M. S. Sridhar* - E-LISeprints.rclis.org/9304/1/J38_Understanding_User.pdf · M. S. Sridhar*...
Transcript of M. S. Sridhar* - E-LISeprints.rclis.org/9304/1/J38_Understanding_User.pdf · M. S. Sridhar*...
Understanding the User - Why, What and How ?
Understanding the User - Why, What and How ? @
M. S. Sridhar*
Abstract: Explains the need, importance, purposes and scope
of user studies, discusses procedure for conducting sound
user studies together with associated problems of research
like selection of problem, formulation of hypothesis, design
of study, sampling strategy, data collection methods, scaling
techniques, pilot study, processing and analysis of data,
testing of hypothesis, interpretation, drawing inferences,
communication and dissemination of results and finally
concludes by highlighting methodological flaws and gaps in
Indian user studies.
Keywords: User studies; user research; research procedures;
research methodology
1. INTRODUCTION
User studies are quite familiar to every one. Familiarity
often leads to complacency and which in turn can cause
retardation in further research. There is so much said about
user studies that it becomes embarrassing to tell anything
about the topic. An attempt is made here to present the
significance and scope of user studies as well as the methods
and techniques together with a step by step procedure for
conducting sound user studies a simple and brief way.
_____________________________________________________________ @ Library Science with a slant to Documentation and Information Studies, 32 (4) December 1995, 151- 164.
*Head, Library & Documentation Division, ISRO Satellite Centre, Bangalore-560 017.
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User studies, use studies, information-need studies,
information transfer studies, communication behaviour
studies, information dissemination and utilisation studies,
user-research, etc., are all closely related and often not
precisely defined. The terminology depends much on the
approach and the angle from which one sees. There are
several overlapping facets included in these studies. As
such scope of user studies is enormous. User component will
have bearing on almost all aspects of library and information
system. For the purpose of this presentation let us assume
that all such research inquiries about users (including non-
user as well as potential users) with a view to understand
their characteristic features, needs, preferences, practices
opinions, attitudes, behaviour, evaluations, etc., with
respect to library and information services that are offered
or likely to be or need to be offered. The ultimate aim is to
help designing, altering, evaluating and improving efficiency
and effectiveness of library and information systems and
their products/services in meeting their predetermined goals.
It may be noted here that use (and non-use) as well as user
(and non-user) are with respect to information as well as
services, collection, and whole library/information system.
It is also necessary to note the limitations of use and user
studies. Use studies may not reveal the spillover effects of
use, indirect use of a library and many fruitful interactions
of users with library. Further, use of a library and its
utility to users are often quite different. A library may be
used but it may not be useful; another may be useful but may
not be used; a third may be neither useful nor used and ideal
is one which is both used and useful.
For understanding the user, many approaches (or models) have
been used as conceptual frame works. For example,
constructivist model (Dervin) views information as something
constructed by the user and says that individuals constantly
strive to make sense of themselves and their environment
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through continual adjustments. Another cognitive model
(Belkin) emphasises the cognitive activity in individual user
and explore the problem state and how information is sought
and matched to solve the problem. Another model (Taylor)
seeks to understand how specific environment including
physical setting, nature of information and nature and
characteristics of problems affect information seeking by
users. Yet another (Kuhlthau) identifies stages of research
where intervention on the part of information professionals
can help users both identify and resolve their information
needs.
2. NEED FOR USER STUDIES
`Use' is the key purpose and `User' is the key and dynamic
component of any library and information system. Customer
oriented approach, design and evaluation are the founding
pillars of any enterprise. As such use and user studies
including non-use and non-user studies are required to be
carried out as long as library and information systems are
required and existing. Here, the use includes `non-use' and
user includes potential user, non-user, under-privileged,
unserved, underserved and deprived users. A non-user could
be an involuntary non-user who do not have a library to use
or voluntary (willful) non-user. A voluntary non-user is
one who has access to a library and lives in an information
rich society and yet suffers from information malnutrition
(Sridhar, 1994).
User studies are a must at the time of designing a system or
service. The efficient and effective operation of a library
system or service also calls for periodic user studies. The
effectiveness of a library and information system depends on
the extent to which the system characteristics correspond
with the users and in how much the potential users are
willing and able to make use of it. System designers,
planners and managers of library and information systems have
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to properly consider the role of human factors and their
effect on acceptance and utilisation of information.
Relating the system or product/service being designed to the
perceived needs of those for whom it is intended as well as
to guide the operation of the system by the knowledge about
the user and to justify the existence of the system are
essential. User studies can also stem from the efforts of
evaluation of a system or service.
A systematic user study can also reveal some un-anticipated
data about the dynamic component of user. It may also
promote a new course of action hither to not considered and
hence helps efficient and effective operation of the library
and information system. Further, as no system has the luxury
of unlimited resources and funds, user studies are required
to check whether intended goals are served by the system, if
not, to alter the priorities and programmes so as to ensure
judicious allocation of limited resources. User studies are
also required not only to determine and confirm the general
patterns of use of libraries but also to identify departures
from the norms (in specific cases), even if it is only in
small areas. User studies help improve public relations of a
library with its users and explain what librarians have
foundout by more indirect means. User studies, like market
research, provide effective ground for marketing service
products of libraries. In nutshell, user studies is an area
of continuous librarian-education about users than user-
education about library and understanding users is a must.
