Loneliness and Depression: Contrasting the Buffering Effects ......Self Compassion as Moderator of...

Loneliness and Depression: Contrasting the BufferingEffects of Self-Compassion and Self-Esteem

Item Type text; Electronic Thesis

Authors Haynes, Katelyn Noel

Publisher The University of Arizona.

Rights Copyright © is held by the author. Digital access to this materialis made possible by the University Libraries, University of Arizona.Further transmission, reproduction or presentation (such aspublic display or performance) of protected items is prohibitedexcept with permission of the author.

Download date 03/02/2021 09:04:12

Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/625006

http://hdl.handle.net/10150/625006

Self Compassion as Moderator of Loneliness and Depression 1

LONELINESS AND DEPRESSION:

CONTRASTING THE BUFFERING EFFECTS OF SELF-COMPASSION AND SELF-ESTEEM

By

KATELYN NOEL HAYNES

____________________

A Thesis Submitted to The Honors College

In Partial Fulfillment of the Bachelors degree

With Honors in

Care, Health & Society

THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

M A Y 2 0 1 7

Approved by: ____________________________ Dr. Terrence D. Hill, Ph.D. School of Sociology


ABSTRACT

Objective. Several studies have established a positive association between loneliness and

depression. This thesis builds on previous work by testing and contrasting the potential

moderating influences of self-compassion and self-esteem. Methods. This study employed

original survey data collected from 101 undergraduate students enrolled in a large public

university in the southwestern United States. Focal variables included multi-item measures of

loneliness, depressive symptoms, self-compassion, self-esteem, and a range of sociodemographic

characteristics. Ordinary least squares regression was used to model continuous depressive

symptoms as a function of predictor variables. Cross-product interaction terms (loneliness*self-

compassion and loneliness*self-esteem) were used to assess moderation. Results. Consistent with

previous research, loneliness was positively associated with depressive symptoms. This

association was moderated by self-compassion such that loneliness was less depressing at higher

levels of self-compassion. The association between loneliness and depressive symptoms did not

vary according to level of self-esteem. In other words, the mental health consequences of

loneliness were comparable for respondents with higher or lower levels of self-esteem.

Conclusion. Although loneliness was associated with higher levels of depression, this association

was less pronounced for respondents who reported being more self-compassionate or accepting

and understanding of themselves. In contrast, simply having higher self-esteem or a positive self-

attitude failed to buffer the effects of loneliness.


DEDICATION

This project is dedicated to my grandmothers: Barbara Haynes and the late Joyce Meder.

Both women were incredible nurses who cared passionately about their individual patients and

reforming the healthcare system as a whole. I am proud to be related to such strong, unyielding,

and inspirational women, and I look forward to following in their footsteps as I begin my career

as a nurse.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Dr. Terrence Hill for supporting this thesis. Before Dr. Hill was my

thesis advisor, he was my professor in a research methods class. I was able to apply much of

what I learned in his class directly to this project; it was incredibly rewarding to see concepts

from the classroom help me accomplish something I am personally passionate about. As I

worked on the project, Dr. Hill’s years of experience in research was incredibly beneficial, as the

world and language of research is fairly new to me. Additionally, Dr. Hill provided several of his

own research articles as models for this project (Hill et al., 2009; Hill et al., 2014; Hill et al.,

2016; Rote et al., 2012).

I would also like to thank Dr. Leslie Langbert. During my junior year, I took a class with

Dr. Langbert about self-care in the helping professions. Although the class focused specifically

on self-compassion for just a few weeks, it inspired the topic of my thesis project. As a whole,

the class changed the way I will take care of myself as a future helping professional, and

prepared me to effectively nurture others in an emotionally taxing career.

My college journey as whole would not have been possible without the love and support

of my parents, family, and friends. They have encouraged me not just in my academic endeavors,

but also in personal, relational, and spiritual growth.


TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction 6

Theoretical Background 7

Loneliness and Depression 7

Defining Self-Compassion and Comparing it to Self-Esteem 7

The Moderating Influence of Self-Compassion 10

The Moderating Influence of Self-Esteem 11

Hypotheses 12

Methods 13

Procedure 13

Participants 13

Measures: Focal Variables 13

Measures: Background Variables 15

Statistical Procedures 17

Results 17

Descriptive Results 17

Moderation Analysis 17

Discussion 18

Summary 18

Previous Work 18

Limitations 19


Conclusion 19

References 21

Tables and Figures 27

Table 1: Descriptive Statistics 27

Table 2: Ordinary Least Squares Regression of Depression 28

Figure 1: The effect of loneliness on depression as a function of self-compassion 29

Appendices 30

Appendix 1: Informed Consent 30

Appendix 2: Survey 32


INTRODUCTION

Self-compassion is a relatively young concept in the research world. It is defined by three

major elements: self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness (Neff, 2003b). Essentially,

individuals with high self-compassion show themselves love and kindness. Instead of becoming

focused on one’s shortcomings and failures, individuals with self-compassion acknowledge their

own painful feelings as part of the human experience, and choose to comfort and support

themselves using their strong mindfulness skills. Self-compassion is related to but distinct from

self-esteem (Neff, 2003b; Neff & Vonk, 2009). Self-esteem refers to a positive or negative

attitude toward the self, and is largely based on comparison to others. Self-compassion refers to a

supportive and loving orientation toward the self.

To date, self-compassion research has focused on defining and exploring self-compassion

as a measurement construct (Neff, 2003a; Neff, 2003b; Neff, 2016; Neff, Whitttaker & Karl,

2017). Some studies have discovered associations between self-compassion and other variables

(Hall et al., 2013; Neff & McGeHee, 2010; Neff & Beretvas, 2013; Neff & Pommier, 2013; Neff

& Faso, 2015; Yarnell & Neff, 2013). Other studies have even identified self-compassion as an

independent variable in causal relationships (Breines & Chen, 2012; Jeon, Lee & Kwon, 2016).

