LSM3261_Lecture 12 --- Aerial Locomotion

8/3/2019 LSM3261_Lecture 12 --- Aerial Locomotion

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LSM3261 Life Form and Function

Aerial LocomotionThere is an art...or rather, a knack to

flying. The knack lies in learning how tothrow yourself at the ground and miss.

- Douglas Adams,Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy.

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LSM 3261 Life Form Structure & Function

Zoology lecture No 1 - Animal diversity and basic designs Zoology Lecture No 2 - Animal symmetry

Organisation of the animal body; Animal form and function in relation to:

No. 3 - Protection

No. 4 - Support & Locomotion No. 5 - Aerial Locomotion (Flight) No. 6 - Sensing the environment, Feeding

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References

1. Hickman et al., 2011 - Integrated Principles ofZoology, 15th edn.

2. Pough et al., 2009 - Vertebtate Life, 9th edn.

3. Liem et al., 2001 - Functional anatomy of thevertebrates. 3rd edn.

4. Young, J. Z., 1981 - The Life of Vertebrates, 3rdedn.

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Internet References

Vertebrate Flight ExhibitUniversity of California, Museum ofPalaeontologyhttp://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/flight/enter.html

Flying and Gliding Animalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animals

Stanford Birds - relevant essayshttp://birds.stanford.edu/ My links from lecture prep(for teachers)

http://delicious.com/sivasothi/lsm3261

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http://delicious.com/sivasothi/lsm3261http://delicious.com/sivasothi/lsm3261http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animalshttp://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/flight/enter.htmlhttp://delicious.com/sivasothi/lsm3261http://delicious.com/sivasothi/lsm3261http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_and_gliding_animalshttp://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/flight/enter.htmlhttp://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/flight/enter.html


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To learn about:

Aerial locomotion in animals. Convergence in flying and gliding animals.

The structures involved in aerial locomotion.

Objectives

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Scope

1. Aerial locomotion

2. Flight in Birds

3. Flight in Bats

4. Flight in Insects brief look

5. Flight in Pterosaurs brief look

6. Swimming in Fishes - hydrodynamic adaptations

7. Gliders - Mammals, Herptiles, Ants

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Why fly?

To help escape from predators To help catch flying or speedy prey

To help move from place to place (leaping orgliding)

To free the hindlegs for use as weapons To gain access to new food sources or an

unoccupied niche

http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/flight/origins.html

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http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/flight/origins.htmlhttp://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/flight/origins.htmlhttp://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/flight/origins.html


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A word about similar

structures Similar structures may have evolved ...

as traits inherited from a commonancestor and are thus homologous or through different pathways in groups

without common ancestry, and are thusanalogous, through a process known asconvergent evolution

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Similar structures

Homologyrefers to any similarity betweencharacteristics that is due to their sharedancestry.

Anatomical structures that perform thesame function

in different biological species and evolved from the same structure in

some ancestor species

are homologous.

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These tetrapod limbsare similar as they are

all built from manyindividual bones which

are variations of thesame basic bone layout a humerus attached

to a radius and ulna,with branching carpals,

metacarpals and

phalanges at the tips.

http://evolution.berkeley.eduhttp://evolution.berkeley.eduCMP & NCSEUCMP & NCSE

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http://evolution.berkeley.eduhttp://evolution.berkeley.eduCMP & NCSEUCMP & NCSE

Structures inherited from a common ancestor are called

homologous structures, or homologies.12


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Similar structures

Analogy refers to the acquisition of same traitsby unrelated characters, usually in response to

their niche Two structures are said to beanalogous if they perform the same or similar function

by a similar mechanism but evolved separately.

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Not all similarity is homology

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Not all similarity is homology

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Wikipedia:Convergent evolution

Convergent evolution describes the acquisition of thesame biological trait in unrelated lineages.

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Eye of vertebrate and octopus

Ogura, A. K. Ikeo & T. Gojobori, 2004. Comparative analysis of gene expression for convergent

evolution of camera eye between octopus and human. Genome Research, 14: 1555-15561.