3. WHAT TO UNDERSTAND ABOUT USERS
Though existing records, MIS and other indirect data can
provide knowledge about use and users of a library, for many
of above tasks direct contact with users is necessary. By
observing or questioning users, a systematic user study helps
to discover (i) characteristics, (ii) information
requirements (needs), (iii) behaviour, attitudes, opinions,
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priorities, preferences, and evaluations of users.
3.1 Characteristics of Users
No user-community of an information system is fully
homogeneous. Though a majority of the users of a system would
come together for a particular purpose and are comparable by
one or two criteria, they are divided among themselves by
many individual characteristics. As noted earlier, the
knowledge of the population being served by an information
system is an essential requirement for providing useful
services. Just like understanding the user is half the
battle in providing information-services, knowing the
structure and composition of the user-community in terms of
various characteristics by which they can be compared and
contrasted is half the task in understanding the users.
The characteristics of users are innumerable and there are
several ways of grouping them. Apart from identifying many
characteristics of users as recipients of information the
institutional environment and work activity (job) have major
impact on information users. The three clusters of factors
which affect user's utilisation of information are
psychological factors, effectiveness of available services
and characteristics of the user and his environment.
User-studies look for similarities and differences among the
users in terms of their backgrounds like status, age,
experience, education, specialisation, field of research,
discipline, etc. When the analysis is at the organisation
level (as against individual level) they look for differences
in nature of organisations, and at the same time users were
also grouped as theoreticians or fundamental research
workers, experimentalists or applied research workers,
technologists, technicians, practitioners, etc.
Most of the studies have adopted the individual as the unit
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of analysis. However, occasionally analyses have been
carried out at group, unit or organisation levels treating
the organisation as a composite entity and drawing typical
representatives. At this level, variations within the
organisation are ignored and the nature, type and size of the
organisation become variables.
In user studies with the individual as the unit of analysis,
it is possible, and easy, to list many characteristics of
individuals. Unless the relevance and the context of a user-
characteristic are clearly established, it is likely that the
results will be conflicting. "To attempt to isolate each
environmental element seems hopeless, but awareness of the
variety of environments may lead to potentially useful
hypotheses" (Krikelas, 1983, p11). The number of systems to
which each user belongs and the variety of roles he has to
play are important in understanding the information-transfer
process.
User-characteristics could be internal or external to the
individual. They may also be classified as sociological,
demographic, psychological, personality (work-related),
organisational ,professional, etc. Some specific
characteristics of interest in user studies are age,
experience, gender, educational level, performance,
productivity, creativity, motivation, emotional stability,
temperaments, interests, personal idiosyncrasies,
productivity, communication, citation and other
activities, nature of work or function, various roles,
responsibilities, and status of users have also to be
understood in user studies.
3.2 User Requirements
The deliberate use the term `requirements' rather than the
`needs', `wants' and `demands' is because it represents all
the three concepts. The information-requirements refer to a
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lookout for a sort of relevance of information to a given
user and to his areas of concern and interest, and likes. In
the process it is to know the amount of irrelevant
information he is prepared to tolerate. Relevance is not a
simple property inherent in information, but varies with
content, format, context, the variety of uses of information
as well as user himself. "The selection and reception of the
information will depend upon the individual's conception of
his own needs; one man's information is another man's noise
..." (McGarry, 1975, p58).
It is extremely complex, varied and difficult-to-measure
nature of information-need. While discussing the issue of
information-needs, a natural assumption is to consider the
needs as perceived by the users. But some are of the view
that there is a need to create information-needs among users
if they do not exist and that information-seekers may be
ignorant of the information that would be useful to them.
Information-needs are affected by many factors. Range and
knowledge of information-sources/facilities available,
varieties of uses to which information will be put, the
background, motivation, professional orientation, discipline,
type and area of work and other individual-characteristics of
the user, the social, political and economic system as well
as the consequences of information-use. Due to this
contingency nature, generalised one-time conclusions about
information-needs of users is impracticable. Of all the
factors influencing or determining the user-needs, two
factors which may not always be congruent, are the corporate
objectives of the organisation where the user is employed,
and the needs of the individual user.
Studies relating to `information-needs' categorise needs as
`perceived needs' and `actual or idealised needs', `immediate
needs' and `deferred needs', `continuous needs' and `discrete
needs', `regular' and `irregular needs'. Further, information
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needs could be unexpressed or expressed/ articulated, felt or
unfelt, dormant or delitescent. In addition, information-
needs of users can be expressed in terms of time (i.e.,
urgency), content and amount or quantity of information.
Accordingly, information-needs have been classified as needs
for single facts or exhaustive information, up-to-date,
historical or current information, technical or business
information. However, information-needs are frequently
determined in terms of kind of message i.e., nature and type
of information, the types of document embodiments of
information needed and the purpose of use. Very few studies
have investigated and focused on the need for substance or
nature of material in terms of characteristics of texts.