However, only two studies published in peer-reviewed journals have framed self-compassion as

a moderator of established health disparities (Chung, 2014; Pisitsungkagarn et al., 2016). My

project seeks to contribute to existing research in two ways. First, I test whether self-compassion

moderates or buffers the positive association between loneliness and depression. I also compare

the moderating effects of self-compassion to the moderating effects of self-esteem.


THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Loneliness and Depression

There is a well-studied, strong association between loneliness and depression. A meta-

analysis conducted in 2006 analyzed the findings of thirty-three studies to convincingly confirm

this association (Mahon et al.) Although this association has been well documented, few studies

have attempted to further explain this relationship or determine causality, and even fewer studies

have analyzed potential moderators of this association. A study conducted in 2012 found that

“although bi-directional effects tended to emerge, loneliness was a more consistent predictor of

depressive symptoms than vice versa” (Vanhalst et al., 2012). In other words, although

loneliness and depression both seem to cause each other, loneliness is the stronger causal

predictor. The study also discovered that young adults tend to cope with loneliness by using

maladaptive strategies such as blaming themselves, and engaging in passive coping strategies

instead of active ones (Vanhalst et al., 2012). Other studies have discovered that the association

between loneliness and depression is moderated by uncontrolled ruminative thoughts (Vanhalst

et al., 2006), spiritual resources (Han & Richardson, 2010) and supportive relationships (Murray

et al., 2016).

Defining Self-Compassion and Comparing it to Self Esteem

Self-compassion is a relatively new concept in research. Several papers discussing the

theory behind self-compassion emerged in the early 2000s. At the forefront of self-compassion

research is Dr. Kristen Neff who is responsible for publishing the pioneering theory behind self-

compassion (2003b), creating the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS) (Neff, 2003a), and continuing to

contribute to self-compassion research at large. According to Neff:


Self-compassion involves being touched by and open to one’s own suffering, not

avoiding or disconnecting from it, generating the desire to alleviate one’s suffering and to

heal oneself with kindness. It also involves offering nonjudgmental understanding to

one’s pain, inadequacies, and failures, so that one’s experience is seen as part of the

larger human experience (2003b, p. 87).

At first, this definition seems complex, but self-compassion can be simplified into three essential

elements: self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness. Self-kindness involves

intentionally extending patience, grace and warmth to the self rather than thinking critically or

harshly about the self. Common humanity refers to one’s ability to recognize their personal

experiences in life as part of the human experience at large, rather than viewing them as isolating

or highly individualized. Lastly, mindfulness refers to one’s ability to “hold pain thoughts and

feelings in balanced awareness, rather than over-identifying with them (Neff, 2003b, p. 89).”

Since it’s debut, self-compassion research has focused heavily on discovering

associations between self-compassion and other variables. Several studies have found that self-

compassion is strongly associated with overall well-being and mental health (Hall et al., 2013;

Neff & McGeHee, 2010). Self-compassion is positively associated with physical well-being

(Hall et. al, 2013). A study conducted by Neff and Pommier discovered that self-compassion is

associated with more perspective taking, less personal distress, greater forgiveness, greater

compassion for humanity, greater empathetic concern, and altruism (2013). Self-compassion is

associated with more positive relationship behavior in romantic relationships (Neff & Beretvas,

2013). A study by Neff and Faso found that self-compassion was positively associated with life

satisfaction, hope, and goal reengagement, and was negatively associated with depression and

parental stress (2015). In interpersonal conflict situations, self-compassion was positively


associated with likelihood to compromise, authenticity, and relational well-being and was

negatively associated with likelihood to self-subordinate needs, and emotional turmoil (Yarnell

& Neff, 2013). Clearly, self-compassion is associated with several beneficial variables. However,

it is important to note that these studies have not determined causality, and it cannot be assumed

that self-compassion actually causes changes in these variables.

While self-esteem and self-compassion are definitely related, their differences are

theoretically and empirically significant. Self-compassion and self-esteem certainly share some

positive benefits. Among these are taking a positive emotional stance towards oneself,

motivating productive behavior, and protecting against the debilitating effects of self- judgment

(Horney, 1950; Neff, 2003b). However, the most significant theoretical difference between the

two constructs is that self-compassion is “not based on the performance evaluations of self and

other, or on congruence with ideal standards (Neff, 2003b).” In other words, instead of making

self-judgments, regardless of if those judgments are positive or negative, self-compassion relies

on recognizing one’s common humanity and focusing on feelings of compassion towards the

self. Because positive feelings towards the self are based on compassion and common humanity

rather than comparison to others, those with high self-compassion actually experience openness

and connection with others rather than feeling threatened or competitive (Neff, 2003b). Self-

compassion leads to less narcissism and self-centeredness, and increases one’s ability to feel

compassion for others. A two-phase study conducted by Neff and Vonk in 2009 directly

compared the effects of self-esteem and self-compassion on psychological functioning. In phase

one, “It was found that self-compassion predicted more stable feelings of self-worth. Self-

compassion also had a stronger negative association with social comparison, public self-

consciousness, self-rumination, anger, and need for cognitive closure. Self-esteem (but not self-


compassion) was positively associated with narcissism (p. 23).” In phase two, “It was found that

the two constructs were statistically equivalent predictors of happiness, optimism, and positive

affect (p.23).” In other words, the study concluded that both self-esteem and self-compassion

lead to beneficial mood states; however, self-compassion is not associated with several of the

downsides that self-esteem is.

