M. Samarkos TUBERCULOSIS IN GREECE. INTRODUCTION.

M. Samarkos

TUBERCULOSIS IN GREECE

INTRODUCTION

Tuberculosis Tuberculosis – Infection by Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Primary infection: at a young age, most of the times asymptomatic Latent infection: no signs, symptoms or other findings of active

disease. It follows untreated primary infection Post-primary infection (Reactivation): It occurs years after primary

infection, in 5-10% of exposed persons Conditions such as HIV, immunosuppression etc increase the probability

of post-primary infection Treatment: Combination of antituberculous drugs for >6 months.

Drug resistant tuberculosis M. tuberculosis may develop resistance to anti-TB drugs

Multi Drug Resistant TB (MDR-TB): Resistance to INH + RIF Extensively Drug Resistant TB (XDR-TB): Resistance to INH + RIF +

Quinolones + One Injectable second line drug Multi Drug Resistant TB

More difficult to treat More frequent relapses Increased mortality Increased health-care cost (10x – 100x)

MDR-TB usually due to incomplete therapy or non-compliance

Tuberculosis incidence The number of new cases and relapses in a given

population over a time period (usually one year) Low: <20 (25) cases/100.000 population High: >20 (25) cases/100.000 population

Definitions Migrant: a foreigner legally admitted and expected to settle in a host

country. Asylum seeker: a person wishing to be admitted to a country as a refugee

and awaiting decision on their application for refugee status under relevant international instruments.

Foreign-born citizen: a person who is a national of the state in which they are present but who was born in another country.

Illegal or undocumented foreigner/migrant: a person whose entry, stay or work in a host country is illegal.

In this presentation the term “immigrant” includes all of the above

THE SIZE OF THE PROBLEM

Estimated TB incidence rates, 2010

Global Tuberculosis Control 2011 - WHO

Global trends in estimated rates of TB incidence and mortality

Global Tuberculosis Control 2011 - WHO

Total TB notification rates/100,000 population – Europe 2009

Tuberculosis surveillance in Europe 2009, ECDC

Total TB notifications by previous treatment history and total TB case rates, Europe, 2000–2009


Tuberculosis cases, notification rates per 100 000 population and mean annual change in rates, European Region, 2005–2009

Greece: 582 cases, 5,2/100.000, -6,7%

Romania: 23267 cases, 108,2/100.000,

Subtotal EU/EEA: 79,665 cases, 15,8/100.000, -5,8%



Percentage of notified TB cases of foreign origin, Europe, 2009a

Résumé The incidence of TB in Europe is declining In many countries (especially of the Eastern Europe) the incidence remains

high In the Scandinavian countries TB incidence is increasing In Western Europe a significant proportion of cases (>20%) are from

immigrants In certain countries (UK, Netherlands, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Cyprus)

the majority of cases are from immigrants In these countries the epidemiology of TB has been significantly affected by

migration

DATA FOR GREECE

TB incidence in Greece 2004-2009 Total notifications

HCDPC

TB incidence in Greece 1995-2009 Laboratory confirmed cases

National Reference Laboratory for Mycobacteria

Euro Surveill. 2010;15(28):pii=19614

Age distribution of notifications in Greece, 2004-2009

ΚΕΕΛΠΝΟ

Frequency of notifications according to previous treatment status

ΚΕΕΛΠΝΟ

Drug susceptibility testing data and tuberculosis resistance phenotypes rates, Greece, 1995-2009


Percentage of multidrug resistance, Greeks versus immigrants/foreign-born, Greece, 1995-2009


How reliable are our data ? “…It has to be noted however that studies estimating the

number of new cases of TB using antituberculous drug consumption, suggest that there is significant underreporting of TB cases…”

HCDCP (ΚΕΕΛΠΝΟ): Epidemiological data for TB in Greece, 2004-2009

Retrospective study for the period 2000-2003 Cross-check of data from 3 Prefectural Public Health Directorates (PHD),

Patras University Hospital and South-West Greece Hospital for Pulmonary Disease and Hellenic Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (HCDCP)

186 cases of TB were diagnosed in the two hospitals: 72 (38.7%) were notified to PHDs