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Analogous and Homologous Structures

http://encarta.msn.com/media_461553540_761554675_-1_1/analogous_and_homologous_structures.html

Convergence

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A l
http://encarta.msn.com/media_461553540_761554675_-1_1/analogous_and_homologous_structures.htmlhttp://encarta.msn.com/media_461553540_761554675_-1_1/analogous_and_homologous_structures.htmlhttp://encarta.msn.com/media_461553540_761554675_-1_1/analogous_and_homologous_structures.htmlhttp://encarta.msn.com/media_461553540_761554675_-1_1/analogous_and_homologous_structures.htmlhttp://encarta.msn.com/media_461553540_761554675_-1_1/analogous_and_homologous_structures.htmlhttp://encarta.msn.com/media_461553540_761554675_-1_1/analogous_and_homologous_structures.html


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Analogous orhomologous?

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1. What is aerial

locomotion?Aerial locomotion = powered flight or gliding.

Resisting gravity!

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The Four Aerodynamic Forces

1. Lift - forces the flying body upwards, andmaintains its altitude, caused by a difference in airpressure above and below the wing.

2. Weight (gravity) - Earth's attraction with all

bodies counteracts the lift force of a bodyattempting flight.

3. Thrust - propulsive force that accelerates the

body in flight forward,4. Drag - the opposing force of thrust., the resultant

resistance of air molecules as a wing passesthrough a fluid, air.

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Aerodynamics and gravity

Development of wings in flying animals Convergence across different groups: insects,fishes, birds, mammals, and reptiles

Certain degree of uniformity within groups aswell

Same environmental challenges: aerodynamicforces

(From the first lecture)

Physical laws constraints on animal forms

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Types of aerial locomotion

Falling - vertical displacement due togravity, with no means to increase drag orgenerate lift.

Parachuting - falling at greater than 45degrees from the horizontal with adaptations

to increase drag. Very small animals may becarried up by the wind.

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Gliding - falling atless than 45 degrees fromthe horizontal.

Aerofoil mechanism generates lift, allowingreduced speed fall and directed horizontalmovement.

Streamlined to decrease drag forces to aidaerofoil and some maneuverability in air. Gliding animals have a lower aspect ratio

(wing length/wing breadth) than flyers.

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Flying - Flapping of wings to produce thrustand generate lift via aerofoil wing.

Can ascend without the aid of the wind(cf. gliders and parachuters).

Soaring: Used in conjunction with flight bylarge birds - keeping aloft on rising warm air(thermals) without flapping wings.

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Flight versus gliding.

simply defined

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2 1 Flight in Birds: Origins


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Origin of flight (Two Theories):

! 1. From ground up" Terrestrial, bipedal animals

" Arms free develop into wings

" Assist in running and eventual take-off(airborne for short distances)

2.1 Flight in Birds: Origins

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Flight in Birds: Origins


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! 2. From trees down

" Arboreal (not necessarily bipedal) animals" Develop webbing for gliding" Improved ability to move about from branch

to branch

" Lessen impacts of falls" Webbing develop into wings

Flight in Birds: Origins

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E li t Bi d A t d M Lik T k


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The origin and early evolution of birds haslong been a major topic of debate inevolutionary biology.

Throughout the 20th century, the issue wasgenerally polarized into those who arguedthat birds had a ground-based ancestor andthose who believed birds evolved from anarboreal ancestor, a "false dichotomy that hashindered progress in the field."

Earliest Birds Acted More Like Turkeys

Than Common Cuckoos.

Glen, C. L. & M. B. Bennett, 2007. Foraging modes of Mesozoic birds

and non-avian theropods. Current Biology, 17 (21): R911-R912.

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Gradation not two theories


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Christopher Glen of the University of Queenslandand colleagues suggest that part of the problem is

the loose categorization of many living birdspecies as either ground- or tree-dwellers on thebasis of their hind limbs.

In reality, these are not mutually exclusivealternatives.

Rather, birds exhibit differing degrees of ground-and tree-based behaviors and would be betterplaced along a continuum according to theproportion of time spent on ground versus treeforaging.