The Moderating Influence of Self-Compassion

To date, only two studies published in peer-reviewed journals have explored the

moderating effects of self-compassion. The first paper was published in 2014, and established

that self-compassion had a small, yet statically significant, buffering effect on the positive

relationship between body image satisfaction and self-esteem (Pisitsungkagarn et al., p. 333).

The study’s sample consisted exclusively of adolescent females, and concluded that cultivating

self-compassion among this population could effectively buffer the relationship between body

image satisfaction and self-esteem, as well as provide general health and psychological benefits

(Pisitsungkagarn et al., 2014, p. 338). The second study was published in 2016, and established

that self-compassion was a statistically significant buffer for the association between lack of

forgiveness and depression (Chung, p. 573). This study’s majority of this study’s sample was

female (72%); only 89 men participated in the study.

While there may not yet be strong empirical data that supports the theory that self-

compassion has moderating effects on existing health disparities, there is certainly a strong

theoretical argument—especially in the case of loneliness and depression. Loneliness and

depression are painful psychological experiences. Self-compassion’s three elements are all

theoretically relevant to addressing this psychological pain and isolation. First, self-kindness

allows the individual to be gentle with the self, and offer themself grace, patience and warmth.


This may be particularly important for those who feel lonely, since it allows them to offer

themselves the kindness that they feel they do not receive from others. Second, common

humanity allows the individual to see their experience with loneliness and depression as part of

the global human experience—something that several people experience and must cope with.

Instead of feeling isolated in their experience with loneliness and depression, they recognize that

several people endure this type of pain, therefore combating their loneliness. Third, mindfulness

allows the individual to hold their painful emotions in balanced awareness: accepting the reality

that they are in pain, yet not allowing that pain to consume them. A study conducted in 2006

confirmed that ruminative thoughts intensified the association between loneliness and depression

(Vanhalst et al.); this study provides some empirical support for the idea that mindfulness should

counteract loneliness and depression, since those who are mindful, by definition, do not engage

in rumination.

The Moderating Influence of Self-Esteem

The moderating effects of self-esteem have certainly been more extensively studied than

those of self-compassion. Most of this research centers on discrimination experiences, as well as

workplace experiences; however, some research sheds light on the relationships between self-

esteem, loneliness and depression. Self-esteem was found to moderate the association between

perceived discrimination and psychological distress (Feng & Chu, 2015), as well as the

association between unfair treatment and depressive mood (Meier, Semmer & Hupfield, 2009).

A study conducted in 2017 discovered that self-esteem might help explain the relationship

between BMI and depression/suicidality (Yusofov et al.).

Theoretically, self-esteem should be associated with low levels of depression and

loneliness. Those who take a positive attitude towards them, and think of themselves as


important, valuable and worthy, are probably not as depressed or lonely. While it certainly

makes sense that self-esteem would be negatively correlated with loneliness and depression, it

may not necessarily buffer the relationship between loneliness and depression. Since self-esteem

is often based in one’s evaluation of themselves compared to others or societal standards,

boosting self-esteem may require an individual to adopt an unrealistic view of him or herself

(Neff, 2003b). In theory, this is difficult to do since people tend to only accept feedback about

them that verifies what that already believe about themselves (Swann, 1990, 1992). In other

words, people don’t buy unrealistic praise. Unrealistic praise is also dangerous in that it may

dismiss or avoid potentially harmful behaviors within in individual that do need to be changed

(Neff, 2003b). Rather than gently accepting one’s failures or pain and skillfully confronting them

as self-compassion encourages, self-esteem may require that an individual ignore their failures

and pains in order to see themselves as more worthy and important. (Neff, 2003b; Swann, 1992,

1996).

Hypotheses

Drawing from self-compassion theory and previous research, I expect that the positive

association between loneliness and depression will be attenuated for people with higher levels of

self-compassion (H1). I also expect that self-compassion will be a stronger moderator of the

positive association between loneliness and depression than self-esteem (H2).


METHODS

Procedure

This study employs survey research to gather data from undergraduate students at a major

public university in the southwest region of the United States. The University of Arizona’s

Institutional Review Board approves the project and survey: Protocol 1609893076. Two

professors at the university offered class time for survey administration in four different

undergraduate sociology classes. Students were given basic information about the survey via a

brief spoken introduction and an informed consent document (see Appendix 1) to keep for their

personal records. The survey asked for no identifying information; therefore, the researcher

explained to students that their informed consent was implied upon the return of a completed

survey to the researcher. The survey asked for basic demographic information, and included

measurements for self-compassion, self-esteem, loneliness, and depression (see Appendix 2).

The researcher collected completed paper surveys, entered the data into a statistical program, and

stored the paper files in a safe, locked location.

Participants

The final sample consists of 101 undergraduates (21 male, 79 female, and 1 unreported).

Ages range from 19 to 51 years (Mean = 24, SD = 4.49). Approximately 84% of the sample

identifies as a junior (39 participants) or senior (45 participants), making the majority of the

sample upperclassman. Nearly 16% of the sample identifies as a sophomore. None of the

participants identifies as a freshman. Almost all of the participants (98%) attend school full-time.

Measures: Focal Variables

Depression. Depression is the focal dependent variable. I measure depression with the

CES-D 10 (Gonzalez et al., 2016), which is a shortened version of Radloff’s (1977) original


scale. Participants are asked to indicate how many days of the past week they have experienced a

certain emotion or behavior. For example, “I felt that everything I did was an effort.” Original

response categories included Rarely (Less than 1 day), Sometimes (1-2 days), Occasionally (3-4

days) or All of the Time (5-7 days). After reverse-coding positive symptoms, responses to the ten

items were averaged so that higher scores would indicate higher levels of depression.

