants who were high on negative emotions scored higher on coping by reflection on their
emotions than participants low on negative emotions.
Analyzing the RQ: coping and enjoyment
Regarding the connection between enjoyment and the coping strategies rumination and reflection,
a research question was formulated. This was investigated by adding both coping strategies to the
39
hierarchical regression that was conducted previously to test H2. With age and gender already in
Block 1, and experience with having been bullied and emotional responsiveness when thinking
about bullying in Block 2, the different coping strategies rumination and reflection were entered
in Block 3.
Table 5 – Hierarchical regression analysis (Block 3)
of the effect of coping through rumination and reflection on enjoyment
variable t p b(SEb)
age
2.53
.01
.07 (.03)
.15
gender 2.70 .01 .31 (.12) .17
bullying experience .45 .65 .04 (.09) .03
emotional responsiveness 68 .50 .04 (.06) .04
rumination .94 .35 .11 (11) .07
reflection 4.78 .00 .44 (.09) .36
Note. R² Block 3 = .53
The model with the separate coping strategies was significant, F(6,229) = 14.67, p < .01, and
explained significantly more of the variability in enjoyment than the model without any coping
variables, R² = .53, R² = .14, Fchange (2,229) = 21.35, p < .01. But only more reflection on one’s
emotions tended to be positively related to enjoyment, t(236) = 4.78, p < .01, b(SEb) = .44 (.09),
= .36 (see Table 5). Rumination had no significant influence on enjoyment, t(236) = .94, p = .28,
b(SEb) = .11 (.11), = .07. Thus, to formulate an answer on the research question, the coping
strategy reflection was positively related to enjoyment, but there was no influence of rumination
on enjoyment.
40
Testing H4: perceived realism and information value
The next hypotheses were about the effect of experience with having been bullied, emotional
responsiveness when thinking about bullying, and the different exposure conditions on perceived
realism and information value. Two hierarchical regressions were conducted: one with perceived
realism as dependent variable, the other with information value as dependent variable. Gender was
entered in Block 1, experience with having been bullied, emotional responsiveness when thinking
about bullying, and the exposure conditions in Block 2, the interaction-effect between the
independent variables in Block 3, and the three-way interaction in Block 4. In the regression with
perceived realism as dependent variable the covariates age, t(236) = -1.06, p = .29, b(SEb) = -.03
(.03), = -.07, and education, t(236) = .67, p = .50, b(SEb) = .05 (.08), = .05, were not included,
because those influences were not significant. The same went for the regression with information
value as dependent variable, since age, t(236) = -.79, p = .43, b(SEb) = -.02 (.03), = -.05, and
education, t(236) = .75, p = .46, b(SEb) = .05 (.07), = .05, were no significant influences in this
regression as well.
H4a stated that adolescents who were bullied would 1) perceive lower levels of realism
and 2) attribute less information value to the bullying-related film clip than adolescents without
experience with having been bullied. The results of the regressions showed no significant
influence of experience with having been bullied; neither on perceived realism, t(236) = .71, p =
.48, b(SEb) = .06 (.09), = .05 (see Table 6), nor on information value, t(236) = -.20, p = .84,
b(SEb) = -.02 (.08), = -.01. Thus, H4a was rejected: bullied participants perceived the same
levels of realism and attributed as much information value to the film clip were as participants
without experience with bullying.
41
Table 6 – Hierarchical regression analyses (Block 2, 3, and 4) of the influences
on perceived realism, and on information value
Perceived realism Information value
variable
t
p
b(SEb)
t
p
b(SEb)
gender
3.57
.00
.39 (.11)
.23
4.12
.00
.39 (.10)
.26
experience .71 .48 .06 (.09) .05 -.20 .84 -.02 (.08) -.01
emotions 2.12 .04 .12 (.06) .14 1.93 .06 .10 (.05) .13
exposure 2.52 .01 .27 (.11) .16 1.36 .18 .13 (.10) .09
gender
3.57
.00
.39 (.11)
.23
4.03
.00
.39 (.10)
.26
experience .58 .56 .11 (.19) .08 -.78 .44 -.13 (.16) -.11
emotions 1.67 .10 .24 (.14) .27 .92 .36 .11 (.12) .15
exposure 1.39 .17 .43 (.31) .25 .19 .85 .05 (.27) .03
experience X emotions -.47 .64 -.03 (.06) -.10 .31 .76 .02 (.05) .06
experience X exposure .27 .79 .05 (.18) .05 .98 .33 .15 (.16) .18
emotions X emotions -1.00 .32 -.12 (.12) -.17 -.77 .44 -.08 (.10) -.13
gender
3.73
.00
.41 (.11)
.24
4.26
.00
.41 (.10)
.27
experience -.53 .60 -.12 (.23) -.09 -1.93 .05 -.38 (.10) -.33
emotions .35 .73 .06 (.17) .07 -.56 .57 -.08 (.15) -.11
exposure -.79 .43 -.47 (.60) -.27 -1.84 .-7 -.96 (.52) -.64
experience X emotions .82 .42 .06 (.08) .22 1.74 .08 .12 (.07) .48
experience X exposure 1.65 .10 .60 (.37) .61 2.44 .02 .78 (.32) .91
emotions X emotions 1.02 .31 .24 (.24) .35 1.57 .12 .32 (.20) .54
experience X emotions X exposure -1.74 .08 -.20 (.12) -.62 -2.25 .03 -.23 (.10) -.81
Note. Perceived realism: R² Block 2 = .12, R² Block 3 = .12, R² Block 4 = .14
Information value: R² Block 2 = .11, R² Block 3 = .11, R² Block 4 = .13
H4b stated that adolescents who were high on negative emotions would 1) perceive higher levels
of realism and 2) attribute more information value to the bullying-related film clip than
adolescents low on negative emotions. The results of the regression with perceived realism as
dependent variable showed a significant main influence of emotional responsiveness, t(236) =
2.12, p < .05, b(SEb) = .12 (.06), = .14. Participants who were high on negative emotions
perceived higher levels of realism (M = 3.70, SD = .75) than adolescents low on negative
42
emotions (M = 3.49, SD = .97). The results of the regression with information value as dependent
variable showed a marginally significant main influence of emotional responsiveness, t(236) =
1.93, p < .10, b(SEb) = .10 (.05), = .13. Participants who were high on negative emotions
attributed more information value to the film clip (M = 3.73, SD = .67) than adolescents low on
negative emotions (M = 3.57, SD = .82). Thus, H4b was confirmed: participants who were high
on negative emotions perceived higher levels of realism and attributed more information value to
the bullying-related film clip than participants low on negative emotions.
