Looking to a Future Climate-Smart Development in Bangladesh: A Critical Review of Bangladesh...

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 1 Looking to a Future Climate-Smart Development in Bangladesh: A Critical Review of Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan Dhaka, December 2013 Oxfam in Bangladesh

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Looking to a Future Climate-Smart Development in Bangladesh:

A Critical Review of Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan

Dhaka, December 2013

Oxfam in Bangladesh

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Research Team 

This report has been prepared by a group of experts under the over-all guidance of Dr. M. Asaduzzaman,BIDS, Dhaka. Other members of the team are:

1. Dr. Mahfuzul Haque, Formar Secretary and Adjunct Professor, DU, Dhaka

2. Dr. Mizan R. Khan, Professor, Department of Environmental Sciences, NSU, Dhaka

3. Md. Ziaul Haque, Deputy Director, Department of Environment (DoE), Dhaka.

4. Mirza Shawkat Ali, Deputy Director, Department of Environment (DoE), Dhaka.

Mohammad Reazuddin, Acted as Contact and Coordinator to study.

The members produced their set pieces which were further developed and synthesized by Dr. Asaduzzaman who is finally responsible for the errors and omissions in the report.

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Executive Summary

There is an increasing awareness that climate change may nullify much of the hard earned economic andsocial gains in Bangladesh. In addressing the problems associated with climate change, the Governmentprepared the Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (BCCSAP), a 10-year program, in2008 which was revised somewhat later in 2009. The BCCSAP, purportedly a knowledge-based actionplan is a 10 year action plan to build capacity and resilience with in the country to meet climate change

challenges over the next 20-25 years under six thematic areas for action. These thematic areas are : (i)food security, social protection, and health; (ii) comprehensive disaster management; (iii) infrastructuraldevelopment; (iv) research and knowledge management;(v) mitigation and low-carbon development; and(vi) capacity building and institutional strengthening. The BCCSAP had been an approved programme ofthe Government which has been subsumed within the Sixth Five Year Plan as well as the PerspectivePlan for the country.

To operationalise the BCCSAP, the Government also established the National Climate ChangeFund and allocated about $45 million to it in the budget for the year 2008-09 which has been replenishedseveral times since then. Furthermore, a Bangladesh Climate Change Resilience Fund, multi-donor trustfund was established to pool funds from development partners to implement a long-term strategy to adaptto the adverse effects of climate change in Bangladesh.

Despite all these, there are concerns regarding the slow pace of implementation of the BCCSAP.

Furthermore there had been issues which have come up since the formulation of BCCSAP. These issueshave implications for proper implementation of the Action Plan. Time is now ripe to revisit the BCCSAPand critically review a few issues of importance related to the Action Plan. Oxfam Bangladesh thereforecontracted out the present study on “Review of BCCSAP-2009” to review and identify barriers andconstraints to its implementation including its prioritization, mainstreaming and monitoring & evaluation inparticular.

 As the magnitude and long-term nature of the climate change threat is increasingly betterunderstood, it is becoming clear that simply implementing a set of adaptation projects, although useful, isnot going to be sufficient. If long-term resilience to climate change impacts is to be built into the economyand society of the country, then climate change adaptation (as well as mitigation) needs to be embedded(or mainstreamed) into regular national development planning and actions at all levels. The present studytherefore aims to identify barriers & constraints to and to provide a policy direction towards enhanced ofimplementation of BCCSAP. To realize the broad objective, several activities were envisaged. The

specific objectives included the following:

i.  a prioritization of the programmes and projects under BCCSAP;

ii.  explore principles of adaptation and its mainstreaming into development plan;

iii.  prepare for mitigation with the formulation of a NAMA (a post-BCCSAP development);

iv.  monitoring and evaluation of the BCCSAP activities; and

v.  knowledge management.

The only limitation here in terms of content is that it leaves out many other relevant issues such aswhether policies have been harmonized so far.

Prioritisation

Discussion and analyses have identified the limitations of implementation of BCCSAP in terms of theabove elements under study. Prioritisation principles have been discussed and it has been pointed outthat the sensible approach at the moment would be to use a few specific criteria which may include thefollowing:

- Relevance to the national plans or sectoral Plans

- Strategic alignment to BCCSAP

- Project benefits and costs

- Sustainability of the projects and

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- Institutional and human capacity of the implementing agency.

Using a suggested matrix and the above criteria, a ranked list of projects may be prepared and furtheraction may be taken accordingly.

Mainstreaming of Climate Change Adaptation in Development Planning

The process of mainstreaming has to be grounded on certain principles that include inter alia:precautionary principle, stitching the NAPA and NAP into a coherent whole, realizing co-benefits withmitigation, principle of learning by doing, accountability and transparency, participation of all stakeholders,efficiency and cost-effectiveness, synergy with national and sectoral policy objectives and othermultilateral environmental agreements (MEAs), flexibility and adaptiveness and subsidiarity i.edecentralization of decision-making, etc.

Moreover, mainstreaming climate change into planning needs to be done at every level, not justnational plans. Thus sectoral ministries such as water management, agriculture, health and others alsoneed to mainstream climate change into their respective sectoral plans. Also very important is the need tomainstream into local level planning where possible. It is to be also noted that NGOs have a very strongrole to play, especially in mainstreaming of adaptation. Many NGOs are working already at local level forenhancing the community-level adaptive capacity. Climate change adaptation is mainly local, and NGOs

have access to remote, marginalized areas in Bangladesh.While adaptation projects are a useful place to start, the long-term nature of climate impacts will

require an altogether greater effort to develop a climate resilient economy. Thus, instead of developingseparate, stand-alone, National Adaptation Plans (NAP) as many countries are doing, it is better tomainstream climate change into regular national plans. Therefore, the NAP process should be seen as aprocess of mainstreaming rather than producing a stand-alone plan.

Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMA)

Since Bali when the issue of NAMA was first raised, the NAMA process is still developing an initialshopping list for NAMA sectors may include the following;

i) Energy production and Supply

ii) Transport and its Infrastructure

iii) Industry

iv) Residential and Commercial Buildings

v) Agriculture

vi) Forestry

vii) Waste Management, etc.

Note that all these have been mentioned under the 5th pillar of the BCCSAP.

Given the overwhelming importance of energy production and use in green house gas emissionand that energy services are absolutely necessary for sustainable development, the following may be

taken as the first partial list of sectors and activities for initial NAMA mainly for improved efficiency inelectricity generation and use:

a) Combined Cycle Gas Turbine (CCGT) to replace Steam Turbine (ST) plants,

b) Rehabilitation and modernization of old power plants,

c) Upgrading and rehabilitation of transmission and distribution lines of electricity for the reduction ofloss,

d) Coal fired supercritical boilers in place of sub-critical boilers,

e) Biomass gasification or biogas plant based electricity fed to the grid,

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f) Waste based electricity fed to the grid,

g) Efficiency improvement of rice parboiling,

h) Industrial cogeneration or utilization of waste heat from captive generators,

i) Wind and solar PV electricity fed to the grid,

 j) Solar PV irrigation pumps to replace diesel or present on-grid electricity driven pumps,k) Improved cook stoves,

l) Solar PV lanterns to replace kerosene lamps,

m) Use of efficient lighting devices, etc

Monitoring and Evaluation

For any large scale programme of action by any entity, the success or failures along with the constraintsand also for learning from them for future actions, a system of monitoring and evaluation should be builtinto them. This issue was not specifically included in BCCSAP possibly because the implementationmechanism was not certain at the time of its formulation and/or revision. Attention is to be provided to putin place a robust monitoring and evaluation procedures to monitor implementation of the projects underthe two funds which support BCCSAP.

The BCCTF, the domestically financed und for implementation of the BCCSAP, has under itsguidelines logical frameworks for project designing. As has been shown such a logframe can be turnedinto a tool for performance or result based monitoring which is strongly advocated for BCCSAP projects.Illustrations have been provided for adaptation projects under agriculture and for solar energy projects.

Knowledge management

The BCCSAP, under the pillar of research and knowledge management suggested to establish a “Centrefor Research and Knowledge Management” on Climate Change (or a Network of Centres) to ensureBangladesh has access to the latest ideas and technologies from around the world, and to ensure thatdata is widely and freely available to researchers. While quite a few knowledge management and data

banks apparently have been set up in Bangladesh, these suffer from inadequate attention and properplanning.

In order to get a Climate Change Knowledge Management (CCKM) system functioning, oneneeds to prepare a complete inventory of knowledge available on climate change and climate variabilityand all related information. CCKM would be the national node for knowledge on climate change andvulnerability as well as mitigation activities and scientific knowledge and expected to use informationtechnology to identify, create, structure and share knowledge. It would help improving decision-makingand dissemination at the grass-roots level. CCKM would build innovative community partnership withevolved technologies to encourage a positive impact at the grassroots with respect to climate change riskmanagement and adaptation.

CCKM is expected to develop a “National Road Map” on science and technology for climatechange adaptation and mitigation and all supporting activities. It would collect, document and disseminate

in user-friendly form all information and data in original and processed form, if so demanded, related toclimate change science, technology, adaptation concepts and practices, mitigation concepts andpractices and their impact, funding opportunities, technology and intellectual property rights and climatechange talks and their implication and analyses. Some of these will be available directly while for othersadequate references and links may be provided.

Under CCKM system, the following specific activities may be undertaken: a) Establishment of aDatabase/Knowledge Bank; b) Setting up of a Web-Portal; c) Using of Mobile-SMS based Applications;d) Introduce Radio messages; e) Establish Call-Centre; f) Information Centre; and g) Hackathon. It maybe mentioned here that none of the knowledge management networks or centres so far have not matchedthese ideas in practice.

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Way Forward

None of the issues discussed above have so far been really put in practice or been practiced only in verylimited manner. The prime need right now is to have climate change issues, more specifically NAP andNAMA to be integrated with development planning. Some related activities such as climate proofing ofdevelopment projects or designing projects with built-in climate proofing has just begun by introducingclimate change issues in the Development Project Proformas. But integration of BCCSAP into

development planning is yet to begin. The implementation of BCCSAP would also require significantstrengthening of the coordination capacity of the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF) withrelevant ministries and agencies.

While the integration goes on, this should not keep other things in waiting. These includeprioritization, M&E activities and knowledge management. NAP and NAMA may also not wait but needsto be carefully done. Pilot NAP and NAMAs may be prepared and attempts should be made to integratethem with appropriate development programmes and policies so that over time with the experiencegained in planning may be further improved for better integration.

In fact, it appears that given the experience so far of the implementation of the BCCSAP undertwo funds, probably time is ripe for revisiting it and integrate into it the issues discussed and analysed inthis report. Such a review may give attention to, apart from those that have been described above)several of the missing issues such as loss and damage and their estimation, break down BCCSAP into

elements of NAP and NAMA, integration of NAP and NAMA into development planning process, policiesfor climate change management in all its aspects (adaptation, mitigation, finance, technology, capacity-building), and harmonization of existing policies.

With regard to the barrier of its implementation, the issue of institutionalization needs to be givenclearer focus, particularly the roles of different ministries, particularly the MoEF and MoP as well as majorstakeholders. Furthermore, the role of the private sector and the non-state actors will have to be clarified.If need be the Rules of Business of the ministries may be revisited and reformulated because climatechange and its effects permeate every endeavour of human action and hence unless clear ideas emergeand practice done based on the specific roles of various administrative arms of the government, it wouldbe a chaotic situation and the price would be paid dearly by the nation, particularly the poor.

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Towards Climate-Smart Development in Bangladesh:

A Critical Review of Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan

I. Introduction

Bangladesh, despite many odds, natural and man-made, has over time come a long way from thenineteen seventies when seventy percent of its population of 75 million at that time, were poor. Now

almost four decades later, near about 30% of the estimated 160 million people are estimated to be poor.This has been possible due to rising growth rate of GDP which is still not that high while agriculturedespite all its inefficiencies had been able to feed the people. In about a decade’s time, if everything goesas expected, the country may graduate out of the league of least developed countries as a lower mid-income country. This will necessitate a rise in its GDP growth from present 6% or thereabout tosomewhere 8% and beyond. However, in the mean time, the ugly spectre of climate change (CC) hasreared its head to devour all the gains of the past decades and keep semi-permanently in chains of lowproductivity-low employment and income-low quality of life. Given the country’s extreme vulnerability tothe adverse impacts of CC has become now the most pressing development concern in Bangladesh.

The footprints of CC is increasingly becoming visible all over the country and is manifested in risein average temperature, rainfall anomalies of shifting seasonal distribution, drought during traditional rainymonths, signs of a rise in sea level and salinity ingress, and an increase in the frequency and intensity oftropical cyclones and storm surges. Much of the evidence, however, is still largely anecdotal and is yet to

be rigorously scientifically investigated and modeled. On the other hand, the third round effects on thehuman system while better documented can not thus be related specifically to climate change as thisremains to be scientifically probed. Given this, however, and that globally this has been proved beyonddoubt and the manifestations in many countries including the impact on human systems alreadydocumented, there can be no doubt that near absence of rigorous scientific proof can not be an argumentfor inaction. Tomorrow or day after, CC will manifest itself with all its adverse impact and it is the poor, theweak and the infirm in the society who will suffer most. At least this much is known that the climaticvariability and weather uncertainties already play a major role in constraining the growth path of thecountry. Hence it becomes a wise move to prepare for the eventuality in earnest and with all seriousness.

The potential impact of climate change threatening the significant achievements Bangladesh hasmade over the last few decades in increasing incomes and reducing poverty, including those related tothe Millennium Development Goals on eliminating poverty and hunger; ensuring food, health security, andhuman rights; and promoting environmental sustainability. Additionally, in association with othersocioeconomic, environmental and political factors in Bangladesh, climate change is expected to amplifythe country’s existing environmental stresses, contributing further to food insecurity and conflict overnatural resources.

In addressing the problems associated with climate change, the Government prepared theBangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (BCCSAP), a 10-year program, in 2008 which wasrevised somewhat later in 2009.

1 The BCCSAP, purportedly a knowledge-based action plan is a 10 year

action plan to build capacity and resilience with in the country to meet climate change challenges over thenext 20-25 years under six thematic areas for action. These thematic areas are : (i) food security, socialprotection, and health; (ii) comprehensive disaster management; (iii) infrastructural development; (iv)research and knowledge management;(v) mitigation and low-carbon development; and (vi) capacitybuilding and institutional strengthening. The BCCSAP had been an approved programme of theGovernment which has been subsumed within the Sixth Five Year Plan as well as the Perspective Plan

for the country.To operationalise the BCCSAP, the Government also established the National Climate Change

Fund and allocated about $45 million to it in the budget for the year 2008-09 which has been replenishedseveral times since then. Furthermore, a Bangladesh Climate Change Resilience Fund, multi-donor trustfund was established to pool funds from development partners to implement a long-term strategy to adaptto the adverse effects of climate change in Bangladesh.

1 The BCCSAP revision in 2009 was cosmetic in that only a few programmes were added while no thrust theme was

changed.2 This does not of course means that each and every project or action, even if very small, has to consider cliamet

change management issues one way or other. It may not simply be at all cost-effective to do so.

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Despite all these, there are concerns regarding the slow pace of implementation of the BCCSAP.Furthermore there had been issues which have come up since the formulation of BCCSAP. These issueshave implications for proper implementation of the Action Plan. Time is now ripe to revisit the BCCSAPand critically review a few issues of importance related to the Action Plan. Oxfam Bangladesh thereforecontracted out the present study on “Review of BCCSAP-2009” to review and identify barriers andconstraints to its implementation including its prioritization, mainstreaming and monitoring & evaluation inparticular. The ToR for the study is given in Annex 1 to this section.

II. Broad and Specific Objectives

The present study aims to identify barriers & constraints to and to provide a policy direction towardsenhanced of implementation of BCCSAP. To realize the broad objective, several activities wereenvisaged. The specific objectives included the following:

vi.  a priritisation of the programmes and projects under BCCSAP;

vii.  adaptation and its mainstreaming into development plan;

viii. preparing for mitigation with the formulation of a NAMA;

ix.  monitoring and evaluation of the BCCSAP activities;

x.  knowledge management.

III. Rationale for the particular focus and specific objectives

The BCCSAP can be divided into two parts. The first part provides the background based on physical andclimate contexts, core socio-economic realities and policies in the country and the consequent rationalefor a strategy on climate change. The thrust of the strategy is on sustainable development, povertyreduction and increased well-being of all vulnerable groups in society with special emphasis on gendersensitivity. The second part elaborates a set of programmes based upon six pillars or broad areas ofintervention which have been elaborated in the first part. The BCCSAP sums up Bangladesh’s currentthinking on desirable activities to build climate resilience into the economy and society of Bangladeshthrough adaptation to climate change as well as mitigation for a low carbon development path and

associated complementary activities related to knowledge creation and knowledge management as wellas capacity building.

However, as the magnitude and long-term nature of the climate change threat is increasinglybetter understood, it is becoming clear that simply implementing a set of adaptation projects, althoughuseful, is not going to be sufficient. If long-term resilience to climate change impacts is to be built into theeconomy and society of the country, then climate change adaptation (as well as mitigation) needs to beembedded (or mainstreamed) into regular national development planning and actions at all levels.

2 But in

doing that a few principles must be kept in mind.

Need for prioritization:

The resources (financial, institutional, human skill as well as awareness) available for implementing theBCCSAP are limited. That means some kind of prioritization has to be done to implement them. BCCSAPhas prioritized the project ideas very broadly as those of immediate need and those which may be takenup over the short, medium and long run. It has also indicated which ministries and agencies might beinvolved for developing the project ideas fully and implementing them. In any case there is a necessity fora full-blown prioritization exercise. The Sixth Plan has made a priority list which appears to be quite atodds with what the background paper to the Sixth Plan had suggested. There are other such anomaliesalso. In any case, what should be the nature of these priorities and what should be the outcome of suchan exercise. Are the prioritization principles generate conflicts or complementarities? The prioritizationprinciples and the practice so far are discussed first in this report.

2 This does not of course means that each and every project or action, even if very small, has to consider cliamet

change management issues one way or other. It may not simply be at all cost-effective to do so.

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Integrating climate change into development plans and actions:

Development planning is by its nature intended for laying the basis of and working for long termdevelopment of a country. Climate change impacts are also long term in nature. Even if the emission ofall the green house gases are stopped today, the accumulated gases in the earth systems will continue tobe influenced by them and continue to impact adversely on the environment and earth systems andconsequently the human systems of agriculture, water management, infrastructure, industry,

transportation and the poor who are involved in these human systems. That means that while adaptationprogrammes and projects are a useful place to start, the long-term nature of climate impacts will requirean altogether greater effort to develop a climate resilient economy. Thus, instead of developing separate,stand-alone, plans such as National Adaptation Plans (NAP) as many countries are doing, it is moreeffective and cost-wise probably more efficient to mainstream climate change into regular nationaldevelopment plans and their constituents.

 Against this backdrop, the National Adaptation Plan (NAP) process should be seen as a processof mainstreaming rather than producing a stand-alone plan. And it may be noted here that the need forsuch integration had been highlighted under the BCCSAP as the second programme under the sixth pillaron capacity-building. Right after the prioritization exercise, we therefore get into the one of howadaptation and development planning and action may be integrated with each other.

Low carbon development and NAMA:

The Bali COP in 2007 in its decision 1/CP13 called for nationally appropriate mitigation actions bydeveloping countries including LDCs. This was at that time voluntary. But by now, as has been decided inDurban COP in 2011, all countries will come under a legally binding agreement for cutting green housegas emission on mandatory basis. This will necessitate the preparation of a plan for Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action or NAMA. Indeed, the BCCSAP has low carbon development as one of itssix themes. The very first action that had been stated under the pillar is to “Develop a strategic energyplan and investment portfolio to ensure national energy security and lower green house gas emissions”which is the essence of NAMA. So far this has not been attempted in the country but will be necessary ifinternational support is to be attracted in terms of finance, technology and capacity building. For thisreason, an attempt has been made here to find out how such a move may be undertaken.