Loneliness. Loneliness is the focal predictor variable. I measure loneliness using the

three-item loneliness scale (Hughes et. al, 2004), which is a shortened version of the UCLA

Loneliness Scale Version 3 (Russel, 1996). Respondents are asked to indicate how often they

experience a certain feeling about their relationships. For example, “How often do you feel that

you lack companionship?” Participants rate their responses on a scale from 1 (Hardly Ever) to 3

(Often). The three-item version is adequately correlated with the full-length UCLA-3, and shows

appropriate convergent and discriminant validity with measures such as depression, stress,

enjoyment, energy, and motivation (Hughes et. al, 2004). The three loneliness items are averaged

so that higher scores indicate higher perceived loneliness.

Self-Compassion. Self-compassion is a focal moderating variable. I measure self-

compassion with Neff’s Self-Compassion Scale-Short Form (SCS-SF) (Raes et al., 2011). The

SCS-SF has a nearly perfect correlation with the original length scale (Neff, 2003) when

examining total scores (Raes et al., 2011). The shortened form demonstrates “adequate internal

consistency, and has the same factorial structure as the original scale” (Raes et al., 2011, p. 250).

The survey asks participants to indicate how often they had engaged in certain thought processes.

For example, “I try to be understanding and patient towards those aspects of my personality I

don’t like.” Original response categories range from Almost Never (1) to Almost Always (5).


After reverse-scoring negative items, I average the responses so that higher scores indicate

higher levels of self-compassion.

Self-Esteem. Self-esteem is a secondary moderating variable. I measure self-esteem with

the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965). The scale asks how strongly a participant

agreed or disagreed with a statement about him or herself using a Likert scale. For example, “I

take a positive attitude toward myself.” Original response categories include Strongly Agree (4),

Agree (3), Disagree (2) or Strongly Disagree (1). After reverse-scoring positive items, responses

are averaged so that higher scores indicate higher levels of self-esteem.

Measures: Background Variables

In addition to the focal variables, the survey also collects basic demographic information

as control variables. Ten of the thirteen background variables from the survey are included in my

statistical analysis as discussed below.

Class Standing. Participants are asked to identify themselves as a freshman, sophomore,

junior or senior. In the statistical analysis, I turn this information into a dichotomous variable

differentiating between seniors and non-seniors.

Race. Participants are asked to identify themselves as White, Hispanic, Black, Asian,

Native American or Other. In my statistical analysis, participants who identified as multi-racial

by selecting more than one category are included as “other”. This data is then constructed into

two dichotomous variables: one distinguishing between Hispanic and non-Hispanic; another

distinguishing between “other race” and participants who selected a race from the list.

Gender. Participants are asked to identify themselves as male, female, or other. In my

statistical analysis, this data was converted in a dichotomous variable distinguishing those

identifying as male from the rest of the sample.


Close Family. The participants are asked to indicate if they have close family within

driving distance or not. This variable is dichotomous by nature, as is reflected in the statistical

analysis.

Marital Status of Biological Parents. The participants are asked to indicate if their

biological parents are currently married or not. This variable is dichotomous by nature, as is

reflected in the statistical analysis.

Relationship Status. The participants are asked to indicate their relationship status by

selecting one of the following categories: single, partnered, engaged/married, or other. In the

statistical analysis, I convert this into a dichotomous variable, where participants who selected

“partnered” or “engaged/married” were considered “partnered”, distinguishing those who have

significant others in their lives at varying levels of commitment, from those who identify as

single or “other”.

Close Friends. The participants are asked how many close friends they believe they have,

and are given a space to write in a number. Statistically, this variable is considered continuous.

Meeting Attendance. Participants are asked to indicate how often they attend meetings for

secular organizations and clubs, by selecting one of the following: never, less than once a month,

1-3 times per month, once per week, or more than once per week. Statistically, this variable is

considered ordinal.

Religious Attendance. Participants are asked to indicate how often they attend church,

synagogue, or any form of religious meeting by selecting one of the following: never, less than

once a month, 1-3 times per month, once per week, or more than once per week. Statistically,

this variable is considered ordinal.


Statistical Procedures

Table 1 provides descriptive statistics for all study measures. I begin my focal analyses

by regressing depression on loneliness (Table 2) and controlling for all background variables

(Model 1). To begin the moderation analysis, I first estimated an interaction term (loneliness*

self-compassion) in Model 2 of Table 2. In Model 3, we estimated a second interaction term

(loneliness*self-esteem). Because cross-product terms are included in this stage of the analysis,

all continuous variables were centered to avoid problems associated with multicollinearity.

RESULTS

Descriptive Results

According to Table 1, the average respondent experienced moderate levels of self-

compassion (mean = 3.19), moderately high levels of self-esteem (mean = 2.99), moderate levels

of loneliness (mean = 1.77), and moderate levels of depression (mean = 1.92). About half of the

sample have family members in town (52%). Over half of the sample’s biological parents were

currently married (64%). Just less than half of the sample was partnered (44%). The majority of

the sample was female (79%). The average respondent attended secular club meetings 1-3 times

per month, and attended religious meetings less than once per month.

Moderation Analysis

Model 1 of Table 2 shows that loneliness is positively associated with depression, even

when controlling for several background variables. In other words, those who report higher

levels of loneliness also tend to report higher levels of depression. Model 2 of Table 2 addresses

my first hypothesis by analyzing the moderating effects of self-compassion on the association

between loneliness and depression. The results suggest that the association between loneliness


and depression is, in fact, buffered by self-compassion. For individuals with high self-

compassion, loneliness is less strongly correlated with depression (see Figure 1). Model 3 of

Table 2 addresses my second hypothesis by analyzing the moderating effects of self-esteem on

the association between loneliness and depression. The results suggest that self-esteem has no

moderating effects on this association.

