Language Policy, Diglossia, and Language Policy, Diglossia, and Linguistic Register:Linguistic Register:

What happens when L-variety What happens when L-variety languageslanguages

try to modernize?try to modernize?Keynote Speech for Workshop onKeynote Speech for Workshop on

Language Planning as a Political Process: Language Planning as a Political Process: Views on South and Central AsiaViews on South and Central Asia

Harold F. SchiffmanHarold F. Schiffman

University of PennsylvaniaUniversity of Pennsylvania

Stockholm, September 2006Stockholm, September 2006

Abstract:Abstract: When certain languages lack registers for scientific and technical domains, When certain languages lack registers for scientific and technical domains,

and therefore attempt to and therefore attempt to createcreate them, problems arise. Users educated in an them, problems arise. Users educated in an H-variety such as English, French, German, Russian (or another language) H-variety such as English, French, German, Russian (or another language) are loath to give these up and adopt vocabulary from another source, even are loath to give these up and adopt vocabulary from another source, even if it is their ‘mother tongue,’ since the vocabulary created for this in the if it is their ‘mother tongue,’ since the vocabulary created for this in the mother tongue may be as strange as that of a ‘foreign’ language.mother tongue may be as strange as that of a ‘foreign’ language.[1][1] These These speakers may be said to have a ‘vested interest’ in maintaining the status speakers may be said to have a ‘vested interest’ in maintaining the status quo, and may engage in various sorts of resistance to the implementation quo, and may engage in various sorts of resistance to the implementation of change, especially for the purposes of modernization. They have this of change, especially for the purposes of modernization. They have this vested interest because the language they already know represents for them vested interest because the language they already know represents for them ‘cultural capital’ (Bourdieu 1982 ) whereas the one that the planners wish ‘cultural capital’ (Bourdieu 1982 ) whereas the one that the planners wish to replace it with does not.to replace it with does not.

Some definitions:Some definitions:

What do we mean by ‘What do we mean by ‘diglossiadiglossia’?’? What do we mean by linguistic ‘What do we mean by linguistic ‘registerregister’?’? What is meant by linguistic What is meant by linguistic

‘‘modernizationmodernization’?’? What is meant by a ‘What is meant by a ‘LOWCLOWC’?’?

Diglossia: Ferguson 1959:Diglossia: Ferguson 1959:

Diglossic Languages have one variety that is used for Diglossic Languages have one variety that is used for ‘high’ (formal, literacy) purposes: the ‘high’ (formal, literacy) purposes: the H-varietyH-variety, has , has the most prestigethe most prestige

This constrasts with the This constrasts with the L-varietyL-variety which is different which is different phonologically, grammatically, lexically, and phonologically, grammatically, lexically, and syntacticallysyntactically

L-variety is used for L-variety is used for informalinformal, mostly spoken , mostly spoken purposes; lacks prestige, may be seen as ‘vulgar’ or purposes; lacks prestige, may be seen as ‘vulgar’ or ‘ungrammatical’; spoken ‘only by children, lesser ‘ungrammatical’; spoken ‘only by children, lesser beings, uneducated people’beings, uneducated people’

Examples:Examples:

ArabicArabic, with its Koranic form established in , with its Koranic form established in the 7the 7thth Century, vs. modern spoken dialects Century, vs. modern spoken dialects

German as spoken in German as spoken in SwitzerlandSwitzerland: Schrift-: Schrift-deutsch (Hochdeutsch) vs. dialectsdeutsch (Hochdeutsch) vs. dialects

CreoleCreole languages of various sorts languages of various sorts TamilTamil and many other South Asian languages and many other South Asian languages

Notion of ‘domain’Notion of ‘domain’

H-variety dominates certain domains: literacy, H-variety dominates certain domains: literacy, religion, public speaking, ‘high’ usagesreligion, public speaking, ‘high’ usages

L-variety dominates in ‘lower’ domains: jokes, L-variety dominates in ‘lower’ domains: jokes, intimacy, street use, is the first language intimacy, street use, is the first language learnedlearned