Monitoring and evaluation:

For any large scale programme of action by any entity, the success or failures along with the constraintsand also for learning from them for future actions, a system of monitoring and evaluation should be builtinto them. This issue was not specifically included in BCCSAP possibly because the implementationmechanism was not certain at the time of its formulation and/or revision. For this reason, it has beendecided to explore the issue along with an examination of the procedures for the implementation ofprojects under the two funds which support BCCSAP.

Knowledge management:

From the very beginning, BCCSAP has put thrust on research and knowledge management becausemuch of the impacts of CC are still uncertain as to their timing, extent and severity as well as spatialspread. Without continuous research and knowledge management including tracking whatever ishappening elsewhere, it would become extremely difficult for taking policy decisions regarding types ofprogramme pr projects to be undertaken. So far there is no clear guideline on this issue.

Summary:

The ideas of basic contents of this report may now be summarized. The report will discuss and analyseissues related to (i) prioritization; (ii) adaptation and its integration with development planning; (iii) lowcarbon development and NAMA; (iv) monitoring and evaluation; and (v) knowledge management. Theonly limitation here in terms of content is that it leaves out many other relevant issues such as whether

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policies have been harmonized so far. Despite being a part of the Sixth Plan and the Perspective Plan,the BCCSAP is yet to be subsumed in sectoral policy thinking. Note however that some similar exerciseat least in case of agriculture and food policies have already been completed recently which hopefully willcomplement the exercise here.

3 For this reason and to avoid duplication and resource conservation, we

have not attempted to carry out this exercise here.

IV. Methodology

The study team after careful analysis of ongoing activities on BCCSAP by different actors chalked out awork plan for its work and placed before the inception workshop. The inception workshop held on 10July 2012, after detailed review and discussion recommended the following work programme

-  A critical review of BCCSAP and a study on policy harmonization for enabling policyenvironment.

-  Developing the methodology and approach and the institutional framework for economy wideexercises for preparation NAP and NAMA with participation of relevant Ministries, privatesector and NGO/CBO,s.

-  Prioritization of BCCSAP action programs in view of 6th 5 year plan, resiliency development in

the vulnerable areas and for providing relief to the already affected population.

-  Developing a country framework for mainstreaming adaptation. architecture for institutionalcoordination and tracking investments and preparation of tools and guidelines to assistimplementation..

-  Developing a framework of indicators for monitoring and evaluation (M&E) of BCCSAPprogramme.

-  Developing a framework on knowledge management on climate change

Note that it has already been stated earlier that of these the policy review part has not been attemptedwhile the NAP was also later dropped from consideration although a lot of the NAP issues are subsumedunder mainstreaming adaptation.

The preliminary findings of the study were shared in a workshop (2nd

 workshop under the study)

on 30

th

  March 2013. Based on the recommendation of the interim workshop, the study elementsmethodology and approach were further fine tuned.

V. Prioritization of BCCSAP Identified Adaptation Actions

Preamble

The issue of prioritization is extremely important as indicated earlier when resources including financial,institutional capacity and human capability are limited. This becomes more so when a lot of activitiesneed to be taken up. The present Climate Change Trust Fund (CCTF) has allocated BD. Taka 2355 crorefrom financial year 2009-2010 to 2013-2013. So far, 139 projects are under implementation by differentgovernment agencies with allocation of 1531.89 Crore taka from CCTF.

4  In addition 63 projects of

different NGOs and private sectors with a financial outlay of 25.06 crore taka has also been provided byCCTF. For selection of projects, there is an elaborate mechanism but CCT doesn’t follow any prioritizationprocess.

 Against this backdrop, we try to reflect upon the concept of prioritization while also briefly clarifyavailable project prioritization process. In addition, an attempt will be made to shed light on howprioritization was considered in previous adaptation initiatives in the country. We will also discuss the

3  Asaduzzaman, M and M. Qamar Munir,  Policy and Policy Harmonization for Adaptation and Mitigation in

 Agriculture under Climate Change in Bangladesh, 2013, a study carried out for IFPRI, Delhi, Sustainable

Development Networking Foundation, Dhaka (unpublished).

4 MoEF/CCTF website; accessed in August 2013

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prioritization under the Sixth Five year plan on climate change interventions. Finally, recommendationshave been made on a prioritization method for the future CCTF projects.

Concept of prioritization

The most generic principle of prioritization of programmes, projects or actions is to choose the ones that

serves the main purpose of these programmes, projects or activities. Having said this, there are a fewissues that need to be considered first. For whom the prioritization is being done? Is it the private sectoror the public or the non-state actors such as NGOs. For the private corporate sector, the mainconsideration is profit maximization. Hence any prioritisation they do has an eye on profit.

The main purpose of the public sector action is not profit per se but ensuring maximum welfare tothe public in general and the poor in particular. What is meant by welfare may vary by type of action aswell as the main problem that is being managed. In case of climate change adaptation, the main issue isminimization of vulnerability of people in all aspects, physical, economic and social. This immediately tellsus what should be the basic prioritization principle. If there are two projects both dealing with adaptation,nature and extent of vulnerability have to be first defined or understood and then the one which canameliorate the vulnerability most should be chosen in the first step. But the question remains how do weunderstand vulnerability? Is it the number of people affected, the area under crops that is damaged or thedamage that is done to the infrastructure without which the future economic activity will be harmed

greatly. May be all will have to be considered in some degree.

But this is not all. The project not chosen initially is not taken from the list yet, One will then haveto look into the technical aspects and associated costs of the project, the time of implementation,availability of funds, necessary institutional steps and their legal basis or its lack, availability of thenecessary technology, and finally, the cost-benefit analysis or cost-effectiveness. Note that all theseprioritization activities are exercises for determining technical, economic, social, environmental and finallyto get an integrated picture. Only then the final prioritization can be done.

It would be instructive here to review the global guidelines for NAPA preparation. Annotatedguidelines for the preparation of NAPA included the following criteria for selecting priority activities andtechniques for prioritization.

1. Level or degree of adverse effects of climate change;

2. Poverty reduction to enhance adaptive capacity;

3. Synergy with other multilateral environmental agreements and

4. Cost-effectiveness.

Note that the very first issue relates to vulnerability as pointed out earlier as the basic premise. Thesecond one relates to social acceptability and third one to environmental considerations as well as co-benefits. And the fourth indicates getting the job done most cheaply.

NAPA guide also suggests three techniques for selection and prioritization of projects; these are;

•  Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA)

•  Cost Effectiveness Analysis (CEA) and

  Multi-criteria Analysis (MCA).Of these the first two relates to economic criteria while the multi-criteria is an amalgam of severalindicators and may be the penultimate prioritization method.

One needs to take note here that prioritization of projects and programmes may not be the same.What we are discussing here is prioritization among projects under a programme. We shall be coming tothe prioritization of programmes in a short while when we discuss that under BCCSAP.

Prioritisation in BCCSAP

BCCSAP includes six thematic areas which are

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1. Food Security, Social Protection and health

2. Comprehensive Disaster Management

3. Infrastructure

4. Research and Knowledge Management

5. Mitigation and Low Carbon Development6. Capacity Building and Institutional Strengthening

Each thematic area has several programme areas, in total there are 44 programme areas and variousactivities under each programme area.

The thematic areas or pillars have no prioritization as such but food security and security of life,and property are most basic to human existence, the first two are the most important with food securitytaking precedence over all others. Except for pillar 5 on low carbon development (to be discussed in thefollowing section), the rest of the themes are actually supportive in nature. Thus, theme three oninfrastructure basically relates to water management which is a precondition for many of the adaptationactivities as vulnerabilities often arise due to too much or too little water and at the anomalies they createin agriculture and food production as well as intensifying natural hazards.

BCCSAP has also made another prioritization in terms of the time line within which a programmeshould be examined and relevant actions taken. These indicate which ones to be taken immediately andwhich ones later over the short, medium and long run. Thus, while the Programme T!P1 on institutionalcapacity and research towards climate resilient cultivars and their dissemination is a medium to long termprogramme as it takes quite a while to make institutional changes and also because these may be quiteresource intensive. The programme T2P1 on improvement of flood forecasting and early warning systemson the other hand is for immediate and continuing action because unless done so, people’s lives andlivelihood would be under grave threat. In a similar vein, T2P2 on improvement of cyclone and stormsurge warning is for immediate action.

What BCCSAP has not done is the inter se priority among activities or project ideas within a givenprogramme. But here too, one often finds that the activities are listed some kind of logical sequence.However, any given activity may be carried out in different formats, under organizational, technologicaland financial arrangements. Thus these may become different among which one may have to prioritise.

Prioritization in the Sixth Five Year Plan

The sixth Five Year Plan includes Climate Change in Chapter 8 and named it as ‘Environment, ClimateChange and Disaster Management for Sustainable Development’. Under this Chapter less than a pagehas been dedicated to prioritization; nevertheless, it has identified two priorities for 2011-2015 period;

1. The first priority is the repair and maintenance of coastal polders and defences which have beenwashed away first by Cyclone Sidr and then by Cyclone Aila and 

2. The second priority is the mainstream of Climate Change issues of adaptation, Mitigation andcapacity building. 

It is worthwhile to mention that there appears to be some apparent divergence in the priorities ofBCCSAP and Sixth Five Year Plan. In the sixth five year plan ‘repair and maintenance of coastal poldersand defences which have been washed away during Cyclone Sidr and Cycloe Aila’ have been given thehighest priority, while in the BCCSAP this is not mentioned. It should be pointed out however that Aila didnot happen when BCCSAP was formulated. Secondly, the background paper for the Sixth Plan onclimate change issues did indicate immediate priority for repair and maintenance of coastal polders.

5 And

exactly that is what had been done in the Sixth Plan in the particular context.

5  Asaduzzaman, M, Ahsanuddin Ahmed, A. K. M. Enamul Haque and M. Qamar Munir, Towards a Climate-

Resilient and Climate Sensitive Development in Bangladesh, in Mujeri, M. K. and Shamsul Alam, Sixth Five Year

 Plan of Bangladesh: Background Papers, Vol. 2, Economic Sectors, September 2011 

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In the sixth five year plan the second priority is ‘the mainstream of climate change issues ofadaptation, mitigation and capacity building’; while the mainstreaming of climate change issues ofadaptation and mitigation is under Capacity Building which is described last. Two things should be notedhere. First as indicated earlier capacity building is a supportive activity and this point always comes lastnot because it is the least important but because one needs to understand first the necessities of differentactivities and then decide what capacity needs to be built up. Second, again this was recommended asanother immediate activity in the background paper and exactly that is what the Sixth Plan has done.

Bangladesh Climate Change Trust Fund priorities

Government of Bangladesh has established a Climate Change Trust Fund to finance adaptation activitiesin the country. In 2009-2010 government allocated US$ 100 million to the Trust Fund. During the next 3Financial Year government allocated additional US$250 million from its own resources. The trust fund isoperated by a 16 member Trustee Board. A climate change Unit was established to provided secretarialsupport to the Board. Recently the Unit has been transformed into a Climate Change Trust.

Financing and prioritization of adaptation projects from Climate Change Trust Fund

Ministry of Environment and Forests seek project proposals from various Ministries, Divisions, Research

Organizations and Departments in prescribed formats. Which is then scrutinized by the officials of MoEFand Climate Change Unit/Trust, placed it to the Technical committee for evaluation. If approved by thetechnical committee then the selected projects are placed in the trustee Board’s meeting for finalendorsement for funding.

To guide the implementation of the projects under the Trust Fund a Trust Act, 2010 has beenenacted. No specific guidance or direction in the Act on how project prioritization should be considered. According to the Trust Act the projects that will be funded through the trust fund will be in addition to theexisting development and revenue Projects. The fund will provide support to short, medium and long termdevelopment projects. So, it may be concluded that while selecting or prioritization of the projectsduplication of the projects should be avoided.

The Act further suggests that the projects that will be funded should be in line with theBangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (BCCSAP, 2009). So, these issues may be

considered while suggesting any future prioritization idea or matrix.

Prioritization in NAPA

Bangladesh prepared its NAPA in 2005. The objective of NAPA was to support the immediate and urgentadaptation activities. The question was then as to which ones are the immediate and urgent adaptationactivities. For the exercise, fifteen vulnerable sectors were clustered into six sectoral groups. The sixsectoral groups later came up with about sixty priority projects and later through a consultation andprioritization process 15 priority projects were identified for the NAPA document. Note that while theselection of the projects were through a consultative process and so in a sense reflected economic andsocial desirability based on people’s ideas of vulnerability, the detailing of project costs and other detailswere left out to be elaborated by project sponsors at a later stage.

Proposed Prioritization for CCTF for the future

In relation to the above discussion it may be suggested that the two priorities identified in the sixth fiveyear plan should be given the highest priority, together with, alignment to the thematic areas of BCCSAP,while selecting the projects from submitted projects from various Ministries.

 As discussed earlier the major criteria for the matrix may be as follows; though ideally the prioritizationTeam or officials may discuss and finalize the criteria depending upon the type or group of projects.

1. Relevance to the national plans or sectoral Plans

2. Strategic alignment to BCCSAP

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3. Project benefits and costs

4. Sustainability of the projects and

5. Institutional and human capacity of the implementing agency.

Using the suggested matrix (see below) and methodology described above, a ranked list of projects maybe prepared and placed by the Technical committee to the Trustee Board for final approval for funding. 

Prioritization Matrix

Criteria Relative importance/relevance with score Aggregatescore

Characteristics Highlyrelevant

Veryrelevant

Relevant Slightlyrelevant

Notrelevant

5 4 3 2 1Relevance/Strategic Alignment

•  Sixth Five Year Plan

•  Sectoral PriorityStrategic Alignment

•  with thematic areas of

BCCSAP, programme andactivityProject costs

• Financial cost (discounted)• Social cost (discounted)

Project Benefits

•  Economic benefits (based ondiscounted value)

- Cost-benefit ratio- Internal rate of return- Net present value•  Social benefits (poverty

reduction/employment)•  Social benefits (gender

sensitivity, ethnic sensitivity)•  Environmental benefits

Sustainability of the project

•  Exit strategy of the project(how to sustain after theproject completion)

•  Risk Analysis (what wouldhappen if project is delayed orincomplete properly)

•  Cascading effect on similarsectors/projects

  Address Climate Changeissues at local level &enhance capacity of the localpeople

Institutional capacity

•  Expertise to carry out theproject

•  Logistical supportTotal score

Note: A scale of 1-5 may be used for evaluating the projects. 

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 Any of the above characteristics may be manifested in several ways as is the case with economicbenefits.

Relative Scales may be as follows:

Highly relevant: 5

Very relevant : 4

Relevant : 3

Slightly relevant: 2

Not relevant : 1

VI. Mainstreaming Adaptation into Development Process

Introduction

Developing a climate-resilient society is the ultimate goal for mainstreaming adaptation into developmentplanning. However, at the international level, this mainstreaming is a contested issue for several reasons

both from conceptual and practical points of view. Though the rationale for mainstreaming is notcontested any more, but how to go about or sources of support for doing it are issues of greatcontestation in the UNFCCC negotiations. The world does not have much experience in addressing thisnew set of problems. The Sixth Five Year Plan (SFYP) and the BCCSAP have adopted a pro-poorclimate change management strategy and an integrated approach that `avoids a dichotomy betweenenvironment and development.’ The approach sounds realistic, but the challenge, as mentioned, is –how to contexualize this in Bangladesh? How to arrest the undoing of development efforts fromincreasing climate disasters? How to mainstream locale-specific adaptation measures into national andsectoral development strategies? What are the policy, institutional and process parameters for thepurpose? Where will resources come from? These are the challenges that stand in the way. This sectionattempts to lay down a roadmap for mainstreaming adaptation into the development process.

 Approach and methodology for mainstreaming Approach: The present roadmap has been developed based on a participatory and consultativeapproach, involving stakeholders at different levels - government, private sector, NGO/CBOs anddevelopment partners. An inception workshop was held where a draft of the roadmap was presented. Itwas participated by both GO and NGO representatives. As a result, it is expected that the ownership ofthe larger stakeholders including the government for the proposed roadmap will be ensured.

Methodology: The preparation of the roadmap is based on both secondary and primary data andinformation. Literature review, both of international and national, formed the sources of secondary data.Primary data has been collected from a review of government documents and discussions with officials ofdifferent development ministries and agencies including the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF)and the Department of Environment (DoE), while taking the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) as the CaseStudy. This Ministry has been selected because agriculture is the most impacted sector from climatechange impacts. How the MoA works in its adaptation effort to CCIs has been analyzed, based ondiscussions with senior officials of the Ministry as well as with its retired officials. Besides, severalmeetings have been held among the study team for fine-tuning the focus and methodology of the study.The findings are expected to be validated in a national workshop, to be participated by all thestakeholders, both from the GOs, NGOs and donor communities.

Conceptualizing the Relationship between Development and Adaptation

Unlike the straightforward approach of defining mitigation, adaptation is really difficult to conceptualizeand define, because of its inseparable linkage with development issues. It is difficult to distinguishclimate change and climate variability (Gupta, 1997, 146). Actually, the conceptual controversy over

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climate change adaptation is attributed to the definition of climate change risk under the Convention,which attributed such risks only to human-induced climate change, rather than vulnerability in general.The Convention understanding of adaptation does not include risks from climate variability. It has nospecific article on adaptation, and  as noted by Schipper (2006), `the lack of specific definition ofadaptation, even more confused by its association with other aspects of the climate convention, posed asignificant constraint to furthering policy on adaptation’ (p.90). Besides, this does not incorporate thelocally and contextually specific nature of climate vulnerability (Ayers, 2009; Adger, 2003).  The latter is aresult very much of a combination of physical impacts from climate change as well as from socio-economic and political factors prevailing in a country. It is well recognized that vulnerability is a socialconstruct as well (Adger, 2003). However, IPCC in their conceptualization of adaptation includes climatevariability. So the capacity to adapt depends upon local and national factors such as access to resourcesand information, income level, education and training, social capital, and so on. In other words,adaptation to human-induced climate change impacts and the building of “climate resilient societies” aredifficult to separate from general development initiatives in a society. We believe that a `developmentfirst’ approach to adaptation that addresses the complex context of vulnerability, rather than addressing just the impacts of climate change, is a vastly more useful perspective (Schipper, 2006; Burton, 2004; Adger et al., 2003; Khan and Roberts, 2013; Khan 2013).

Differentiating between mitigation, development and adaptation is reflected in how adaptation isbeing funded (Ayers, 2009). Bodansky (1993, 451) argues that the concept of `incremental cost’

establishes a type of causation test for adaptation activities under Article 4.3, which proves difficult forcountries seeking aid for adaptation. Lemos and Boyd (2010) argue that some rules of access toadaptation funding, specifically additionality , may not only fail to support vulnerable countries to preparefor, cope with and adapt to climate change, but may also place further burdens on these countries. Theyargue that this is the case for three reasons. First, developing nations are required to invest upfront inproving additionality. Second, they may be incentivized to prioritize policies that meet additionality ratherthan sustainable development criteria and needs of local communities. Finally, in countries wherestructural inequality and lack of resources critically shape vulnerability, the additionality requirement mayobstruct policies that integrate climate adaptation into development policy and create positive synergiesbetween them (see also Klein et al. 2007; Lemos et al 2007).