Some of the significant classifications, based on the nature
and type of information sought by users, are personal,
technical and task- related information, current, specific
and exhaustive information, theoretical information,
experimental results, data, methods and procedure
information, educational information, methodical or how-to-
do-it information and task-related information. In addition
it is also possible to determine the amount or level of
information required in core versus peripheral areas of
interest of users as well as the non-technical information
required, information requirements in new fields versus old
fields. The profession and organisation-oriented, work-
related information-needs are the main information-needs with
which user studies are concerned apart from day-to-day
personal needs, life-long learning or educational needs, and
needs about the governing rules of the society around user.
3.3 Behaviour, Attitude, Priorities, Preferences, Opinions
and Evaluations of Users
Behaviour is a broad concept. It involves attitudes and
character traits of individuals as well as environmental
determinants. Behaviour is considered to be a compromise and
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a result of multiple forces to which individuals are
subjected to. Attitude itself is a latent state of readiness
to respond in particular ways. They are normally dormant most
of the time but they represent what we are prepared to do.
In other words, attitude is a tendency to act or react in a
certain manner when confronted with certain stimuli.
Attitudes are expressed in speech or behaviour when object is
perceived. Like other components of behaviour, attitude is
an abstraction and hence it is difficult to directly measure
attitude. One has to infer attitude from overt behaviour.
Attitudes are often related to feelings and emotions.
An individual's enduring persistent response pattern across a
variety of situations is called personality. it comprises of
relatively stable patterns of action, i.e., traits,
dispositional tendencies, motivations, attitudes and beliefs,
which are combined into an integrated self structure.
'Trait' is used to classify and describe certain persistent
and fundamental human characteristics, both learned and
original. In the increasingly enduring and deepening order
we find beliefs followed by attitudes, values and personality
in individuals.
There are many ways of looking at user behaviour in libraries
and in relation to seeking, gathering, using and
communicating information. For example, one may attempt to
study motives and purposes of seeking information, nature and
type of information required, ways and means of acquiring
information, sources of bibliographic (reference) information
used, delegation of information-gathering work, time spent on
information-gathering activities, dependence on sources of
information, tolerable delay in supplying information,
satisfaction about existing sources of information, informal
communication network and the communication behaviour,
inter-personal information sharing, use of library and user
interactions with the library, etc.
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4. RESEARCH PROCEDURE FOR CONDUCTING USER STUDIES
The unhappy relationship between research and practice in
librarianship has often been aired by many experts as they
are not mutually nourishing each other. Same is the case
with relationship between research in librarianship and other
related fields of inquiry. The need for looking at research,
practice and education for librarianship as an integrated
learning system has to be emphasised for development of
librarianship as an academic discipline and achievement of
excellence in professional practice. "Unless appropriate and
sufficient research is conducted, the library community will
not be able to transform itself but will be absorbed by other
groups that will take over the information function in
society" (Maguire, 1986, p 3).
Having seen the importance and vast scope of user studies as
well as the need for integrated approach to research in
librarianship, let us see the scope of methods and techniques
of user studies. Sound methods and techniques used in
research serve as a barometer to measure the quality of
research in that field. Tested methodology is very much
required for research to enable researcher to objectively
navigate through his research, to put him back in the right
track in case he deviates from the path and to help him to
achieve the objectives of his research without wasting his
efforts.
User studies are basically concerned with people, their
attitude, priorities, preferences and behaviours. Hence the
methods and techniques used by social researchers
particularly behaviour scientists and psychologists are quite
relevant for user studies. It is neither feasible nor
desirable to discuss in this presentation, the entire
research methodology required for user studies. Some methods
and techniques of research predominantly used or required to
be used for sound user studies will be highlighted with
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certain limitations and problems, if any. Lastly, the terms
`method' and `technique' are often almost interchangeably
used. Methods and techniques are those used in performing
research operations. While `technique' refers to behaviour
and instruments used in research operations, `method' refers
to behaviour and instruments used in selecting and
constructing technique (ie. methods are more general). On the
other hand, research methodology is a science of studying how
research is done scientifically. In other words, research
methodology is a way to systematically solve the research
problem by logically adopting various steps. Interestingly,
research itself is a search for new knowledge through
objective, systematic and scientific method of finding
solution to a problem.
Following are the main steps for conducting user studies:
(i) Selection and formulation of research problem and
working hypothesis
(ii) Literature survey
(iii) Overall design or planning the strategy of the study
(iv) Sampling and sampling strategy or plan
(v) Data collection
(vi) Measurement and scaling techniques
(vii) Pilot study
(viii) Processing and analysis of data
(ix) Testing of hypotheses
(x) Interpretation, generalisation and realisation of
ojectives
(xi) Preparation, writing, presentation and dissemination of
research results
The above steps are not exhaustive, nor mutually exclusive
but represent a series of closely related, continuously
overlapping and interdependent nonlinear actions.
Before discussing the process of user research as a step-by
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step procedure, it may be desirable to briefly note the
assumptions and qualities of good research. Good research
relies on empirical evidence, utilises relevant concepts,
presupposes ethical neutrality, is committed to only
objective considerations, makes widely known the methodology
for critical scrutiny and testing through replication, aims
at probabilistic predictions as well as formulating most
general axioms or scientific theories and most importantly
encourages rigorous, impersonal mode of procedure dictated by
the demands of logic and objective procedure. In other
words, good research is systematic, logical, empirical and
replicable. The scientific method employed ensures clearly
defined purpose, explicit procedure which can be continued,
open design leading to objective results, frankness (even
reports flaws) adequate analysis of data with appropriate
methods, validity and reliability of data conclusion confined
to those justified by data and confidence, reputation,
experience, honesty and integrity of researcher.