Domains may shift, get taken over by a non- Domains may shift, get taken over by a non- traditional variety, but only slowlytraditional variety, but only slowly

Domain shift may be an index of change of Domain shift may be an index of change of register, or change of formalityregister, or change of formality

Fishman’s extensionFishman’s extension

Ferguson’s diglossia applied to languages Ferguson’s diglossia applied to languages where H and L are where H and L are relatedrelated; L is usually a ; L is usually a linguistic descendent of H (or thought to be)linguistic descendent of H (or thought to be)

Fishman (1967) extended diglossia to apply to Fishman (1967) extended diglossia to apply to situations where historicallysituations where historically unrelated unrelated languages were used together, a prestige languages were used together, a prestige language for H, a colloquial one for Llanguage for H, a colloquial one for L

Examples:Examples:

Hebrew and Yiddish in eastern EuropeHebrew and Yiddish in eastern Europe English and Spanish in the USEnglish and Spanish in the US English and South Asian languages in South AsiaEnglish and South Asian languages in South Asia Russian and other languages in the USSRRussian and other languages in the USSR German and other languages in the Austro-German and other languages in the Austro-

Hungarian EmpireHungarian Empire French and other languages in Francophone AfricaFrench and other languages in Francophone Africa Swedish and other languages in SwedenSwedish and other languages in Sweden

Mutual intelligibility:Mutual intelligibility:

May be lacking mutual intelligibility between May be lacking mutual intelligibility between the H-variety and the L-variety or varieties, the H-variety and the L-variety or varieties, especially with the Fishman kind of diglossia!especially with the Fishman kind of diglossia!

People who know only H can’t understand L; People who know only H can’t understand L; people who know one L-variety can’t people who know one L-variety can’t understand others, e.g. Arabic dialects from understand others, e.g. Arabic dialects from the Maghreb to Yemen or Dubaithe Maghreb to Yemen or Dubai

H-variety and L-varieties are said to control H-variety and L-varieties are said to control ‘domains’ ‘domains’

Domain shift: a kind of code-switchingDomain shift: a kind of code-switching

Public speaking in Tamil: begins in H-variety, Public speaking in Tamil: begins in H-variety, with with formal greetingsformal greetings and exhortations and exhortations

Shifts to L-variety for Shifts to L-variety for solidaritysolidarity, connection , connection with ‘the people’ (shows that the politician is with ‘the people’ (shows that the politician is ‘one of the people’)‘one of the people’)

Shifts back at the end, with a formal ‘wrap-up’Shifts back at the end, with a formal ‘wrap-up’

Keeping things straight:Keeping things straight:

Usually H dominates the ‘high’ registers Usually H dominates the ‘high’ registers (education, religion) or domains of the (education, religion) or domains of the language, while L is relegated to informal, language, while L is relegated to informal, familial, uneducated, humor, trades…familial, uneducated, humor, trades…

But people switch from one to another, But people switch from one to another, depending on the ‘formality’ of the occasiondepending on the ‘formality’ of the occasion

People who don’t control H, remain silent, or People who don’t control H, remain silent, or risk looking/sounding foolishrisk looking/sounding foolish

Brown and Gilman’s Brown and Gilman’s ‘Pronouns of Power and Solidarity’‘Pronouns of Power and Solidarity’

T/V distinction in pronouns:T/V distinction in pronouns: V (vous, Sie, ni, you) expresses V (vous, Sie, ni, you) expresses PowerPower T (tu, du, thou) represents T (tu, du, thou) represents inferiorityinferiority Non-reciprocal Non-reciprocal use of V pronoun makes for a use of V pronoun makes for a

power dominationpower domination Reciprocal use of V = ‘social distance’Reciprocal use of V = ‘social distance’ Reciprocal use of T = solidarityReciprocal use of T = solidarity

Parallel with Diglossia:Parallel with Diglossia:

H-variety used for representing H-variety used for representing powerpower L-variety expresses L-variety expresses lower statuslower status Code-switching to L from H indicates Code-switching to L from H indicates

‘solidarity shift’‘solidarity shift’ Example: When we switched to Du from Sie, Example: When we switched to Du from Sie,

my German cousin began to speak dialect my German cousin began to speak dialect only. When I protested, he said “only. When I protested, he said “Ich Ich mussmuss mit mit Dir dialekt sprechen: Du bist Dir dialekt sprechen: Du bist von unsvon uns!!””