For example, in meeting the additionality criteria, it is easier for developing country governments tobuild water storage structures or to invest in drought resistant crops than to implement household incomediversification policies that have shown to improve adaptive capacity regardless of what the weather does 

(Agrawal 2008; Eakin 2000). However income diversification or income stabilization policies involvecosts, which are not covered by additionality criteria coming from funding agencies. In fact, climatechange is among many stresses that define vulnerability, and it makes little sense to prioritizeadditionality over the need to integrate across policies to adapt to multiple stresses (Bizikova, et al 2007;Huq et al 2005; Jerneck and Olsson 2008; Klein et al. 2007).

 Ayers et al. (2010) usefully point to several factors that hinder the integration of climate adaptationand development planning. First, a climate-impacts view of adaptation discourages investment inadaptation because of the inevitable uncertainty in measuring and predicting when and how climatechange is actually going to unfold on the ground. Therefore, pre-emptive action against an uncertainthreat may actually be maladaptive (Ayers, 2009). Second and very importantly, technology-basedmeasures that address climate impacts are only partially effective because they don’t address non-climatic factors that underline and drive particular vulnerability of poor communities and developingcountries. Polder building, particularly its management is a typical example of technology-based

adaptation to climate variability. But it has been proved that it was a maladaptation in Bangladesh.Further, the lack of social, political, and economic resources of the poor is the main factor of their inabilityto cope with climatic change (Adger 1999; Sen 1999). And third, a technology-based discourse onadaptation excludes non-technical expertise for adaptation on the ground. Technical knowledge andexpertise about adaptation turns out to be far less useful in predicting what measures will be successfulfor adaptation in a community than is local understanding of the sources of social vulnerability, and whathas worked to overcome it in the past. There are well-documented instances of initiatives for reduction ofpoverty which actually increased vulnerability (Klein, 2010). For example, in Bangladesh conversion ofmangrove forests into shrimp farming brings in more income, but it leaves the coastal communities morevulnerable to climate disasters and health and nutrition hazards from saline intrusion and lack of freshwater.

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Other analysts argue that fixation or preoccupation with additionality may not serve the purpose ofintegration of adaptation into development planning (Fankhauser and Burton, 2011). McGray et al (WRI,2007) identify a continuum of measures that address both development and adaptation needs in thefollowing lines: a) policies to reduce vulnerability more broadly include human development and povertyreduction; b) creation of `response capacity’ in resource management practices, planning and buildingeffective public institutions; c) management of current climate risks including floods, droughts, disasterpreparation and risk management, i.e. integrating disaster risk reduction with adaptation planning, and d)policies specifically addressing climate change impacts, such as sea level rise and increased incidence ofextreme weather events. Similar approaches have been suggested by other analysts (Klein and Persson,2008).

Yohe and Tol (2002) estimated that for every percentage point in economic growth in a country,vulnerability falls by the same degree. Obviously, climate-resilient development and poverty reductionprovide the best form of adaptation, as socio-economic indicators like level of income, literacy andinstitutional capacity are positively associated with lower vulnerability (Leary et al, 2008). Noy (2009)shows that countries with better adaptive capacity can better withstand disaster shocks. This is thereason perhaps Thomas Schelling, the Nobel Laureate in Economics, argued over two decades ago thatinvestments in development and good governance are the best forms of adaptation (Schelling, 1992). Ina similar vein Stern very cogently argues that Adaptation is development in adverse climate (Stern, 2008).

However, from international policy and funding perspective the physical vulnerability of poor

countries, imposed from beyond, should not be mixed with existing socio-economic vulnerability thatcommunities suffer from. So the proposed solution of a development focused adaptation and resilience-building does not absolve the industry countries of their agreed responsibility under Convention Article 4.4of meeting adaptation costs in the developing countries. Therefore, the question of what is fair in terms ofresponsibility underlines the political struggle between the developed and developing countries in settingthe rules for adaptation funding (Lemos and Boyd, 2010). So, Klein (2010) concludes that fromoperational point of view, it makes `common sense’ to integrate adaptation with development strategy, butfrom policy perspective, it makes problematic to differentiate between adaptation finance and overseasdevelopment assistance (ODA).

However, adaptation as development blurs the distinction between adaptation finance and ODA, which isfavored obviously by the development agencies, and some donor partners. Developing countries areapprehensive that this dilution of adaptation and development might be `a ploy to avoid new andadditional funding for adaptation’ (Klein, 2010: 46). It may be recalled that over a decade ago, back inSeptember 2002 at the LDC Capacity Building Conference held at Hotel Sonargaon in Dhaka, when thisauthor, a resource person of this project, made a presentation, together with a UK colleague from theDepartment for International Development (DFID), on mainstreaming adaptation into development, therewas fierce opposition from the delegates. The reason was that the LDC negotiators saw in this attempt adilution of the agreed `new’ and `additionality’ principles in funding of adaptation in these countries. Infact this issue of `additionality’ in funding is blurred in this framing of `mainstreaming adaptation.’ So thedeveloping country apprehension is not unfounded, and this is the reason they support for stand-aloneadaptation projects (Klein, 2010), with realization that all the MDG goals are directly or indirectly related toclimate change, and hence the rationale of mainstreaming adaptation. Figures 1 and 2 show thisrationale and the kind of anticipatory/planned adaptation needed for addressing the challenge.

So, while summarizing the above discussion, we can say that there are basically two approaches tooperationalizing adaptation:

•  The first approach is that adaptation should address only the climate change impacts: Adaptationleads to vulnerability reduction, which leads to development. This is an impact-based approach.

•  However, the second approach to adaptation is that it needs a broader focus, with inclusion ofsocio-econ vulnerabilities, since the latter is very much a social construct. So, this is avulnerability-focused approach. Under this approach, climate-resilient development leads tovulnerability reduction, which leads to impact reduction, and hence results in stronger adaptation.

So, basically adaptation is development in adverse climate, which includes both climate change andclimate variability. In this framing, all kinds of vulnerabilities – both physical and socio-economic, aretaken into consideration. This Vulnerability-focused understanding better suits for mainstreaming, but theproblem remains with funding: Climate finance is blurred with ODA in this approach! So at the moment, it

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is suggested that generation of sources for adaptation funding should be kept separate from mobilizationof ODA, while utilization of adaptation finance in vulnerable developing countries could be integrated intothe conventional ODA, as additional. Without this separation of the two at source level, the apprehensionin developing countries of diverting ODA to implementation of adaptation projects of donor interests andpreference will persist. Therefore, this requires a constant monitoring of the trends in ODA and climatefinance at global and country levels. It may be mentioned that if the Annex II countries fulfill their long-agreed target of providing 0.7% of their GNI as ODA, more than $200 billion extra funding becomesavailable for much-needed development. However, current level of ODA is less than half of this share inreal terms. Against this broken promise, Annex II Parties fight for even providing $10-15 billion a year asclimate finance. And the share of adaptation money is just about 20% of overall climate finance. However,several EU countries already fulfill this target, and the UK promised to reach this target by end of 2013.

Conceptualizing Mainstreaming

 Approaches: Mainstreaming refers to inclusion of concerns of climate change and climate variabil ity, bothcurrent and projected, into development discourse and planning and making sure that each ministry,agency and sector considers climate change in what it does and adapts its own policies and programsaccordingly. The SFYP indicates an integrated   approach to mainstreaming climate change issues. Itseems integration goes much farther than even mainstreaming.

There is a debate over integrating versus mainstreaming adaptation. A UK-based NGO, Tearfund (2011)suggests that integration goes further than mainstreaming, as the latter has limited effectiveness. Itargues that “Integrated adaptation is holistic, coordinating the interactions between agencies operationsfrom the beginning, rather than optimizing them separately. It is about action across governmentministries and involving all levels of society.” This approach involves senior political leadership,undertakes consultative and participatory evidence-gathering, improves communication, develops robust,inclusive, country-strategic adaptation plans, aligns national development plans with adaptation strategy,establishes dedicated adaptation fund, builds capacity at local government and community level andpromotes alignment with donor agencies.

However, in a workshop in Tanzania held in October 2012 on mainstreaming adaptation, the participantsdiscussed progress on this issue, and they coined the term: mainstreamlining  as a more accurateapproach to integration of adaptation into development process. In any case, whatever waymainstreaming is conceived, it relates to making is as part of the whole planning exercise fordevelopment, and not an add-on with projects, but as an internalized process. This will requirecoordination of review of legislative, regulatory, policy, strategy and implementation arrangements at alllevels.

Principles of Mainstreaming: The process of mainstreamlining, if we call it, has to be grounded on certainprinciples, which can be the following:

•  Precautionary principle: Article 3.3 of the UNFCCC prescribes this principle on the understandingthat climate change has the danger of irreversibility. So based on projections of future climatechange, an anticipatory planning process needs to be introduced.

•  Stitching the NAPA and NAP into a coherent whole: NAPA process for the LDCs was based onimmediate and urgent needs and the LDCs have already submitted them. Many countries arealready implementing some NAPA projects. And the NAP process as mid-and long-term planninghas just begun. However, these two planning processes need to be stitched into a coherentwhole, aligning the short, medium and long-term goals of adaptation as part of development.

•  Realizing co-benefits with mitigation is another principle. There are many co-benefits frompursuing either adaptation or mitigation projects, for example, in areas of energy efficiency andconservation, renewable energy, and in agriculture. So, projects with co-benefits should be puton a preference scale, given the limited resources. This has to be done, with clear assessmentsof proposed programs and projects.

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•  Principle of learning by doing, in light of past lessons. As there are elements of uncertainty inhow the climate change unfolds, despite the IPCC findings, the approach to planning fordevelopment needs to be built on the lessons from experiences of coping with past climatedisasters.

•  Accountability and transparency: As mainstreaming involves the whole strata of the society,accountability and transparency in activities of all stakeholders has to be ensured, so that each

loop in the chain is transparently linked and can function as a coordinated team.

•  Participation of all stakeholders including politicians: This is the key to success in the exercise ofintegrating adaptation into development. Active participation particularly from higher politicalleadership will create ownership of this national project.

•  Efficiency and Cost-effectiveness: Because of the paucity of resources of all types, this aspectneeds to be taken care of so that maximum can be achieved with minimum input. This willrequire developing options.

•  Subsidiarity - decentralization of decision-making: Adaptation virtually is local, and therefore, thelocal governments have to be the main loop in the process, with full autonomy of decision-makingand resource mobilization. The national government has to serve as the coordination andfacilitation center for the purpose.

•  Synergy with national and sectoral policy objectives and other multilateral environmentalagreements (MEAs): As any country will have national and sectoral policies and plans, along withbeing party to many MEAs, integration of adaptation considerations needs to be stitched into acoherent whole, so that synergy can be achieved in the process.

•  Flexibility and adaptiveness: This integration business has an element of learning by doingbecause of uncertainty with how climate system works & how extreme events unfold, there has tobe elements of flexibility and adaptiveness in the planning process, so that it can adjust with newunderstanding and developments.

Elements of Mainstreaming

•  Participatory and consultative process in impact and vulnerability assessments (IVAs) including

cost estimation of loss and damage. This is very important in view of the practical value ofindigenous knowledge in specific locales. However, this exercise at specified intervals, to bedecided by the stakeholders, needs to be based on the evolving interdisciplinary adaptationscience. This latter combines community knowledge.

•  Disaster risk reduction and rehabilitation: This is very much a part of the process. Based on theHyogo Framework of Action, integration of adaptation needs to be built into the DRR process.Research has shown that investment in ex-ante DRR is more cost-effective than ex-post  rehabilitation and recovery, though the latter would be needed to some extent in any case.

•  NGOs and private sector role: The former in many countries are involved very much in theprocess particularly for soft measures of adaptation. However, the private sector is not yet thereas needed. The assets and properties of private agents are very much at stake from climatechange, so they need to be involved more intimately for both soft and hard adaptation options.

•  Financing of adaptation mainstreaming: As mentioned before, this is the most crucial issue inview of the burden on the LDCs imposed from beyond, with their extremely little contribution tothe problem. So, a climate fiscal and financial framework needs to be in place, which cancombine both national budgetary and international grant flows. It may be mentioned thatadaptation finance for the LDCs needs to be accepted only as grant allocation, based on theUNFCCC Article 4.4.

•  Implementation of the mainstreaming agenda: In many developing countries, particularly in theLDCs, implementation of policies and programmes is the weakest link in the policy cycle. So, aclear-cut implementation plan needs to be in place, with clear assigning of responsibilities acrossthe line agencies.

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•  Assessment framework for M & E: This is an important element, because the taste of the puddingis what matters at the end. So, a framework with clearly-identified set of both quantitative andprocess indicators for M & E has to be worked out.

•  International networking with Governments and NGOs: This is very important for LDCs, as theburden cannot and should not be borne by the country alone. So, resource and capacitymobilization through active climate diplomacy and networking needed for projecting both the

predicaments from climate change and the national level efforts in addressing the challenge.

•  Capacity Building for all these elements is utterly critical, as many LDCs lack capacity indeveloping and planning for projects and utilization of money. There are some provisions underthe UNFCCC and other channels for the purpose. This needs to be harnessed.

•  Coordination and communication at multiple levels and sectors. This is often another weak link ina multi-scalar and multi-level process exercise. Mainstreaming process involves both horizontaland vertical levels including local governments and sectors. So, an effective coordination andcommunication strategy is a vital part.

•  Above all, an enabling policy and institutional framework is what all the other elements depend onfor success of the whole exercise of main/streaming/streamlining adaptation. The whole policy,planning and institutional processes need to be geared into a coherent whole, which can avoid

bureaucratic red tape and institutional bottlenecks.

 A Reality Check of Adaptation Niche in Bangladesh: Status and Barriers

 As one of the most vulnerable countries to climate change impacts, Bangladesh has from the beginningbeen active in taking measures against the challenge. The successive governments have initiatedadaptation projects of different kinds. The sensitivity of the government was evident from the fact thataround 34 times climate change issues were mentioned directly in the earlier PRSP of Bangladesh. Again Bangladesh as one of the pioneer countries submitted its NAPA to the UNFCCC Secretariat backin 2005. Also the Second National Communications is ready to be submitted. The SFYP has includedclimate change concerns in details, as evident from the following elements:

•  Recognition of Bangladesh as one of the MVCs.

•  Strategy and approach: a pro-poor climate change management strategy and an integratedapproach that avoids `Development’ versus `Environment’ dichotomy.

•  Priorities mentioned in the SFYP Strategy are the following:

 Adaptation

DRR

Low carbon development

Mitigation

Technology transfer, and

Mobilization of adequate finance, particularly international

 Again, Bangladesh is perhaps the pioneer country among the developing world which has developed astrategy and action plan to address climate change and also set up two funds which have been discussedbefore. Now, about 6-7% of our budget is spent on climate-sensitive activities. However, several lacunaecan be observed in the policy-institutional process:

•  Loan funding in climate change activities dominate (82%), 97% of which is in adaptation activities.

•  Sectoral investments of over one billion dollar/year for climate change activities are not based on acoherent and coordinated, mainstreamed approach; it is done kind of an ad-hoc basis.

•  The strategy is not transacted yet into policy-institutional terms yet:

No plan is based on costs of assessed needs for adaptation.

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Based on BCCSAP, no prioritization of adaptation activities has been done yet.

Climate change adaptation is mostly local, but no local-level climate resilient development planyet has been undertaken for integrating into national development plans.

Planning commission is yet to play more active and coordinating role in balancing amongnational, sectoral policy goals and BCCSAP targets and communicating across scales, sectorsand agencies. 

The above lacuna in policy-institutional arena can be ascribed to many barriers, such as weakknowledge and sensitization base, particularly at senior policy and political levels, poor coordination, lackof human resource and managerial capacities and their absence in the rights places, meager budgetsrelative to needs, lack of fully transparent and accountable fund management, as well as sufficient policy-institutional support, etc.

Here is a synopsis of the discussion on barriers/bottlenecks in the way of mainstreaming. These candiddiscussions were held at different levels of government officials as well as with some NGO leaders. So,no names have been ascribed to particular ideas. However, discussions with officials of the Ministry of Agriculture were given prominence, for its being the most hard-hit sector from climate change.

1. Many senior officials rarely heard about climate change in their ministry considerations, or the need ofits consideration for adaptation mainstreaming into their ministry activities. This shows that there is

no awareness or sensitization in many ministries about mainstreaming of adaptation.2. Here are few other barriers/obstacles that came out in the way of discussion:a. The government agencies work in a manner, where they respond to issues of their own

agency interests and programs. If any agency has stakes in an issue, discussed with otheragencies or in inter-ministerial meetings, the ministry or agency then takes it up forconsideration within its own domain.

b. However, if there is any specific project to be undertaken on mainstreaming, then only theministries/ agencies react. So, the approach is project-based yet.

c. Usually, the program/project review meetings in all ministries, other than the host ministry,are attended by junior officials, who even don’t report back to the senior hierarchy if theconcerned ministry/agency has no direct relevance; in like manner, the ministries organizeproject review meetings, with participation of other agency officials, with the main purpose ofvalidating their projects and activities. This process is regarded as mere formality.

d. Bureaucrats in the ministries get transferred on a regular basis; so they don’t develop anyspecific commitment to issues, viewed by the society as important and topical. Also, theofficials react only to issues directed by their bosses.

e. The existing planning cells of the ministries may make good TAPPs, but don’t have the visionor expertise in mainstreaming, for which a wider vision and perspective is needed whileexamining the project details. So, here is the question of specific capacity for mainstreamingof adaptation.

f. The MoEF as the coordinating body of mainstreaming climate change issues includingadaptation is very weak, in terms of officers, staff and budget, compared to other ministries.Usually, the strength of any ministry/agency is reflected in the size of the government budgetit handles. In this regard, MoEF has a tiny budget compared to, for example, the MoA orsome other development ministry. Obviously, the MoEF does not have the clout over othermore powerful ministries. To this is added the fact that many officials with ambition of movingup don’t prefer to be posted in weak ministries, or agencies, such as the Planning

Commission. This stands in the way also of MoEF’s being as the effective coordinator ofenvironmental/climate change issues. However, during the last years, things have improveda lot under the leadership of the incumbent MoEF Minister.

g. The departments/agencies within the ministries are not empowered enough to act on theirown, even they don’t operate within the discretion given. But the departments underministries serve as the main institutional memory for continuity of any policy/program. Thisshows that technical agencies under the ministries are lot weaker than needed.

h. The Agriculture Policy of 1998 does not have anything about mainstreaming of climatechange issues, nor has it been revised as yet.

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i. The NGOs in the environment and climate change arena still work mainly in the shadows ofpolitical and administrative hierarchy; so they don’t have autonomous power to influencepolicy choices or instruments.

 A Roadmap for Mainstreaming/Mainstreamlining/Integration of Adaptation

Policy process: How to do it?: The whole mainstreaming process has to be grounded on the nine genericprinciples mentioned above. Here it can be mentioned again, because of its great salience for thepurpose. These are: i) pre-cautionary principle, ii) Stitching the NAPA and NAP development andimplementation into a coherent whole, iii) Co-benefits of adaptation and mitigation, iv) Accountability andtransparency at all levels, v) Consultative process, vi) Principle of subsidiarity, vii) Synergy with otherMEAs implementation, viii) Learning by doing and ix) Flexibility and adaptiveness. Based on theseprinciples, the following roadmap can be followed:

 A holistic approach for policy development, planning, coordination and implementation amongdifferent relevant hubs from the outset, and not optimizing them separately (Fig. 1).

Two types of Integration have to be ensured:

Horizontal – integration of adaptation activities among ministries, agencies and sectorsinto national development plans.

Vertical - integration of adaptation activities among hierarchical levels, inclusive of allstakeholders, such as local, national, regional and international. For example,mainstreaming adaptation in the geographical milieu of Bangladesh warrants a regionalapproach, particularly in disaster planning and water resource management.