H4c stated that adolescents in the reflection film clip condition would 1) perceive higher
levels of realism and 2) attribute more information value to the bullying-related film clip than
adolescents in the rumination film clip condition. The results of the regression with perceived
realism as dependent variable showed a significant main influence of emotional responsiveness,
t(236) = 2.52, p < .05, b(SEb) = .27 (.11), = .16. Participants in the reflection condition perceived
higher levels of realism (M = 3.73, SD = .86) than participants in the rumination condition (M =
3.48, SD = .85). But there was no significant influence of the exposure condition on information
value, t(236) = 1.36, p = .18, b(SEb) = .13 (.09), = .09. Thus, H4c was confirmed for perceived
realism, but rejected for information value: participants in the reflection film clip condition
perceived the bullying-related film clip as being more realistic than adolescents in the rumination
film clip condition, but in both conditions the participants attributed as much information value to
the clip.
43
Figure 3 – Influence of the three-way interaction between experience with having been bullied, emotional
responsiveness and the exposure conditions on perceived realism, and on information value
Although there were no significant two-way interactions (see Table 6), taken together experience
between having been bullied, emotional responsiveness, and the exposure conditions significantly
affected perceived realism, t(236) = -1.74, p < .10, b(SEb) = -.20 (.12), = -.62, and information
value, t(236) = -2.25, p < .05, b(SEb) = -.23 (.10), = -.81, as three-way interaction. The
participants, perceived higher levels of realism and attributed more information value to the film
clip higher when they were in the reflection film clip condition than those in the rumination film
clip condition, whether they were with or without experience with having been bullied, either high
or low on negative emotions (see Figure 3, and Table 7). Thus, there was a three-way interaction
between experience between having been bullied, emotional responsiveness, and the exposure
conditions: participants perceived higher levels of realism and attributed more information value to
the bullying-related film clip in the reflection condition than in the rumination film condition.
44
Table 7 – Means and standard deviations for the influence of the three-way interaction between experience
with having been bullied, emotional responsiveness and the exposure conditions
on perceived realism, and on information value
Perceived
realism
Information
value
M
SD
M
SD
Not bullied
Low on emotions
Rumination clip
3.27
.98
3.50
.93
Reflection clip 3.61 .97 3.57 .87
High on emotions Rumination clip 3.52 .71 3.71 .50
Reflection clip 3.76 .79 3.91 .75
Bullied Low on emotions Rumination clip 3.38 .99 3.54 .75
Reflection clip 3.74 .94 3.72 .63
High on emotions Rumination clip 3.71 .73 3.64 .71
Reflection clip 3.83 .78 3.70 .72
Testing H5: perceived realism, information value, and enjoyment
Regarding the connection between enjoyment and both perceived realism and information value,
a hypothesis was formulated. H5 stated that both perceived value and information value would
have a positive relation with enjoyment. These relations were investigated by adding perceived
realism and information value to the hierarchical regression that was conducted previously to test
H2, and the research question testing the effect of coping on enjoyment. With age and gender
already in Block 1, experience with having been bullied and emotional responsiveness when
thinking about bullying in Block 2, and the coping strategies rumination and reflection in Block
3, information value was entered in Block 4, and perceived realism in Block 5. Information value
was entered into the regression analysis prior to perceived realism to be able to see whether
perceived realism mediated the effect of information value on enjoyment.
45
Table 8 – Hierarchical regression analysis (Block 4 and 5)
of the influences of information value and perceived realism on enjoyment
variable t p b(SEb)
age 2.79 .01 .08 (.03) .16
gender 2.33 .12 .27 (.12) .14
bullying experience .61 .54 .06 (.09) .04
emotional responsiveness .54 .59 .03 (.06) .03
rumination .80 .43 .09 (.11) .06
reflection 4.23 .00 .39 (.09) .32
information value 2.28 .02 .18 (.08) .14
age 2.95 .00 .09 (.03) .17
gender 2.20 .03 .25 (.11) .13
bullying experience .52 .60 .05 (.09) .03
emotional responsiveness .36 .72 .02 (.06) .02
rumination .63 .53 .07 (.11) .05
reflection 4.33 .00 .40 (.09) .33
information value .19 .85 .02 (.10) .02
perceived realism 2.55 .01 .21 (.08) .20
Note. R² Block 4 = .54, R² Block 5 = .56
The model to which information value was added was significant, F(7,228) = 13.54, p < .01, and
had a significantly higher explained variance than the model with age, gender, experience with
having been bullied, emotional responsiveness, and the coping strategies, R² = .54, R² = .02,
Fchange (1,228) = 5.18, p < .05. Higher levels of information value tended to be positively related
to enjoyment, t(236) = 2.28, p < .05, b(SEb) = .18 (.08), = .14 (see Table 8). Entering perceived
realism also produced a significant model, F(7,228) = 12.94, p < .01, again explaining
significantly more of the variability in enjoyment than the previous model, R² = .56, R² = .02,
Fchange (1,227) = 6.48, p < .05. But while higher levels of perceived realism were positively
46
related to enjoyment, t(236) = 2.55, p < .05, b(SEb) = .21 (.08), = .20, the effect of information
value on enjoyment was no longer significant, t(236) = .19, p = .85, b(SEb) = .02 (.10), = .02.
Thus, H5 was confirmed: both information value and perceived realism were positively related to
enjoyment, but perceived realism mediated the effect of information value. When taking into
account perceived realism, information value had no direct influence on enjoyment anymore, but
only indirectly through perceived realism.
Testing H6: eudaimonic viewing motives
The final hypotheses were about eudaimonic viewing motivations. A hierarchical regression was
conducted with eudaimonic viewing motives as dependent variable, with gender in Block 1,
experience with having been bullied, emotional responsiveness when thinking about bullying,
and the exposure conditions in Block 2, the interaction-effect between the independent variables
in Block 3, and the three-way interaction in Block 4. The covariates age, t t(236) = .98, p = .33,
b(SEb) = .03 (.03), = .07, and education, t(236) = 1.13, p = .26, b(SEb) = -.08 (.07), = .08,
were not included, because those influences were not significant.
H6a stated that adolescents who were bullied would score higher on eudaimonic viewing
motives than adolescents without experience with bullying. The results showed a significant
influence of experience with having been bullied, t(236) = 2.90, p < .01, b(SEb) = .22 (.07), =
.17 (see Table 9). Participants with experience with bullying scored higher on eudaimonic
motives for enjoying the film clip (M = 2.28, SD = .96) than participants without experience with
bullying (M = 1.97, SD = .82). Thus, H6a was confirmed: bullied participants scored higher on
eudaimonic viewing motives than participants without experience with bullying.