4.1 Selection and Formulation of Research Problem and
Working Hypothesis
It is very important to note that research problem should not
be borrowed. Every researcher has to find his own problem.
Experts, guide, experience and literature (to know gaps) are
only aids for selection and formulation of a research
problem. One should try to ask right question in an
unbiased, unattached and objective way without `mother
complex'. It is necessary to be uncommitted and have more
than one problem to ponder and interact before final
selection and settlement.
Avoid superficial, obvious, overdone and controversial
subject as well as too narrow or too vague problems. The
problem should not only suit researchers interest, competence
and ability but also be novel, significant and useful to
practitioners. Utility of expected findings be given adequate
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importance. Lastly, it is better to carryout a preliminary
or feasibility study to check availability of required data
and cooperation of people.
Having selected the problem it is necessary to formulate the
research problem and develop working hypothesis, if necessary
and possible. The steps involved in this process are :
(i) Stating problem in a general way
(ii) Understanding the nature of the problem
(iii) Survey of available literature and past studies
(iv) Developing ideas through discussion (experience survey)
(v) Rephrasing the problem with clear objective and/or
hypothesis, title, terms and concepts, assumptions and
postulates, significance and value of the study,
suitability of the problem in terms of ability, time,
money, data, etc., scope and limitations in terms of
time and space coordinates, unit of analysis and
environmental conditions.
4.2. Literature Survey
Literature survey is not a stage in the process of research
but starts at the time of selection of a problem and ends,
probably, after publishing and dissemination of results of
research. As a continuous activity literature survey should
ensure avoiding duplication of research, integration of new
findings to the literature/knowledge of the discipline,
prioritising research activities and incremental growth of
theories.
4.3 Planning the Strategy or Overall Design of the Study
Research design is a tentative outline of proposed research
work. If research is a journey with definite points of
departure and arrival, then the design of it must project and
predict in between sequences of activities like target,
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geography, resources, means, plan, synopsis, time schedule
and final plan to share the experience with others.
Proper research design provides firm foundation and allows
smooth and efficient sailing of project yielding maximum
information and reliability of results, helps organising
ones ideas, gives chance to foresee flaws and inadequacies,
incorporates by learning from others critical comments and
evaluations. Like a successful journey research broadens
researcher's mind, gives fascinating and exciting experience,
insight into work around, provides opportunity to meet
people, gives fun and rewards, but often research is also
tedious and monotonous.
Design is a decision making process. Research design, as
strategy, has to be comprehensive, flexible, appropriate,
efficient, and economical. It is easy to suggest a problem
but difficult to make a good research design. Each research
work is unique and demands unique research design and unique
combination of data collection methods. A good research
design is half the battle. The process involves a series of
steps including identification and delimiting of variables.
There will always be a trade off of resources, cost, time and
reliability of results with fruits expected of the study. If
the design is for an experimental study which is proof
oriented and requires substantial resources in terms of
efforts and costs the results are likely to be more decisive.
On the other hand ,if the design is for an exploratory study
which is often insight-oriented with flexibility and is
relatively cheaper and smaller, it may not lead to any
definite conclusions. In research design one has to choose
appropriate combinations of methods and techniques based on
objectives, implications of results, environmental factors,
resources, kind of data required, etc. What goes on in the
design is creating the conceptual structure and blue print
for collection, measurement and analysis of data. In other
words, decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by
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what means concerning research are made in the design.
Broadly, there are three types of research designs. They are:
(i) formulatory and exploratory design (ii) descriptive and
diagnostic design and (iii) experimental design or hypothesis
testing. Discussion of these designs is outside the scope of
this presentation. However, it is very important to note
that librarianship in general and user studies in particular
have rarely adopted experimental design which has several
advantages over the other designs. In designing a user study
one has to be doubly cautious about the relation between two
variables as well as differences between cause and effect.
4.4 Sampling and Sampling Strategy or Plan
Sampling is one of the important steps in user studies which
is often over looked by stating that some random or non-
random sample design has been adopted. Development of proper
sampling frame and a definite plan for obtaining a sample
from the sampling frame based on random sample design (rather
than nonrandom design) is necessary. A good sampling design
should be economically viable, able to control systematic
bias, lead to optimum size of sample but small sampling
error, enable results be applied to the universe in general
with a reasonable level of confidence (ie., reliability) and
the resulting sample should be adequate, truly representative
and similar to population.
In practice many researchers overlook the appropriate
probability random design for choosing sample and
determination of sample size. Non-probability sampling like
convenience sampling and purposive sampling should not be
thought of unless it is for a qualitative research. Right
type of simple or complex random design has to be chosen for
sampling. The sample size depends on nature of units,
population and study, number of variables, groups and sub-
groups to be studied, intended depth of analysis, precision
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and reliability of results required, level of expected non-
response, size of questionnaire and population and available
resources. It should be noted that the size of sample is
more important than the proportion of the population
represented by sample. There are well established
statistical techniques to determine the sample size.