This approach generates a holistic picture – international, national, sectoral, local, community –into a climate-resilient development, creating synergy. However, as the SFYP prescribes, a pro-poor adaptation framework requires to be undertaken (Fig. 2), in which resilience building andcapacity development of poor get priority.

But measuring mitigation is easier than adaptation; the latter with no baseline is difficult toquantify and this difficulty is compounded by the difficulty of segregating climate change and

climate variability. But the approach should be resilience building to face existing climatevariability; once this can be done successfully, facing climate change eventualities will be loteasier. Based on such a holistic approach, this mainstreaming has to be done in two phases:Policy/plan preparation phase and their implementation phase (Huq & Khan, 2003).

Integration of Adaptation during the Preparation Phase of National Development Strategy:

•  Establish a Ministerial level National Adaptation Team: very high profile, team leader must comefrom the Finance Ministry, two Deputy leaders from the MoEF and the Planning MInistry, and atleast one member from the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Environment (PSCoE).

•  Review of all existing national plans and policies, to see the space allocated for adaptation:SFYP, BCCSAP, Water Policy, Agriculture Policy, etc.

•  Inclusion of adaptation issues – spatial (national, regional and local), sectoral (developmentsectors), and temporal dimensions (immediate, short, medium and long-term; this virtually is theintegration of NAPA and NAPs in a coherent chain).

•  Public and community consultation of adaptation agenda.

•  Coordination and communication across national and local levels.

•  However, as Fig. 1/Fig.3 shows, the process can begin with a step-based approach:awareness/sensitization programs at all levels, then capacity building through targeted training atthe relevant loops, then initiating pilot projects for learning by doing. In this step, as Fig. 6 shows,some screening with an appropriate adaptation lens has to be done to ensure that the project has

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internalized the adaptation agenda. The final step is full-scale mainstreaming adaptation intodevelopment process.

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Then comes the integration during Implementation Phase of the development strategy, represented bythe Gob documents, such as the SFYP and the BCCSAP: two kinds of interventions likely will facilitatethe process of integration:

•  Reorient policies and practices that already integrate current climate variability. The purpose is tointernalize projected climate change impacts. Examples:

o

  Designing and enforcing appropriate construction codes across all regions, includingcoastal and physical structures.

o  Disaster management practices to focus on ex-ante, not ex-post  coping mechanisms.

o  Integrated management of land and water systems; and

o  Ensuring synergies in implementing the measures under the UNFCCC, CBD andUNCCD.

•  The second group of interventions focuses on filling policy gaps to address climate variability;achieving this would enhance resilience of the society to climate change. Few examples ofactions are given below:

o  Provision of insurance and microinsurance to cushion the security of assets againstclimate shocks. This needs to be done particularly in view of the latest decision at

COP18 in Doha in December 2012 regarding loss and damage, which decided toestablish institutional arrangements including an international mechanism to address lossand damage.

o  Appropriate pricing of water and natural resources to improve efficiency in management;also to ensure sustainable access of the poor.

o  Land use management and agricultural practices that improve productivity and protectsoil and water; here in view of the new agenda of Agriculture under the UNFCCC, someprojects of synergy (win-win options) between adaptation and mitigation may beundertaken.

o  Land use planning that avoids marginalizing the poor and forcing them to live in hazardzones.

o  Community-based resource management, which has already shown great promise inBangladesh through community-based adaptation, particularly in the north-east region,and also in the south-west coastal belt of the country.

o  Strengthening health services of the poor, and

o  Budgetary allocation for adaptation, particularly from the Climate Resilience Fund.

Institutional framework for Mainstreaming  

The following steps are vital:

 As mentioned before, establishing a high-level national climate change adaptation Focal Point(CCAFP), with sectoral CCAFPs as members. This committee led by the Planning Commission

will work at the operational level, with guidance from the National level Adaptation Committee,headed by the Minister of Finance.

 A chain of adaptation committees, down from the Union Parishad, upwards to UpaZilla, Zilla,Division and National levels, to be formed and made functional on a regular basis, both for plandevelopment and implementation phases.

 A strong team to negotiate for defining climate finance and align the inflow for mainstreaming withthe budgetary process.

New focus to be given on implementing the COP decisions for climate-resilient development.

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Strengthening local governments as the main loop as an immediate priority for the purpose.

 Appropriate mechanisms for ensuring fiduciary standards in fund management.

Focused and targeted capacity building for mainstreaming, as mentioned above.

Building a strong bridge among policy-makers, academia and action research.

Monitoring and Evaluation of Mainstreaming: Sample of Few Indicators of M & E

In Bangladesh, the weakest link is the implementation loop. So, it is of utmost importance that a set ofeffective indicators of M & E needs to be developed, in order to measure Progress in adaptationmainstreamlining. These M & E should touch both the policy and operational level, to ensure `climate-proofing’ of development at every level and scale. Again, a bridge needs to be built up between top-downinstitutional monitoring and bottom-up community-level monitoring. Below is a set of sample indicatorsfor the M & E roadmap:

1. Financial indicators: share of GDP devoted to adaptation actions; Donor contribution toadaptation, Costing of adaptation options, etc. 

2. Adaptation-awareness development indicators: these can be adapted from indicators for theMDGs and Sustainable Development; there are overlaps among these goals, and also statisticalinformation is there for the MDGs and SD. 

3. Sectoral policy indicators: Adaptation issues considered in Project Proforma and investmentdecisions. Indicators to reflect interactions between sectors and climate change impactsincluding positive and negative feedbacks of sectoral activity on climate variability, cost-benefitanalysis of sectoral adaptation measures, etc.

8. What Role NGOs and Civil Society can Play: Since independence of Bangladesh, NGOs havestarted working in the development and disaster management sector. Gradually, the scope of works ofthe NGOs increased over time, and they have become a vivrant sector in the society. In the servicedelivery sector, particularly the NGOs have been playing a very effective role. This has been recognizedboth by the development partners as well as by the Government. The development strategy ofBangladesh now has an inclusive approach, with recognition of their participation and contribution in thedevelopment of the country.

In the adaptation activities in particular, NGOs have a very strong role to play, especially inmainstreaming of adaptation. Many NGOs are working already at local level for enhancing thecommunity-level adaptive capacity. Climate change adaptation is mainly local, and NGOs have access toremote, marginalized areas in Bangladesh. Here NGOs can play a really potent role, together with theGovernment. The NGOs can assist the local governments in drawing local adaptation plans with takingeach Upazila as the unit for such planning. Further, NGOs can have very active representation andparticipation in adaptation committees from Upazila to national levels. In this regard, OXFAM UK and itsBangladesh office can play the lead role on behalf of theNGOs. Besides, OXFAM GB has its manypartner NGOs. Together, it can form a network specifically meant for implementing the proposedroadmap for mainstreaming adaptation.

Learning from and transferring NAPA experience into the NAP Process

 As mentioned before, stitching the NAPA and NAP into a coherent whole should be the goal as a vitalelement of mainstreaming adaptation. NAPA process for the LDCs including Bangladesh was based onimmediate and urgent needs and Bangladesh has submitted the NAPA to the UNFCCC Secretariat backin 2005. Bangladesh is already implementing few NAPA projects. And the NAP process as mid-andlong-term planning has just begun. However, these two planning processes should be aligned together,as a continuum from short to medium and long-term goals of adaptation as part of development andmainstreaming.

However, the lessons learnt from the NAPA process need to be considered for preparing theNAP. One basic lacuna, as this author observed then as a member of the LDC Expert Group, was thatthe Bangladesh NAPA was not a participatory process in the real sense of the term. At the beginning, six

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agencies were selected for developing their sectoral perspectives of NAPA. Of course, there were publicconsultations organized by these agencies, but community inputs were not reflected much in the finaloutcome. The priorities of these agencies were given preference in selecting 15 NAPA projects. Later, arevision process was initiated.

So, the NAP process should begin with real participation of the communities of each and everyecological zones in Bangladesh. These first hand inputs can be processed by national level experts, with

their scientific and planning expertise. Again, the draft NAP should be put to public consultations andhearings from local to national levels. Thus, an iterative process should guide the NAP preparationexercise. Finally, the adaptation committees at different levels as representatives of all stakeholders inthe process, should vet the final output for adoption. In all these exercises, mainstreaming of adaptationmeasures into sectoral, regional and national development strategies should be the target goal.

Conclusion

The above discussion shows that adaptation and its mainstreaming, though sounds an easy process, isactually extremely tricky, in view of its dilution with the development process. But as discussed, a countrylike Bangladesh has to adopt a development first approach, with a vulnerability-focused strategy toaddress adaptation. This will strengthen development process, with reduction of poverty. Also keepingthe sources of generation of adaptation finance and ODA separate is extremely important to gauge the

new and additional aspects in climate financing. There is a strong move on the part of the donors to blurthese differences and providing adaptation finance even as loans. There are already precedents for thateven in the LDCs. This needs to be guarded. Taking all these considerations into the proposedRoadmap, the paper concludes with the final suggestions, culled through the discussions withstakeholders at GO and NGO levels:

a. There is a need for revision of many sectoral policies including the Agriculture Policy, withinsertion of the agenda for mainstreaming, its rationale and direction. Though in most of thecases, policies don’t matter so much in the day-to-day activities of any ministry, a good policyat least serves as a reference point and a moral pressure for implementation along theprescribed track.

b. As mainstreaming is a real issue for internalization into policy process, the actions have to beinitiated both up and down, as mentioned above. Here is a summary, with few addedelements:

i. First, the senior hierarchy of the government needs to be sensitized. In the case ofMoA, the Minister who is usually a senior and influential member of the Cabinet,needs to be convinced first by officials within her/his ministry; then the Minister cantake up the issue at the Cabinet meetings attended by his/her colleagues and thehighest authorities of the government. In this process, the Cabinet may issue aDecree or a Rule to the effect of mainstreaming climate change into developmentstrategies of the country. Only then, all the ministries will take up the issue seriouslyfor carrying forward. This culture of centralized management, though not good, butoperates in Bangladesh. Also, the Parliamentary Standing Committees of eachministry should be taken on board, because they represent the voter constituencies,who may put pressure on the government for sustaining their respective programsand projects.

ii. In this process, the Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of Planning, with the

Planning Commission hold the key to mainstreaming, because they control theresource flow and the process.

iii. With a Cabinet decree, a climate change mainstreaming cell should be created underthe High-level Ministerial Committee, as mentioned before, which may be headed bythe Chair of the BARC, who holds a secretary level position. With his/her expertiseand long years of working experience with the government, she/he will have easyaccess to the highest authority and can exert her/his clout for the purpose. This bodyshould be empowered with necessary budget for effective coordination. BARC Chairis the right position for carrying out such a role, as BARC has done a good job ofinstitutionalizing important and effective agricultural research and their

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implementation in Bangladesh, through its elaborate National Agricultural ResearchSystem.

iv. Together, a bottom-up approach should also be pursued. The communities ofimportant agriculture and ecological zones in Bangladesh, such as food granary andcoastal belts, should be sensitized about the need for mainstreaming adaptation.Then they can put pressure on the government authority at different levels. In thistask, the NGOS, with appropriate backgrounds, may be involved for massmobilization.

v. Together, the local governments including the Upazila Chairman’s office should bestrengthened and decision-making authority should be decentralized, particularly inhandling climate change issues, since adaptation is mostly local and community-based. Without this, mainstreaming will never be successful.

vi. Each ministry should strengthen the planning cell, with internalizing the expertiseneeded for mainstreaming climate change into development projects and programs.

vii. An inventory of agricultural lands including existing so-called wastelands may beinitiated, to understand the impacts of climate change on specific eco-zones. Thiswill help in strategizing on how to mainstream in specific areas.

viii. A series of policy briefs on mainstreaming targeting constituencies, both up anddown, can be prepared and disseminated on a regular basis. The language andvocabulary of these briefs should be easily understandable by the target audience.

ix. As mentioned before, the NGO/CBO representation, particularly with democratically-run NGO/CBOs, should form an important part of the mainstreaming exercise. HereOXFAM-GB can lead the NGO/CBO stakeholder group.

x. Private sector needs to be taken on board in earnest, as it was not involved so muchin adaptation business historically. Both on a business and corporate socialresponsibility (CSR) model, the private sector needs to be made an importantstakeholder in terms of their property and asset stakes.

Finally, there was agreement among the stakeholders that for a sustainable mainstreaming of climatechange issues into the development planning process, the current project-based approach as done withcall for Proposals by the government agencies and NGOs, will not serve the purpose. This approach,done incoherently, with no prioritization and no backward or forward linkage, is not effective at all.Instead, each ministry and agency, taking the science-based short, medium and long-term impacts ofclimate change, should develop their plans and programs, in a phased manner, align with national plansand then go for their implementation as loops in the chain. In this process, NGOs can serve as facilitatorfor community mobilization and reaching out to all rural and urban communities. In such an approach,budgetary allocations should automatically be internalized, based on the estimated costs ofmainstreaming of adaptation activities. This part of the budget needed for implementing themainstreaming activities, both for concrete projects and the related facilitative and capacity buildingactivities, must come from international climate finance.

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VI. Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMA)

Introduction

The UNFCCC in 1992 framed its objective as: ''The ultimate objective of this Convention and any relatedinstruments that the Conference of the Parties may adopt (e.g. adoption of Kyoto Protocol in 1997) is toachieve, in accordance with the relevant provisions of the Convention, stabilization of greenhouse gasconcentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference withthe climate system." But the global community is still far away from achieving this objective. However, theCancun Agreement of COP 16 is considered a significant step forward that moved the important elementsof Copenhagen Accord of COP15 forward by agreeing with the following fundamental global positions:

i) Global long term goal of holding the increase in global average temperature below 2 deg C abovepre-industrial levels, and strengthening this global goal on the basis of available scientificknowledge, including in relation to a global temperature rise of 1.5 deg C;

ii) Parties would cooperate in achieving the peaking of global and national GHG emissions as soonas possible.

Question is how to achieve those objectives particularly when large developing countries are emitting noless than the developed countries. Here in lies the importance of NAMA in developing countries. In thissection we try to basically detail out a generic NAMA process beginning with the tortuous journey it had

from the Bali COP13. Towards the end, however, we also delineate ideas regarding what had been doneso far in mitigation activities in the country whether by design or not. Furthermore we try to find a linkbetween NAMA elements and the pillar 5 of BCCSAP namely low carbon development and mitigation.

Evolution of NAMAs 

The term NAMAs (Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions)  for developing countries entered as atopic in the climate policy debate through the 2007 Bali Action Plan when COP13 to the UNFCCC agreedto using NAMAs to address mitigation in a broader scale. The language is: “Nationally appropriatemitigation actions by developing country Parties in the context of sustainable development, supported andenabled by technology, financing and capacity-building, in a measurable, reportable and verifiablemanner.”

It was agreed in Cancun COP16 that developing country Parties would take NAMAs in thecontext of sustainable development, supported and enabled by technology, financing and capacity-building, aimed at achieving a deviation in emissions relative to ‘business as usual’ emissions in 2020.In fact, Cancun Agreement provided the basic inputs for the elaboration of NAMAs and other associatedissues like MRV (Measurement, Reporting and Verification) of NAMAs, MRV of support for NAMAs bydeveloped countries, Biennial Update Report (BUR) for developing countries, NAMA Registry,International Consultation and Analysis (ICA) for developing countries’ mitigation, etc.

Durban COP17 further moved these elements forward by adopting necessary decisions. With regardto NAMA Registry, COP17 decided to set up a web-based, dynamic prototype registry to record NAMAsseeking international support, and to facilitate matching of finance, technology and capacity-buildingsupport for these actions together with the function of international recognition for mitigation actions ofdeveloping countries.

Doha COP18 Decided to establish a work programme to further the understanding of the diversity ofNAMAs under the Subsidiary Body for Implementation, with a view to facilitating the preparation andimplementation of those NAMAs, including on:

i) The needs for financial, technology and capacity-building support for the preparation andimplementation of specific measurable, reportable and verifiable nationally appropriate mitigationactions, as well as support available and provided, access modalities and related experiencegained; and

ii) The extent of the matching of mitigation actions with financial, technology and capacity buildingsupport under the registry.

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The gradual development of NAMAs

Elaboration of NAMAs

There is as yet no internationally agreed definition of NAMAs. So it is to a high degree up to the individualcountry to define this. Therefore, NAMAs will probably not be limited as long as they are in line withnational development policies and plans resulting in mitigation of GHG emissions, and have an impactthat can be measured, reported and verified (MRVed). The political and administrative framework forNAMAs will probably be evolving, but NAMAs seem to be new standard element of the internationalclimate policy regime.

 As of now, NAMAs are! •  meant to support sustainable and low-carbon economic growth, and not to create additional

economic burden to developing countries;•  voluntary (not legally binding);•  nationally determined;

•  instruments for structural transformation;•  an opportunity to leapfrog over polluting development pathways;

NAMA should be 

•  embedded in an over-arching low emission deve-lopment strategy (LEDS);

•  in line with economic development and poverty eradication priorities;•  in accordance with the capabilities and social and economic conditions of the country

NAMA can be

•  financed domestically from public and private funding sources;

•  supported and enabled by technology transfer, financing and capacity building by developedcountries

•  measurable, reportable and verifiable

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Classification of NAMAs

Internationally recognised NAMAs

Unilateral supported NAMAs- This is solely a domestic administrated and supported system.

International supported NAMAs- This is international supported system with different types of support.

Possible future credited NAMAsSectoral crediting - Sectoral crediting would be based on an agreed emissions threshold or “no-losetarget” at sectoral level. That is, countries would agree on a level of emissions for a sector. Thisthreshold could be either in terms of absolute emissions or intensity-based, for example in terms ofemissions per unit of GDP, emissions per unit of electricity generated, etc. The developing country couldthen undertake actions to reduce its emissions to the agreed level, either unilaterally or with someinternational support. If emissions are reduced below the target, the developing country would receivecredits. If the target is not achieved, there would often be no penalties. But a model with penalties couldbe established.

Sectoral trading - Sectoral trading would follow the cap-and-trade approach The sectoral target would be amandatory cap and the developing country would receive tradable units ex ante, essentially equivalent tothe assigned amount units (AAUs) industrialised countries receive under the Kyoto Protocol. If the countrymanages to reduce its emissions below its target, it would thereby achieve a surplus of trading units

which it could sell. If the country does not achieve the sectoral target, it would need to buy trading units tocover the shortfall.

Types and sectors of NAMAs

The figure below provides ideas on the sectors and types of NAMAs.

Opportunities for international support for NAMAs

 As expressed earlier in this section, mitigation discussions got prominence in international cl imate change

talks. Though developing countries put greater emphasis on providing adequate support to meet theiradaptation needs in the negotiations, yet commitments of support by developed countries are centred onmitigation activities. It is clearly reflected in the major decisions adopted by COPs on finance, in particularwith the issue of mobilizing USD 100 billion a year by 2020. It was first brought up in the Copenhagen Accord of COP15  in the following language:

“In the context of meaningful mitigation actions  and transparency on implementation, developedcountries commit to a goal of mobilizing jointly USD 100 billion dollars a year by 2020 to address theneeds of developing countries.”

 Again in Cancun Agreement of COP16 , this issue was reflected in paragraph 98 under financechapter: “Recognizes  that developed country Parties commit, in the context of meaningful mitigationactions and transparency on implementation, to a goal of mobilizing jointly USD 100 billion per year by

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2020 to address the needs of developing countries.” Similar languages were also used in DurbanOutcome of COP17   and Doha Decisions of COP18   under long-term finance. Furthermore,  developingcountry Parties were encouraged during COP16, COP17 and COP18 to develop low-emissiondevelopment strategies, recognizing the need for financial and technical support by developed countryParties for the formulation and implementation of these strategies.