DISCUSSION

Summary

This project aimed to discover the moderating roles of self-compassion and self-esteem

on the association between loneliness and depression. Self-compassion negatively moderates this

association, while self-esteem has no moderating effects.

Previous Work

My results support previous work by providing evidence that self-compassion has

moderating effects on established health disparities (Chung, 2014; Pisitsungkagarn et al., 2016).

My results contribute to research by suggesting that self-compassion is a moderator of a specific

disparity: the association between loneliness and depression. Although few studies provide

empirical evidence comparing self-esteem and self-compassion (Neff & Vonk, 2009), my results

do support the theory behind their differences (Neff, 2003b). Since self-compassion encourages

confronting pain and shortcomings and coping with them, it should theoretically be a better

buffer for loneliness and depression than self-esteem, which simply changes one’s attitude

toward the self. My results do not appear to contradict the few published studies regarding self-

compassion. However, as more research is conducted, our knowledge of self-compassion may

change, and my results should be criticized and evaluated.


Limitations

Since self-compassion is a relatively new concept, there are fairly few studies to inform

this theory and project. Additionally, one particular researcher conducts the majority of the

existing studies about self-compassion: Kristin Neff. While Neff’s passion for this topic is

admirable, self-compassion needs to be studied in more projects and by several other researchers

to build credibility.

One of the major limitations of this study, as well as self-compassion research at large, is

that the majority of the data comes from college-aged females. We should hesitate to generalize

these findings to other age groups or genders without additional data. Additionally, my sample

size was too small to add all of my control variables without losing statistical significance. It

would be irresponsible to assume my findings are generalizable to the general public. This study

should be duplicated with a larger, more diverse sample.

CONCLUSION

Ultimately, the results of this study suggest that self-compassion has a moderating effect

on the relationship between loneliness and depression. Further, self-esteem does not appear to

buffer this relationship. This study supports that idea that self-compassion based interventions

are superior to self-esteem based interventions for those who suffer from depression and

loneliness.

More research is needed to confirm the results of this study; this study should be

duplicated with larger, more diverse samples. Future research should also examine self-

compassion’s potential casual relationships with and moderating effects on other negative

psychological associations, potentially including compassion fatigue, burnout, posttraumatic


stress disorder, anxiety, panic attacks, body image satisfaction and the like. If self-compassion

consistently shows to be a significant moderator or predictor for negative psychological

variables, research should then turn to creating self-compassion based interventions or therapy

and studying the effects of those interventions in experimental studies where causality can be

determined. Two such studies have created a self-compassion intervention program (MSC)

(Neff & Germer, 2015), and confirm that this intervention leads to “greater increases in self-

compassion, mindfulness, optimism, and self-efficacy, as well as significantly greater decreases

in rumination in comparison to the active control intervention” (Smeets et al., 2014). I suggest

that the MSC continue to be explored and evaluated as a potential intervention for individuals

suffering from depression and loneliness, as well as any negative psychological conditions.


REFERENCES

Breines, J. G., & Chen, S. (2012). Self-compassion increases self-improvement

motivation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(9), 1133-1143.

doi:10.1177/0146167212445599

Chung, M. (2016). Relation between lack of forgiveness and depression: The moderating effect

of self-compassion. Psychological Reports, 119(3), 573-585.

doi:10.1177/0033294116663520

Feng, D., & Xu, L. (2015). The relationship between perceived discrimination and psychological

distress among chinese pulmonary tuberculosis patients: The moderating role of self-

esteem. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 20(2), 177-185.

doi:10.1080/13548506.2014.958505

González, P., Nuñez, A., Merz, E., Brintz, C., Weitzman, O., Navas, E. L., Gallo, L. C. (2016).

Measurement properties of the center for epidemiologic studies depression scale (CES-D

10): Findings from HCHS/SOL. Psychological Assessment, 29(4), 372-381.

doi:10.1037/pas0000330

Hall, C. W., Row, K. A., Wuensch, K. L., & Godley, K. R. (2013). The role of self-compassion

in physical and psychological well-being. Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and

Applied, 147(4), 311-323. doi:10.1080/00223980.2012.693138

Han, J., & Richardson, V. E. (2010). The relationship between depression and loneliness among

homebound older persons: Does spirituality moderate this relationship? Journal of

Religion & Spirituality in Social Work: Social Thought, 29(3), 218-236.

doi:10.1080/15426432.2010.495610


Hill, T. D., Burdette, A. M., & Hale, L. (2009). Neighborhood disorder, sleep quality, and

psychological distress: Testing a model of structural amplification. Health and

Place, 15(4), 1006-1013. doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2009.04.001

Hill, T. D., Cook, H. H., & Whitfield, K. E. (2014). Race and ethnic variations in the education-

control-distress model: Race and ethnic variations in the E-C-D model. Social Science

Quarterly, 95(1), 269-285. doi:10.1111/ssqu.12057

Hill, T., Ellison, C., Burdette, A., Taylor, J., & Friedman, K. (2016). Dimensions of religious

involvement and leukocyte telomere length. Social Science & Medicine, 163, 168-175.

doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.04.032

Horney, K., 1885-1952. (1950). Neurosis and human growth: The struggle toward self-

realization (1st ed.). New York: Norton.