4.5 Data Collection
There is a wide array of methods and techniques for data
collection as far as user studies are concerned. Judicious
selection of one or more methods (preferably a combination of
methods) with trade off amongst factors like suitability to
problem, available resources, competence of researcher, kind
of data required to be produced and the level of precision
required is necessary. It is often said that the common sense
is the chief requisite and experience the chief teacher in
deciding on data collection method.
Use existing (secondary) data already collected by some one
else for general or different purpose with sufficient
scrutiny about their reliability, suitability and adequacy.
Often historical method, bibliometric studies, use studies,
meta analysis, content analysis, etc. depend on secondary
data. For primary data, which is more important and reliable
than secondary data, one has to resort to standard methods
like observation, interview, questionnaire, interview
schedule, panel study, mechanical devices, projective
techniques, sociometry, depth interview, etc. In such cases
researcher collects original (primary) data afresh by either
experimenting, examining and observing the subjects and
records or by asking or questioning orally or in writing the
concerned people like subjects (users), experts and others
who know subjects.
While asking people, problems may emanate either from those
who answer (respondents) because of awareness, irrationally,
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inadmissibility, self incrimination and politeness or from
those asking because of very presence and disclosure of
identity and background of research and/or respondents or
from the ways of asking/questioning people like the language
and tone of questions, length of questionnaire, time required
to answer the question, ambiguities, embarrsing question,
illogical sequence, leading questions, loaded word or phrase,
inbuilt coercion, unspoken assumptions, etc. In addition,
non-response, disinterestedness, carelessness, prejudices,
prestige bias, ignorance, misunderstanding, hallo effect and
response sets on the part of respondents are other problems
to be taken care in questioning people. There are many
practical hints like coding, provision for neither agree nor
disagree type of responses, avoiding double negatives,
hypothetical and double (complex) questions, etc.
There are other more appropriate methods of data collection
for user studies like panel studies including diaries, report
of summary of activities, solution development records,
Projective techniques (including word projection tests,
pictorial and play techniques), snowball techniques, network
analysis and use of mechanical devices like eye cameras,
audio meters, random alarm mechanism, etc. which are almost
never used in library research in India. Methods like
critical incidence technique, longitudinal design, etc. are
more like normative principles which are very useful in data
collection by any of the above methods.
Lastly, case studies and evaluative studies are two important
ways of carrying out user studies, discussion about them is
beyond the scope of this presentation.
4.6 Measurement and Scaling Techniques
Another important aspect often overlooked in library research
in India is measurement and scaling of data collection
instruments. Sound measurement must be precise, unambiguous,
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free from errors, valid, reliable and practicable. As
mentioned earlier errors may crop up from respondent,
situation, measurer or instrument. To test the soundness of
the measuring instrument, the validity of the tool (in terms
of content validity, criterion-related validity and construct
validity), reliability (in terms of stability and
equivalence) and practicality (i.e., economy, convenience and
interpretability) have to be examined. Appropriate scaling
techniques have to be used in case of measuring attitude,
behaviour and personality and other qualitative and abstract
concepts. Scaling is a method which changes attributes (a
series of qualitative facts) into variables (a quantitative
series). In other words, scaling is a procedure for
assignment of numbers or symbols to (ie. quantitative
measures of) subjective abstract concepts (or property of
objects). There are scaling techniques like rating scales
and ranking scales, scale construction approach like
consensus, item analysis, cumulative scale and factor
analysis approaches and already developed scales like
differential, summated, cumulative and factor scales which
are rarely heard in librarianship.
4.7 Pilot Study
Like trial of a dress maker, it is desirable to tryout
methods and techniques chosen for main data collection in a
pilot study, which helps in estimating time required,
detecting flaws, weaknesses and ambiguities, using pre-
formulated questions and/or responses (instead of open end
question), knowing in advance the kind of data likely to
result, the kind of analysis required, expertise available
for analysis, computer facility required, estimating the
resources required and finally gaining access to and
cooperation of respondents.
4.8 Processing and Analysis of Data
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The processing and analysis of data collected is an important
step in user studies. Often researchers either under process
or over interpret the data. The processing and analysis of
qualitative data differ substantially from that of
quantitative data except where scaling techniques are used to
convert qualitative data into quantitative data. Qualitative
data involves subjectivity, feel and flavour of the situation
and hence consumes more time and efforts for collection as
well as processing. As it is not amenable for statistical
manipulation, extrapolation of finding is difficult.
Qualitative data calls for sensitive interpretation and
creative presentation.
Levels of measurement (i.e., nominal, ordinal, interval and
ratio) determine the kind of statistical technique to be used
for processing data. The processing involves editing,
coding, classification and tabulation of data in order to
achieve data reduction and presentation. The analysis of
data (both descriptive and inferential or statistical)
involve exploratory analysis, computation of certain indexes
or measurers, searching for certain patterns of relationships
and trends, estimating values of unknown parameters, testing
of hypothesis for interferences, and graphical presentation.
Appropriate statistical techniques depending on number and
type of variables have to be employed for processing and
analysis. It is very important to understand the merits and
limitations of various bivariate and multivariate measures as
well as differences among measures of association,
correlation, and cause and effect. Important techniques like
chi-square test, coefficients of regression, multiple and
partial correlations, index numbers, time series analysis,
ANOVA, ANOCOVA, discriminate analysis, factor analysis and
cluster analysis are largely untouched in Indian library
research including user studies.
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Understanding the User - Why, What and How ?