So, it is envisaged that a significant part of international fund would be dedicated to providing

support to mitigation activities in developing countries. Since the NAMA provides the necessary platformand right vehicle for mitigation activities in developing countries, there is a significant opportunity ofbringing international support through bilateral and multilateral funding agencies for preparation andimplementation of NAMA as indicated in previous COP decisions. To this end, a good example is theestablishment of the NAMA Facility. 

The NAMA Facility has been officially announced by Germany and the UK at the sidelines ofCOP-18 in Doha 2012. Germany and the UK will jointly provide  !70m Euro of funding to provide supportfor the implementation of transformational NAMAs in developing countries as part of industrializedcountries’ commitment to mobilise US$ 100bn international climate finance annually by 2020. Sodomestic, bilateral, multilateral as well as Green Climate Fund (GCF) are considered the major fundingsources for NAMAs support. This is shown in the next figure which provides a broad picture.

 A broad picture of financing possibilities for support to mitigation actions

How to develop NAMAs

The NAMA-Tool developed by GIZ Environment and Climate Change Division provides developers and

implementers of NAMAs with brief step-by-step instructions on how to develop a NAMA. The toolnavigates users to the relevant information, knowledge, instruments, and publications available. Theprocess is structured into ten steps. The 10-step approach is designed to supply users with more dataand accessible instruments for certain aspects of the NAMA development.

Even though this tool helps prepare for the implementation of NAMA, it is first and foremost anavigation tool, guiding practitioners through the process of developing a NAMA. It is not an instrumentfor the implementation of NAMAs itself.

This tool also does not give sector-specific instructions, but includes links to sector-specificexpertise and handbooks. The tool is publicly available at www.mitigationpartnership.net .

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When developing an individual NAMA, the sequence of 10 steps does not require to be followedstrictly nor chronologically nor completely. However, an ambitious NAMA should complete all stepssomewhere along the process.

The ten steps are:

1. Assess framework conditions, analyse policy gaps and identify needed measures

!  Assess national framework conditions for mitigation, including the political and governanceframework and general barriers for climate policy implementation.

!  Consider relevant national strategies or plans as well as time horizons in the global climateprocess until 2015 (when a global agreement shall be negotiated) and 2020 (when the globalemission peak must be reached).

!  Assess bottom-up where gaps remain in existing policies in order to address nationaldevelopment needs and priorities and identify needed measures to be implemented applyingemission reduction targets to them.

!  A LEDS – given one exists already – is intended to provide a framework for the development andimplementation of NAMAs, as well as help identify synergies

2. Evaluate technical emission reduction potential & co-benefits

!  Evaluate the technical emission reduction potential and associated costs at national and sectorallevel through ex-ante estimates, which should be based on the application of internationallyrecognized methodologies that quantify emission reductions and costs and avoid doublecounting. The evaluation should additionally consider co-benefits, as well as economicincremental costs.

!  Make sure to apply a do-no-harm approach. Check for co-costs and negative effects of theenvisioned NAMAs.

3. Identify potential actions & NAMA implementers

!  Identify potential actions, possibly with the help of a Marginal Abatement Cost curve, andselect an action which is cost-efficient and contributes to long-term sustainable emission

reductions.

!  Conduct sector-by-sector participatory assessment, planning and consultation processes,e.g. workshops, to identify reduction potential and development gains and to plan forconcrete activities. Develop and discuss criteria for good and ambitious NAMAs.

!  Prioritize sectors and actions for potential NAMAs, considering the best available options andones that are realistic for implementation.

!  Evaluate financial, political and socio-cultural feasibility.

!  Identify and involve potential financiers, discuss planned NAMAs and potential NAMAsimplementers with them.

4. Define baselines

 A baseline is a level of emissions that provides a reference level to establish a goal or target and/or tomeasure progress. The following points need to be worked out:

!  Determine the purpose of the baseline: what does the NAMA seek to achieve (e.g. is it setting atarget?), or what would happen in the absence of the NAMA? (e.g. will the baseline measureperformance?)

!  Collect data to set up a GHG baseline. Define boundaries, consider leakages as well asuncertainty, pay attention to net emission reductions.

!  Include additionally non-GHG co-benefits in the baseline.

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5. Design a MRV plan

While guidelines for reporting (Biennial Update Reports) and verification (International Consultationand Analysis) of national-level mitigation information under the UNFCCC do exist, no internationalagreement has been reached in the UNFCCC negotiations yet on MRV guidelines for monitoringindividual NAMAs.

Until such an agreement has been reached on MRV guidelines for NAMAs, the NAMAs developerand those supporting the NAMAs – whether it be national or international supporters – may designMRV plans for NAMAs that suit the parties involved. Development cooperation experience withproject monitoring, sectoral experience with measuring and reporting, and CDM experience withverification offer valuable lessons for NAMAs developers.

6. Detail the NAMA planning

!  Plan NAMAs according to an international NAMAs template to make the NAMA process time-efficient and transparent.

!  Define a timeline for a set of activities and responsibilities of the NAMA implementer(s).

!  Conceptualize and Design NAMAs with the help of a NAMA template.

!  Develop and apply tools for different interventions:

a. for planning the policy framework and creating an enabling environment;

b. for regulation and setting up effective institutions;

c. for economic incentives to form appropriate structures;

d. for generating and disseminating relevant information;

e. for promoting investments in technologies for implementation;

f. for avoiding any potential negative impacts of the NAMA

In the detailed development of NAMAs, existing sector-specific  NAMA handbooks can be helpfulreferences for the application of appropriate instruments.

7. Identify needed resources

!  Develop a professional business plan jointly with implementers to present NAMAs to potentialpublic/private financiers.

!  The design process of NAMAs should pro-actively engage the private sector and remove barriersto its involvement. Public-private roundtables, for example, can establish a continuouscommunication process.

!  Depending on cost structure and revenue streams, the major portion of NAMA financing will haveto come from domestic sources through the creation of economic incentives, e.g. putting a priceon carbon or regulatory interventions to cap (and trade) emissions. Therefore, NAMAs must formpart of national plans and strategies.

If private and domestic resources are not sufficient, identify needs for technological, capacitybuilding and financial support and potential sources for this support.

International climate finance will have to play a complementary and catalytic role. In additionprivate sector engagement will be necessary to meet the financing needs. At a later stage, carbonmarkets may also be a mechanism in the long run to attract resources for NAMAs.

8. Submit to UNFCCC NAMA registry

The Registry has the function of enhancing transparency by tracking mitigation actions and thusallowing an overview on whether the planned and implemented actions are sufficient to achieve the

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global 2°C target. Additionally, the Registry has a knowledge management function and is supposedto facilitate the matching of needs of NAMA host countries with support from developed countries.

Since submission to the Registry is voluntary, a country may decide to use the Registry as ameans of attracting international support or as a means of showcasing internationally NAMAs thatmay already be under implementation.

It is worthwhile to mention that in response to decisions of COP16 and COP17, the UNFCCCSecretariat has developed, as a part of web-based prototype Registry, two separate templates:NAMA Seeking Support for Preparation and NAMA Seeking Support for Implementation. These arepresented as Annexures 1 and 2. 

Implement NAMA & MRV

Once implementation is underway, a timeline for planned interventions should be followed, financialand organizational management must be carried out, and progress should be monitored. The MRVplan that was agreed upon during the NAMA’s design phase (see Step 5) must be operationalized tomeasure, report and verify ex-post the emission reductions, as well as other MRV-able aspects of theNAMA, such as its co-benefits. Also, while the NAMA developer may have the responsibility ofdesigning the MRV plan for a NAMA, the NAMA implementer should carry out the MRV plan.

During the MRV design process, it would have been decided what  to measure, how  to measure,when to measure and who should measure. The answers to these four questions can be used to setup an implementation plan for this step.

Identify best practices

Instigate a learning process by starting early action and getting experience on the ground indeveloping and implementing NAMAs and identify best practice.

Lessons can be drawn from:

"  Annex 1 country implementation of policies and measures

"  Annex 1 Reporting Requirements, e.g. MRV of Policies and Measures

"  Implementation of the CDM and Programmes of Activity under the CDM*

* while NAMAs go clearly beyond individual projects and are not necessarily linked to theinternational carbon market.

Organisational structure for NAMA development

In addition to the 10 step process of NAMA development, governments should assess the existinginstitutional structures if the country needs a designated organisational set-up to facilitate NAMAdevelopment and implementation. There is no official requirement for such an institutional structure.However, harnessing existing capacities can strengthen ownership. To this end, following importantpoints need to be considered:

"  Options for such organizational structures could be a new mandate for an existing institution, oran inter-institutional committee. In general, organizational structures should be based on existingstructures and not establish new institutions.

"  The organizational structure should ideally have a facilitating role, rather than steering NAMAdevelopment top-down, which might be inefficient. The NAMA development process shouldinvolve a variety of in-country stakeholders and activities. The organizational structure shouldnetwork the different line ministries involved.

For an example of inter-ministerial cooperation of different line ministries in the MRV of NAMAs inIndonesia, one may consult the NAMA Sourcebook, (2012), p. 35.

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Bangladesh approach towards mitigation

Bangladesh is considered one of the most climate vulnerable countries in the world while its contributionto global warming is negligible. The per capita per year GHG emissions of Bangladesh is less than 0.3ton. Yet, in line with the Bali decisions Bangladesh voluntarily agreed to a low carbon development pathsubject to 4 inviolate security concerns which are security of food, livelihood, water, and energy. Indeedthe country already has several policies and practices which help in designing a NAMA and implementing

it.

In the sphere of policy Bangladesh formulated National Renewable Energy Policy 2008 where itenvisioned that at least 10% of the total energy would be generated from renewable sources by 2020.Furthermore, Bangladesh prepared BCCSAP under which mitigation and low carbon development wasconsidered as one of the cornerstones of the strategy. Here energy efficiency, energy conservation andrenewable energy got necessary emphasis as mitigation activities. Bangladesh made good efforts tostreamline regulatory and institutional settings by creating following new Acts/Rules/Authorities:Bangladesh Energy Regulatory Commission (BERC) Act 2003, Sustainable and Renewable EnergyDevelopment Authority (SREDA) Act 2012, Draft Energy Efficiency and Conservation Rules 2013,Draft Interim Action Plan for Improvement of Energy Efficiency & Conservation 2012, etc.

 As a part of the Government’s initiatives towards mitigation, more than two million Solar HomeSystems (SHSs) have already been installed in collaboration with partner NGOs across the country

particularly in the areas that are not connected to national grid. The expansion of these SHSsprogrammes has been backed by the loans and subsidies provided by a Government Institution,Infrastructure Development Company Ltd. (IDCOL) created with the financial support of the World Bankand other bilateral and multilateral funding agencies.

The Government has envisioned achieving 500 MW solar power developments in Bangladeswiththe support of domestic and external resources. To this end, various programmes are underway includinginstallation of solar irrigation pumps, solar electrification at railway stations, rooftop solar power solutionsfor commercial and residential buildings, remote education centres, rural healthcare centres, Unioninformation service centres, etc. Installation of solar panel in new buildings has been made prerequisitebefore they get connected to national grid. The Government has exempted all taxes from the devices andequipments used for the utilization of renewable energy in particular solar energy. The country has alsotaken initiative to build new energy efficient Combined Cycle Power Plants as well as to replace oldenergy inefficient Single Cycle Power Plants with Combined Cycle Power Plants. On energy

conservation, the Government is implementing a project styled ‘Efficient Lighting Initiatives ofBangladesh’ to replace around 30 million household incandescent bulb with energy efficient CFLs. Withthe partnership of many NGOs, INGOs, research organizations, the Government has taken up a numberof initiatives to install and disseminate hundreds of thousands of Biogas Plants, Improved Cook Stoves,Improved Rice Per-boilers, etc. Bangladesh is making good efforts to tab the wind power taking intoaccount the potentials as indicated in the survey of wind mapping. Furthermore, several mitigationactivities are being implemented in solid waste management, brick manufacture industries, transportsector, and some other industrial sectors. The government has already taken initiative to improve thetransport sector by implementing key modal shifts (BRT, Metro, circular water ways, etc.) which requiresignificant amount of investments from both public and private sector. Since seeking support for sectoralNAMAs is seen to be one of the effective ways to attract international climate finance, we need to linkongoing and future mitigation activities to the framework of NAMAs.

Development of sectoral NAMAs in Bangladesh

 As already indicated, the BCCSAP has low carbon development and mitigation as one of the six pillars ofthe BCCSAP. It already has 10 programmes under it. These are quite naturally mainly in the energyproduction, distribution and consumption activities. Bit agriculture, urban waste, transport and builtenvironment all have received some attention. It is noteworthy therefore that all the mainsectors/subsectors responsible for emission of GHGs have received some attention.

Since mitigation potentials as well as financial and technological implications vary from sector to sector, itwould be wise however not to mix them together and it may be prudent to first develop sector specificNAMAs as expressed earlier. The sectors having good mitigation potentials are as follows:

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viii) Energy production and Supply

ix) Transport and its Infrastructure

x) Industry

xi) Residential and Commercial Buildings

xii) Agriculturexiii) Forestry

xiv) Waste Management, etc.

Note that all these have been mentioned under the 5th pillar of the BCCSAP.

Note also that information provided in Bangladesh 2nd

  National Communication to UNFCCC indicatestotal emissions of CO2 and CH4 in 2005 are 59067.85Gg and 1879.30Gg respectively. Out of this totalemissions, energy sector is the largest source of GHG emissions (37949.60Gg CO2 and 26.03Gg CH4)followed by Industrial Processes and Land-use Change and Forestry. On the other hand, Agriculturesector (1215.69Gg CH4) followed by Waste Management are the largest CH4 emitting sectors in thecountry.

Under Energy sector, Energy Industries (12780Gg CO2) followed by Manufacturing Industries including

Construction, Transport, and Residential & Commercial Buildings have taken the lead in GHG emissions.The list of potential areas of interventions in energy sector as NAMAs are presented in the next sub-section.

Potential areas of intervention

The GHG mitigation measures in energy sector generally includes (i) Energy Conservation, (ii) EnergyEfficiency, and (iii) Increased Reliance on Renewable Energy. Here Energy sector also includes power orelectricity generation, which is the most significant source of CO2 emissions in the energy industriescategory. However, the following mitigation measures may be undertaken in Energy sector as potentialNAMAs:

n) Combined Cycle Gas Turbine (CCGT) to replace Steam Turbine (ST) plants,

o) Rehabilitation and modernization of old power plants,

p) Upgrading and rehabilitation of Transmission and Distribution lines of electricity for the reductionof loss,

q) Coal fired supercritical boilers in place of sub-critical boilers,

r) Biomass gasification or biogas plant based electricity fed to the grid,

s) Waste based electricity fed to the grid,

t) Efficiency improvement of rice parboiling,

u) Industrial cogeneration or utilization of waste heat from captive generators,

v) Wind and solar PV electricity fed to the grid,

w) Solar PV irrigation pumps to replace shallow tube-wells,

x) Improved cook stoves,

y) Solar PV lanterns to replace kerosene lamps,

z) Use of efficient lighting devices, etc

The generic structure of sectoral NAMA document

Since there is no internationally agreed format of NAMA document, it is up to the individual country howto furnish all relevant information related to sector specific mitigation initiatives seeking international

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support for implementation. Taking this into consideration it is assumed that sectoral NAMA documentshould contain following information in a structured manner:

1. Name of the Sector

2. Title of Mitigation Action

3. Linkage with National Policies/Strategies/Action plan

4. Description of Mitigation Actions with Identification of Appropriate Technologies (Inputs drawnfrom Technology Needs Assessment)

5. Geographical Location

6. Estimated Emission Reduction (if available, information on methodological approach followedunder MRV framework)

7. Estimated Full-cost of Implementation

8. Estimated Incremental Cost of Implementation (if necessary)

9. Estimated Timeframe for Implementation

10. Comments on Support Required-

a) Financial Support

b) Technological Support

c) Capacity Building Support

11. National Implementing Entity

12. Name and Address of Contact Person and Alternative Contact Person

Institutional ownership for sectoral NAMAs

In order to ensure the ownership of sectoral NAMA initiatives as well as their effective implementation,relevant sectoral Ministries and line Departments/Agencies should take the lead for both the preparationand implementation of NAMAs. Here, the Ministry of Environment and Forests and the Department of

Environment may have the coordination and facilitative role in providing necessary policy related andtechnical support drawing from international discussions around NAMAs. On the other hand, Ministry ofPower, Energy and Mineral Resources will take the lead to developing NAMAs in energy sector. Since,Power Division has already taken significant mitigation initiatives in the field of energy conservation,energy efficiency and renewable energy, Power Division is in a good position to take the NAMA conceptforward by developing and implementing those NAMAs with the help of bilateral and multilateral fundingagencies or development partners. Here, subsidiary organizations, such as Power Cell, BangladeshPower Development Board, Power Grid Company of Bangladesh, Rural Electrification Board, BangladeshEnergy Regulatory Commission, and newly created Sustainable and Renewable Energy Development Authority (SREDA) may definitely play a significant role in promoting and implementing NAMAs in energysector.

Furthermore, there are good opportunities for NGOs, private companies and other relevantorganizations in developing and implementing NAMAs under public-private partnership in collaborationwith domestic and international assistance.

VII. Monitoring and Evaluation Framework for BCCSAP Projects

Introduction

Bangladesh has already established two funds for financing climate change projects. These are asalready mentioned earlier in this report, the Bangladesh Climate Change Trust Fund (BCCTF) based onrevenue from the national budget, and another namely, Bangladesh Climate Change Resilient Fund(BCCRF).

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The government of Bangladesh has approved 202 BCCTF projects till April 2013. Total cost for theseprojects are nearly 15.57 billion BDT. To assess the results delivered from these projects towards climateresiliency, project monitoring and evaluation needs to be carrying out with utmost importance. Thissection intends to present some tools and techniques for monitoring and evaluation (M&E) of BCCSAPprojects as M&E provides with better means for learning from past experience, improving service delivery,planning and allocating resources and demonstrating results as part of accountability to key stakeholders.

Monitoring, Evaluation and Indicators

Monitoring can be defined as a continuing function that aims primarily to provide the management andmain stakeholders of an ongoing intervention with early indications of progress, or lack thereof, in theachievement of results. An ongoing intervention might be a project, programme or other kind of support toan outcome (Handbook on Monitoring and Evaluation for Results, UNDP)

Evaluation is a rigorous and independent assessment of either completed or ongoing activities todetermine the extent to which they are achieving stated objectives and contributing to decision making.Evaluations, like monitoring, can apply to many things, including an activity, project, programme, strategy,policy, topic, theme, sector or organization.

Evaluations are done independently to provide managers and staff with an objective assessment

of whether or not they are on track. They are also more rigorous in their procedures, design andmethodology, and generally involve more extensive analysis. However, the aims of both monitoring andevaluation are very similar: to provide information that can help inform decisions, improve performanceand achieve planned results

 A clear framework, agreed among the key stakeholders at the end of the planning stage, isessential in order to carry out monitoring and evaluation systematically. This framework serves as a planfor monitoring and evaluation, and should clarify:

"  What is to be monitored and evaluated

"  The activities needed to monitor and evaluate

"  Who is responsible for monitoring and evaluation activities

"  When monitoring and evaluation activities are planned (timing)

"  How monitoring and evaluation are carried out (methods)

"  What resources are required and where they are committed

In addition, relevant risks and assumptions in carrying out planned monitoring and evaluationactivities should be seriously considered, anticipated and included in the M&E framework

Good indicators are a critical part of monitoring and evaluation. In particular, indicators can helpto:

"  Inform decision making for ongoing programme or project management

"  Measure progress and achievements, as understood by the different stakeholders

"  Clarify consistency between activities, outputs, outcomes and impacts

"  Ensure legitimacy and accountability to all stakeholders by demonstrating progress

"  Assess project and staff performance

The process of formulating indicators should begin with the following questions:

"  How can we measure that the expected results are being achieved?