Hughes, M. E., Waite, L. J., Hawkley, L. C., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2004). A short scale for

measuring loneliness in large surveys: Results from two population-based

studies. Research on Aging, 26(6), 655-672. doi:10.1177/0164027504268574

Jeon, H., Lee, K., & Kwon, S. (2016). Investigation of the structural relationships between social

support, self-compassion, and subjective well-being in korean elite student

athletes. Psychological Reports, 119(1), 39-54. doi:10.1177/0033294116658226

Mahon, N. E., Yarcheski, A., Yarcheski, T. J., Cannella, B. L., & Hanks, M. M. (2006). A meta-

analytic study of predictors for loneliness during adolescence. Nursing Research, 55(5),

308-315. doi:10.1097/00006199-200609000-00003

Meier, L. L., Semmer, N. K., & Hupfeld, J. (2009). The impact of unfair treatment on depressive

mood: The moderating role of self-esteem level and self-esteem instability. Personality

and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35(5), 643-655. doi:10.1177/0146167208331337


Murray, A. L., McKenzie, K., Murray, K. R., & Richelieu, M. (2016). Do close supportive

relationships moderate the effect of depressive symptoms on suicidal ideation? British

Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 44(1), 99-107. doi:10.1080/03069885.2015.1017804

Neff, K.D., (2003a). The development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion. Self

and Identity, 2(3), 223-250. doi:10.1080/15298860390209035

Neff, K. (2003b). Self-compassion: An alternative conceptualization of a healthy attitude toward

oneself. Self and Identity, 2(2), 85-101. doi:10.1080/15298860390129863

Neff, K. (2016). The self-compassion scale is a valid and theoretically coherent measure of self-

compassion. Mindfulness, 7(1), 264-274. doi:10.1007/s12671-015-0479-3

Neff, K., & Beretvas, S. (2013). The role of self-compassion in romantic relationships. Self and

Identity, 12(1), 78-98. doi:10.1080/15298868.2011.639548

Neff, K., & Faso, D. (2015). Self-compassion and well-being in parents of children with

autism. Mindfulness, 6(4), 938-947. doi:10.1007/s12671-014-0359-2

Neff, K. D., & Germer, C. K. (2013). A pilot study and randomized controlled trial of the

mindful Self-Compassion program. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 69(1), 28-44.

doi:10.1002/jclp.21923

Neff, K. D., & McGehee, P. (2010). Self-compassion and psychological resilience among

adolescents and young adults. Self and Identity, 9(3), 225-240.

doi:10.1080/15298860902979307

Neff, K. D., & Pommier, E. (2013). The relationship between self-compassion and other-focused

concern among college undergraduates, community adults, and practicing meditators. Self

and Identity, 12(2), 160-176. doi:10.1080/15298868.2011.649546


Neff, K. D., & Vonk, R. (2009). Self-compassion versus global self-esteem: Two different ways

of relating to oneself. Journal of Personality, 77(1), 23-50. doi:10.1111/j.1467-

6494.2008.00537.x

Neff, K. D., Whittaker, T. A., & Karl, A. (2017). Examining the factor structure of the self-

compassion scale in four distinct populations: Is the use of a total scale score

justified? Journal of Personality Assessment, , 1-12.

doi:10.1080/00223891.2016.1269334

Pisitsungkagarn, K., Taephant, N., & Attasaranya, P. (2014). Body image satisfaction and self-

esteem in thai female adolescents: The moderating role of self-compassion. International

Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health, 26(3), 333-338. doi:10.1515/ijamh-2013-

0307

Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general

population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385-401.

doi:10.1177/014662167700100306

Raes, F., Pommier, E., Neff, K. D., & Van Gucht, D. (2011). Construction and factorial

validation of a short form of the Self-Compassion scale. Clinical Psychology &

Psychotherapy, 18(3), 250-255. doi:10.1002/cpp.702

Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton

University Press

Rote, S., Hill, T. D., & Ellison, C. G. (2013). Religious attendance and loneliness in later

life. Gerontologist, 53(1), 39-50. doi:10.1093/geront/gns063


Russell, D. W. (1996). UCLA loneliness scale (version 3): Reliability, validity, and factor

structure. Journal of Personality Assessment, 66(1), 20-40.

doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa6601_2

Smeets, E., Neff, K., Alberts, H., & Peters, M. (2014). Meeting suffering with kindness: Effects

of a brief self-compassion intervention for female college students. Journal of Clinical

Psychology, 70(9), 794-807. doi:10.1002/jclp.22076

Swann, W.B. (1990). To be adored or to be known?: The interplay of self-enhancement and self-

verification. In E.T. Higgins & R.M. Sorrento (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and

cognition: Foundations of social behavior, Vol 2 (pp. 408-448). New York: Guilford.

Swann, W. B. (1992). Seeking "truth," finding despair: Some unhappy consequences of a

negative self-concept. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 1(1), 15-18.

doi:10.1111/1467-8721.ep10767800

Swann, W. B. (1996). Self-traps: The elusive quest for higher self-esteem. New York: W.H.

Freeman.

Vanhalst, J., Luyckx, K., Raes, F., & Goossens, L. (2012). Loneliness and depressive symptoms:

The mediating and moderating role of uncontrollable ruminative thoughts. The Journal of

Psychology, 146(1-2), 259-276. doi:10.1080/00223980.2011.555433

Vanhalst, J., Luyckx, K., Teppers, E., & Goossens, L. (2012). Disentangling the longitudinal

relation between loneliness and depressive symptoms: Prospective effects and the

intervening role of coping. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 31(8), 810-834.

doi:10.1521/jscp.2012.31.8.810

Yarnell, L. M., & Neff, K. D. (2013). Self-compassion, interpersonal conflict resolutions, and

well-being. Self and Identity, 12(2), 146-159. doi:10.1080/15298868.2011.649545


Yarnell, L. M., Stafford, R. E., Neff, K. D., Reilly, E. D., Knox, M. C., & Mullarkey, M. (2015).