Switch to English, e.g. in South Switch to English, e.g. in South AsiaAsia

Represents even more Represents even more powerpower!! Those who don’t control English, don’t have Those who don’t control English, don’t have

powerpower Many small groups now demanding English Many small groups now demanding English

medium, in order to get more power!medium, in order to get more power! State educational systems that try to impose State educational systems that try to impose

use of use of state languagestate language are trying to deny power are trying to deny power to minority groupsto minority groups

What does this mean in Central Asia?What does this mean in Central Asia?

Russian Russian previously dominated the H domains previously dominated the H domains of science and technologyof science and technology

Uzbek Uzbek etc. will have trouble replacing the etc. will have trouble replacing the terminology and developing new registersterminology and developing new registers

Russian will continue to represent power and Russian will continue to represent power and freedom, even as it did during Soviet periodfreedom, even as it did during Soviet period

Change will be very slow…Change will be very slow…

To compete, Central Asian To compete, Central Asian languages will have to:languages will have to:

Be willing to Be willing to borrowborrow and and loan-translateloan-translate terminologyterminology

Be willing to use Be willing to use acronymsacronyms, , blendsblends, and , and abbreviationsabbreviations

Let the scientists and Let the scientists and usersusers develop the develop the registers, rather than have an Academy provide registers, rather than have an Academy provide itit

Be Be flexibleflexible

Russian may yield to Russian may yield to EnglishEnglish::

If Russian is to be displaced, it may be If Russian is to be displaced, it may be EnglishEnglish or another LOWC that will take its place, not or another LOWC that will take its place, not an indigenous Central Asian languagean indigenous Central Asian language

If various CA languages take different paths, If various CA languages take different paths, they will diverge and they will diverge and divide-and-conquer divide-and-conquer may occur.may occur.

In the past, In the past, PersianPersian occupied the H-domains; is occupied the H-domains; is there a chance it could return? there a chance it could return?

What about Turkish of Turkey?What about Turkish of Turkey?

Let’s define ‘Register’.Let’s define ‘Register’.

Trudgill 1983: Linguistic varieties that are linked ... Trudgill 1983: Linguistic varieties that are linked ... to occupations, professions or topics have to occupations, professions or topics have been been termed termed registersregisters. The register of law, for example, is . The register of law, for example, is different from the register of medicine, which in turn different from the register of medicine, which in turn is different from the language of engineering--and so is different from the language of engineering--and so on. Registers are usually characterized solely by on. Registers are usually characterized solely by vocabulary differences; either by the use of particular vocabulary differences; either by the use of particular words, or by the use of words in a particular sensewords, or by the use of words in a particular sense. .

Registers are simply a Registers are simply a rather special caserather special case of a of a particular kind of language particular kind of language being produced by the being produced by the social situationsocial situation. .

Need to expand this:Need to expand this:

Improve on Trudgill's definition by expanding Improve on Trudgill's definition by expanding the definition of register to include, in many the definition of register to include, in many cases, a preference (or even a dispreference) cases, a preference (or even a dispreference) for particular for particular syntactic patternssyntactic patterns or or rhetorical rhetorical devices.devices.

A close examination of many different kinds A close examination of many different kinds of registers shows that they tend to prefer, or of registers shows that they tend to prefer, or eschew: eschew:

(dis)preferences:(dis)preferences:

The The passivepassive voice; the American Psychological voice; the American Psychological Association recommends using active voice: Association recommends using active voice: ““As a general rule, use the active voice As a general rule, use the active voice rather than the rather than the

passive voice. For example, use ‘We predicted that ...’ passive voice. For example, use ‘We predicted that ...’ rather than ‘It was predicted that ...’ rather than ‘It was predicted that ...’