"  What type of information can demonstrate a positive change?

"  What can be feasibly monitored with given resource and capacity constraints?

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"  Will timely information be available?

"  What will the system of data collection be and who will be responsible?

The attributes of the good indicators are as follows:

"  Specific: Is the indicator specific enough to measure progress towards the results?"  Measurable: Is the indicator a reliable and clear measure of results?

"  Attainable: Are the results in which the indicator seeks to chart progress realistic?

"  Relevant: Is the indicator relevant to the intended outputs and outcomes?

"  Time-bound: Are data available at reasonable cost and effort?

Scope of M&E under BCCTF projects

There is some guidance for projects under the BCCTF. These projects are to be completed within 2-3years – a shorter project cycle than development projects under the national planning process. Eligibleparties submit proposals based on the BCCSAP and the proposal guidelines to the Ministry of

Environment and Forests. The proposals are reviewed by the Technical Committee (or the Sub-TechnicalCommittee, for NGO projects), which submits its recommendations to the Board of Trustees for the finaldecision.

Project budgets submitted by grant-seeking agencies are further reviewed and finalized with theassistance of the Climate Change Unit, on the basis of the government’s procurement and sectoralimplementation plans. The office of the Comptroller and Auditor General audits “on-budget” (government)projects and activities. The Board of Trustees of the BCCTF also has the authority to assign anindependent audit of projects. Projects implemented by non-government agencies are audited by theClimate Change Unit, and may also be subject to independent audits based on a decision by the Board ofTrustees. While the ‘planning unit’ of each ministry monitors “on-budget” projects and activities. ClimateChange Unit monitors projects implemented by non-government agencies.

 A guideline was gazetted by MOEF for project development, process, approval, revise,

implementation, fund disbursement and policy for BCCTF projects. This guideline provided the logicalframework which is a 4X4 matrix (Annex 1) and monitoring and evaluation plan (Annex-2). Implementingministries are responsible for monitoring and evaluation of CCTF projects. The process is same as ADPprojects and report to the Climate Change Unit (CCU) of MOEF. Project directors of CCTF projectsprepare the completion report as per prescribed format and report to CCU of MOEF. The completionreport consists of six parts. Part-D of the prescribed format has provision to report the ‘Achievement ofthe Target of the Project’ and Part-E has ‘Monitoring and Auditing’ portion. Part-F has provision of‘Descriptive Report’ and it helps to identify the Impact of the Project to climate change adaptation andmitigation, sustainability, and contribution to poverty alleviation.

Frameworks and indicators of M&E

Successful projects are usually well designed, focused on their purpose with clear aims, objectives and

actions. The same is true for the successful assessment of programs and projects. It is important to havea clear framework and plan of action for M&E activities that is incorporated into the overall project plans.

Logical Framework Approach

BCCTF projects have adopted Logical Framework (LF) approach. The LF helps to clarify the objectives ofany project, program, or policy and improve the quality of M&E design. It aids in the identification of theexpected causal links – the ‘program logic’ - in the following results chain: inputs, processes, outputs,outcomes, and impact. It leads to the identification of performance indicators at each stage in this chain,looks at the evidence needed to verify these indicators as well as the assumptions that underlie them andthe risks which might impede the attainment of results.

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Table 4.1 Logical Framework Matrix of CCTF Projects

Narrative Summary Objectively VerifiableIndicator (OVI)

Means of Verification(MoV)

Risk/ ImportantAssumption (IA)s

Goal

Purpose/ ObjectiveOutputs

Inputs

Table 4.2 Logical Framework Matrix Summary

Program /ProjectLogic at differentlevels 

Performance orObjective VerifiableIndicators (OVIs) 

Sources ofVerification(SOV) 

Assumptions or Risks 

Goal/Overall ProjectObjectives:What are the wider

problems which theProject will help toresolve? This is thedevelopment impact towhich the projectcontributes - at anational and/ or sectorallevel.

The measures for judging whether or notthe goal has been

achieved. Measures ofthe extent to which asustainable contributionto the goal has beenmade.

Sources of informationand methods used tocollect and report on the

goal /overall objectives

What are the externalfactors needed tosustain the goal

achievement? What arethe risks that mightprevent this sustainableachievement?

Purpose/ObjectiveOutcomeWhat are the expectedbenefits (or dis-benefits)and to whom will they

go? What improvementsor changes will theproject bring about?

Measures by whichachievements at theend of the project canbe quantified - indicatingthat the purpose has

been achieved and thatthese benefits aresustainable.

Sources of informationand methods used tocollect and report onachieving the purpose

What are theassumptions and hencerisks concerning thepurpose/goal linkage i.e.achievement of the

project purpose towardsthe project goal oroverall objectives

Project Outputs:

The direct measurableresults (goods andservices) of the projectwhich are largely underproject management'scontrol

Measures of thequantity and quality ofoutputs and the timingof their delivery.

Sources of informationand methods used tocollect and report onachieving the projectoutputs

What are theassumptions and hencerisks concerning theoutput/purpose linkage.What are the externalfactors outside of thecontrol of the projectwhich, if not present, willrestrict or stop theproject achieving its

purposeProject Activities:The activities or tasksthat need to beundertaken toaccomplish or deliverthe identified projectoutputs.

Implementation/workprogram targets.

Sources of information& methods used tocollect & report onproject activities

What are theassumptions /risksconcerning the activity/output linkage? Whatexternal factors areneeded to achieve theproject outputs?

Project InputsThe resources neededto deliver the projectactivities (funds, people

Implementation/workprogram targets.

Sources of informationto report on inputs areneeded to produce theprojects activities

What are theassumptions /risksconcerning theinput/activity/ linkages.

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Program /ProjectLogic at differentlevels 

Performance orObjective VerifiableIndicators (OVIs) 

Sources ofVerification(SOV) 

Assumptions or Risks 

equipment etc) What external factorsare needed to achievethe project activities

LF not only encourages clarity of purpose and practice for project implementation but also provides thesame for the nature and form of project M&E to be undertaken. Training is often required to promote theeffective use of LFs.

Other M&E tools

The Performance-based M&E combines both, the traditional approach of monitoring implementation withthe assessment of performance and results. It is this linking of both implementation progress withprogress in achieving the desired objectives or goals of government policies and programs that makePM&E most useful as a tool for public management. Implementing PM&E system allows the organizationto modify and make adjustments to the implementation processes for achievement of desired results andoutcomes.

The Performance indicators are variables to measure changes towards progress of results andshould be identified for each output and outcome. Performance indicators should answer the question,“What will be observed if the result is achieved?” If a result is to improve or increase knowledge orcapacity, baseline data may need to be collected early on during project implementation to allowmeasurement of what has changed.

Table 4.8: Performance based monitoring frameworkPerformanceCategory

Performance Rating A B C

Monitoring andEvaluation

On or abovecurrent target

Slightly belowcurrent targets

Significantly belowcurrent target

Financial On or underbudget

Up to 15% abovebudget

More than 15%above budget

Timeline On or ahead of

plan

Slightly delayed Significantly

delayedOverall On track with all

performancecategories

Some areas ofunderperformance

Significantunderperformance

Description of overall performance ratingSource: IFC

Whenever a performance indicator is difficult to identify, it may suggest that the result needs to beredefined. Although it may not be possible to measure impact-level results, where feasible, theseindicators should also be identified. Ideally, each result should be measured by a mix of both qualitativeand quantitative indicators. The performance indicators should be objectively verifiable.

 A performance monitoring plan is a critical tool for planning, managing, and documenting datacollection. It contributes to the effectiveness of the performance monitoring system by assuring that

comparable data will be collected on a regular and timely basis. This is essential to the operation of acredible and useful performance-based management approach. It involves the regular collection ofinformation on actual results and demonstrates whether a project, program, or policy is achieving itsstated goals.

Table 4.7: Example of Results Based Monitoring Framework

Results Indicators Baseline Target Means ofVerification

Risks & Assumptions

Impact statement(Ultimate benefits for

Measure ofprogress

 Assumptions made fromoutcome to impact. Risks

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Results Indicators Baseline Target Means ofVerification

Risks & Assumptions

target population)  against impact that impact will not beachieved. 

Outcome statement

(Short- to mediumterm change indevelopmentsituation) 

Measure of

progressagainstoutcome

 Assumptions made from

outputs to outcome.Risks that outcome willnot be achieved.

Outputs (Productsand services—tangible andintangible—deliveredor provided) 

Measure ofprogressagainst output

 Assumptions made fromactivities to outputs.Risks that outputs maynot be produced.

 Activities(Tasks undertaken inorder to produceresearch outputs) 

Milestones orkey targets forproduction ofoutputs

Preconditions forimplementation ofactivities.

Source: Handbook on Planning Monitoring and Evaluating for Development Results, UNDP

   R  e  s  u   l   t  s

Goal(impact)

(Long term, widespread, improvement in climate and environment)

Outcomes (Intermediate effects of outputs on climate)

   I  m  p   l  e  m  e  n   t  a   t   i  o  n

Outputs (Products and services produced by the programme/ project)

 Activities (Tasks undertaken by the programme/ project management to transforminput to outputs)

Inputs (Financial, human, material resources, policy)

Figure: Result oriented Monitoring Approach

Indicators

Log Frame for a project involves identifying performance indicators (or OVIs) which are going to help us‘objectively verify’ whether or not our interventions have achieved the intended activities, outputs,outcomes and impact.

The fundamental challenge is to develop appropriate performance indicators which measureproject performance. These indicators measure the things that projects do, what they produce, thechanges they bring about and what happens as a result of these changes.

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In order to choose indicators, decisions must be made about what to measure. Having the rightindicators underpins effective project implementation and good M&E practice. Therefore time, effort,debate and thought should be given to their identification, selection and use.

To measure something it is important to have a unit or variable ‘in which’ or ‘by which’ ameasurement is made i.e. an indicator. For example, in BCCSAP projects if the aim is to provide capacitybuilding training and climate change adaptation techniques, then number of vulnerable people being

trained and numbers of people have been supported with the alternative livelihood are useful indicators.

There is a need to distinguish indicators for different levels of assessment, that is monitoring,evaluation and impact indicators. The former (monitoring) concern tracking the progress of projectimplementation and primarily relate to inputs and activities. The latter two (evaluation) relate to measuringthe results of the project: the outputs, the outcomes and ultimately, impact. Each aspect of implementinga project or program has typical types of indicators illustrating performance at each project level.

Table 4.3: LF Indicators Examples

Level ofIndicators

Typical examples BCCSAP Examples

Inputs/

Activities

"  Human resource

"  Financial resources"  Material resources"  Training 

"  Training of vulnerable group

"  Existing policy and guideline"  Specialized Consultants etc. 

Outputs "  Products"  Recommendations/Plans"  Studies/Reports"  Legislations drafted 

"  Reports"  Policy Paper"  Research findings"  Press releases"  Legislative drafting 

Outcomes "  Change in knowledge and/orbehavior

"  Improved practices"  Increased services"  Legislation passed

"  Climate resilient crop adaptation"  CO2 emission reduced"  Green technology adopted"  Biodiversity reserved"  ECA reserved"  Legislation passed

Impact "  Decrease vulnerability"  Increased sustainability"  Increased employment"  Increased profitability 

"  Food security enhanced"  Change in livelihood"  Capacity to combat climate disaster  

Indicators, wherever possible, need to generate consistent measurements. They need to beselected or constructed so that when different observers measure performance, they will come to thesame conclusion. Different types and aspects of interventions may require different types of indicators ora combination of indicators.

Selection of indicators

The following table sets out the main types of indicators that are used in evaluation work, how they areused. It is important to use both qualitative and quantitative forms of data in M&E practice because eachcan bring a different perspective to the same event or change and act as a check on the other sources asa means of verification or refute.

Table 4.4: Indicator, characteristics and use

Indicator types Characteristics and use 

Direct For observable change resulting from activities and outputs

Indirect Useful when the objective is not directly observable e.g. ‘adaptation’ is not a

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Fi ure: Conce tual Dia ram for Framework Indicators

Indicator types Characteristics and use 

(proxy) thing as such but comprises a bundle of performance criteria including anincrease in crop production, increase in income

Qualitative  A way of measuring levels of participation, attitudinal change, behavioralchange; emergence of leadership, access to political processes, evidenceof consensus e.g. popularity of climate resilience crop production, attitudes

of farmers, the experience of women to the systemQuantitative Can measure frequency, growth rates e.g, numbers of laws that needreform or acres of barren land being cultivated

Process  Allows measurement of how things are being done; belief that betterimplementation and real problems and needs will be considered; oftenqualitative

Crosscutting Often used to describe indicators relating to gender, diversity, environmentFormative Set up within a timeframe to be measure during a phase of intervention. Summative Used to measure performance at the end  

For BCCSAP projects, the following conceptual framework can be used to develop indicators. Theconceptual framework shows the interdependencies among categories of climate change projectsactivities and input, output and performance vectors.

From the conceptual framework sets of indicators (quantitative or other) can be developed. The followingtables are examples of indicators might be of BCCSAP projects.

Table 4.5 : Examples of Indicators for Agriculture Sector in coastal areas

Category Dimension Measurable indicator (examples)

Climate changeintegration

Scenarios of climate change Trends in rainfall in (mm)Trends of temperature (

OC)

Inundated area (ha)

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Category Dimension Measurable indicator (examples)

 Agricultural drought area (ha)Salinity area (ha)Soil salinity (DS/m)

Prediction modeling Cyclone & Storm surge, flood and drought predictionmaps (scenarios)

 Area (ha) of crop loss due to flash flood Area (ha) of crop loss due to flood Area (ha) of crop loss due to draught, cold spell,access rainTons estimated loss of crops% Change of fresh water to brackish water

Early warning Cyclone and storm warning lead time increasedcompared to baselineWarning disseminated to number of people

Low carbon development GHG emission reduction by crop productionInterventions inthe changingclimate

Infrastructures Number of silo establishedNumber of climate resilient crops established

Risk reduction andmanagement

 Area under effective flood protectionKms of embankment developedKm of embankment upgraded to a height beyondpredicted flood depth Area (ha) under improved irrigation system

Enhanceresilience /adaptation

Environment Land zoning map developed considering changedconditions% of irrigation area increased% of fallow land decreased

Ecosystem Area (ha) of agriculture ecosystem protected Agriculture Area (ha) under adaptive agricultural practices e.g.

drip irrigation, mulching, diversification, etc Area (ha) under saline tolerant rice Area (ha) under drought resistant variety, etc

Energy Energy (MW) for agricultureMW of energy saved due to energy efficient andrenewable energy uses in agriculture

Knowledgemanagement,capacity buildingand socialcommunication

Capacity Number of people adopt climate tolerant crop varietiesNumber of people adopt energy efficient agriculturesystem

Social communication Number of people have access to information relatingclimate resilient agricultureNumber of people have access to information aboutenergy efficient agriculture practice

Knowledge Number of adaptation options identified and testedNumber of awareness and sensitization book let

preparedNumber of loss and damage tools developedNumber of training module and manual and guidelinesprepared

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Table 4.6: Examples of Indicators for solar energy sector

Category Dimension Measurable indicator (examples)

Climate changeintegration

Low carbon development Tons/ year CO2  reduced for introducing solar energysystem

Enhance resilience /adaptation

Energy MW of electricity generation from solar energyMW of electricity saved through energy efficiency

Energy efficient appliances and technologiesTons of CO2 GHG reduced through solar energy uses

Intervention inchanging the climate

Infrastructure Number of solar infrastructure system developed

Knowledgemanagement,capacity building andsocialcommunication

Capacity Number of people have access to informationNumber of people trained and awared about solarelectricity generation and application of solar energyNumber of professionals trained about solar energy

Social communication Number of article published in print mediaNumber of TVC/ Programme aired in electronic mediaNumber of rally organized

Number of seminar organizedKnowledge Number of awareness and sensitization book let

preparedNumber of training module and manual and guidelinespreparedNumber of guidelines developed

Evaluation and impact assessment

Monitoring and evaluation are complementary and yet distinct aspects of assessing the result of adevelopment intervention. The function of monitoring is largely descriptive and its role is to provide dataand evidence that underpins any evaluative judgment. As monitoring is ongoing, providing information onwhere a policy, program or project is at any given time (and over time) relative to its respective targets

and outcomes. The function and role of evaluation is to build upon monitoring data, bring togetheradditional information and examine whether or not the project results have been achieved.

Usually project evaluation is undertaken in line with donor reporting requirements and typicallytakes place at designated stages in the program cycle (often termed mid-term or project progress review),or immediately after the program intervention is completed (post-program evaluation or completionreporting). Covering all of the core criteria in all evaluations may be an ideal but is not always practical.The evaluation may be  conducted at too early a stage to assess impact or sustainability in the longerterm.  However, in any evaluation it should always be possible to assess some degree of   relevance,effectiveness and efficiency as minimum criteria. 

Criteria

QuestionsInstruments

Questions & theinformationcollection method

Conclusion

 Answers toEvaluationquestions

Recommendations

Figure: The Anlytical Evaluation Process.

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 An evaluation cannot answer every question that various stakeholders want answered, withoutbecoming burdensome and too time-consuming for those being evaluated and too expensive for thoseundertaking it. It is important to focus on a set of key questions regarding the output, outcome and impactindicators identified in the Log Frame or plan. These should be set against the core evaluation criteria.

The project cycle of M&E

Good practice suggests that to be effective, M&E should be addressed as part of project planning andintegrated alongside project implementation and management systems. Attention should be given to boththe processes and content of doing M&E and Impact Assessment. The central challenges for the projectM&E are legitimizing and learning function (or proving and improving) with the overall demands of theproject cycle.

In an ideal world, decisions about M&E and Impact Assessment would be made at the earlieststage of the program. There may only be some basics characteristics about the proposed project and thecontext in which it will be take place.

In many cases responsibility for M&E is split between different sections within the organization.Responsibility for ongoing monitoring is usually undertaken by the local program team together with theircounterparts in local partner organizations. Responsibility for evaluating immediate outputs and outcomes

is also usually undertaken by the local team but with support from external consultants and specialistM&E staff.

Once a program has been approved for implementation, the next stage is to set aboutoperationalizing the M&E activities. The first task will be to update the M&E framework and plan andcompleting a more detailed program management framework seeking to:

•  Reflect any changes in the original time table;

•  Detail M&E tasks and responsibilities identified and allocate to internal PM/M&E officers;

•  Prepare final TORs for any external consultant to co-conduct the M&E and agree recruitmentprocedure and timetable; and

•  Ensure M&E systems and reporting procedures and documentation are linked to project reportingsystems.

Data are collected from M&E activities throughout the project and hence analysis of the findingsshould be undertaken alongside this work. Undertaking analysis on an ongoing basis and discussingfindings as they are reported is important if the informing and learning roles of M&E are to be achieved.

The tools needed to undertake the analysis of the data collected through M&E activities willdepend upon and reflect the methodology adopted the range of data collection instruments used and thevolume and nature of the data collected. Data needs to be analyzed for different groups, comparedbetween groups and over time periods. External expertise may be required for the analysis of data, bothin terms of guidance as to what tools should be used and related to this, how data should be recordedand stored as well as undertaking the actual analysis once the data has been collected.