Glen, C. L. & M. B. Bennett, 2007. Foraging modes of Mesozoic birds and

non-avian theropods. Current Biology, 17 (21): R911-R912.

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Source:Arthurs Free

Clipart

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Characters of bird feet
http://www.arthursclipart.org/birdsodds/odds/bird%20feet%202.gifhttp://www.arthursclipart.org/birdsodds/odds/bird%20feet%202.gifhttp://www.arthursclipart.org/birdsodds/odds/bird%20feet%202.gifhttp://www.arthursclipart.org/birdsodds/odds/bird%20feet%202.gifhttp://www.arthursclipart.org/birdsodds/odds/bird%20feet%202.gifhttp://www.arthursclipart.org/birdsodds/odds/bird%20feet%202.gif


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Zygodactyl

Anisodactyl: thehallux is behind andthe other three toesare in front, as in a

thrush.

Syndactyl

Zygodactyl

Syndactyl: 3rd & 4thtoes united for mostof length and have a

broad sole incommon, e.g.

Kingfisher

Raptorial: toesdeeply cleft, with

large, strong,sharply curved nails

(talons), e.g. hawks& owls

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Black-bellied Bustard,South Africaby Callie de Wet Pearl-spotted Owlet

South Africaby Callie de Wet

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Gradation not two theories
http://www.sciencedaily.com/


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[By comparing the 249 species toe claw curvatures of ancient andmodern birds] Our findings suggest early birds

foraged predominantly on theground, rather than supporting previoussuggestions of arboreal claw adaptations, whichappear to have evolved later in the lineage."

"We were particularly surprised by the factthat all the fossil species, representingevolutionary lineages from non-flying ancestorsto early flying birds, had claws more likemodern birds that spend most of their time onthe ground."

Earliest Birds Acted More Like Turkeys Than Common Cuckoos.Cell Press (2007, November 6) via ScienceDaily. Retrieved November 6, 2007,

from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/11/071105120612.htm

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Archaeopteryx lithographica
http://www.sciencedaily.com/http://www.sciencedaily.com/http://www.sciencedaily.com/http://www.sciencedaily.com/


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BBC Life of Birdsby David

Attenborough: To

Fly or Not To Flyhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u3eqSevtuKU&feature=relmfu

View from 7:42 aboutArchaeopteryx

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Archaeopteryx fossils discovered in
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u3eqSevtuKU&feature=relmfuhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u3eqSevtuKU&feature=relmfuhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u3eqSevtuKU&feature=relmfuhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u3eqSevtuKU&feature=relmfuhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u3eqSevtuKU&feature=relmfuhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u3eqSevtuKU&feature=relmfu


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Archaeopteryxfossils discovered in

Germanyrevealed a reptilian origin

of birds based on the following

reptilian features:

long tail with about 20 vertebrae

thecodont dentition

hands with claws on fingers bones not pneumatised

diapsid cranial openings

sternum poorly developed

Avian feature feathers

Fossil easily mistaken as a reptile iffeathers not preserved.

Pough et al., 1990

From Owen, Richard. PhilosophicalTransactions of the Royal Society ofLondon, vol. 153 (1863), pp. 33-47.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/

Image:SArchaeopteryxLondon.jpg

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:SArchaeopteryxLondon.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:SArchaeopteryxLondon.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:SArchaeopteryxLondon.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:SArchaeopteryxLondon.jpg


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Young, 1981

Young, 1981

Modern bird

Archaeopteryx

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2 2 Fli ht in Birds: Feathers


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Insulation

Large surface area (for flight)

Protective colouration Courtship display

Feathers developed firstbefore flight

For insulation and developmentof homoiothermy, which is

crucial to flight

Evolved from reptilian scales

Scales and feathers similar inbiochemical structure

2.2 Flight in Birds: Feathers

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Pennae (contour


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Pennae (contourfeathers)

Flight feathers:

Primaries - on hand Secondaries - on

forearm

Tertiaries - on humerus& elbow Coverts - forming rows

above and below 1 to3 feathers

All feathers on wingsare called remiges

All feathers on tail arecalled rectrices US Fish Wildlife Servce: Feather Atlas

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Pough et al., 1990

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Young, 1981

Primary wing feather- Asymmetrical- Individual aerofoil

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Hamuli (hooks) on distal


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Young, 1981

Hamuli (hooks) on distal

(anterior) barbules interlock withridges on proximal (posterior)

barbules- Increases air and water

resistance

Distal: away from body

Proximal: towards body

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hand

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2.3 Flight in Birds:


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gSkeletal adaptations

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2.3 Flight in Birds:Sk l l d i


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Skeletal adaptations

1. Skeleton

2. Skull

3. Thoracicregion

4. Pectoral

girdle5. Sternum

6. Pelvicgirdle

7. Vertebral

column

8. Fore-limb

9. Hind-limb

1

2

3

4

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2.3 Flight in Birds:


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1. Reduction in weight (skeleton)

Modified for flight - two main

objectives:

Reduction in weight: Some bones lost

Lightening of bones Increased rigidity


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Pneumatised bones

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Pneumatisation of the vertebral

column in the chicken Gallus gallus


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Wedel, M.J. 2009. Evidence for bird-like air sacs in saurischian

dinosaurs. Journal of Experimental Zoology 311A.

column in the chicken, Gallus gallus

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The pneumatic bones are important


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p pto the chicken for respiration.

These hollow bones are connected to thechickens respiratory system and are

important for the chicken to be able tobreath.

Examples of pneumatic bones are

the skull, humerus, clavicle, keel (sternum), pelvic girdle, and the lumbar and sacral vertebrae.

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Wedel, M.J. 2009. Evidence for bird-like air sacs in saurischian

dinosaurs. Journal of Experimental Zoology 311A.56

Pterosaur flow-through


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Pterosaur flow throughrespiratory system enabled flight

Skeletal evidence indicates pterosaurs had ahighly effective flow-through respiratory

system, capable of sustaining powered flight, predating the appearance of an analogous

breathing system in birds by approximatelyseventy million years.

Claessens LPAM, O'Connor PM, Unwin DM (2009) RespiratoryEvolution Facilitated the Origin of Pterosaur Flight and Aerial Gigantism.

PLoS ONE 4(2): e4497. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004497

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Skull of the White-Throated Kingfisher, Halcyon smyrnensis


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2.3 Flight in Birds:Sk l t l d t ti


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2. Skull

Loss of teeth no need forheavy jaw with sockets tohold thecodont teeth

(How do birds grind/break up food?)

Jaws slender No secondary palate;

nostrils open direct to mouth

Food goes direct to gizzard for grinding Olfactory portion of brain reduced

Large orbits to accommodate well-developed eyes


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Proctor and Lynch, 1993

3. Thoracic region

4. Pectoral girdle

5. Sternum

6. Pelvic girdle

4

5

3

6

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3. Thoracic region

M ti htl ti l t d t b


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More tightly articulated vertebrae

All ribs connecting with bony sternum

Uncinate processes on ribs

4. Pectoral girdle

Fused clavicle (furcula or wish-bone)

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5. Sternum


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Deeply keeled sternum forattachment of massive flightmuscles

6. Pelvic girdle

Fused with sacral and lumbarvertebrae

Pubis elongated, directedbackwards - allows greaterattachment of leg muscles

Acetabulum faces downwards

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Vertebral column

Five types of vertebrae:

1. Cervical vertebrae

(7 in humans)

2. Thoracic vertebrae

(12 in humans)

3. Lumbarvertebrae

(5 in humans)

4. Sacral vertebrae

(5 in humans; fused to form sacrum)

5. Caudal vertebrae(4 in humans; fused to form coccyx or tail-bone)

http://www.jmk.su.se/global99/access/physical/medphys.html

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7. Vertebral column

Cervical (neck) region only flexible part remaining


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Cervical (neck) region only flexible part remaining buffer head from vibrations and impacts of flight

and landing

Rest of vertebral column tend to fuse for improvedrigidity:

All thoracic vertebrae (except the last) fused intoa single mass, with neural spines often fusing into aridge

Last thoracic, lumbars, sacrals, and first 5 caudalsall fuse to form a rigid synsacrum which is fused topelvic girdle

Remaining caudals reduced and partially fused toform pygostyle which supports the tail feathers

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What other vertebrate possessesfusion or loss of vertebrae and overallshortening of vertebral column to a

degree similar to that of birds?