47
Table 9 – Hierarchical regression analysis (Block 2, 3, and 4) of the influences
on eudaimonic viewing motives
variable t p b(SEb)
gender
3.82
.00
.36 (.10)
.22
experience 2.90 .00 .22 (.07) .17
emotions 5.29 .00 .26 (.05) .33
exposure .46 .65 .04 (.09) .03
gender
3.84
.00
.36 (.09)
.22
experience .24 .82 .04 (.16) .03
emotions .72 .47 .09 (.12) .11
exposure -1.02 .31 -.27 (.26) .24
experience X emotions 1.28 .20 .06 (.05) .24
experience X exposure .27 .79 .04 (.15) .04
emotions X emotions 1.25 .21 .12 (.10) .19
gender
4.02
.00
.37 (.09)
.23
experience -.92 .36 -.18 (.19) -.14
emotions -.54 .59 -.08 (.15) -.10
exposure -2.19 .03 -1.11 (.51) -.69
experience X emotions 2.25 .03 .15 (.07) .56
experience X exposure 1.82 .07 .56 (.31) .61
emotions X emotions 2.30 .02 .46 (.20) .72
experience X emotions X exposure -1.94 .05 -.19 (.10) -.63
Note. R² Block 2 = .27, R² Block 3 = .28, R² Block 4 = .30
H6b stated that adolescents who were high on negative emotions would score higher on
eudaimonic viewing motives than adolescents who were low on negative emotions. The results
showed a significant influence of emotional responsiveness when thinking about bullying on,
t(236) = 5.29, p < .01, b(SEb) = .26 (.05), = .33. Participants who were high on negative emotions
scored significantly higher on eudaimonic viewing motives (M = 2.33, SD = .93) than participants
who were low on negative emotions (M = 1.83, SD = .76). Thus, H6b was confirmed: participants
48
who were high on negative emotions scored higher on eudaimonic viewing motives than
participants who were low on negative emotions.
H6c stated that adolescents in the reflection film clip condition would score higher on
eudaimonic viewing motives than adolescents in the rumination film clip condition. The results
showed no significant influence of the exposure conditions, t(236) = .46, p = .65, b(SEb) = .04
(.09), = .03. Thus, H6c was rejected: participants in both conditions scored equally high on
eudaimonic viewing conditions.
Besides the main influences of experience with having been bullied, emotional
responsiveness when thinking about bullying, and the exposure conditions, interactions between
these variables were also entered into the regressions. Although entering the two-way interactions
into the regession did not explain more of the variability in eudaimonic viewing motives, explained
variance did not improve, R² = .28, R² = .01, Fchange (3,228) = 1.19, p = .31. entering the three-
way interaction into the model did, R² = .30, R² = .01, Fchange (1,227) = 3.76, p < .10. The three-
way interaction between experience with having been bullied, emotional responsiveness when
thinking about bullying, and the different exposure conditions had a significant influence on
eudaimonic viewing motives, t(236) = -1.94, p < .10, b(SEb) = -.19 (.10), = -.63.
Table 10 – Means and standard deviations for the influence of the three-way interaction
on eudaimonic viewing motives
M SD
Not bullied
Low on emotions
Rumination clip
1.88
.69
Reflection clip 1.64 .66
High on emotions Rumination clip 2.12 .87
Reflection clip 2.32 .92
Bullied Low on emotions Rumination clip 1.80 .87
Reflection clip 2.18 .89
High on emotions Rumination clip 2.42 .95
Reflection clip 2.47 .98
49
Participants low on negative emotions that were not bullied scored higher on eudaimonic viewing
motives in the rumination condition (M = 1.88, SD = .69; see also Table 10) than in the reflection
condition (M = 1.64, SD = .66), while bullied participants low on negative emotions scored
higher eudaimonic viewing motives in the reflection condition (M = 2.18, SD = .89) than in the
rumination condition (M = 1.80, SD = .87). Comparing the participants high on negative
emotions, showed that participants that had no experience with bullying scored higher on
eudaimonic viewing motives in the reflection condition (M = 2.32, SD = .92) than in the
rumination condition (M = 2.12, SD = .87), and bullied participants scored slightly higher on
coping in the reflection condition (M = 2.47, SD = .98) than in the rumination condition (M =
2.42, SD = .95; see also Figure 4).
Figure 4 – Influence of the three-way interaction between experience with having been bullied, emotional
responsiveness and the exposure conditions on eudaimonic viewing motives
Thus, taken together, experience between having been bullied, emotional responsiveness, and the
exposure conditions had a negative relationship with eudaimonic viewing motives: while
participants with experience with bullying who were low on negative emotions scored higher on
eudaimonic viewing motives in the rumination condition than in the reflection condition, all the
other participants scored higher on eudaimonic viewing motives in the reflection condition than
in the rumination condition.
50
Summarizing the results
Since the results of the testing of a lot hypotheses were discussed in this chapter, an overview of
the results is presented below (see Table 11).
Table 11 – Overview of the hypotheses tested in this study
H1a Bullied adolescents were more interested in bullying-related films than non-bullied adolescents.
H1b An interaction was found between experience with having been bullied and emotional responsiveness
when thinking about bullying, influencing preference of bullying-related films.
H2a Bullied adolescents did not enjoy the bullying-related film clip more than non-bullied adolescents.
H2b No interaction was found between experience with having been bullied and emotional responsiveness
when thinking about bullying, influencing the enjoyment of the bullying-related film clip.
H3a Bullied adolescents scored higher on coping through rumination than non-bullied adolescents, but as
high on coping through reflection.
H3b An interaction was found between experience with having been bullied and emotional responsiveness
when thinking about bullying, influencing coping through rumination. No interaction was found
influencing coping through reflection.
RQ Coping through reflection had a positive influence on enjoyment, but coping through rumination had no
influence on enjoyment.
H4a Bullied adolescents 1) did not perceive lower levels of realism and 2) did not attribute less information
value to the than non-bullied adolescents.
H4b Adolescents high on negative emotions 1) perceived higher levels of realism and 2) attributed more
information value to the bullying related film clip than adolescents low on negative emotions.
H4c Adolescents in the reflection film clip condition 1) perceived higher levels of realism, but 2)did not
attribute more information value to the bullying-related film clip than adolescents in the rumination film
clip condition.
Results showed a three-way interaction that significantly influenced perceived realism and information value.
H5 Both perceived value and information value had a positive influence on enjoyment. with perceived
realism mediating the influence of information value.
H6a Bullied adolescents scored higher on eudaimonic viewing motives than non-bullied adolescents.
