LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
Transcript of LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
1/54
Page 1
Teach a child
WHAT to THINK
and you makehim a slave ofknowledge;But, teach achild HOW to
THINK and youmake
knowledge hisslave.
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
2/54
Page 2
Prepared by Mr. Roland Lorenzo M. RubenPhilosophy section, SSDDe La Salle University - Dasmarias
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
3/54
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
4/54
Page 4
INTRODUCTION
As they trained the young men of Greecein rhetorics and forensic oratory, theiremphasis on the power of words resulted toverbal trickery. The Sophists stressed
persuasion rather than truth.
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
5/54
Page 5
The philosopherSocrates (470-399 B.C.)
started his unrelentingassault against their
shady dealings.
INTRODUCTION
Plato (427-347B.C.) immortalized
their attacks againstthem in hisilluminating literarymasterpieces.
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
6/54
Page 6
Aristotle, wrote the first formal studies
on logic, the verbal trickeries of the Sophistswas included in their scope.
Since then, the study of fallacies, as theSophists' verbal trickery came to be called,
has been considered an integral part of logic.
INTRODUCTION
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
7/54
Page 7
The fallacies are lies and faultyarguments that, although incorrect, aresubjectively convincing.
That means they are not just plain lies andfaulty arguments, for there are countlessother lies and incorrect arguments whosemalice and faultiness are obvious andcould not deceive anybody.
The fallacies are a special type, for they
can easily pass off as truth and soundreasoning.
INTRODUCTION
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
8/54
Page 8
The reason why they are considered partof logic is the idea that through acomprehensive study of what is
incorrect, faulty and deceptive, wemay learn:
what is to be avoidedand, eventually,
what is to be pursued thetruth.
INTRODUCTION
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
9/54
Page 9
Though the Sophists were long gone their legacy
has remained alive with us. To date, the most prolific spinner of fallacies are
the commercial advertisements whoseglossy prints, gigantic billboards, lovely jingles,and attractive video clips are omnipresent, trying
to cast their seductive spells on the unwary.
INTRODUCTION
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
10/54
Page 10
Closely following the advertisers are thepoliticians, the most seasoned and theproverbial fallacy workers.
Their wagging tongues, calculatedgestures and cunning moves are designedto fool voters.
INTRODUCTION
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
11/54
Page 11
Moreover, the ghosts of the Sophists arerestless, they can actually possessanybody.
Fallacies can be made and uttered byanyone, by our enemies and friends,
by our professors and classmates, byour parents and even by ourselves.
INTRODUCTION
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
12/54
Page 12
The world is in fact buzzing with lies. Theonly way to be spared from them is to
avoid them, but the only way toavoid them is to know them inthe first place.
It is quite frustrating to know that theremay be hundreds of fallacies circulatingaround, and several of theses hundredsare hybrids -- meaning, single incorrect
arguments that are incorrect in more thanone way.
INTRODUCTION
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
13/54
Page 13
What follows are studies of someof the most fundamental andelementary kinds of fallacies.
INTRODUCTION
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
14/54
Page 14
II. FALLACIES OF CONTENT
The second major block of fallacies that weare going to examine are faulty not becauseof their structure, but on account of theirquestionable content. Hence they are calledfallacies of content. Under this majorblock, we have three (3) groups, namely:
a) linguistic manipulation
b) psychological warfare
c) logical maneuvers
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
15/54
Page 15
A. LINGUISTICMANIPULATIONS
There are some fallacies of content that
are fabricated by manipulating thelanguage used in order to achieve somedesired effect.
The fallacies under this group wouldexploit the nature of language in generaland of words in particular.
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
16/54
Page 16
a. Linguistic manipulations
It has been established since classical times that for
every word there is something signified. This thingthat is signified by the word is what we call thedenotation, or the objective meaning. But everydenotation and every word will always imply certainattributes and characteristics, these are the
connotation, or the subjective meaning. For instance, the words man of principle, obstinate,
and pig-headedroughly denote the same thing, thatis a person who is firm and who sticks to hisprinciples. But the connotation of each word varies
from one another. Man of principleobviously soundshighly positive compared to pig-headed. Whereasdenotations are usually fixed and rigid, connotationsare not.
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
17/54
Page 17
a. Linguistic manipulations
The fallacies of linguistic manipulation
exploits this connotative fluidity in orderto impress and intimidate, to seduce
and to secure sympathies, or simply to
mislead others.