Metaphors (Metaphors ( APA APA warns against them!) warns against them!) Imperative verbs; Imperative verbs; Sexist or racist language; Sexist or racist language; Short sentences Short sentences

Other preferences:Other preferences:

Word-formation: Word-formation: There may also be a preference for certain lexical devices There may also be a preference for certain lexical devices

such as such as acronyms acronyms or or blendsblends Greco-LatinGreco-Latin vocabulary vocabulary (western European languages) (western European languages) Other classical languages, e.g. Other classical languages, e.g. Sanskrit, Chinese, PersianSanskrit, Chinese, Persian Pragmatic devices: A register therefore may have its own Pragmatic devices: A register therefore may have its own

pragmaticpragmatic devices, i.e. how the vocabulary is devices, i.e. how the vocabulary is usedused is is important. important.

Passive voicePassive voice may convey may convey ‘objectivity’‘objectivity’ for some for some disciplines, but not for others. disciplines, but not for others.

In some languages, the passive may convey something else, In some languages, the passive may convey something else, e.g. in Indonesian, the passive voice is used for e.g. in Indonesian, the passive voice is used for politenesspoliteness

You think I overemphasize this You think I overemphasize this acronym stuff?acronym stuff?

Go to: Go to: http://www.pharma-lexicon.comhttp://www.pharma-lexicon.com// A dictionary of over 200,000 medical, pharmaceutical, A dictionary of over 200,000 medical, pharmaceutical,

biomedical & healthcare biomedical & healthcare acronyms acronyms and abbreviations.and abbreviations. DNADNA: can stand for: can stand for

Deoxyribonucleic Acids, Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid, or Deoxyribonucleic Acids, Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid, or

Desoxynucleic Acid Desoxynucleic Acid SNPSNP: can stand for: can stand for

Single nucleotide polymorphisms, Sodium Nitroprusside or Single nucleotide polymorphisms, Sodium Nitroprusside or Système Nerveux PériphériqueSystème Nerveux Périphérique

And just for fun, the title of an And just for fun, the title of an article: article:

Possible role for avPossible role for avPGCPGC-1alpha in the control -1alpha in the control of expression of fiber type, along with avof expression of fiber type, along with avUCPUCP and avand avANTANT m mRNARNAs in the skeletal muscles of s in the skeletal muscles of cold-exposed chickens. cold-exposed chickens.

Iublished in FEBS Lett. 2005 Jan 3;579Iublished in FEBS Lett. 2005 Jan 3;579

(1):11-7 (1):11-7

Another problem: scientific registers have Another problem: scientific registers have derivational systemsderivational systems, to form adjectives from , to form adjectives from

nouns, etc.:nouns, etc.: sulphsulphurur: the chemical element of atomic number 16, a : the chemical element of atomic number 16, a

combustible non-metal which typically occurs combustible non-metal which typically occurs as as yellow crystals yellow crystals

sulphsulphideide: a binary compound of sulphur : a binary compound of sulphur sulphsulphateate: a salt or ester of sulphuric acid : a salt or ester of sulphuric acid anhydranhydriteite: a white mineral consisting of anhydrous : a white mineral consisting of anhydrous

calcium sulphcalcium sulphateate anhydranhydrousous adj.: (Chem.) containing no water adj.: (Chem.) containing no water

So who decides on the register?So who decides on the register?

UsersUsers must decide—people who develop the must decide—people who develop the science also develop the registerscience also develop the register

If language If language academiesacademies are allowed to develop are allowed to develop the register, we get the register, we get chaoschaos..