H6b Adolescents high on negative emotions scored higher on eudaimonic viewing motives than adolescents
low on negative emotions.
H6c Adolescents in the reflection film clip condition did not score higher on eudaimonic viewing motives
than adolescents in the rumination film clip condition.
Results showed a three-way interaction that significantly influenced eudaimonic viewing motives.
51
CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION
The present study focused on the effects of experience with having been bullied among
adolescents, the level of negative emotions when thinking about bullying, and watching a
bullying-related film clip showing either one of the coping strategies, rumination or reflection.
The experimental film clip conditions were embedded in an electronic questionnaire to gather the
data for testing the effects of these conditions. The dependent variables in this study were media
preference, enjoyment, coping, information value, perceived realism, and eudaimonic viewing
motives. The study by Nabi et al. (2006) served as a model for the current research, with the
additional perspectives of Konijn et al. (2009), and Oliver and Raney (in press).
Conclusions
Summarizing the main conclusions of the present study, prior experience and emotional
responsiveness proved to have an influence on media preference. In such a way that adolescents
with a certain experience were more interested in experience-related media than adolescents
without that experience. Being high on emotions when thinking about the experience amplified
this effect. At first sight, prior experience and emotional responsiveness did not seem to affect the
enjoyment of the experience-related media. But why this nevertheless could be interpreted as an
influence is discussed below. Enjoyment was affected by the level of coping that was inspired by
the experience-related film, and by the level of realism and information value users attributed to
the film. Besides that, both being experience and responding emotional when thinking about that
experience resulted in more eudaimonic viewing motives for watching an experience-related
film. The research question of this study will be answered below. Some of the main results need
to be elaborated on before it is possible to properly answer the question.
52
Discussion
The first hypotheses of this study were based on the main hypotheses in Nabi et al. (2006). The
influences of experience with having been bullied and emotional responsiveness when thinking
about bullying on adolescents’ preference for and enjoyment of bullying-related media were
tested. Nabi et al.’s hypotheses were confirmed, but our results only clearly showed adolescents’
interest in bullying-related films being influenced. Adolescents who were bullied were more
interested in watching bullying-related films than those without experience. The difference
between them was larger among those who were high on emotions when thinking about bullying.
These results strengthened the assumptions made by Nabi et al. (2006): people may turn to media
for its therapeutic effect.
However, in their study, Nabi et al. (2006) assumed that gaining new insights in how to
cope with experience-related emotions would lead to enjoyment. This assumption cannot be
confirmed based on the results of the present study. Adolescents with experience with having
been bullied did not enjoy the bullying-related film clip more than adolescents without
experience. This contradicted the study by Nabi et al. (2006). Their results showed experienced
participants enjoyed the experience-related TV show more than the participants without
experience. Our findings seem to challenge the assumption about the enjoyment of coping
through media. But please note that the bullied adolescents enjoyed the bullying-related film clip
as much as the adolescents who were not bullied. They did not enjoy the film clip less, as would
be expected based on MMT (Zillmann, 1988).
The results of the present study also showed that adolescents with experience with
bullying scored higher on coping with their emotions than adolescents who were not bullied.
Besides that, the relationship between enjoyment and coping was tested. Coping through
reflection had a positive influence on enjoyment. This confirmed what Nabi et al. (2006)
intuitively assumed: enjoyment of media may be caused by the therapeutic effects using media.
53
Then why did this not result in bullied adolescents enjoying the bullying-related film clip more
than the adolescents without experience with having been bullied? They scored higher on coping
after watching the bullying-related film clip, which suggested they were more coping with their
emotions than the adolescents without experience with having been bullied. Should that not lead
to more enjoyment?
Experience with having been bullied is an extremely negative experience (Rigby, 2003;
Leymann & Gustafsson, 1996). Perhaps it is a more extreme experience than cheating or being
cheated on, the experience studied by Nabi et al. (2006). Maybe this makes it harder to
compensate the pain of reliving the experience with the joy of gaining new insights in how to
handle the experience-related emotions. Furthermore, there are a few important differences
between our target group and their experience with having been bullied, and the cheating students
studied by Nabi et al. (2006) It may be argued that students are in a period of their life in which
they experiment with relationships. Hurting a partner along the way is regrettably, but perhaps
not something that hunts them in their sleep. Besides that, maybe the bullying is not a past
experience for the adolescents in our study. The bullying may still be going on. Research on
bullying also showed negative actions inflicted on someone can lead to life-long damage, making
the bullying seem like it happened just yesterday (Leymann, 1996; Leymann & Gustafsson,
1996). Therefore, it may be harder for bullying victims to enjoy bullying-related media than for
cheating students to enjoy media related to their past experience. This does not mean gaining new
insights from the experience-related media did not improved the enjoyment of the bullying-
related film clip by adolescents. Perhaps the bullied adolescents would not have enjoyed the film
clip at all when they would not have had the “learning experience” they now had.
The idea of bullying being an extreme experience is strengthened by other results. The
level of emotional responsiveness when thinking about bullying prior to watching the bullying-
related film clip was compared to the level of emotions after watching. The results showed
showed that all adolescents, whether they were bullied or not, were more emotional after
54
watching than they were prior to watching. The coping with emotions did not immediately
reduces the level of negative emotions when thinking about bullying. Perhaps watching the
protagonist of the film clip being the victim of bullying was too painful to be compensated by the
joy of gaining new insights.
The results may also suggest that the therapeutic effect of watching a bullying-related film
clip if more of a long-term process. Prior research showed ruminating emotions or reflecting on
them is something that takes time. It is associated with identity exploration, not something that
happens overnight (Trapnell & Campell, 1999). Adolescents indicated the film clip made them
want to go either ruminate their emotions or reflect on them. This does not mean they
immediately did it, which may suggest the effect of this kind of coping is more of a long-term
effect. The initial shock of the confrontation with bullying in a film might wear down, and be
replaced by new insight in how to handle the bullying-related emotions. Maybe adolescents will
rate their enjoyment of the film clip higher when they were asked again after some time. This
long-term effect may partly explain of the equal enjoyment of the bullying-related film clip by
both bullied and non-bullied adolescents. But whether it actually works like this, should be
investigated in future research.
Another remark regarding the above is based on the differences between the two coping
strategies that were included in the present study: rumination and reflection. While reflection had
a positive influence on enjoyment, rumination had no influence at all. This may indicate it is too
easy to state that coping though media equals the enjoyment of media. Reflection having a
positive influence on enjoyment made sense. Prior research already connected positive outcomes
with reflecting on one’s emotions, like perspective-taking, and openness to experience (Luyckx et
al., 2007). But prior research associated rumination with higher levels depression, among other
negative things (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1994). Although coping in general may be enjoyable, a
specific coping strategy like rumination may diminish the joy of gaining new insights. Whether
55
other emotion regulation strategies also have different effects on media enjoyment should be
investigated in future studies.