1. Prestige jargon2. Emotional words
3. Double talking or euphemism
In this group of fallacies, we can see that
though language is the medium throughwhich we convey truth, it can also be themedium through which we conceal thesame truth.
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
18/54
Page 18
JARGON means technical and specialized
language.
When used among experts and among persons ofthe same field of practice, who are all familiar withthe denotations of their specialized terminology,
jargon is all right and even helpful for the sake of
precision.
But when maliciously used for anaudience who are not experts or whobelong to other fields of practice in order
to sound impressive and intimidating, thepresence of jargon becomes questionable.
1. PRESTIGE JARGONA. LINGUISTICMANIPULATIONS
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
19/54
Page 19
For example, when a school physician tells the
parents of somebody who is injured in a campus
brawl "the patient is suffering fromcircumorbital hematoma, the prescribedtreatment is a regulated application of low-
temperature compress, and our prognosis ishighly positive given an ample time frame,"when he simply means that "the patient got a blackeye, he needs cold compress and his conditionwould disappear after a few days," is guilty of the
fallacy of prestige jargon.
1. PRESTIGE JARGONA. LINGUISTICMANIPULATIONS
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
20/54
Page 20
The use of jargon can be fallacious in two ways.
First, when somebody starts using highlytechnical words, the immediate connotation wouldbe is that such a person is an expert in his field,and who would dare to argue against an expert.That is intimidation.
Second, by using jargon one can easily obscurehis own points thereby confusing others andpreventing them to counter argue.
Next time when you hear somebody saying "such a
phenomenal event occurred in accordance to thepre-designed volitions of the supreme and divinebeing," when he clearly meant "it is God's will,"malicious jargon is there.
1. PRESTIGE JARGONA. LINGUISTICMANIPULATIONS
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
21/54
Page 21
The fallacy of the use of emotional words happens
when one carefully employs words andimages that are heavy with emotional
connotations in order to secure the
sympathies of others.
2. EMOTIONAL WORDSA. LINGUISTICMANIPULATIONS
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
22/54
Page 22
2. EMOTIONAL WORDSA. LINGUISTICMANIPULATIONS
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
23/54
Page 23
Words can either have negative or positive
connotations.Sometimes we can hide unpleasant denotations by
employing words with positive connotations. This isthe fallacy of double talking, or euphemism.
This happens whenever we carefully
package our unpleasant ideas in nice
sounding words. Here, words are used
to hide, to mask and to mislead others.
the use of words that sound better.
3. DOUBLE TALKING OREUPHEMISM
A. LINGUISTICMANIPULATIONS
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
24/54
Page 24
For instance, gamblingas a pleasant connotation,
so the organizers of Lotto posted billboards sayingplay herewhen they clearly meant gamble here.
The bad news that there will be tax increase canbe stated as "there will be a tax enhancement," orinflation as "price enhancement."
When Ferdinand Marcos declared the martial law,he called his regime constitutionalauthoritarianism, when everybody knows that itwas actually a dictatorship.
3. DOUBLE TALKING OREUPHEMISM
A. LINGUISTICMANIPULATIONS
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
25/54
Page 25
The lab rat wasn't killed, it wassacrificed.
Mass murder wasn't genocide, itwas ethnic cleansing.
The death of innocent bystanders iscollateral damage.
Microsoft doesn't find bugs, orproblems, or security vulnerabilities:they just discover an issuewith apiece of software.
3. DOUBLE TALKING OREUPHEMISM
A. LINGUISTICMANIPULATIONS
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
26/54
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
27/54
Page 27
b. Psychological warfare
Classically, man has been defined as a rationaland intelligent animal. Yet, modern psychology andexperience have proven that such a definition is onlyhalf true. Aside from being rational and intelligent,man is also an animal of sensuousness, of emotionsof will and of the sub-conscious.
The human mind is not all intellect and cognition buta faculty with several aspects. It has a sense andperceptual aspect, an affective and emotional aspect,a cognitive and intellectual aspect, a volitional orwilling aspect, and a subconscious aspect.
Most often, man is not guided by his cognitive
and intellectual powers but by his sensuousness,emotions and subconscious drives.
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
28/54
Page 28
The fallacy of meaning from association isperhaps the most abused fallacy in theproduction of commercial advertisements.
Here, the advertised products are put
side by side with logically unrelatedthings and ideas, to suggest that if you
purchase this or that product you too
get the associated things and ideas.