4.9 Testing of Hypothesis
As mentioned earlier, it is very unfortunate that research in
librarianship has very rarely resorted to experimental design
and testing of hypothesis. A hypothesis as a tentative hunch
explains the situation under observation so as to design the
study to prove or disprove it. What a researcher is looking
for is a working or positive hypothesis. It is very
difficult, laborious and time consuming to make adequate
discriminations in the complex interplay of facts without
hypothesis. It gives definite point and direction to the
study, prevents blind search and indiscriminate gathering of
data and helps to delimit the field of inquiry. Absence of a
clear theoretical framework and lack of ability to logically
utilise it and failure to be acquainted with the available
research techniques are the main reasons for not resorting to
formulation and testing of hypothesis. It is also equally
important that the researcher should not start out to prove
or disprove hypothesis nor try to defend his hypothesis.
A good and usable hypothesis should be precise, simple but
not obvious, conceptually clear, have empirical referents,
specific and limited in scope, consistent with most known
facts, state relationship between variables and related to
available techniques and body of theory. A statistical
hypothesis is a predictive statement (usually put in the form
of a null hypothesis and an alternate hypothesis) capable of
being tested by scientific methods and that relates an
independent variable to some dependent variables. What a
researcher bets in advance of his experiment that the results
will agree with his theory and cannot be accounted for by the
chance variation involved in sampling is hypothesis testing.
In other words, hypothesis testing is a procedure which
enables researcher to decide whether to accept or reject
hypothesis.
There are many concepts like Type-I and Type-II errors, one-
M S Sridhar 20
Understanding the User - Why, What and How ?
tailed and two-tailed tests, significance test, important
parametric tests like Z-test, t-test, F-test and non-
parametric tests like Kolmogorov-Smirnov one sample test,
Runs test for randomness, sign tests, Fisher-Irwin test, Mc
Nemer test, median tests, Chi-square test, Wilcoxin - Mann -
Whitney U-test, Wilcoxin matched pair or signed rank test,
Kruskal-Wallis or H test, Kendall's co-efficient of
concordance etc. which are yet to be employed in library
research. What is surprising is that user research is market
research in librarianship but user research has not even
adopted a fraction of methodology adopted in market research.
4.10 Interpretation, Drawing Inferences, Generalisation and
Realisation of Objectives
Immediately followed by processing and analysis of data,
interpreting the results and drawing inferences have to be
carried out. In this crucial step, the complex task/theme is
divided into sub-themes and arranged in a logical order. The
activities involved are explaining summarised data through
tables, charts and diagrams, identifying extreme cases and
tendencies, drawing inferences with conditions, if any,
enumerating qualitative and extraneous data in support of
inferences and tendencies, comparing the results with theory
and results of earlier studies, summarising and generalising
the findings/results, realisation of objectives, discussion
of implications of results and findings and suggesting topics
for further research.
The purpose of interpretation is to draw inferences from
data, expounding relationships and processes underlying the
findings, searching for broader meaning of research findings,
understanding and explaining what has been observed in the
study, providing theoretical conceptions to serve as a guide
for further research, for better appreciation of findings and
make others to understand the real significance of findings,
to understand the abstract principles that work beneath
M S Sridhar 21
Understanding the User - Why, What and How ?
finding, linking the results with that of others, arriving at
generalisation after repeated testing of hypothesis, to take
decisions based on implications of results, to predict
concrete world of events and to maintain continuity of
research.
Interpretation is an art and requires great skill and
dexterity. It is necessary to make optimum use of data and
techniques and avoid over, under, mis-, wrong/incorrect and
out of the context interpretations. One should be impartial
and have patience and proper perspective and look for
relevance and generalisation and not false or broader
generalisations. While interpreting research findings one
has to take care of representativeness of data, nature of
questions, type of responses, handling `don't know' type of
responses, ways of representing data (percentage, mean,
standard deviation, chi-square and hypothesis test,
correlation co-efficients, etc.) and elaboration of results.
Proper care should be taken to avoid spurious explanations
and study the deviant cases thoroughly before interpretation.
4.11 Preparation, Writing, Presentation and Dissemination of
Research Results
Communication is utmost important in research and naturally
in user studies. Research as a means to an end/ change
depends substantially on effective communication.
Communication both within methods, tools and techniques like
questionnaires as well as two way communication both with
participants/respondents and those who sponsor the research
have to be clear. Communication should take place throughout
the research work. Excellent research is wasteful if not
communicated appropriately. Communication is, like sharing
the experience of journey, an obligation of research to those
who participated, cooperated and interested in it.
Dissemination of research results ensures integrating it with
the existing body of knowledge and avoiding duplication of
M S Sridhar 22
Understanding the User - Why, What and How ?
work, others to learn from one's mistakes, anybody to
replicate the study, bring in improvements to methodology and
clears doubts and suspicion, if any, in the minds of people.
Communication of research has to be necessarily written and
widely published in addition to oral presentation, if
possible. As far as substance of the report is concerned
adhering to the objectives, knowing the audience, starting
with sentence outline rather than topical outline, use of
right language and time as well as uniform style and making
it short and attractive in appearance are very important. As
far as formats and aids of writing research report are
concerned, use of headings, sub-heading, quotations,
footnotes, exhibits, etc., as well as standard procedure
regarding preliminaries, main text and end parts of the
report are explained in many written sources. Care should
also be taken regarding uniformity in presenting appendices,
bibliography, glossary, index as well as typing instructions
and proof reading of the text.