For what purpose?

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8. Fore-limb Based on pentadactyl plan


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2nd digit - elongated and position shiftedHas 2 phalanges and carries primary flight feathers

1st digit - present but reduced and carries the alula

or bastard wing

3rd digit reduced

4th and 5th digits disappear completely

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Convergence in form and functionBi d i


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Convergence in form and function

Three independent methods of wingdevelopment from a pentadactyl plan:

Bird - 2nd digitPterosaur 4th digit

Bat whole hand

Different approaches to a similar

problem

Bird wing

Pterosaur wing

Bat wing

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9. Hind-limb

S b d i h


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Supports body weightwhen standing,

perching or walking

Body axis shortened. Centre of gravity (cg)

lies directly over thelegs

! * Swimming birds suchas penguins have feet

placed far back, andmust hold body almost

vertical when walking so

that cglies over the feet

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2.4 Flight in Birds: Other Adaptations


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1. Streamlined body

2. Feathers: lightweight; high surface area to volume ratio

3. Centralised internal organs (some reduced or eliminated

e.g. no gall bladder, urinary bladder or right ovary)4. Respiration unique; supplemented by system of air-sacs

5. Rapid metabolism: high intake, quick consumption andeconomic utilisation of fuel

6. Well-designed wing: aerofoil shaped

7. Warm-blooded: Endothermy and homoiothermy

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Pectoralis major- pulls wing down. (20% ofbody weight)

2.4.1 Flight muscles


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body weight)

Pectoralis minor (supracoracoideus) -pulls wing up.

Both attached to keel of sternum at one endand humerus at other end.

Position of pectoralis minor maintains lowcentre of gravity during flight by keeping masslow and centralised! maintains balanceduring flight.

keel

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2.4.2 Wingdesign


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Angle of attack


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g

Thanks to Theresa Knott via Wikipedia

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Primary feathers - propulsionSecondary feathers - lift


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Pough et al., 1990

Pough et al., 1990

Wing slot

Stall

The angle of attack permits smooth flow of air overupper surface of wing, up to a point, before stalling.

To prevent stalling, the alula and tips of the primariesfunction as wing slots to direct the flow of rapidlymoving air close to the upper surface the wing.

The tips of primary feathers are flexible and functionas individual propeller blades. They spread toproduce slots during the upstroke which decreasesresistance and lessens turbulence.

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2.4.3 Adaptive variation: wing forms


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Wing shape and size determines suitability for differenttypes of flight

Flapping (powered) flight take off and ascent; includes

hovering flight

Glidingflight conserve energy; loss of height

Soaringflight similar to gliding, but with height gain;making use of thermals (static soaring) and updrafts andstrong persistent winds (dynamic soaring)

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Adaptive variation: wing forms


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Segments of wing (hand, forearm, upper arm)vary in proportionate lengths

according to type of flight wing is used for

E.g. Humming bird hovering flightHand bones longer than

forearm and upper arm combined

E.g. Frigate bird - powered flight, gliding and soaringAll three segments subequal in length

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Shape of the wing


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Trade-off between speed, low energy use, andmaneuverability. The shape of the wing as seen from below

(planform) is described in terms of twoparameters, aspect ratio and wing loading.

Aspect ratio = square of wing lengthdivided by the wings surface area (or length

to average width).

Wing loading is the ratio of weight towing area.