Perceived realism and information value also had a positive influence on the enjoyment of
the bullying-related film clip. This strengthened the assumption that enjoyment is more than just
the pursuit of pleasure. Gaining information also influenced the enjoyment of certain media
content. These results can be connected to prior research by Tesser, Millar, and Wu (1988), or
more recently by Oliver & Bartsch (2010). They identified “self-development” as a motivational
factor for film enjoyment. This points to the enjoyment of media because it can provide the user
with a more meaningful life experience. Which brings us to the eudaimonic viewing motives
studied in the present study.
The eudaimonic viewing motives were affected by prior experience and emotional
responsiveness. Bullied adolescents indicated to have more eudaimonic viewing motives than
adolescents without experience with bullying. Being high on emotions when thinking about
bullying also resulted in having more eudaimonic viewing motives being low on emotions.
Again, this can be connected to the idea that people may search for other reasons to enjoy certain
media content. Maybe they need to have those other reasons, since they cannot enjoy certain
media content hedonistically. Media users who are confronted with painful memories may
willingly choose to enjoy the media content for different reasons, because the content does not
match their hedonistic aspirations.
The latter assumption is strengthened by the influence of prior experience, emotional
responsiveness and the exposure conditions together on eudaimonic viewing motivations. Just
participants that were not bullied and low on negative emotions scored higher on eudaimonic
viewing motives in the rumination condition than in the reflection condition. The other
participants indicated to have more eudaimonic viewing motives when they were in the reflection
condition. This may suggest that emotional participants (everyone scoring high on emotions, and
those having experience with bullying) are more able to see a film clip that is related to negative
56
emotions as a meaningful experience when they reflect on their emotions; that is, when they are
motivated by curiosity through the induction of the coping strategy reflection (Luyckx, et al.,
2007).
Reflection induced curiosity can be connected to results of the present study regarding the
influence of the exposure conditions on the level of realism and the information value adolescents
attributed to the film clip. The results showed that participants in the reflection condition thought
the realism and the information value of the film clip were higher than the participants in the
rumination condition. Perhaps adolescents who are keen on gathering information pick more
information from certain media content than adolescents who are focused on themselves. This
makes sense when connecting these results to the theory on reflection. While rumination is
defined as neurotic self-attentiveness, reflection was designated as intellectual self-attentiveness,
motivated by curiosity (Luyckx, et al., 2007; Trapnell & Campell, 1999). This may lead to people
that use reflection being more attentive to what they see, being more eager to learn, and possibly
less critical on whether what they see is realistic; as long as they can learn something from it, it is
okay.
A practical implication of this finding is that when using media for educational purposes,
adapting the media content to a kind of “learning mode” can improve the success of the lesson.
This may even be applied to using media in bullying prevention. Additional evidence for this
suggestion is provided by the influence that experience with having been bullied, emotional
responsivess and the exposure conditions together had on eudaimonic viewing motives. These
results may suggest that emotional participants are more able to see a film clip that is related to
negative emotions as a meaningful experience when they reflect on their emotions. When trying
to teach adolescents something about a topic that may inflict negative emotions, inducing them
with a “learning mode” possibly makes the lesson more successful. More research should be done
on this topic before being able to state this will actually work.
57
Answering the research question
To conclude this section, an answer will be formulated to the research questions of the present
study. Two subquestions were attached to this main question: What influence do media users’
prior experiences and emotional responsiveness have on their preference for and enjoyment of
experience-related counter-hedonic media? and What is the effect of coping with emotions
through media and the information value of that media content on the enjoyment of it? Starting
with the first subquestion, it can be concluded that among adolescents both the preference for and
the enjoyment of bullying-related media is affected by prior experience and emotional
responsiveness. As was suggested by Nabi et al. (2006), media can have a therapeutic effect. This
may lead to the enjoyment of media that one would not immediately think of as enjoyable,
especially not among people who themselves lived through the painful experience the film is
about.
Thus, gaining new insights, either in handling experience-related emotions or in the
experience in general, may be the reason people can enjoy this kind of counter-hedonic media.
This helps in answering the main question of this study: Can enjoyment be more than the pursuit
of pleasure? The answer to this is: yes, enjoyment can be more than the pursuit of pleasure.
Whether they actually know what they are doing or not, people may be drawn to counter-hedonic
media to have a “learning experience”. And not just any “learning experience”. This study
showed people are even willing to endure reliving their painful experiences to gain new insights
in their experience and in how to handle the emotions connected to it.
Limitations and future research
A limitation of this study may be the “manipulation” of the experience with having been bullied.
The “manipulation check” showed it was not really successful. Two things may account for the
failed “manipulation”: the “manipulation” induction, and the film clip. First, this study used the
58
VIC (Schwartz et al., 2002), a questionnaire that asked several questions about bullying. This is a
common way to measure peer victimization, or, in other words, being bullied by classmates.
Bullying can happen in so many ways: by physical contact or by words, or by being ignored and
excluded from a group (Olweus, 1993). The approach Nabi et al. (2006) used, just asking
participants whether they had a certain experience, seemed a bit too simple to us. Besides that, as
already discussed above, bullying among adolescents may be less of a past experience than
cheating on one’s partner, the experience tested by Nabi et al. (2006). Bullying victims in
secondary school might even be still in the middle of being bullied. Both may have lead to a less
distinct bullied participants group than just asking a yes-or-no question. This may have affected
the outcomes of the “manipulation check”, and of the overall influence of experience with having
been bullied.
The “manipulation check” may also have failed because of the bullying-related film clip.
The film used in the present study, Bluebird, was not like the Hollywood or Disney productions
to which our participants would probably be more familiar. The images in Bluebird tell the story,
while Hollywood/Disney films are more explicit about the messages they want to share with their
viewers. Perhaps participants associated the film more with a documentary than with the fiction
films they are familiar with. This may have lead to less involvement in the clip and less
identification with the protagonist, which may have caused the “manipulation check” to fail.
The film clip also is a limitation in itself. Two clips were edited from segments of the film
Bluebird to represent the different coping conditions, rumination and reflection. But those coping
strategies represent processes that happen internally. Films usually work with a third person view,
unlike novels that often have a first person storyteller. This makes it easier to have a look in
someone’s head. Bluebird is a third person film, which tells the story by pointing the camera on
the protagonist. Merel does not tell what is going on in her head. This made it hard to make two
clearly distinct clips. A rumination/reflection introduction to the clip attempted to make the
difference a bit more explicit. But this may not have worked as it was supposed to be. Better
59
distinguishable film clips may have provided us with better results regarding the influence of the
exposure conditions.