While M&E findings are regularly reported through project management systems, it is not unusualto find that they are not communicated beyond this, either internally and externally. It is so often the case

that those involved in M&E, especially impact assessment activities, devote a lot of time to the design andimplementation of M&E systems and not enough time to considering how their findings will be used. IfM&E practice is to fulfill both its learning and proving roles and its findings are going to influencedevelopment thinking, policy and practice, then it is important to have a sound dissemination strategy inplace.

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Annex 1

Logical Framework

10. Log frame

(i) Planned date for project completion:

(ii) Date of this summary preparation:

Narrative Summary Objectively VerifiableIndicator (OVI)

Means of Verification(MoV)

Risk/ ImportantAssumption (IA)s

Goal

Purpose/ Objective

Outputs

Inputs

Annex-2

Monitoring and Evaluation Plan of the Project

Name of the Main Activity 1:

KeyIndicatorswithDefinition

Baseline (ifapplicable)

Intendedresults/targets

Datasource

Frequencyof datacollection

Method/Approachof DataCollection

Responsible

1.2.

Name of the Main Activity 2:

KeyIndicatorswithDefinition

Baseline (ifapplicable)

Intendedresults/targets

Datasource

Frequencyof datacollection

Method/Approachof DataCollection

Responsible

1.

2.

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VIII. Knowledge Management on Climate Change

Preamble

BCCSAP has given a major emphasis on knowledge creation for removing uncertainties related to CCvulnerability, relevant adaptation and mitigation activities as well as those related to financing, availability

of technology and matters of capacity building. In every sphere there is a burgeoning literature andinformation, rather information overload. Without a proper knowledge management, it would become well-nigh impossible to see through the maze. Here in lies the rational and importance of knowledgemanagement the subject matter of this section.

Methodology

“Knowledge Management” being fairly a new topic, emphasis was given more on secondary sources ofliterature available in printed reports and also in internet. Interviews were conducted with officials ofrelevant government offices, departments, projects and NGOs in order to get first-hand information onfield experience and research findings on climate resilience and various adaptation measures related toclimate change. Reports of some research organizations and NGOs were also consulted to obtaincommunity knowledge on adaptation measures. The author also took note of the comments and views

expressed by the participants present in the inception workshop held on 10 July 2012 and the mid-termworkshop held on 30 March 2013. It is hoped that the final workshop would further generate moreinformation, views and comments in fine-tuning the report.

Knowledge Management

One of the six pillars of the Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (BCCSAP) deals with“Research and Knowledge Management” (Pillar No. 4), which aims to predict the likely scale and timing ofclimate change impacts on different sectors of economy and socioeconomic groups; to underpin futureinvestment strategies; and to ensure that Bangladesh is networked into the latest global thinking onscience, and best practices of climate change management. Under this pillar, it was suggested toestablish a “Centre for Research and Knowledge Management” on Climate Change (or a Network of

Centres) to ensure Bangladesh has access to the latest ideas and technologies from around the world,and to ensure that data is widely and freely available to researchers.

To start with, it is perhaps advisable to deliberate on the terminology called “Knowledge Management(KM)”. It involves blending of internal and external information and turning it into an actionable knowledgevia a technology platform. KM is established by encouraging communication, offering opportunities tolearn and promoting sharing of appropriate knowledge artifact. It may also be called as IntellectualCapital. Knowledge mapping (a map of knowledge repositories within an organization, accessible by all)is a prerequisite to knowledge management.

Climate change knowledge sources

 Almost every day, nay every hour, data are generated on various aspects of climate change; climateresilience, climate variability, mitigation and adaptation measures. They could be broadly grouped as a)Scientific Information; b) Official Reports and Documents; c) Community Knowledge; and d) Media

Reports.a)  Scientific Information: Scientific data on climate resilience and vulnerability are developed by

various organizations engaged in research and development; academic institutions; UNFCCCdocuments; COP resolutions; IPCC Reports etc. There are also various scientific studiesregularly undertaken by national governments globally. Various CC models are discussed ininternational conferences. Adaptation measures include finance, funding agencies, fundingmechanism and funding modalities. Many a times it was echoed that the technology transfershould be socially and culturally acceptable, economically viable and least-cost. The issue ofaccessibility of reliable, authentic and updated scientific data has been raised by many countries.

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 b)  Official Reports and Documents: National governments from time to time prepare policies,plans and strategies related to climate change vulnerability and adaptation measures. Some ofthe strategic documents are Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (BCCSAP),National Adaptation Plan of Action (NAPA) published by the Ministry of Environment and Forestsin 2009. Among the funds, there are Bangladesh Climate Change Trust Fund (BCCTF) of thegovernment and Bangladesh Climate Change Resilience Fund (BCCRF) funded by the donors.There are also survey reports, weather forecast and time series data on wind, rain andtemperature by Met Office, information on agriculture, biodiversity and forestry by AgricultureExtension dept, ocean and coastal management by Marine Science dept, land use and soil bySoil Research Institute, health and socio-economic by Health Dept etc. These data are relevantprior to undertaking of a project or plan on climate change, climate resilience and adaptation.

c)  Community Knowledge: Local community through generations have developed manyindigenous knowledge and practices as they have been facing vagaries of nature, like flood,cyclone, tidal surge, drought and desertification. They are the storehouse of such knowledge,which remain largely un-documented. Moreover, there are ethnic communities in many parts ofthe world, who have developed unique systems to address climate variability. There are manyNGOs engaged in field research and studies on climate change and adaptation of the localcommunity. Community-based adaptation strategy developed by these people over manygenerations, remain scattered and uncared for. Such knowledge runs the risk of disappearance in

the event of a major disaster causing loss of lives of the whole community (e.g., cyclones incoastal districts of Bangladesh killed 300,000 in November 1970 and 140,000 in April 1991).

d)  Media Reports: Newspaper, electronic and print media, websites, twitter are a storehouse ofinformation regularly generated on climate change and adaptation measures. They are availableand accessed mainly by a small group of people. A central office storing all such informationwould be a useful idea to make them easily available to the stakeholders.

Stakeholders

Let us deliberate on the questions related to who are the stakeholders and who needs such information?Well the stakeholders are various sectoral Ministries and departments of the government dealing withagriculture, fisheries, livestock, disaster risk reduction, health and sanitation, water and irrigation,environment and forests etc. The academicians, research and development bodies, developmentpartners, UN bodies need these information too. The members of the parliament, local government, UPmembers need such data. Officials of NGOs, civil society bodies and vulnerable communities need to beinvolved in knowledge sharing on climate change. Farmers, fishermen, agriculturists, boatmen, women,health workers, disaster risk reduction workers also need to access such data on climate change.Chambers, business community, insurance companies, banks also need to access such data.

Climate Change Knowledge Management (CCKM)

There is a felt need to develop a robust knowledge management system on climate change. ThroughCCKM, we could manage the knowledge generated on climate change, climate variability, climateresilience and adaptation measures stored in various sectors of development. Unfortunately, there is nosafe storehouse to preserve this knowledge and in absence of a common forum, users are confused and

are unable to get due benefit. Knowledge remains scattered within various agencies and people with nocoordination.

Global Scenario: UNEP RISO, Denmark

 At the global level, there are a number of initiatives undertaken to network on climate change knowledgemanagement. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) RISO Centre on Energy, Climate andSustainable Development (URC) established in Denmark with the objectives of promoting and facilitatingincorporation of environmental and developmental aspects into energy policy and planning worldwide,especially in the developing countries. With UNEP’s Energy Programme increasing focus on climate

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change, the URC activity focus has included the emerging carbon markets and the Clean DevelopmentMechanism (CDM).

The Low Carbon Development (LCD) programme facilitates analysis, research and technicalassistance on emerging mitigation policies, strategies and instruments such as Nationally AppropriateMitigation Actions (NAMAs) and works extensively with the CDM mechanism. One of the focus areas is tofacilitate access to the Carbon Market through provisions of knowledge and information. Through CDM

Pipeline, it provides free and easy access to CDM statistics by gathering data and analyzing theperformance of the CDM. A supplementary web-based tool is the CDM methodology and technologyselection for the policy makers.

UNEP RISO Centre hosts the “CDM Bazaar” in close cooperation with UNFCCC Secretariat. Inaddition to achieving the knowledge dissemination and capacity building, this programme producesguidebooks, analytical tools to fill the gap in the carbon market. UNEP RISO’s Climate ResilientDevelopment (CRD) programme carries out research, methodology development, capacity building andimplementation of actions and strategies to reduce climate variability and enhance the climate resilienceof the developing countries.

Regional Scenario: CTCN at AIT, Bangkok

 Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Bangkok has been partnering with UNEP’s Climate TechnologyCentre and Network (CTCN) aiming at establishing an information platform for improved sharing ofknowledge related to climate technologies. UNEP-led CTCN is a consortium of 11 international researchand development bodies including AIT. The creation of CTCN was initiated at the 16

th Conference of

Parties (COP-16) to UNFCCC held in Cancun in 2010, when the countries agreed on a new technologymechanism for improvement of transfer of climate related technology encompassing energy efficiency,renewable energy and early warning systems. The formal decision to establish CTCN was taken at the18

th Conference of Parties (COP-18) held in Doha in 2012.

 At the regional level, CTCN has started networking with other organizations involved in climatechange activities.

National Network: CCKN, DOE

 A single and common platform is badly needed to disseminate climate change related information in ausers-friendly way. Different organizations and institutes involved in climate resilience and change needan easy way to disseminate their data. End users need easy access to data generated by variousorganizations and bodies. Accessing data available on indigenous knowledge and practices remainmostly un-documented. CCKM will help to identify the knowledge gaps and bridge the gaps for its efficientuse by the stakeholders.

With this aim in mind, Department of Environment (DOE) has established a Climate ChangeDatabase (CCD) at the Climate Change Cell (CCC) of DOE. Main objectives of CCD were to gatherexperiences and knowledge on how to develop a user-friendly web enabled climate change database atthe CCC to be widely used by the stakeholders. In order to develop an updated web enabled climatechange database, a Climate Change Knowledge Network (CCKN) has been established at the DOE inJune 2010. Stakeholders of CCKN are around 41 of which 25 government organizations, 6 international

organization, 3 national NGOs, and 7 universities. It is tasked for climate change knowledgemanagement; mapping of CCKN Roadmap; and fixing up operational issues and activities related toclimate change.

The other organization, for long networking on this issue is Climate Change Information andKnowledge Management Network (CCIKMN) web-portal established under Comprehensive DisasterManagement Programme (CDMP) of the Ministry of Relief and Disaster Management. CDMP has beensupporting 2,000 Union Disaster Management Committees (DMCs), 200 Upazila DMCs in 40 districts.DMCs are to incorporate disaster risk issues into the planning process. CDMP is expanding livelihoodadaptation (crop, livestock and fisheries) to climate change in 200 Upazila across 40 most vulnerablecoastal districts. It is also strengthening 400 farmers’ schools to ensure their access to climate adaptationtechnological options. Under phase-II, CDMP has been focusing on institutional strengthening in risk

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reduction; managing adaptation to climate risk; disaster-proofing; rural and urban risk reduction; andimproving disaster preparedness and response measures. It offers an outstanding opportunity to improvelinkages with and synergies between disaster risk reduction and adaptation to climate change.

Similar Web-Portal has been suggested under “Climate Change Capacity Building & KnowledgeManagement (TA 7848: BAN) TA project of ADB being implemented by BCAS, Dhaka for the MOEF.

Functioning of CCKM

In order to get CCKM functioning, we are to prepare a complete inventory of knowledge available onclimate change and climate variability. Efforts are to be taken to document, who are doing what and towhat extent? Whether the data available are reliable, authentic, updated, users-friendly and easilyaccessible? Whether there are any gaps exist between and among the data? How to bridge the gaps?Whether the repository institutions can effectively disseminate the data? Do they have the capacity toeffectively handle such data? These are the questions to be resolved as the first few steps to functionCCKM.

CCKM would be the national node for knowledge on climate change and vulnerability as well asmitigation activities and scientific knowledge and expected to use information technology to identify,create, structure and share knowledge. It would help improving decision-making and dissemination at the

grass-roots level. CCKM would build innovative community partnership with evolved technologies toencourage a positive impact at the grassroots with respect to climate change risk management andadaptation.

CCKM Scope

It is expected that the CCKM would assimilate and create multi-scale knowledge on climate variability andclimate change. It would use long-term observation data to forecast and appraise people for strategicdevelopment. It would provide knowledge in newer technologies that may enhance awareness andsupport learning process of societies to cope with climate change and climate extremes at national andsub-national level. It would generate national and international co-operation on research anddevelopment and compile, integrate and synthesize multi-scale knowledge on climate variability andclimate change that are relevant to national and local development agenda.

CCKM would use long-term observation data and integrated system modeling tools to foresightand assess for strategic development visions in the context of future climate and other environmentalregimes. It would communicate and identify new knowledge that may enhance awareness and supportlearning process of societies to cope with climate change and climate extremes in both immediate andlong time scales. It would render support for science and technology capacity building at national andlocal level toward the climate resilience society and coordinate and engage in national and internationalresearch and development services and networks in the area of climate and development. 

Planned Activities of CCKM

CCKM is expected to synthesize for advanced knowledge on climate change in the context ofdevelopment from relevant research and studies in Bangladesh and elsewhere in the world using suitable

knowledge management approach and technology, with high priorities given to development and planningof the large coastal population, vulnerable people of the drought and disaster-prone areas. It is expectedto develop a “National Road Map” on science and technology for climate change adaptation to beendorsed by the Ministry of Environment and Forests and to be followed by all stakeholders engaged indevelopment projects and planning. It would coordinate and facilitate for applications of long-termobservation data and modeling in vulnerability and adaptation assessments. It would communicate forscience-based knowledge on climate change, climate variability and extreme weather events and theirrelevancies to short and long-term developments agenda at various temporal and spatial scales. It woulddocument community knowledge on climate resilience and provide network services to local NGOs andCBOs engaged is such development activities.

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Under CCKM system, following specific activities are to be undertaken: a) Establishment of aDatabase/Knowledge Bank; b) Setting up of a Web-Portal; c) Using of Mobile-SMS based Applications;d) Introduce Radio messages; e) Establish Call-Centre; f) Information Centre; and g) Hackathon.

Database/Knowledge Bank

 A comprehensive climate change related database (Knowledge Bank) is to be established to incorporateall climate change related knowledge. Activities include: collection of data from all sources; analysis andsorting of data; common formatting; updating; verify reliability and authenticity of data. The sources ofdata are scientific data available at various a) Government Offices (Met office, agriculture and fisheriesoffices, water resources), b) Research and Academic Institutions; c) Community knowledge available withNGOs and private sector; d) International Organizations; and e) popular articles in Newspaper andWebsites etc.

Web-Portal

 An interactive web-portal is to be developed which will contain the database/knowledge bank. Activitiesare to assess the requirements; design and application of data architecture and users interface; develop aContent Management System (CMS); develop Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) and provide accessto all stakeholders. Main features are to develop the a CMS for multi level access control and archivingsystem; uploading daily news, research and policy documents; interactive data and maps; graphs andreports; and link various blogs and social media. It is to be mentioned that a Climate Change Informationand Knowledge Management Network (CCIKMN) web-portal has been established under ComprehensiveDisaster Management Programme (CDMP), being implemented by the Ministry of Relief and DisasterManagement, Government of Bangladesh with UNDP assistance.

Databank/Knowledge Management Model:Sources of Data

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Similar Web-Portal has been suggested under “Climate Change Capacity Building & KnowledgeManagement (TA 7848: BAN) TA project of ADB being implemented by MOEF with the assistance ofBCAS, Dhaka. Preliminary findings of the TA project suggest setting up of a “Climate Change KnowledgeNetwork” interactive web-portal aimed at archiving all CC related data. Major features of the web-portalwould be to develop a Content Management System (CMS) for multilevel access control and archivingsystem; to upload daily news, research and policy documents; to interact climate change related data,maps, bolgs and forums, photo and video gallery; custom search including plugging in social media likegoogle-plus, facebook and twitter etc. It could be housed at Climate Change Trust (CCT) of the Ministry ofEnvironment and Forests or Government may consider Climate Change Cell, Department of Environmentto host this network.

This Web-portal would be connected to super-highway with “Access to Information (A2I)”programme established at the Prime Minister’s Office and Cabinet Division under UNDP assistance. A2Iaims to ensuring national e-Governance in the context of local best practices. It would provide advisoryservices on e-Governance Driver projects; enabling environment projects; and technical assistance to e-Governance Cell. It is suggested that the National CC Web-portal would be connected with A2I throughan MOU in order to ensure continuity and sustainability of the network. It is hoped that the on-going studywould draw on experience of this existing and proposed integrated web-portals.

Web-Portal

"#$%&'()*

Notes: A2I: Access to Information; CCC: Climate Change Cell; CCIKMN: Climate ChangeInformation and Knowledge Management Network; CCT: Climate Change Trust; CMS: ContentManagement System; UISC: Union Information and Services Centres

Mobile-SMS based Applications

People will get access to information/data not only by visiting the web-portal, but also though mobilebased SMS services, to be integrated with web-portal knowledge bank. Under CDMP, an InteractiveVoice Response (IVR) has been established and people can get information concerning flood, cyclonewarning, weather forecast, warning for marine fishermen by using cell phones through dialing “10941”.We can add a few more data in order to develop IVR instead of creating a new one based on successand failure of the existing applications.

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Radio Messages

Climate change information related to agriculture, seeds, irrigation, fertilizer, floods, cyclones, warningscan be accessed through Radio messages, specially generated by Radio stations of the coastal districts.People of 16 cyclone-prone districts could access such information through local radio stations. Suchprogramme has been undertaken within CDMP under the Ministry of Relief and Disaster Management ofBangladesh. There are “Radio Listeners Clubs” to help disseminate climate change related information. It

could be hooked with the existing 400 farmers’ field schools to ensure their access to climate adaptivetechnological options. This programme could be further developed and improved upon.

Call Centre

 A Call-Centre is to be established to answer all questions related to climate change, climate variability,climate resilience and adaptation. The likely place could be at the “Climate Change Cell” of the DOE or atCDMP of the Ministry of Relief and Disaster Management, where call centre people will be equipped withall climate resilience and change related knowledge and information. The Call Centre is intended toprovide information services on agriculture, seedling, irrigation, fisheries, weather, salinity, drought,adaptation measures and community knowledge and practices.

Information Centres

Knowledge Bank will tie up with the existing Union Information and Services Centres (UISC) which havephysical existence in rural areas. The Bank will share information with these centres, enabling the localcommunity accessing such information. LGED has so far set up Union Information Centres in 4,502unions under the Government’s “Access to Information (A2I)” programme servicing the local communityon various issues. UISC has been providing ICT based health, education and training services. It helps inmobile banking, payment of bills for insurance, electricity, conduct soil tests, fertilizer advice, accessinggovernment forms and notification, birth and death registration, results of public exams, legal advice etc.It has now been easier to obtain copies of khatian and Parcha by applying at UISC. The Knowledge Bankwould share information with these Centres where the local people will come to get necessary informationrelated to climate change, weather pattern, disaster risk reduction etc.

Hackathon

Day-long hackathons are to be organised for ensuring consultation with people representing variousdomains related to climate change and disaster risk reduction.