5. CONCLUSION
Even though there is a subtle dichotomy in the use of methods
and purposes of user studies, most of the user studies are
imitative than imaginative, exploratory rather than
experimental and descriptive rather than decisive. Majority
of them have adopted survey and case study methods rather
than controlled or quasi-controlled experimental methods
(with questionnaire technique rather than observation
technique for pseudo-objective and quantitative research
rather than objective and qualitative research with the
dubious purpose of generalisation of findings beyond the
population concerned. They often dealt with more of `what'
than `why'. In other words, the basic research aspect of why
the user behaves as does is rarely attempted. As a result
the numbers and opinions have become predominant in user
studies. Unfortunately what majority users say has become
M S Sridhar 23
Understanding the User - Why, What and How ?
the ultimate truth forgetting the fact that what a user say
is not always what he needs or does.
Asking people (through questionnaire, interview, discussion
or diaries), observing users and their activities, content
analysis (of records), semi-controlled experiments on
subjects and a host of indirect methods could be employed
more fruitfully in understanding users. While choosing
appropriate methods, choice has to be made between
qualitative and quantitative approach, survey / case study
and experimental method, cross sectional design and
longitudinal experimental design, depending on problem,
available resources, competence of the staff and the kind of
data desired. In the process of collecting data, number of
problems like non-response, disinterestedness and
carelessness, bias, prejudices, ignorance, misunderstanding,
`hallo effect' and response sets of respondents have to be
faced and suitably resolved.
The general picture of the findings like `average user of an
average library' is less useful to practical situations. Use
of holistic qualitative methods are badly needed in this area
of research. Over concentration on how users obtain
information rather than what they want, why they want it and
what they do with it as well as on formal communications
(documents) than informal (interpersonal) communications are
increasingly making the results more useful to sociologists
of science than information professionals.
In the same instance, user studies have totally ignored the
study of non-users as they either keep themselves away and
mum or pretend and say as users. It is extremely difficult
to conduct a non-user study and hence the number of non-user
studies are too few compared to large number of user studies
reported. There are no systematic attempts to study non-
users, under-privileged, un-served, under-served and deprived
users and their problems of information malnutrition. Non-
M S Sridhar 24
Understanding the User - Why, What and How ?
user studies require costly and refined methods and
techniques (Sridhar, 1994). The ratio of actual users to
potential users of a library by itself is a rough measure of
the impact of the library and its market penetration
capability. At the same time we need to be cautious about
limitations of user studies and note that often use of a
library by its users and its utility to its users are quite
different.
There are many methods and techniques of social research
particularly those used in psychology and sociology which
need to be tried for user studies. For example, the
projective techniques and multiple complimentary methods of
data collection (triangulation techniques) would be more
appropriate to user studies than traditional questionnaires.
Irrespective of excellent methods and techniques adopted, the
findings of most of the user studies (and even so in respect
of findings of many social research) are often subjected to
cynicism and criticism if they are of extreme in nature ie.
either too simple, common, obvious and expected or totally
unbelievable / unexpected. To support such findings, one has
to have foolproof research design, hard and reliable data
with systematic and accurate analysis and interpretation.
Further, user studies demand a mixture of common sense and
technical expertise.
REFERENCES
Bawden, David. User-oriented evaluation and information systems. England: Gower, 1990. Boyd, Harper W. Jr. et.al. Marketing Research: text and cases 6 ed. Delhi: All India Traveler Bookseller, 1985. Goode, William J and Hatt Paul .K. Method in social research. London : Mc Graw Hill, 1981. Gopal M.H. An introduction to research procedures in social science. Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1970 Koosis, Donald J. Business statistics. New York: John
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Understanding the User - Why, What and How ?
Wiley 1972. Koosis, Donald .J. Business statistics, New York: John Wiley, 1972 Kothari C.R. Research methodology: methods and techniques: 2nd ed. New Delhi: Vishwaprakashan, 1990. Krikelas, James. "Information-seeking behaviour : patterns and concepts." Drexel Library Quarterly 19(2) Spring 1983: 5-20. Line, Maurice B. Library surveys: an introduction to the use planning procedure and presentation of surveys. 2nd ed. London: Clive Bingley, 1992. Maguire, Carmel, "What qualifies as research in librarianship". In: Allen, G.G. and Exon, F.C.A. edition: Research and the practice of librarianship an international symposium. Perth: The Library, Western Australian Institute of Technology, 1986, P.1-10 McGarry, Kevin. "Communication, Knowledge and the Librarian" London : Clive Bingley, 1975. Morris, Ruth C.T. "Toward a user-centered information service". Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 45(1) 1994:20-30. Rodger, Leslie W. Statistics for marketing. London: Mc Graw Hill, 1984. Simpson I.S. How to interpret statistical data: A gudie for librarians and information scientists. London: Library Association, 1990. Slater. Margaret ed. Research method in library and information studies. London: Library Association 1990. Spiegel, Murray.R. Schaums outline of theory and problems of statistics in SI units. Singapore: Mc Graw Hill, 1981. Sridhar, M. S. "A study of library visits and in-house use of library documents by Indian space technologists." Journal of Library and Information Science 7 (2) December 1982: 146- 158. -----------. "User participation in collection building in a special library : a case study." IASLIC Bulletin 28 (3) September 1983: 117-122. -----------. "Document reservation pattern in a special library : a case study." Library Science with a slant to Documentation 20 (1) March 1983: 39-48.