Another limitation was that the participants of the present study were adolescents. It is the
question whether the effects found in this study are the same among different age groups. The
effects may also be different when participants do not watch just one short film clip, but an entire
film, or series of films on the same topic. Studying it may lead to implications about media not
just having a short-term therapeutic effect on users, but having long-term of lasting outcomes.
Perhaps film can even be used in the professional treatment of bullying-victims.
Whether or not studying the effects of media use in actual therapy, future research on
coping through media would be interesting anyway. As discussed above, it is possible the effects
of coping with emotions through bullying-related media may lead to even more enjoyment of the
media content in the long run. It would be interesting to be able to test this suggestion. Besides
that, there are more emotion regulation strategies than the two used in this study. There is still
research to be done on this, and possibly future research can also study the relation of those
strategies to enjoyment, to further improve our understanding of the therapeutic effects of media.
Future research may also focus on the implications of some other findings of our study
regarding the coping strategies: the different exposure conditions had an effect on the perceived
realism and the information value of media. Therefore, research may focus at the implications of
these findings for using media for educational purposes. As already mentioned above, it might be
effective to edit media content to induce users with a kind of “learning mode”. The participants in
the reflection condition of this study were stimulated to actively search for useful information,
and eventually reported higher perceived realism and information values. This might be
interesting for the makers of educational television programs, or for teachers that like to use
media in their classes. But prior to being able to integrate reflection inducting film in the
educational system straight away, more studies should reaffirm these finding. Future reseach
60
should also look into the effects of media on longer term, for example by looking at the effects on
school grades.
In all, the present study contributed to our understanding of counter-hedonic media use.
New evidence was provided for the assumption enjoyment is more than the pursuit of pleasure.
People are also searching for information, which affects their media use. Maybe this is not our
first thought when thinking of enjoyment, but it is definitely something that should not be
overlooked when studying media enjoyment.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I thank my supervisor Elly Konijn for her feedback along the way. I also thank my unofficial
supervisors: my parents, because they are always available; Anouk den Hamer and Rianne van
Eijk, because we were in this together. Last but not least, I thank my favourite school teachers:
Minke Veeneman and Anne Beth Peerdeman. Because it’s sometimes not about what you know,
but about who you know.
61
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66
APPENDIX
The quasi-experimental questionnaire that was developed to collect the data used in this study
BEGINSCHERM
Welkom bij dit onderzoek, fijn dat jij ook mee doet!
Deze vragenlijst gaat over serieuze, soms moeilijke onderwerpen in de media. Hierbij kun je
denken aan films over pesten, familieproblemen of geweld. Vinden jongeren dit eigenlijk wel
interessant?
Om daar achter te komen, willen wij graag jouw mening horen! Door op VERDER te klikken,
start je de vragenlijst.
~
INTRO
Je hoeft niet lang na te denken bij de vragen. Er zijn geen goede of foute antwoorden - alleen wat
jij er zelf van vindt, is belangrijk.
Je hoeft je naam nergens in te vullen, dus al je antwoorden zijn geheim.
Heb je je geluid goed hard staan of je koptelefoon op, zodat je van het filmpje straks alles kunt
volgen? Dan kun je nu beginnen. Succes!
~
Eerst willen we graag een paar dingen over jou weten.
Hoe oud ben jij?
Ben jij een jongen of een meisje?
Jongen
Meisje
Welke opleiding doe je?
vmbo - praktische leerweg
vmbo - theoretische leerweg
havo
vwo
gymnasium
anders namelijk ...
Doe je op school mee aan deze vragenlijst? Vul dan hier de code in die je hebt gekregen. (Als je geen code hebt, kun je deze vraag overslaan.)
~
67
In welk land ben jij geboren?
Nederland
Suriname
Nederlandse Antillen of Aruba
Duitsland
Marokko
Turkije
anders namelijk ...
Is één van jouw ouders of grootouders in een ander land dan Nederland geboren? Zo ja, waar? (Als jouw ouders en grootouders allemaal in Nederland geboren zijn, vul dan NEE in.)
~
Hoeveel uur televisie kijk jij gemiddeld op een doordeweekse dag?
Ongeveer 0 tot 1,5 uur per dag
Ongeveer 1,5 tot 3 uur per dag
Ongeveer 3 tot 4,5 uur per dag
Ongeveer 4,5 tot 6 uur per dag
Meer dan 6 uur per dag
Hoeveel uur televisie kijk jij gemiddeld op een dag in het weekend? Van vrijdagavond 17.00 uur tot maandagochtend 06.00 uur
Ongeveer 0 tot 1,5 uur per dag
Ongeveer 1,5 tot 3 uur per dag
Ongeveer 3 tot 4,5 uur per dag
Ongeveer 4,5 tot 6 uur per dag
Meer dan 6 uur per dag
Hoeveel uur kijk jij gemiddeld op een doordeweekse dag via internet naar films of tv-series?
Ongeveer 0 tot 1,5 uur per dag
Ongeveer 1,5 tot 3 uur per dag
Ongeveer 3 tot 4,5 uur per dag
Ongeveer 4,5 tot 6 uur per dag
Meer dan 6 uur per dag
Hoeveel uur kijk jij gemiddeld op een dag in het weekend via internet naar films of tv-series? Van vrijdagavond 17.00 uur tot maandagochtend 06.00 uur
Ongeveer 0 tot 1,5 uur per dag
Ongeveer 1,5 tot 3 uur per dag
Ongeveer 3 tot 4,5 uur per dag
Ongeveer 4,5 tot 6 uur per dag
Meer dan 6 uur per dag
~
68
Hieronder staan een aantal uitspraken over jouw klas en in hoeverre daar pestgedrag voorkomt.
Geef bij elke uitspraak aan hoe vaak dit jou overkomt.
Nooit Zelden Soms Vaak Dagelijks
Hoe vaak plagen klasgenoten jou of maken
ze grappen over je
Hoe vaak pesten klasgenoten jou? Hoe vaak slaan of schoppen klasgenoten jou? Hoe vaak roddelen klasgenoten over je
of zeggen ze gemene dingen?
Hoe vaak doen klasgenoten jou pijn? Hoe vaak sluiten klasgenoten je buiten? Hoe vaak negeren klasgenoten jou?