Meta-analysis of gender differences in self-compassion. Self and Identity, 14(5), 499-520.

doi:10.1080/15298868.2015.1029966

Yusufov, M., Dalrymple, K., Bernstein, M., Walsh, E., Rosenstein, L., Chelminski, I., &

Zimmerman, M. (2017). Body mass index, depression, and suicidality: The role of self-

esteem in bariatric surgery candidates. Journal of Affective Disorders, 208, 238-247.

doi:10.1016/j.jad.2016.10.005


TABLE 1: Descriptive Statistics (Haynes, 2016)

Variable Range Mean SD Hispanic 0-1 0.30 Other Race 0-1 0.26 Male 0-1 0.21 Close Family 0-1 0.52 Parents Married 0-1 0.64 Partnered 0-1 0.44 Close Friends 0-20 6.48 4.55 Meetings 1-5 2.60 1.46 Church Attendance 1-5 2.05 1.12 Senior 0-1 0.45 Self Esteem 1.2-4 2.99 0.56 Loneliness 1-3 1.77 0.61 Depression 1-3.63 1.92 0.59 Self Compassion 1.5-5 3.19 0.75 n=101


TABLE 2: Ordinary least squares regression of depression (Haynes, 2016) Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

Focal Measures b SE B b SE B b SE B

Loneliness 0.711 0.083 0.697*** 0.421 0.091 0.413*** 0.477 0.102 0.467***

Self Compassion C -0.355 .070 -.449***

Loneliness*SC

-0.255 0.109 -0.163*

Self Esteem C -0.334 .103 -0.324*

Loneliness*SE

-0.214 0.12 -0.13

Background Factors

Senior

0.057 0.093 0.048 0.006 0.083 0.005 0.029 0.087 0.024

Hispanic

-0.028 0.114 -0.021 -0.011 0.100 -0.009 0.037 0.108 0.029

Other Race

-0.055 0.111 -0.040 -0.008 0.098 -0.006 -0.004 0.105 -0.003

Male

0.046 0.115 0.031 0.045 0.100 0.031 0.026 0.107 0.018

Close Family

-0.018 0.094 -0.015 -0.032 0.082 -0.027 -0.063 0.088 -0.053

Parents Married

0.078 0.095 0.062 0.058 0.084 0.047 0.071 0.089 0.056

Partnered

-0.016 0.097 -0.014 -0.050 0.086 -0.042 0.003 0.091 0.002

Close Friends

-0.011 0.012 -0.084 0.001 0.011 0.007 -0.005 0.011 -0.035

Meeting Attendance

0.004 0.034 0.011 0.005 0.030 0.011 0.009 0.032 0.022

Church Attendance

-0.043 0.040 -0.082 -0.022 0.036 -0.043 -0.013 0.038 -0.024

Shown are unstandardized OLS regression coefficients(b), standard errors (SE), and standardized coefficients (B). *p<0.05 ***p<0.001


FIGURE 1: The effect of loneliness on depression as a function of self-compassion (Haynes, 2016)


APPENDIX 1: Informed Consent

The University of Arizona Consent to Participate in Research Please keep this document for your records

Study Title: Analyzing Self-‐Compassion as a Moderator for the Association between Loneliness and Depression Principal Investigator: Katelyn Haynes This is a consent form for research participation. It contains important information about this study and what to expect if you decide to participate. Please consider the information carefully. Feel free to discuss the study with your friends and family and to ask questions before making your decision whether or not to participate.

Why is this study being done? We are conducting research to analyze how undergraduate students are feeling emotionally and how they may be able to buffer those feelings with self-‐compassion. What will happen if I take part in this study? Should you choose to participate, you will fill out a brief survey that asks you about variables such as depression and loneliness, as well as basic demographic information. The survey is designed to last approximately 20 minutes. How long will I be in the study? You will be in the study for the duration of the survey. The survey is expected to take around 20 minutes. After the survey is completed, you are no longer considered an active participant. How many people will take part in this study? We estimate that approximately 100 people will participate in this study. Can I stop being in the study? Your participation is voluntary. You may refuse to participate in this study at any time. If you decide to take part in the study, you may leave the study at any time. No matter what decision you make, there will be no penalty to you and you will not lose any of your usual benefits. Your decision will not affect your future relationship with The University of Arizona. If you are a student or employee at the University of Arizona, your decision will not affect your grades or employment status. You will receive extra credit whether or not you participate in the study, or if you decide to quit before completing the survey. If you decide that you do not want to partake in the study while you are filling out the survey, please stop answering questions and don’t turn in the survey. Will I be paid for taking part in this study?


You will receive extra credit, regardless of your decision to partake in the survey. What risks or benefits can I expect from being in the study? Your teacher will not know whether or not you decided to participate in this study. Your grade will not be affected should you choose not to participate. You will receive extra credit, regardless of your participation decision. The survey asks questions about your personal feelings-‐specifically about any feelings of loneliness or depression. There is a risk that the survey will make you uncomfortable. If participating in this survey causes emotional or mental distress, please take advantage of the following resources.

CAPS-‐ Counseling and Psychological Services:

Call 520-‐621-‐3334 to make an appointment or walk-‐in on the 3rd Floor of the Student Health Center for emergency counseling services.