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Aspect Ratio
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspect_ratio_%28wing%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wing_loadinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wing_loadinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wing_loadinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspect_ratio_%28wing%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspect_ratio_%28wing%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planformhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planformhttp://www.earthlife.net/birds/flight.html


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http://www.earthlife.net/birds/flight.html

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http://www.earthlife.net/birds/flight.htmlhttp://www.earthlife.net/birds/flight.html


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Image source: http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/Wing_Loading.htm

moreagile

lessagile

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Four wing types

(b d f d f ti )
http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/Wing_Loading.htmhttp://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/Wing_Loading.htm


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1. Elliptical wings

2. High-aspect ratio wings

3. Dynamic soaring wings

4. High-lift wings

(based on form and function)

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# low aspect ratio

Type of Wings: 1. Elliptical wings


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#

rounded wings# arched profile (cambered)

# high degree of slotting in primaries

#

associated with slow flight and high maneuverability inforest and woodland species that have to avoid obstacles.

E.g. some hawks, pheasant

Pough et al., 1990Young, 1981

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# relatively high aspect ratio

Type of Wings: 2. High aspect ratio wings


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y g p

#

heavy wing loading# require rapid wingbeats (energetically expensive)

# wings tapered to pointed tip

#

flat profile# lack slots in primaries

# associated with fast-flying species that are aerial

foragers or make long migrations. E.g. swallow, falcon

Pough et al., 1990

Youn , 198182

Pough et al., 1990

Type of Wings: 3. Dynamic soaring wings


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oug e a , 990

Young, 1981

" very high aspect ratio" long, narrow, flat wings

(longer than they are wide),

" usually have low wing loading

" lack slots in primaries

" associated with dynamicsoaring species, especially thoseliving in regions with strongand persistent winds.

" E.g. albatross, shearwater

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Young 1981

! intermediate aspect ratio

Type of Wings: 4. High-lift wings


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Pough et al., 1990

Young, 1981! rounded wings

! strongly arched profile(cambered)

! high degree of slotting inprimaries

! associated with large, staticsoaring species giving low speedand high lift. E.g. eagle, vulture

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2.4.4. Adaptive radiation in birdsfor various diets, modes of feeding,

and lifestyles in birds


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is seen in various forms ofbills

Any other aspects in which the form of birds might vary?

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Ostriches, rheas, cassowaries, emus (Struthioniformes)


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Ostrich

Emu

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Convergence

Swifts (Apodiformes) and Swallows (Passeriformes)


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ConvergenceHumming birds (Apodiformes) and Sunbirds (Passeriformes)


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3. Flight in Bats


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Only other vertebrate group to achieve true flight

ORDER CHIROPTERA

Two suborders:

Megachiroptera - fruit bats and flying foxes

Microchiroptera - insectivorous bats (usually smaller)

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Megachiropterans Microchiropterans

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Modifications for flight in bats

Wing formed by a skin fold (patagium)


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Patagium extendsalong side of body

and includes leg andusually tail

Arm greatlyelongated especiallythe digits

Wing formed by a skin fold (patagium)

involving all digits of hand except the first

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Sternum keeled for

Modifications for flight in bats


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attachment of massivepectoral muscles

Clavicle stout and fused withsternum and scapula

Ribs maintained rigidly inposition

Due to limited rib movement,respiration mainly bymovement of musculardiaphragm

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Flexible, highly articulated wings give bats more options forflight than birds: more lift, less drag, greater maneuverability.

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Leptonycteris feeding on nectar.

Since bats cannot hover, they spendonly a fraction of a second feeding

during each pass.

Fringed-lipped bat successfullycatching a frog.

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Leptonycteris.Tongue can exend almost

entire length of body


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Vampire bat lapping bloodfrom snout of a pig

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4. Flight in Insects


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Wings flap at high speed (120 cycles/sec). More than just flapping wings up and down;direction and speed of each stroke changes

Create lift >20 times the body weight

Flight in Insects

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Indirect flight muscles

Flight in Insects


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in Insects

Contraction/relaxationof indirect flight muscles!deformation of exoskeleton

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5. Flight in Pterosaurs


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Anhanguera piscator

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6. Swimming in Fishesthe contrast and convergence of hydroynamic adaptations


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6.1 Movement and body shape

6.2 Muscles (=Myomeres)

6.3 Four basic swimming modes

6.4 Hydrodynamic adaptations of fins in fish

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6. Swimming in Fishesthe contrast and convergence of hydroynamic adaptations


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6.1 Movement and body shape

" Most marine fishes are generalists.