Future challenges

There are many future challenges, which could impede progress of CCKM. They are:

•  Where to host CCKM? It was suggested that Climate Change Trust (CCT) under the Ministry ofEnvironment and Forests could host such a network. Perhaps, possibility of CCKN recentlyestablished at the Climate Change Cell of the DOE could be a viable candidate for such hosting;

  How to make CCKM easily accessible to the policy makers and officials of the government, semi-autonomous bodies, research organizations, development partners, NGOs, local community,indigenous peoples and the vulnerable groups? Experts have to device such a mechanism;

!  How to ensure continuous flow of funds for running CCKM and to ensure sustainability of theCCKM Centre and to make it a users-friendly one? One suggestion could be mainstreaming thecentre by incorporating it in the revenue budget;

!  How to establish a network with the global climate change networking organizations, like UNEPRISO Centre on Energy, Climate and Sustainable Development (URC), Denmark and regionalagency like Climate Technology Centre and Network (CTCN) at AIT, Bangkok? Besides theseagencies, CCKM Centre should establish regular contact with the UNFCCC Secretariat, Bonnand with other nodal agencies;

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!  How to connect National CC Web-portal with “Access to Information (A2I)” established at thePrime Minister’s Office and Cabinet Division and to ensure its continuity and sustainability withproper funding? Mainstreaming of the Centre is only the viable option;

!  On data management, the challenges are its accessibility. Whether the data are reliable,authentic, applicable and updated targeting the users’ demand and requirements? In order tomaintain the quality of data, routine mutual consultation among the stakeholders is necessary;

!  On regular updating of CCKM, the challenges are how to help the feeder agencies instrengthening their institutional capacity in supplying reliable, authentic, users-friendly andupdated data? Probable way out could be availability of a fund dedicated on strengthening andtraining of these agencies;

!  While linking media (electronic and print) and social media (Blogs, FB, Twitter etc), thechallenges are to make the climate change data users-friendly ones and demand driven. Onlycontinuous dialogue among all stakeholders could solve this issue;

!  On fund accessing, challenges are on how to access information relating to funding mechanism,application procedures, guidelines, formats and how to make evaluation process transparent andeasily accessible to the stakeholders. Keeping all information, guidelines, application procedures,Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) etc. posted on the wall could be a way out;

!  On accessing very sensitive “community knowledge and practices”, challenges are how todocument them, where to start, how to reach the community, the vulnerable groups, how to

access the indigenous knowledge and practices on climate change and climate variability, whomto compensate, from whom to take Prior Informed Consent (PIC) etc. Generally, some NGOs andresearch bodies are documenting such knowledge. They are to be strengthened and broughtunder the wider network;

!  On implementation of BCCSAP, the challenges are how to easily access BCCSAP in a users-friendly language, how to access the Climate Change Trust Fund and other funds beingmaintained by the government and other development partners and information related to fundingmechanism. Perhaps, posting of Bangla translation of BCCSAP in users-friendly language alongwith all answers related to FAQs would help in this regard.

Conclusion

Through this study, an effort has been taken to revisit BCCSAP and to prioritise adaptation actionprogrammes, finding out of a framework for mitigation response, developing indicators for monitoring andevaluation and mainstreaming adaptation needs. For documentation and coordination of the outcomes ofthese reports, the proposed knowledge management network as suggested by this specific study couldplay an important role. Hosting of these reports for easy accessing by the stakeholders in user-friendlylanguage and style is a viable option.

BCCSAP formulated in 2009 has a long way to go in making it a fully functional one. Theestablishment of a “Network Centre” under Pillar No. 4 entitled “Research and Knowledge Management”is a daunting task. Being one of the most vulnerable countries to climate change, Bangladesh has so farconducted a number of studies on vulnerability and adaptation to climate change and a pioneer in thisregard. Bangladesh has also been very proactive in participating COPs and other UNFCCC meetings

which help generate scientific information on climate change for Bangladesh in particular and the world ingeneral. Assessment Reports of IPCC deliberated more scientifically on the vulnerability of Bangladesh toclimate change and not much on how to make this knowledge available to the stakeholders. UNEP RISOCentre, Denmark could be further strengthened to provide technical expertise to the developing countriesin establishing and functioning of such a network.

It is hoped that the “Climate Cell” set up at the Ministry of Environment and Forests would pioneerthis knowledge management issue by establishing a network for easy accessing by all stakeholders.Perhaps, CCKN recently established at the Climate Change Cell of the DOE could play an important rolein this regard. In order to achieve that, as a first step, future challenges as elaborated above are to be metin earnest.

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Annex

List of officials interviewed:

1. Mr Mohammad Abdul Quayyum, National Project Director (Additional Secretary), ComprehensiveDisaster Management Programme (CDMP), Ministry of Disaster Management and Relief, 92-93Mohakhali C/A, Dhaka.

2. Mr. Md Didarul Ahsan, Coordinator (Additional Secretary), Climate Change Unit, Old Bana Bhaban (5th floor), Mohakhali, Dhaka.

3. Mr A Shah, Assistant Director (Planning and Development) Climate Change Unit, Old Bana Bhaban,Mohakhali, Dhaka.

4. Mr Sukanta Sen, Executive Director, BARCIK, House. 50, Rd. 27, Dhanmondi, Dhaka.

5. Kazi Monirul Islam, Deputy Chief, Ministry of Environment and Forests and National Project Director,“Climate Change Capacity Building and Knowledge Management in Bangladesh” (TA-7848 BAN), TAproject of MOEF funded by Asian Development Bank and outsourced to BCAS, Dhaka.

6. Mr Md Abdul Wahed Tomal, ICT Specialist, “Climate Change Capacity Building and KnowledgeManagement in Bangladesh” (TA-7848 BAN).

7. Mr Morshed, UNDP (facilitating A2I project).

Some Climate Change related Networks are as follows:

a) Bangladesh Disaster Knowledge Network (BDKN)b) Bangladesh Environment Network (BEN)c) Bangladesh Youth Environmental Initiative (BYEI)Climate and Development Knowledge

Network (CDKN)d) Climate Change Knowledge Network (CCKN), DOE, MOEF, Dhakae) Climate Change Information and Knowledge Management Network (CCIKMN) web-portal,

CDMP, Dhakaf) Climate and Disaster Risk Reduction, Solution Exchangeg) Global Development Learning Network (GDLN)

h) Network on Climate Change, Bangladesh (NCC,B)i) The South Asian Network for Development and Environmental Economics (SANDEE),Kathmandu

 j) UNEP RISO Centre on Energy, Climate and Sustainable Development (URC), Denmarkk) UNEP’s Climate Technology Centre and Network (CTCN), AIT, Bangkok

IX. Summary and Way Forward

There is an increasing awareness that climate change may nullify much of the hard earned economic andsocial gains in Bangladesh. In addressing the problems associated with climate change, the Governmentprepared the Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (BCCSAP), a 10-year program, in2008 which was revised somewhat later in 2009. The BCCSAP, purportedly a knowledge-based actionplan is a 10 year action plan to build capacity and resilience with in the country to meet climate changechallenges over the next 20-25 years under six thematic areas for action. These thematic areas are : (i)food security, social protection, and health; (ii) comprehensive disaster management; (iii) infrastructuraldevelopment; (iv) research and knowledge management;(v) mitigation and low-carbon development; and(vi) capacity building and institutional strengthening. The BCCSAP had been an approved programme ofthe Government which has been subsumed within the Sixth Five Year Plan as well as the PerspectivePlan for the country.

To operationalise the BCCSAP, the Government also established the National Climate ChangeFund and allocated about $45 million to it in the budget for the year 2008-09 which has been replenishedseveral times since then. Furthermore, a Bangladesh Climate Change Resilience Fund, multi-donor trustfund was established to pool funds from development partners to implement a long-term strategy to adaptto the adverse effects of climate change in Bangladesh.

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Despite all these, there are concerns regarding the slow pace of implementation of the BCCSAP.Furthermore there had been issues which have come up since the formulation of BCCSAP. These issueshave implications for proper implementation of the Action Plan. Time is now ripe to revisit the BCCSAPand critically review a few issues of importance related to the Action Plan. Oxfam Bangladesh thereforecontracted out the present study on “Review of BCCSAP-2009” to review and identify barriers andconstraints to its implementation including its prioritization, mainstreaming and monitoring & evaluation inparticular.

 As the magnitude and long-term nature of the climate change threat is increasingly betterunderstood, it is becoming clear that simply implementing a set of adaptation projects, although useful, isnot going to be sufficient. If long-term resilience to climate change impacts is to be built into the economyand society of the country, then climate change adaptation (as well as mitigation) needs to be embedded(or mainstreamed) into regular national development planning and actions at all levels. The present studytherefore aims to identify barriers & constraints to and to provide a policy direction towards enhanced ofimplementation of BCCSAP. To realize the broad objective, several activities were envisaged. Thespecific objectives included the following:

xi.  a prioritization of the programmes and projects under BCCSAP;xii.  explore principles of adaptation and its mainstreaming into development plan;xiii. prepare for mitigation with the formulation of a NAMA (a post-BCCSAP development);xiv. monitoring and evaluation of the BCCSAP activities; and

xv.  knowledge management.The only limitation here in terms of content is that it leaves out many other relevant issues such aswhether policies have been harmonized so far.

The key findings from the five specific area of examination and analyses may be summed up as follows:

Prioritisation

The principles of prioritization in a poor, climate threatened, food insecure country needs to be properlyunderstood. And here the earlier guidelines of NAPA may be of help as it includes the fur basic principlessuch as level and extent of vulnerability to be addressed, synergy with poverty reduction, environmentalsynergy and cost-effectiveness. These are principles to be kept in view in choosing projects within aprogramme. And there is generally not much debate about that. But BCCSAP is actually about the types

of programmes that needs to be undertaken.

BCCSAP includes six thematic areas as discussed earlier. Each thematic area has severalprogramme areas, in total there are 44 programme areas and various activities under each programmearea. The thematic areas or pillars have no prioritization as such but food security and security of life, andproperty are most basic to human existence, the first two are the most important with food security takingprecedence over all others. Except for pillar 5 on low carbon development (to be discussed in thefollowing section), the rest of the themes are actually supportive in nature. Thus, theme three oninfrastructure basically relates to water management which is a precondition for many of the adaptationactivities as vulnerabilities often arise due to too much or too little water and at the anomalies they createin agriculture and food production as well as intensifying natural hazards.

BCCSAP has also made another prioritization in terms of the time line within which a programmeshould be examined and relevant actions taken. These indicate which ones to be taken immediately and

which ones later over the short, medium and long run. Similarly other programmes related to climatechange also made certain prioritization. Given all these the final prioritization may be based on thefollowing criteria:

- Relevance to the national plans or sectoral Plans- Strategic alignment to BCCSAP- Project benefits and costs- Sustainability of the projects and- Institutional and human capacity of the implementing agency.

Using a suggested matrix and the above criteria, a ranked list of projects may be prepared and furtheraction may be taken accordingly.

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Mainstreaming adaptation into national planning process

The process of mainstreaming has to be grounded on certain principles that inter alia include:precautionary principle, stitching the NAPA and NAP into a coherent whole, realizing co-benefits withmitigation, principle of learning by doing, accountability and transparency, participation of all stakeholders,efficiency and cost-effectiveness, synergy with national and sectoral policy objectives and othermultilateral environmental agreements (MEAs), flexibility and adaptiveness and subsidiarity i.e

decentralization of decision-making, etc.

Moreover, mainstreaming climate change into planning needs to be done at every level, not justnational plans. Thus sectoral ministries such as water management, agriculture, health and others alsoneed to mainstream climate change into their respective sectoral plans. Also very important is the need tomainstream into local level planning where possible. It is to be also noted that NGOs have a very strongrole to play, especially in mainstreaming of adaptation. Many NGOs are working already at local level forenhancing the community-level adaptive capacity. Climate change adaptation is mainly local, and NGOshave access to remote, marginalized areas in Bangladesh.

While adaptation projects are a useful place to start, the long-term nature of climate impacts willrequire an altogether greater effort to develop a climate resilient economy. Thus, instead of developingseparate, stand-alone, National Adaptation Plans (NAP) as many countries are doing, it is better tomainstream climate change into regular national plans. Therefore, the NAP process should be seen as a

process of mainstreaming rather than producing a stand-alone plan.

Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMA)

The Bali COP in 2007 in its decision 1/CP13 called for nationally appropriate mitigation actions bydeveloping countries including LDCs. This was at that time voluntary. But by now, as has been decided inDurban COP in 2011, all countries will come under a legally binding agreement for cutting green housegas emission on mandatory basis. This will necessitate the preparation of a plan for Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action or NAMA. Appropriate policy direction and action programmes are requiredto attract national and international private sectors and other related stakeholders on NAMA.

Several of the stepping stones for preprartion of a NAMA are already there in the form of severalpolicies and activities. But conceptually the substantive issues related to NAMA are already in some form

in the thematic area 5 on low carbon development. True, the actual NAMA will be not simply what is to bedone but also include how, by whom, when and with what systems of financing and monitoring,verification and reporting are these to be implemented. The issues of financing and technology transferand development will be major features of any NAMA along with the international monitoring, reportingand verification. Furthermore it must be kept in mind that the whole framework will be sustainabledevelopment of the country concerned.

Given these, and that the NAMA process is still developing an initial shopping list for NAMAsectors may include the following;

xv) Energy production and Supplyxvi) Transport and its Infrastructurexvii) Industryxviii) Residential and Commercial Buildingsxix) Agriculture

xx) Forestryxxi) Waste Management, etc.

Note that all these have been mentioned under the 5th pillar of the BCCSAP.

Note also that information provided in Bangladesh 2nd

  National Communication to UNFCCCindicates total emissions of CO2 and CH4 in 2005 are 59067.85Gg and 1879.30Gg respectively. Out ofthis total emissions, energy sector is the largest source of GHG emissions (37949.60Gg CO2 and26.03Gg CH4) followed by Industrial Processes and Land-use Change and Forestry. On the other hand, Agriculture sector (1215.69Gg CH4) followed by Waste Management are the largest CH4 emitt ing sectorsin the country.

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Under Energy sector, Energy Industries (12780Gg CO2) followed by Manufacturing Industriesincluding Construction, Transport, and Residential & Commercial Buildings have taken the lead in GHGemissions. The list of potential areas of interventions in energy sector as NAMAs on the basis of abovemay be the following:

aa) Combined Cycle Gas Turbine (CCGT) to replace Steam Turbine (ST) plants,bb) Rehabilitation and modernization of old power plants,

cc) Upgrading and rehabilitation of Transmission and Distribution lines of electricity for the reductionof loss,

dd) Coal fired supercritical boilers in place of sub-critical boilers,ee) Biomass gasification or biogas plant based electricity fed to the grid,ff) Waste based electricity fed to the grid,gg) Efficiency improvement of rice parboiling,hh) Industrial cogeneration or utilization of waste heat from captive generators,ii) Wind and solar PV electricity fed to the grid, jj) Solar PV irrigation pumps to replace shallow tube-wells,kk) Improved cook stoves,ll) Solar PV lanterns to replace kerosene lamps,mm) Use of efficient lighting devices, etc

Monitoring and Evaluation

For any large scale programme of action by any entity, the success or failures along with the constraintsand also for learning from them for future actions, a system of monitoring and evaluation should be builtinto them. This issue was not specifically included in BCCSAP possibly because the implementationmechanism was not certain at the time of its formulation and/or revision. Attention is to be provided to putin place a robust monitoring and evaluation procedures to monitor implementation of the projects underthe two funds which support BCCSAP.

The BCCTF, the domestically financed und for implementation of the BCCSAP, has under itsguidelines logical frameworks for project designing. As has been shown such a logframe can be turnedinto a tool for performance or result based monitoring which is strongly advocated for BCCSAP projects.Illustrations have been provided for adaptation projects under agriculture and for solar energy projects.

Knowledge Management

One of the six pillars of the Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (BCCSAP) deals with“Research and Knowledge Management” (Pillar No. 4), which aims to predict the likely scale and timing ofclimate change impacts on different sectors of economy and socioeconomic groups; to underpin futureinvestment strategies; and to ensure that Bangladesh is networked into the latest global thinking onscience, and best practices of climate change management. Under this pillar, it was suggested toestablish a “Centre for Research and Knowledge Management” on Climate Change (or a Network ofCentres) to ensure Bangladesh has access to the latest ideas and technologies from around the world,and to ensure that data is widely and freely available to researchers.

While quite a few knowledge management and data banks apparently have been set up inBangladesh, these suffer from inadequate attention and proper planning. In order to get a Climate

Change Knowledge Management (CCKM) system functioning, one needs to prepare a completeinventory of knowledge available on climate change and climate variability and all related information.Efforts are to be taken to document, who are doing what and to what extent? Whether the data availableare reliable, authentic, updated, users-friendly and easily accessible? Whether there are any gaps existbetween and among the data? How to bridge the gaps? Whether the repository institutions can effectivelydisseminate the data? Do they have the capacity to effectively handle such data? These are thequestions to be resolved as the first few steps to function CCKM.

CCKM would be the national node for knowledge on climate change and vulnerability as well asmitigation activities and scientific knowledge and expected to use information technology to identify,create, structure and share knowledge. It would help improving decision-making and dissemination at thegrass-roots level. CCKM would build innovative community partnership with evolved technologies to

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encourage a positive impact at the grassroots with respect to climate change risk management andadaptation.

CCKM is expected to develop a “National Road Map” on science and technology for climatechange adaptation and mitigation and all supporting activities. It would collect, document and disseminatein user-friendly form all information and data in original and processed form, if so demanded, related toclimate change science, technology, adaptation concepts and practices, mitigation concepts and

practices and their impact, funding opportunities, technology and intellectual property rights and climatechange talks and their implication and analyses. Some of these will be available directly while for othersadequate references and links may be provided.

Under CCKM system, the following specific activities may be undertaken: a) Establishment of aDatabase/Knowledge Bank; b) Setting up of a Web-Portal; c) Using of Mobile-SMS based Applications;d) Introduce Radio messages; e) Establish Call-Centre; f) Information Centre; and g) Hackathon. It maybe mentioned here that none of the knowledge management networks or centres so far have not matchedthese ideas in practice.

Way Forward

None of the issues discussed above have so far been really put in practice or been practiced only in very

limited manner. The prime need right now is to have climate change issues, more specifically NAP andNAMA to be integrated with development planning. Some related activities such as climate proofing ofdevelopment projects or designing projects with built-in climate proofing has just begun by introducingclimate change issues in the Development Project Proformas. But integration of BCCSAP intodevelopment planning is yet to begin. The implementation of BCCSAP would also require significantstrengthening of the coordination capacity of the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF) withrelevant ministries and agencies.

While the integration goes on, this should not keep other things in waiting. These includeprioritization, M&E activities and knowledge management. NAP and NAMA may also not wait but needsto be carefully done. Pilot NAP and NAMAs may be prepared and attempts should be made to integratethem with appropriate development programmes and policies so that over time with the experiencegained in planning may be further improved for better integration.

In fact, it appears that given the experience so far of the implementation of the BCCSAP undertwo funds, probably time is ripe for revisiting it and integrate into it the issues discussed and analysed inthis report. Such a review may give attention to, apart from those that have been described above)several of the missing issues such as loss and damage and their estimation, break down BCCSAP intoelements of NAP and NAMA, integration of NAP and NAMA into development planning process, policiesfor climate change management in all its aspects (adaptation, mitigation, finance, technology, capacity-building), and harmonization of existing policies.

With regard to the barrier of its implementation, the issue of institutionalization needs to be givenclearer focus, particularly the roles of different ministries, particularly the MoEF and MoP as well as majorstakeholders. Furthermore, the role of the private sector and the non-state actors will have to be clarified.If need be the Rules of Business of the ministries may be revisited and reformulated because climatechange and its effects permeate every endeavour of human action and hence unless clear ideas emergeand practice done based on the specific roles of various administrative arms of the government, it would

be a chaotic situation and the price would be paid dearly by the nation, particularly the poor.

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For Detail: Nuzhat Imam, Campaign Officer, Oxfam

[email protected]