Will my study-‐related information be kept confidential? Efforts will be made to keep your study-‐related information confidential. Your name will not appear on the survey. Every survey will be anonymous. Your survey will be destroyed after data collection.. Also, your records may be reviewed by the following groups

• The University of Arizona Institutional Review Board Who can answer my questions about the study? For questions, concerns, or complaints about the study you may contact Katelyn Haynes at [email protected] For questions about your rights as a participant in this study or to discuss other study-‐related concerns or complaints with someone who is not part of the research team, you may contact the Human Subjects Protection Program at 520-‐626-‐6721 or online at http://rgw.arizona.edu/compliance/human-‐subjects-‐protection-‐program. An Institutional Review Board responsible for human subjects research at The University of Arizona reviewed this research project and found it to be acceptable, according to applicable state and federal regulations and University policies designed to protect the rights and welfare of participants in research.

By completing the attached survey, I agree to participate in this research.


APPENDIX 2: Survey

Dear Fellow Student, My name is Katelyn Haynes. I am a senior CHS major. I am administering a survey today to collect data for my honors thesis. Although Dr. Hill has offered extra credit to the class for completing the survey, you are not required to do so. Thank you so much for helping me with my research! A. The first set of questions asks about how you typically act towards yourself in difficult times. Please

read each statement carefully before answering. To the left of each item, please indicate how often you behave in the stated manner, using the following scale:

Almost Always…………………………………………………….…………………………Almost Never 1 2 3 4 5 _____ 1. When I fail at something important to me I become consumed by feelings of inadequacy. _____ 2. I try to be understanding and patient towards those aspects of my personality I don’t like. _____ 3. When something painful happens, I try to take a balanced view of the situation. _____ 4. When I’m feeling down, I tend to feel like most other people are probably happier than I am. _____ 5. I try to see my failings as part of the human condition. _____ 6. When I’m going through a very hard time, I give myself the caring and tenderness I need. _____ 7. When something upsets me, I try to keep my emotions in balance. _____ 8. When I fail at something that’s important to me, I tend to feel alone in my failure _____ 9. When I’m feeling down, I tend to obsess and fixate on everything that’s wrong. _____10. When I feel inadequate in some way, I try to remind myself that feelings of inadequacy are

shared by most people. _____11. I’m disapproving and judgmental about my own flaws and inadequacies. _____12. I’m intolerant and impatient towards those aspects of my personality I don’t like.


B. Next is a list of statements dealing with your general feelings about yourself. Please circle the answer that best describes how strongly you agree or disagree with each statement. 13. On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.

1. Strongly Agree 2. Agree 3. Disagree 4. Strongly Disagree

14. At times, I think I am no good at all. 1. Strongly Agree 2. Agree 3. Disagree 4. Strongly Disagree

15. I feel that I have a number of good qualities.


16. I am able to do things as well as most other people.


17. I feel I do not have much to be proud of.


18. I certainly feel useless at times.


19. I feel that I’m a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others.


20. I wish I could have more respect for myself.


21. All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure.


22. I take a positive attitude towards myself.



C. The following questions are about how you feel about different aspects of your life. For each one, please circle the response that best describes how often you feel that way.

Hardly Ever Some of the Time

Often

23. How often do you feel that you lack companionship?

1

2

3

24. How often do you feel left out?

1 2 3

25. How often do you feel isolated from others?

1 2 3

D. Below is a list of some of the ways you may have felt or behaved. Please indicate how often you have

felt this way during the past week by checking the appropriate box for each question.

Rarely or none of the time

(less than 1 day)

Some or a little of the time

(1-‐2 days)

Occasionally or a moderate

amount of time

(3-‐4 days)

All of the time

(5-‐7 days)

26. I was bothered by things that usually don't bother me.

27. I had trouble keeping my mind on what I was doing

28. I felt depressed. 29. I felt that everything I did was an effort.

30. I felt hopeful about the future. 31. I felt fearful. 32. My sleep was restless. 33. I was happy. 34. I felt lonely. 35. I could not "get going."


E. Thank you for answering those questions. In this last section, I would like to ask you a few background questions. 36. In what year were you born? __________________ 37. Are you a Freshman, Sophomore, Junior, or Senior? ___________________________________ 38. Are you enrolled in school Full-Time or Part-Time? ____________________________________ 39. How would you describe your racial or ethnic background? Circle the response that best describes you. 1. Non-Hispanic White/Caucasian/Anglo-American

2. Hispanic/Latino/Latina 3. Black/African-American 4. Asian/Asian-American 5. American Indian/Native American

6. Other ___________________________________________________________________

40. How would you describe your gender? Circle the response that best describes you.

1. Male 2. Female 3. Other________________________________________________________

41. Do you have family members who live in Tucson or within easy driving distance? Circle the response that best describes you.

1. Yes 2. No

42. Are your BIOLOGICAL parents currently married? Circle the response that best describes you.

1. Yes 2. No

43. What is your current relationship status? Circle the response that best describes you.

1. Single 2. Partnered 3. Engaged or married 4. Other _____________________________________________________________________


44. How many close friends would you say you have? ___________________________________

45. How often do you attend meetings for organizations or clubs? Circle the response that best describes you.

1. Never 2. Less Than Once Per Month 3. 1-3 Times Per Month 4. Once Per Week 5. More Than Once Per Week

46. How often do you attend church, synagogue, or other religious meetings? Circle the response that best describes you.

1. Never 2. Less Than Once Per Month 3. 1-3 Times Per Month 4. Once Per Week 5. More Than Once Per Week

47. Are you currently employed for pay? Circle the response that best describes you.

1. Yes

2. No 48.How would you rate your overall physical health at the present time? Would you say it is excellent, very good, good, fair or poor? Circle the response that best describes you.

1. Excellent 2. Very good 3. Good 4. Fair 5. Poor

Loneliness and Depression: Contrasting the Buffering Effects ......Self Compassion as Moderator of...

Documents

Transcript of Loneliness and Depression: Contrasting the Buffering Effects ......Self Compassion as Moderator of...