161 TB notifications to the three PHDs (from all hospitals of the area): 112 (70%) were notified to HCDCP

Notified TB cases incidence: 3.8/100,000 Actual TB cases incidence: 9.5/100,000


Résumé Notified cases TB incidence in Greece is low. TB incidence in Greek natives is declining. Absolute number of TB cases in immigrants tends to

overcome the respective number in Greeks. There is a significant proportion of resistance to anti-TB

drugs and a small percentage of MDR (5-8%) There is evidence of substantial underreporting of

tuberculosis cases to public health authorities

TUBERCULOSIS IN IMMIGRANTS

Tuberculosis in immigrants High incidence of TB in immigrants reflects the higher risk of

exposure in their countries of origin. Other factors may play a role

Conditions of migration Living conditions in the host country HIV incidence in the country of origin

High incidence of MDR/XDR-TB in immigrants High incidence of resistance in countries of origin Incomplete treatment in country of origin or host country

Tuberculosis in immigrants Foreign-born individuals have increased risk of TB for up

to 20 years after migration The impact on TB epidemiology is long-term

The rate of conversion of latent to active TB is similar in the foreign-born and native populations. Screening programs on arrival have low yield

TB in immigrants – why is it important ? Influence on TB epidemiology of the host country

UK, Scandinavian countries Need for more health-care resources Risk of transmission of TB to native population ? MDR disease

Risk of transmission of TB to native population - Data

USA: On a State level there was no correlation between TB incidence in US-born and foreign-born persons (1986-1993)

San Francisco: <2% of US-born TB cases were transmitted from foreign-born TB patients (1991-1995)

Norway: Imported TB had little influence on the transmission of M tuberculosis in the receiving low-incidence country (1994-2005)

N Engl J Med 2005;332:1071, Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998;158:1797, Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007;176:930

Risk of transmission of TB to native population - Data Rhode Island, USA: TB transmission between the foreign-born and

US-born population should not be neglected. Germany: there is no significant TB transmission from TB high-

prevalence immigrant autochthonous population. Barcelona: Recent TB transmission among Spanish-born and

foreign-born populations contributed significantly to the burden of TB in Barcelona

Italy: The overall impact of imported TB on public health in the low-incidence study area is relatively modest

J Clin Microbiol 2011;49:834, BMC Infect Dis. 2009;9:197, CMI 2010;16:568, CMI 2010;16:1091

Risk of transmission of TB to native population – Conclusion ?

Numerous studies on the subject. Conflicting data among studies. More recent studies have used molecular tools to dissect

the epidemiology of TB. Some of the studies suggest that the risk of TB

transmission among natives and immigrants should not be neglected.

SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM

How to confront the problem ? Early diagnosis and case finding

Develop specific strategies for immigrants Effective treatment

Ensure access to health-care for all immigrants Ensure follow-up DOTS

Preventive therapy Screening for latent infection

Infection control Surveillance and response

Screening services in Europe Screening units:

Units within hospital facilities Municipal Health Service Units in transit camps

Screening modalities Universal use of TST in children, varying in adults Chest x-ray in almost all studied sites

One site required symptoms or TST(+) to order CXREur Respir J 2006;27:801

TB Screening strategies Pre-entry / pre-migration screening Port of arrival screening Reception / holding / transit centre screening Community post-arrival screening Occasional screening Follow-up screening

What is the best screening strategy? Systematic review in the EU/EEA

Yield and coverage were used as indicators of screening strategy effectiveness

Median yield: 0.185% (IQR 0.10 – 0.35%) No difference between three main strategies

Port of arrival screening Reception/holding centers screening Community screening

Eur Respir J 2009;34:1180

Tuberculosis screening: Problems Screening programs using CXR

Low yield for active TB cases Higher yield for latent TB cases High rate of false positives High negative predictive value

Screening programs operate on arrival The impact of initial screening on TB epidemiology is low TB cases in immigrants continue to accumulate in subsequent years

Tuberculosis screening: Cost Canada: permanent resident applicants screening for TB with CXR 12,898 screened – 17 TB cases detected ( incidence 131/100,000)

Cost of detection and treatment through the screening program: 31,418 Canadian $ per case

Cost of passive diagnosis and treatment: 11,090 Canadian $ per case Estimated cost of other screening modalities (TST, sputum culture,

PCR) per TB case detected were higher than that of CXR Sputum culture using one specimen was marginally more cost-effective

than CXR

Screening in Greece Immigrants are not regularly screened for TB A Health Clearance Certificate is required for immigrants applying for

work/residence/study permit Chest X-ray is a requirement

Screening data from Heraclion, Crete: 1872 immigrants applying for work permit underwent chest X-ray Only 4 had significant findings No case of TB was detected

Occasional screening of immigrants applying for residence permit with TST – Data ?

Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2005;9:865

National Tuberculosis Control Program Designed in the context of the Global Plan to Stop TB (WHO) Part of the National Action Plan for Communicable Diseases 2008-12

Compulsory hospitalization or home restriction of active TB patients Free health care for all patients with TB including undocumented immigrants (including

TB medications) Postponement of deportation of patient with active TB Measures to improve reporting of TB cases Controlled prescription of anti-TB drugs Staffing of TB Clinics MDR-TB Clinics exclusively responsible for MDR cases

4.059.566 € have been allocated for the period 2008-2012.

http://www2.keelpno.gr/blog/?p=681

Résumé TB screening programs in immigrants have low yield and

are not cost-effective TB screening programs operate on arrival, therefore they

miss TB cases accumulating in subsequent years In Greece screening is associated with Work/Residence

permit application A National Tuberculosis Control Program awaits to be fully

implemented

UNDOCUMENTED IMMIGRANTS

Undocumented immigrants – a difficult case Little is known regarding demography and TB epidemiology

Netherlands 2002: 7% of TB patients were undocumented immigrant

Diagnosed with TB at a later stage, with a higher proportion of positive sputum smear and culture Fear to be arrested Inability to pay for health care when required Unaware of their right to health coverage

Undocumented immigrants Increased risk of becoming infected

Overcrowded travel Poor housing and working conditions in the country of relocation Inadequate nutrition and stressful living conditions

Wide disparities among countries regarding access of undocumented immigrants to health care, right to medication, legal framework regarding deportation procedure.

Working Group on Transborder Migration and TB of the International Union Against TB and Lung Disease Recommendations for TB in Undocumented Immigrants

Health authorities and/or health staff should ensure easy access to low-threshold facilities where undocumented migrants who are TB suspects can be diagnosed and treated without giving their names and without fear of being reported to the police or migration officials. Health authorities should remind health staff that they have an obligation of confidentiality.

Each country should ensure that undocumented migrants with TB are not deported until completion of treatment.

Authorities and non-governmental sectors should raise awareness among undocumented migrants about TB, emphasising that diagnosis and treatment should be free of charge and wholly independent of migratory status.

Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2008;12:878

FUTURE PROSPECTS

Future control strategies Data suggest that screening immigrants for TB is a low-

yield and expensive TB control strategy A more effective use of resources may be comprehensive

contact tracing within foreign-born communities or use of Interferon-gamma Release Assays for screening.

The ideal long-term TB control strategy would be global investment to improve tuberculosis control in high-incidence countries

Thorax 2010;65:178

Domestic Returns from Investment in the Control of Tuberculosis in Other Countries

Radiographic screening of legal immigrants plus current tuberculosis-control programs

Addition of either U.S.-funded expansion of the strategy of DOTS in Mexico or TST to screen legal immigrants from Mexico.

U.S.-funded efforts to expand the DOTS program in Mexico, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic could reduce tuberculosis-related morbidity and mortality among migrants to the United States, producing net cost savings for the United States

N Engl J Med 2005;353:1008

Net Savings or Added Costs of Implementing a Strategy of Radiographic Screening plus Either Expansion of the DOTS Program or Tuberculin Skin Testing

The six components of the STOP TB STRATEGY

1. Pursue high-quality DOTS expansion and enhancement2. Address TB-HIV, MDR-TB, and the needs of poor and

vulnerable populations3. Contribute to health system strengthening based on primary

health care4. Engage all care providers5. Empower people with TB, and communities through partnership6. Enable and promote research

http://www.who.int/tb/strategy/en/index.html

M. Samarkos TUBERCULOSIS IN GREECE. INTRODUCTION.

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