Wil je nog iets over kwijt naar aanleiding van de vragen op het vorige scherm? Dan kan dat hier.
V8 (Als je niets kwijt wilt, kun je deze vraag overslaan.)
~
Bij de volgende vragen kun je uit de volgende antwoordmogelijkheden kiezen, van links naar
rechts:
- dit past echt niet bij mij
- dit past een beetje bij mij
- dit past best wel bij mij
- dit past goed bij mij
- dit past heel goed bij mij
Dus hoe meer naar rechts jij een bolletje aanklikt, hoe beter de uitspraak bij je past.
Dit past
echt niet
bij mij
Dit past
een beetje
bij mij
Dit past
best wel
bij mij
Dit past
goed
bij mij
Dit past
heel goed
bij mij
Als ik eraan denk dat ik gepest word,
maakt dat mij boos
Als ik eraan denk dat ik gepest word,
voel ik me energieloos
Als ik eraan denk dat ik gepest word,
maakt dat mij bang
Als ik eraan denk dat ik gepest word,
maakt dat mij verdrietig
Als ik eraan denk dat ik gepest word, voel ik me... (Als je niets toe te voegen hebt, kun je deze vraag overslaan.)
~
69
Nu volgen enkele korte omschrijvingen van films. Geef bij elke omschrijving aan hoe graag jij
deze film zou willen zien.
Na deze vragen krijg je ook echt een stukje film te zien. Klik op VERDER om naar de
omschrijvingen te gaan.
~
Hieronder staan de eerste omschrijvingen. Geef voor elk van deze films aan hoe graag jij ze wilt
zien.
Het is Jasmines grote droom beroemd te worden. Dan wordt haar dansgroepje gevraagd om mee
te dansen in de nieuwe videoclip van een bekende zanger. Er zit ook een danssolo in de clip. Hoe
ver zal Jasmine gaan om die te mogen dansen?
Dit wil ik echt niet zien Dit wil ik heel graag zien
De moeder van Annebel en Mike is ernstig ziek. De tweeling mist de energieke moeder die ze
zich van vroeger kunnen herinneren, maar ze doen hun best haar zo goed als het kan op te
vrolijken. Dan blijkt bij een controlebezoek aan de dokter dat moeder nog maar twee maanden te
leven heeft.
Dit wil ik echt niet zien Dit wil ik heel graag zien
Erg gelukkig voelt David zich niet in de tweede klas. Hij is het mikpunt van getreiter. Op een
ochtend krijgt zijn klas van de rector te horen dat David na de klassenavond niet is thuisgekomen.
Twee klasgenoten gaan op onderzoek uit. Onderweg ontmoeten ze allerlei vreemde figuren, die
hun een hele nieuwe kijk op de wereld geven.
Dit wil ik echt niet zien Dit wil ik heel graag zien
~
Hier zijn de volgende omschrijvingen. Geef weer voor elk van de films aan hoe graag jij ze wilt
zien. Na deze ben je over de helft!
Het gezin van Alfredo moest voor het werk van vader naar de andere kant van het land verhuizen.
Alfredo wil niets liever dan terug naar hun oude huis. Wanneer hij met zijn klas op fietskamp
gaat, besluit hij in zijn eentje naar zijn vroegere woonplaats te fietsen voor de jaarlijkse kermis.
Maar dat is gemakkelijker gezegd dan gedaan.
Dit wil ik echt niet zien Dit wil ik heel graag zien
Als Niels op een middag thuis komt van school, moeten zijn ouders met hem praten. Ze vertellen
hem dat ze gaan scheiden omdat ze niet meer genoeg van elkaar houden. Aan Niels stellen ze de
vraag bij wie hij wil wonen: bij mamma of bij pappa?
Dit wil ik echt niet zien Dit wil ik heel graag zien
Op de eerste schooldag na de zomervakantie hoort Tessa ineens niet meer bij haar oude groepje
vriendinnen. Plotseling vinden de jongens in de klas dat ze stinkt en maken de meisjes er een
sport van haar te laten struikelen op de gang. Tessa besluit dat er iets moet veranderen. Maar is de
keuze die ze maakt wel de juiste?
Dit wil ik echt niet zien Dit wil ik heel graag zien
~
70
Hieronder dan de laatste filmomschrijvingen. Geef nog één keer aan hoe graag jij deze films wilt
zien.
Jeffrey is een getalenteerde en fanatieke voetballer met maar één droom: te mogen spelen in het
Nederlands Elftal. Zijn vader Erik is minstens net zo fanatiek in het coachen van Jeffrey. Maar
als zijn vader plotseling sterft, stort Jeffrey’s wereld in. Hoe moet dat nu met zijn carrière in de
voetbalwereld?
Dit wil ik echt niet zien Dit wil ik heel graag zien
De buurkinderen Thomas en Anne worden beiden gepest op school. Samen bedenken ze een
magisch koninkrijk in het bos achter hun huizen, waar ze spannende avonturen beleven. Tot de
grootste pestkop van school het schrift waar Thomas en Anne hun avonturen in opschrijven in
handen krijgt...
Dit wil ik echt niet zien Dit wil ik heel graag zien
~
“RUMINATION CONDITION” “REFLECTION CONDITION”
n het volgende scherm krijgt je een kort
fragment van de film Bluebird te zien.
In het volgende scherm krijgt je een kort
fragment van de film Bluebird te zien.
De film gaat over Merel. Merel (13) wordt
gepest. Het begint met opmerkingen over
dat ze stinkt, maar gaat al snel van kwaad
naar erger. Waarom moeten ze haar toch
hebben? Ondanks dat het gepest haar
verdrietig maakt, trekt Merel zich graag
terug om hier over na te denken.
De film gaat over Merel. Merel (13) wordt
gepest. Het begint met opmerkingen over
dat ze stinkt, maar gaat al snel van kwaad
naar erger. Waarom moeten ze haar toch
hebben? Merel kan niet stoppen met
piekeren en trekt zich steeds vaker terug,
ondanks dat ze het liefst helemaal niet
nadenkt over het gepest. Het gepieker maakt
haar alleen maar verdrietiger en bozer.
Dan is het nu tijd je geluid hard te zetten,
zodat je alles goed kunt verstaan. Voor
meer kijkplezier, kun je het scherm
beeldvullend maken. Het is ook belangrijk
dat je het filmpje helemaal bekijkt!
Dan is het nu tijd je geluid hard te zetten,
zodat je alles goed kunt verstaan. Voor meer
kijkplezier, kun je het scherm beeldvullend
maken. Het is ook belangrijk dat je het
filmpje helemaal bekijkt!