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-----------. "Are demand forecasting techniques applicable to libraries?" Library Herald 23 (2 & 3) July-October 1984: 84-89. -----------. "Use of technical reports and standards." IASLIC Bulletin 29 (3) September 1984: 99-106. -----------. "A case study of lent out use of a special library." Library Science with a slant to Documentation 22 (1) March 1985: 19-34. -----------. "A study of co-authorship and collaborative research among Indian space technologists." R&D Management 15 (3) July 1985: 243-249. -----------. "Citing patterns of Indian space technologists." International Library Review 17 (3) July 1985: 259-274. -----------. "Book procurement delay : a demotivator to user participation in collection development". In : Building Library Collections and National Policy for Library and Information Services : Seminar Papers presented in XXX All India Library Conference, Rajasthan University, Jaipur, 28-31 January 1985. ed. by P.B.Mangala. Delhi: ILA, 1985. 329-334. -----------. "Subject and longitudinal use of books by Indian space technologists." Collection Management 8 (1) Spring 1986: 101-115. -----------. "Use of current journals by Indian space technologists." The Serials Librarian 10 (3) Spring 1986: 77-93. -----------. "Pattern of card catalogue consultation in a special library." IASLIC Bulletin 31 (1) March 1986: 9-16. -----------. "Information and communication behaviour of women space technologists." R&D Management 17 (4) October 1987: 301-309. -----------. A Study of Information Seeking Behaviour of Space Technologists with emphasis on correlating User- characteristics with such behaviour. PhD Thesis. Mysore: University of Mysore, 1987. -----------. "Is cost benefit analysis applicable to journal-use in a special library." The Serials Librarian 15 (1/2) 1988 : 137-153. -----------. "Sociometric analysis of informal communication among Indian satellite technologists." Library Science with a slant to Documentation and Information Studies 25 (2) June 1988 : 78-111. -----------. "Customer-characteristics as criteria for
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Understanding the User - Why, What and How ?
market-segmentation in libraries". In: Marketing of library and information services in India : Papers presented at the 13th National Seminar of IASLIC, Calcutta, December 20 - 23 , 1988, ed. by S.K.Kapoor and Amitabh Chatterjee. IASLIC Special Publication No. 28. Calcutta : IASLIC, 1988, p43-52. -----------. "Library-use index and library-interaction index as measures of effectiveness of a special library: a case study." In : Proceedings of XXXIV All India Library Conference on Library and Information Services : Assessment and Effectiveness. Calcutta : ILA, 1988 : 449-465. -----------. "Information-seeking behaviour of the Indian space technologists." Library Science with a slant to Documentation and Information Studies 26(2)June 1989:127-165. -----------. "Patterns of user-visit, movement and length of stay in a special library:a case study." Annals of Library Science and Documentation 36(4)1989:134-138. -----------. "Studies on use of library collections by scientists, engineers and technicians" AGLIS Journal 7(4)Dec 1989:9-17. -----------. "A study of correlation of use, citation and publishing of journal papers by Indian space technologists". Collection Management 12 (112) 1990 : 147- 152. -----------. "User-research: A Review of Information- behaviour Studies in Science and Tecnology". Bangalore: BIBLIO INFON Service, 1990. -----------. "Information requirements of the Indian space technologists." Library Herald 29(3-4) October 1990-January 1991: 125-136. -----------. "Review of Indian user studies in science and technology". In: Sharma, CD and Ojha, DC eds. Advances in Library and information science v.3. Information systems: science and technology, Jodhpur: Scientific Publishers, 1992. Chapter 3, p31-55. -----------. "Non-users and non-use of libraries". Library Science with a slant to Documentation and Information Studies, 31 (3) September 1994, 115-128. -----------. "Information behaviour of scientists and engineers" . New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company, In press. Stone, Sue and Harris, Colin. Crus guide. 1. Designing a user study: general research design. Sheffield: British Library Board, 1984. Young, Pauline V. Scientific social surveys and research. New
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Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India Ltd, 1984.
About the Author
Dr. M.S.Sridhar is a post graduate in mathematics and business
management and a doctorate in library and information
science. He is in the profession for last 35 years. Since 1978 he is
heading the Library and Documentation Division of ISRO Satellite
Centre, Bangalore. Earlier he has worked in the libraries of National Aeronautical
Laboratory (Bangalore), Indian Institute of Management (Bangalore) and University of
Mysore. Dr. Sridhar has published four books (‘User research: a review of
information-behaviour studies in science and technology’, ‘Problems of collection
development in special libraries’, ‘Information behaviour of scientists and engineers’ and
‘Use and user research with twenty case studies’) and 74 research papers, written 19
course material for BLIS and MLIS, presented over 22 papers in conferences and
seminars, and contributed 5 chapters to books. E-mail: [email protected],
[email protected], [email protected] ; Phone: 91-80-25084451; Fax: 91-80-
25084475.
M S Sridhar 29