Scherer and Giles (1979:51-3) devote two Scherer and Giles (1979:51-3) devote two pages to a description of both differences in pages to a description of both differences in lexicon and the `complex, unusual semantic lexicon and the `complex, unusual semantic relations amongst perfectly ‘relations amongst perfectly ‘commonplace commonplace wordswords'' found in certain registers found in certain registers

Example of Example of quenchquench, a , a ‘commonplace’ English verb‘commonplace’ English verb

High-energy physics: ‘quench’ means High-energy physics: ‘quench’ means ‘‘rapidly decrease the temperature of a hot rapidly decrease the temperature of a hot

gasgas’’ In older uses in English, ‘quench’ simply In older uses in English, ‘quench’ simply

means ‘means ‘put out a fireput out a fire’, or ‘’, or ‘alleviate thirstalleviate thirst.’.’ An old, An old, quaintquaint, and almost archaic term , and almost archaic term

has taken on a ‘new life’has taken on a ‘new life’

Modify the definition of Register:Modify the definition of Register:

A set of specialized vocabulary and preferred (or A set of specialized vocabulary and preferred (or dispreferred) syntactic and rhetorical devices and dispreferred) syntactic and rhetorical devices and structures, used by particular socio-professional structures, used by particular socio-professional groups for special purposes. groups for special purposes.

A register may have a set of derivational devices!A register may have a set of derivational devices! A register is a property or characteristic of a A register is a property or characteristic of a

languagelanguage, and not of an individual or a class of , and not of an individual or a class of speakers.speakers.

Speakers may or may not actively (or passively) Speakers may or may not actively (or passively) control a register; if they do, it can be thought of as control a register; if they do, it can be thought of as part of their linguistic part of their linguistic repertoirerepertoire. .

Some languages lack certain registers…Some languages lack certain registers…

Western industrial societies they may lack Western industrial societies they may lack Ethno-scientificEthno-scientific registers (folk taxonomies registers (folk taxonomies

for classifying plants, animals or natural for classifying plants, animals or natural phenomena), phenomena),

Specialized Specialized poeticpoetic registers, registers, Specialized Specialized politenesspoliteness systems (Javanese), systems (Javanese), Registers for speaking in a Registers for speaking in a trancetrance. (Toda). (Toda)

TranceTrance Language? Language?

Todas (Nilgiri Hills, S. India): Shaman went into a Todas (Nilgiri Hills, S. India): Shaman went into a trance and began speaking in a special way, which trance and began speaking in a special way, which even to me sounded different. When I asked him to even to me sounded different. When I asked him to repeat some of the words, he said that he couldn't repeat some of the words, he said that he couldn't saysay those words those words unless he was in a tranceunless he was in a trance. .

Toda also has a register for Toda also has a register for songssongs that is so different that is so different phonologically from spoken Toda as to be phonologically from spoken Toda as to be unrecognizable to someone who only knows spoken unrecognizable to someone who only knows spoken TodaToda

Pre-industrial societies:Pre-industrial societies:

Languages lack legal, technical, scientific, and medical Languages lack legal, technical, scientific, and medical registers and subvarieties of these: registers and subvarieties of these:

the register that airline pilots use to communicate with air traffic the register that airline pilots use to communicate with air traffic controllers). controllers).

Such languages function Such languages function withoutwithout such registers such registers This relegates them to a This relegates them to a marginal statusmarginal status within a larger within a larger

multilingual society, multilingual society, Or the members of such linguistic cultures acquire Or the members of such linguistic cultures acquire

proficiency in these registers in proficiency in these registers in other languagesother languages. . The registers they acquire proficiency in are registers of The registers they acquire proficiency in are registers of

English English or another ex-colonial language. or another ex-colonial language.

Registers may be diglossic or Registers may be diglossic or triglossic: triglossic:

HH-variety domains: Certain registers such as -variety domains: Certain registers such as religion, literature, ethno-historyreligion, literature, ethno-history

LL-variety domains: conversation, jokes/stories, -variety domains: conversation, jokes/stories, intimacy, courtship, auto-mechanical, building, intimacy, courtship, auto-mechanical, building, construction trades, folk taxonomies, etc. construction trades, folk taxonomies, etc.