Wanneer je op VERDER klikt, kan het
gebeuren dat je computer een
beveiligingswaarschuwing geeft
(afhankelijk van je instellingen). We hebben
het gecontroleerd en dit filmpje is helemaal
veilig. Je kunt dus rustig op JA klikken.
Wanneer je op VERDER klikt, kan het
gebeuren dat je computer een
beveiligingswaarschuwing geeft
(afhankelijk van je instellingen). We hebben
het gecontroleerd en dit filmpje is helemaal
veilig. Je kunt dus rustig op JA klikken.
~
HET FILMPJE
~
71
Wat is je opgevallen in het filmfragment?
Wat was de naam van de hoofdpersoon?
Annabel
Merel
Ellen
Renee
Wat was de kleur van de jas van de hoofdpersoon?
Rood
Groen
Blauw
Zwart
Wat is de reden dat de hoofdpersoon geslagen werd?
Ze had weer eens een 10 voor Frans
Ze wil de goede antwoorden van het proefwerk niet geven
Ze heeft iemand laten struikelen
Ze deed de sprong over de kast het beste bij gym
Wat doet de hoofdpersoon nadat haar fiets is gesloopt?
Langs de rivier lopen
De hoofden van haar klasgenoten wegkrassen van de schoolfoto
Met het openbaar vervoer naar huis
Haar kapotte fiets melden aan haar favoriete docent
~
72
De volgende vragen gaan niet meer over de inhoud van het filmpje, maar over wat jij van het
filmpje vindt.
Geef bij de volgende stellingen aan hoe goed de uitspraak bij je past.
Dit past
echt niet
bij mij
Dit past
een beetje
bij mij
Dit past
best wel
bij mij
Dit past
goed
bij mij
Dit past
heel goed
bij mij
Dit filmpje laat mij stilstaan bij dingen die ik heb
gezegd of gedaan heb
Na dit filmpje is het moeilijk voor mij om te
stoppen met nadenken over mezelf
Dit filmpje zal zeker niet nog lang in mijn hoofd
zitten
Door het zien van wat Merel meemaakt, ga ik
piekeren over dingen die gebeurd zijn
Dit filmpje maakt dat ik inzit over hoe ik me in
een bepaalde situatie gedragen heb
Niets in dit filmpje maakt dat ik ga nadenken over
iets wat ik gedaan heb
Ik vind het prettig om naar aanleiding van dit
filmpje na te denken over wie ik precies ben
Ik vind het niet interessant stil te staan bij hoe ik
denk en hoe ik me voel over wat Merel in het
filmpje meemaakt
Na het zien van dit filmpje ga ik zeker niet over
mezelf nadenken
Ik vind het prettig om me naar aanleiding van dit
filmpje te bezinnen op waarom ik bepaalde dingen
doe
Ik vind er niets aan om stil te staan bij de
betekenis van dit filmpje
Na het zien van dit filmpje wil ik graag nadenken
over mijn leven
~
73
Geef bij de volgende uitspraken over het filmpje aan in hoeverre jij het er mee eens bent of niet.
Dit past
echt niet
bij mij
Dit past
een beetje
bij mij
Dit past
best wel
bij mij
Dit past
goed
bij mij
Dit past
heel goed
bij mij
De situatie van Merel in het filmpje gaf mij een
goed beeld van hoe het is om gepest te worden
Van de situatie van Merel leer ik niets over hoe
iemand die gepest wordt zich voelt
De makers van de film geven de kijkers een
onzinnig beeld van pesten op school
Wat de pesters in het filmpje doen met Merel leert
mij iets over de manieren waarop iemand gepest
kan worden
Van het filmpje heb ik eigenlijk niets geleerd over
pesten of gepest worden
Het filmpje gaf mij een onrealistisch beeld van
pesten op school
Het verhaal van Merel is geloofwaardig
Het verhaal van Merel is nep
Zoals de situatie van Merel in het filmpje is, zou
het ook in het echt kunnen zijn
~
Let op: de volgende vragen gaan weer over wat jij van het filmpje vond. Geef dus aan hoe goed
de uitspraak bij je past.
Dit past
echt niet
bij mij
Dit past
een beetje
bij mij
Dit past
best wel
bij mij
Dit past
goed
bij mij
Dit past
heel goed
bij mij
Ik vond het filmpje leuk
Ik vond onplezierig om naar het filmpje te kijken
Ik vond het filmpje boeiend
Ik heb me niet vermaakt met het kijken van het
filmpje
Tijdens het bekijken van het filmpje ging ik
helemaal op in het verhaal
Ik denk dat ik Merel goed begrijp
Ik kon niet goed met Merel meeleven
Tijdens het kijken kon ik de emoties van Merel
niet voelen
Ik hoop dat het aan het einde van de film goed
komt met Merel
~
74
Geef ook voor deze uitspraken aan hoe goed ze bij je passen.
Dit past
echt niet
bij mij
Dit past
een beetje
bij mij
Dit past
best wel
bij mij
Dit past
goed
bij mij
Dit past
heel goed
bij mij
Dit filmpje spreekt mij aan omdat Merel op
dezelfde manier in het leven staat als ik
Ik vind het niet prettig dat dit filmpje mij stil doet
staan bij gepest worden
Dit filmpje spreekt mij aan omdat het gaat over
betekenisvolle, menselijke kwesties
Ik heb helemaal niets met een filmpje als dit, dat
mij aan het denken zet
Omdat dit filmpje gaat over de zin en betekenis
van het leven, heeft het mij diep geraakt
Dat dit filmpje een diepere betekenis en een
boodschap heeft, bevalt mij
~
Tot slot nog deze vragen. Hierbij geldt ook weer: hoe hoger het getal dat jij kiest, hoe beter de
uitspraak bij je past.
Dit past
echt niet
bij mij
Dit past
een beetje
bij mij
Dit past
best wel
bij mij
Dit past
goed
bij mij
Dit past
heel goed
bij mij
Als ik eraan denk dat ik gepest word,
maakt dat mij boos
Als ik eraan denk dat ik gepest word,
voel ik me energieloos
Als ik eraan denk dat ik gepest word,
maakt dat mij bang
Als ik eraan denk dat ik gepest word,
maakt dat mij verdrietig
Als ik eraan denk dat ik gepest word, voel ik me... (Als je niets toe te voegen hebt, kun je deze vraag overslaan.)
~
Dit was het! Hartelijk bedankt voor het invullen van de vragenlijst.
Klik op VERDER om de vragenlijst af te sluiten.
~
EINDSCHERM
Klik nu op STOPPEN om de vragenlijst af te sluiten.
Nogmaals hartelijk bedankt!