" Others are specialised for various modes of swimming including:

! Sprinting (e.g. barracuda)! Fine maneuvering (e.g. butterfly fish) or

! Nearly continuous high-speed cruising (e.g. tuna)

" With appropriate adaptations of:

! Body shape

! Fins

! Muscle

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BODY FORM

Examples:


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Fusiform moststreamlined (tear-dropshape) (rounded front,

tapered end) tunafast swimming

Compressed - (laterally)butterfly fish, sea bass;(dorso-ventrally) sole,

skatebottom dwellers

Truncated - sunfishAttenuated eel

wiggle

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BODY FORM - Examples of specialists:

Tuna - Specialist for swift, pelagic, cruising habit

Stiff, fusiform body (deepest halfway between head and tail)


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Crescent shaped caudal fin, thin peduncle

Mucus

Fins fold down into grooves

Grouper - Specialist for acceleration (ambush predator)

Dorsal and large anal fin very posterior (close to caudal fin)

Truncate shaped caudal fin, thick peduncle

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6.3 FOUR BASIC SWIMMING MODES:

Anguilliform whole body oscillates

Carangiform part of body oscillates


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Subcarangiform part of body oscillates

Ostraciform only tail oscillates (body hard, inflexible)

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Swimming modes:BCF vs MPF


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Fish swim either by: body and/or caudal fin (BCF) movements -

greater thrust and acceleration or

median and/or paired fin (MPF) propulsion- generally employed at slow speeds,offering greater maneuverability and better

propulsive efficiency.

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Michael Sfakiotakis, David M. Lane, and J. Bruce C. DaviesReview of Fish Swimming Modes for Aquatic LocomotionIEEE JOURNAL OF OCEANIC ENGINEERING, VOL. 24, NO. 2, APRIL 1999

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FINS - THRUST

High speed cruising

i ( t )

6.4 Hydrodynamic adaptations of fins


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swimmers (e.g. tuna):Thin caudal peduncle

(minimise drag)

Large crescent or forked

shape caudal fin (maximisethrust)

Fast acceleration and high

maneuverability (e.g.grouper):

Thicker peduncle

Truncate or rounded tail

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FINS STABILISATION OF FISH

Unpaired fins (dorsal and anal fins) - counter yaw and roll

Paired fins (pectoral and pelvic fins) - counter pitch

Pectoral fins also used for braking and steering


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(cf. stiff, inflexible pectoral fins of sharks and tunas used as hydrofoils)

Dorsal

Anal

Pectoral

Pelvic

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FORCES GENERATED DURINGSWIMMING

T1 d T2 th t i t t b


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T1 and T2 = thrust against water bybody of fish

R1 and R2 = opposite reaction by

water

F1 and F2 = forward components

synergistic (resultant reacting force)

L1 and L2 = lateral components

antagonistic and cancel each otherout

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7. Gliders


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Flickr: Photo by Clevergrrl

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Which taxa?


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http://lis.epfl.ch/research/projects/BiomimeticJumpingMicroglider/

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7.1 Gliding Mammals

Colugo (or Flying lemur),(Order Dermoptera: Family Cynocephalidae)

Two species locally we have the
http://lis.epfl.ch/research/projects/BiomimeticJumpingMicroglider/http://lis.epfl.ch/research/projects/BiomimeticJumpingMicroglider/


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Two species, locally we have theMalayan Colugo (Cynocephalus variegatus)

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Flying squirrels, 43 species

(Family Sciuridae: Tribe Pteromyini)

Gliding Mammals


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Flying squirrel

(Family Sciuridae: Tribe Pteromyini)

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Flying phalangers (Marsupial)Petaurus spp., 6 species

(Family Petauridae)