Certain registers (high-tech, higher-education) Certain registers (high-tech, higher-education) may be in the domain of a may be in the domain of a totally different totally different language, e.g. English language, e.g. English oror another LOWC another LOWC

Registers for scientific Registers for scientific terminology may be mixed: terminology may be mixed:

Greco-Roman vocabulary for written and formal oral Greco-Roman vocabulary for written and formal oral presentation:presentation: Transmissible spongiform encephalopathyTransmissible spongiform encephalopathy

Abbreviations, blends, acronyms for informal oral Abbreviations, blends, acronyms for informal oral use, and lay use (journalism etc.)use, and lay use (journalism etc.) TSETSE PrionPrion (from (from proproteinaceous teinaceous ininfectious particlefectious particle)) Mad Cow diseaseMad Cow disease CJD: CJD: named after the discoverer(s)? Creutzfeldt-Jakob named after the discoverer(s)? Creutzfeldt-Jakob

Disease, a.k.a. ‘kuru’.Disease, a.k.a. ‘kuru’.

Creutzfeldt-Jakob DiseaseCreutzfeldt-Jakob Disease((vCJDvCJD))

““The leading scientific theory at this time maintains that CJD The leading scientific theory at this time maintains that CJD is caused by a type of protein called a prion. ... Creutzfeldt-is caused by a type of protein called a prion. ... Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) is the best-known of the human TSEs.”Jakob disease (CJD) is the best-known of the human TSEs.”

““Other human TSEs include kuru, fatal familial insomnia Other human TSEs include kuru, fatal familial insomnia ((FFIFFI), and Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker disease (), and Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker disease (GSSGSS).” ).”

““Research suggests that Research suggests that vCJDvCJD may have resulted from human may have resulted from human consumption of beef from cattle with a TSE disease called consumption of beef from cattle with a TSE disease called bovine spongiform encephalopathy (bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSEBSE), also known as ), also known as "mad cow disease." "mad cow disease."

More at: http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/tse/tse.htmMore at: http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/tse/tse.htm

Developing new registers:Developing new registers:Why so difficult?Why so difficult?

Users of old registers have a vested interest in Users of old registers have a vested interest in keeping it—keeping it—easier to useeasier to use

Could also be viewed as a Could also be viewed as a monopolymonopoly…… New indigenous vocabulary may be strange New indigenous vocabulary may be strange

and ‘folksy’ sounding (‘and ‘folksy’ sounding (‘non-scientificnon-scientific’)’) Global discourse: LOWC registers allow Global discourse: LOWC registers allow

scientists to all be scientists to all be in the same loopin the same loop.. People outside this language/register are People outside this language/register are

ignored, kept in the darkignored, kept in the dark

Problem of the Problem of the Institut PasteurInstitut Pasteur

In 1989, editors of the journals of the In 1989, editors of the journals of the Institut Institut Pasteur Pasteur decided to publish only in English!decided to publish only in English!

French government was French government was incensedincensed!! But the IP pointed out that by then only 5% of But the IP pointed out that by then only 5% of

articles submitted to them were in Frencharticles submitted to them were in French If they continued using French, If they continued using French, nobodynobody would would

read those articles.read those articles. They therefore joined the ‘They therefore joined the ‘global discourseglobal discourse’’

Problem of ‘self-respect’Problem of ‘self-respect’

Pre-modern languages wanting to modernize Pre-modern languages wanting to modernize feel that their language is feel that their language is just as goodjust as good as any as any otherother

Developing scientific/technological Developing scientific/technological vocabulary allows their language to ‘vocabulary allows their language to ‘stand tallstand tall’ ’ and be equal to othersand be equal to others

But the amount of effort required may be But the amount of effort required may be overwhelming and impossible to accomplishoverwhelming and impossible to accomplish

Late modernizers:Late modernizers:

Have to develop Have to develop hugehuge vocabularies vocabularies Will need to allow Will need to allow wide rangewide range of word- of word-

formation devices:formation devices: Borrowing (from LOWC’s or classical languages)Borrowing (from LOWC’s or classical languages) Loan-Translation (based on above sources)Loan-Translation (based on above sources) Acronyms, Abbreviations, BlendsAcronyms, Abbreviations, Blends

Need to allow the Need to allow the users users to do the developmentto do the development

But will they allow this freedom?But will they allow this freedom?

Example of TamilExample of Tamil: : PuristsPurists take over and insist take over and insist on:on: ‘‘Pure’ Tamil rootsPure’ Tamil roots and and loan translation onlyloan translation only No abbreviations!No abbreviations! No acronyms or blends!No acronyms or blends! No borrowings!No borrowings!

Result: Result: stultificationstultification, no buy-in by users, no , no buy-in by users, no progress. progress.

English remains language of scienceEnglish remains language of science..

Example from ‘Mad Cow’ Example from ‘Mad Cow’ diseasedisease

Medical researchers who studied the disease Medical researchers who studied the disease developed the register, using:developed the register, using: Greco-RomanGreco-Roman vocabulary for “high” formal use vocabulary for “high” formal use

(Bovine) (Bovine) Transmissible Spongiform EncephalopathyTransmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy Abbreviation: TSEAbbreviation: TSE Acronym ‘Acronym ‘prionprion’ based on ’ based on

propro + + in <in <‘‘proproteinaceous teinaceous ininfectious particle’fectious particle’ Lay terminology ‘mad cow’ for informal, Lay terminology ‘mad cow’ for informal, oraloral use, use,

lay uselay use (journalism etc.) (journalism etc.)

What do other languages do?What do other languages do?Translate the Greco-Roman vocabulary into:Translate the Greco-Roman vocabulary into:

French, German, Spanish:French, German, Spanish: French: French: l'encéphalopathie spongiforme bovinel'encéphalopathie spongiforme bovine German: German: Bovine Spongiforme EncephalopathieBovine Spongiforme Encephalopathie Spanish: Spanish: Encefalopiatia Espongiforme BovinaEncefalopiatia Espongiforme Bovina

But then they all ‘borrow’ the terms But then they all ‘borrow’ the terms TSETSE and and Prion Prion from English!from English!

But all retain a folk version of ‘mad cow:’But all retain a folk version of ‘mad cow:’ Vaca loca, vache folle, RinderwahnsinnVaca loca, vache folle, Rinderwahnsinn

What would the Tamil for this What would the Tamil for this be?be?

‘‘maaTTu paittiyammaaTTu paittiyam’ (similar to German ’ (similar to German ‘Rinder-Wahnsinn’) is easy to come up with‘Rinder-Wahnsinn’) is easy to come up with

As for the rest?...As for the rest?... Would have to loan-translate Would have to loan-translate transmissible transmissible

spongiform encephalopathy spongiform encephalopathy into ‘pure’ Tamilinto ‘pure’ Tamil Would not allow abbreviations or blendsWould not allow abbreviations or blends Would get nowhere with thisWould get nowhere with this

English therefore English therefore remains the language of remains the language of science, medicine, technology in Indiascience, medicine, technology in India

In other words…In other words…

Having excessively strict conditions on word-Having excessively strict conditions on word-formation is formation is counter-productivecounter-productive

It leads to failure of the users to accept the It leads to failure of the users to accept the terminologyterminology

Failure then leads to a Failure then leads to a blame-gameblame-game Blame colonialism! Blame English!Blame colonialism! Blame English! Blame inadequate language loyalty of scientists!Blame inadequate language loyalty of scientists! Blame everybody but the purists…Blame everybody but the purists…

India’s IT development:India’s IT development:

Would not have happened if there weren’t Would not have happened if there weren’t education in English in the Indian IIT’seducation in English in the Indian IIT’s

Diglossia of the Fishman ‘extended’ kind is the Diglossia of the Fishman ‘extended’ kind is the net result:net result: L-variety Tamil (etc.) for home, informal domainsL-variety Tamil (etc.) for home, informal domains H-variety Tamil for religion, H-variety Tamil for religion, belles-lettresbelles-lettres, music, music Triglossia, with H-variety English for technical Triglossia, with H-variety English for technical

domainsdomains

How to represent multilingualism How to represent multilingualism and its domains in India:and its domains in India:

Multilingualism as a set of Multilingualism as a set of ‘nested’ domains:‘nested’ domains:

At the centerAt the center: the home language, L-variety: the home language, L-variety Learned by all; does not easily get displacedLearned by all; does not easily get displaced H-variety of mother tongue acquired in H-variety of mother tongue acquired in schoolschool;; English acquired English acquired laterlater, but now not much later: , but now not much later:

some states offering it in 1some states offering it in 1stst standard! standard! Domains tend to segment in the outer circles: Domains tend to segment in the outer circles:

some domains may be only some domains may be only PASSIVEPASSIVE, e.g. for , e.g. for knowledge of Hindi in Tamilnaduknowledge of Hindi in Tamilnadu

Higher education in India continues to be Higher education in India continues to be

almost exclusively conducted in Englishalmost exclusively conducted in English. .