Gliding Mammals


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(Family Petauridae)

http://flickr.com/photos/yunheisapunk/

315083094/

http://flickr.com/photos/lizspikol/

185916720/

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Sugar gliders

(Petaurus breviceps)Native to Australasia
http://flickr.com/photos/lizspikol/185916720/http://flickr.com/photos/lizspikol/185916720/http://flickr.com/photos/lizspikol/185916720/http://flickr.com/photos/lizspikol/185916720/http://flickr.com/photos/lizspikol/185916720/http://flickr.com/photos/lizspikol/185916720/http://flickr.com/photos/yunheisapunk/315083094/http://flickr.com/photos/yunheisapunk/315083094/http://flickr.com/photos/yunheisapunk/315083094/http://flickr.com/photos/yunheisapunk/315083094/http://flickr.com/photos/yunheisapunk/315083094/http://flickr.com/photos/yunheisapunk/315083094/


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L - http://flickr.com/photos/czjd/352159606/R - http://flickr.com/photos/interllectual/390617043/

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7.2 Gliding Herptiles
http://flickr.com/photos/interllectual/390617043/http://flickr.com/photos/interllectual/390617043/http://flickr.com/photos/interllectual/390617043/http://flickr.com/photos/czjd/352159606/http://flickr.com/photos/czjd/352159606/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070612-dinosaur-lizard.html


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An artist's reconstruction ofMecistotrachelos apeoros,Jun 2007

http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070612-dinosaur-lizard.html

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Flying Lizard,Draco volans
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070612-dinosaur-lizard.htmlhttp://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070612-dinosaur-lizard.htmlhttp://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070612-dinosaur-lizard.html


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http://www.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0010/feature4/zoom4.html

Tim Laman

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Smooth-backed Gliding GeckoPtychozoon lionotum
http://www.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0010/feature4/zoom4.htmlhttp://www.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0010/feature4/zoom4.html


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Photo by Nick Baker, EcologyAsia

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Asiatic Gliding frog,Rhacophorus

nigropalmatus.


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Tree frog, Phyllomedusa.

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http://www.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0010/feature4/zoom3.html

Tim Laman

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http://www.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0010/feature4/zoom3.htmlhttp://www.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0010/feature4/zoom3.html


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Paradise Tree Snake

(Chrysopelea paradisi)

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In this study, Socha found that paradise tree

http://www.flyingsnake.org/
http://www.flyingsnake.org/http://www.flyingsnake.org/


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y, psnakes are true gliders, traveling further

horizontally than dropping vertically.

The best flight Socha recorded traveled 13degrees from the horizon at the end of its

trajectory.

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7.3 Flying fishFamily Exocoetidae, ~50 spp.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Band-wing_flyingfish.jpg


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http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/03edge/logs/aug25/media/bandwing.html

Band-wingflyingfish

Cheilopogon

exsiliens,with large

pectoral andpelvic fins

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Flying fishFamily Exocoetidae
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Band-wing_flyingfish.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Band-wing_flyingfish.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Band-wing_flyingfish.jpg


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Pictures from FishBase

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Atlantic flyingfish, Cheilopogon melanurus:Atlantic Ocean off of Hatteras,North Carolina, United States.

Photo by Patrick Coin via Wikipedia.

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7.4Parachuting

Ants!


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Ants!

Cephalotes atratusGiant Gliding Ant,

Panama

Steve

Yanoviak'sGliding Ants

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Some species of arboreal ants that live in thetropical rain forest canopy,

use a form of gliding (or "controlled aerialdescent") to return to their home tree trunk


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descent ) to return to their home tree trunkwhen they fall from branches.

When a gliding ant falls, it makes a rapid

adjustment in orientation to point itsabdomen toward the tree trunk.

This alignment consistently directs the pathof the falling ant through the air in a steepglide ending at the trunk!

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NY Times

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NY Times

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7.4 Parachuting Ants!


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When the researchers covered the insects'eyes with dots of white nail polish, however,they sank to the forest floor like stones.

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LSM3261_Lecture 12 --- Aerial Locomotion

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