Indian doctors and technologists prefer to be ‘Indian doctors and technologists prefer to be ‘in the in the looploop’ of international work in all these fields’ of international work in all these fields

This also means that Indian doctors and engineers can This also means that Indian doctors and engineers can obtain jobsobtain jobs in other countries, and in other countries, and

Send home remittances which help sustain the Send home remittances which help sustain the economy of the subcontinent. economy of the subcontinent.

They have a They have a vested interestvested interest in maintaining the status in maintaining the status quo ante. quo ante.

And other countries depend on there being a supply And other countries depend on there being a supply of India’s educated people!of India’s educated people!

Bangalore and the languages spoken there:Bangalore and the languages spoken there:

Kannada is the state languageKannada is the state language English is the language of the IT industryEnglish is the language of the IT industry Tamil remains as a residue of British Tamil remains as a residue of British

colonialism (British brought Tamils from colonialism (British brought Tamils from Madras into the Princely State of Mysore)Madras into the Princely State of Mysore)

Tamils settled in the ‘cantonment’ next to Tamils settled in the ‘cantonment’ next to Bangalore: now Bangalore: now highly resentedhighly resented!!

Cantonment is now the locus of the IT industryCantonment is now the locus of the IT industry

Diglossia and shifting domains:Diglossia and shifting domains:

Diglossias tend to remain stable in places like India Diglossias tend to remain stable in places like India But minor changes occur: domains may get ‘taken But minor changes occur: domains may get ‘taken

over’ by another languageover’ by another language In new domains, L-variety may take over: TVIn new domains, L-variety may take over: TV Language shift may occur, domain by domain (but Language shift may occur, domain by domain (but

only very slowly)only very slowly) Tamil is not about to take over domains of English,Tamil is not about to take over domains of English, But English may take over some domains of Tamil—But English may take over some domains of Tamil—

especially domain of especially domain of literacy in Tamilliteracy in Tamil!!

More and more demand forMore and more demand for English may mean English may mean less and less literacy in indigenous languages!less and less literacy in indigenous languages!

IT industry and the lure of foreign job market IT industry and the lure of foreign job market results in more and more parents demanding results in more and more parents demanding English medium education, all over IndiaEnglish medium education, all over India

Local languages retain only Local languages retain only spokenspoken domains domains Some states (e.g. Karnataka) are trying to fight Some states (e.g. Karnataka) are trying to fight

backback Other cities fight to Other cities fight to attractattract IT spill-over from IT spill-over from

Karnataka: Madras, Hyderabad, others…Karnataka: Madras, Hyderabad, others…

Conclusion:Conclusion:

Register development for late modernizers is Register development for late modernizers is very difficultvery difficult

LOWCs dominate the sci-tech fields, are not LOWCs dominate the sci-tech fields, are not easy to displaceeasy to displace

Scientists have a Scientists have a vested interestvested interest in keeping the in keeping the previous H-varietiesprevious H-varieties

H-varieties represent more ‘H-varieties represent more ‘cultural capitalcultural capital’ ’ and can provide better jobs and better livesand can provide better jobs and better lives

Epilogue:Epilogue:

Am I being too Am I being too cynicalcynical and and pessimisticpessimistic?? Am I dismissing efforts in some places to Am I dismissing efforts in some places to

modernize, with some success?modernize, with some success? Is it easier to displace Is it easier to displace RussianRussian than English? than English? (Dutch was replaced by Indonesian under (Dutch was replaced by Indonesian under

Japanese occupation)Japanese occupation) Is there no hope?Is there no hope? See the French example…See the French example…