B.PSYCHOLOGICAL
WARFARE
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
29/54
Page 29
Though from a logical point of view, theunrelatedness of the products and thethings associated with them is quiteobvious, still many of us are persuaded bythis fallacy.
The fact that it is frequently employed byadvertisers attest to its effectivity.
Marshall McLuhan, a pioneering theorist inmass communications, has evensuggested that advertisements will not onlyseduce man's sensuousness andemotions, but even his sub-conscious itself.This is what McLuhan calls the subliminal
seduction.
B.PSYCHOLOGICAL
WARFARE
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
30/54
Page 30
B.PSYCHOLOGICAL
WARFARE
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
31/54
Page 31
B.PSYCHOLOGICAL
WARFARE
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
32/54
Page 32
The fallacy of misuse of authority is a widely
used psychological tactic.Since we cannot possibly be experts in all sorts
of fields, consulting and appealing to authoritiesare oftentimes useful. When one finds amathematical problem too difficult, it is only
appropriate to consult one's mathematicsprofessor, or when having problems with anEnglish composition, the best thing to do is toapproach the language professor.
The fallacy of misuse of authority happenswhenever we cite an authority in one
given field regarding an issue that is
outside his/her field of competence.
B.PSYCHOLOGICAL
WARFARE
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
33/54
Page 33
B.PSYCHOLOGICAL
WARFARE
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
34/54
Page 34
It is a fact that it is easier to accept a liethat one has heard many times before thanto accept truth that one has never heard of.The fallacy of repeated assertion takes
advantage of this psychological fact. This fallacy repeats or multiplies
essentially the same assertion
with the aim that sooner or later
people will accept it as true.
B.PSYCHOLOGICAL
WARFARE
B
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
35/54
Page 35
Adolf Hitler used this fallacy, when he practically
littered Germany with his ideological banners andslogans.
The politician who clutters all the street corners andpublic walls with his and office long before electiontime and with truck-loads of posters during the
campaign season is guilty of this fallacy.More ingenious advertisers will compose catchy
jingles or television scenes that will hopefully recurover and over again in heads of the audience, sothat even though the advertisement is no longer in
front of them they will still see it or hear it in theirminds.
But of course stating a lie a hundred times willcertainly not make it true.
B.PSYCHOLOGICAL
WARFARE
B
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
36/54
Page 36
The person's attitude is his habitual way of
regarding other persons, objects, situationsor ideas.
The fallacy of attitude fitting is done
through inserting into the
argument persons, objects,situations or ideas that are known
in advance to be positively or
negatively regarded by the
intended audience.
B.PSYCHOLOGICAL
WARFARE
B
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
37/54
Page 37
As early as the later part of the ninth
century, the Vikings discovered a hugeisland that is 85 % covered with ice.Wanting to attract more settlers, theynamed it Greenland. At about the same
time they also discovered another territorywhich was lush and fertile, wanting to keepthe island for themselves they called itIceland. They knew very well that otherpeoples love the images of a green and
fertile land, and were disgusted with theimages of ice and frozen wasteland. Theirstrategy of naming in order to attract andrepel was an early example of attitude
fitting.
B.PSYCHOLOGICAL
WARFARE
B
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
38/54
Page 38
B.PSYCHOLOGICAL
WARFARE
Modern advertisers knew verywell our seemingly incurablecolonial mentality, and howour people esteem productsfrom the USA as superior to
our local counterparts. Thus,they packaged cigarettes,soap, shirts, as having thespirit of the USA, or havethem recommended by some
American doctors, or informthe audience that suchproducts are preferred bymost Americans.
B
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
39/54
Page 39
Politicians knew too the attitude of
Filipinos towards movie stars. If they canafford it, they will certainly bring one ormore actors along their campaign trail.Some politicians would even go to the
extent of enlisting actors as their runningmates or including them in the list ofcandidates in their party.
B.PSYCHOLOGICAL
WARFARE
B
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
40/54
Page 40
Tokenism is a favourite ploy among
politicians.
This fallacy happens when people
are misled to see a token gesture
as the real thing.
Whenever substantial action is needed butperforming it would be too expensive, timeand effort consuming, and even distractingto one's agenda, politicians resort to
tokenism. Here, they will perform a littletoken gesture, dramatize it as much aspossible and let the press shout about itas loud as they can.
B.PSYCHOLOGICAL
WARFARE
B
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
41/54
Page 41
B.PSYCHOLOGICAL
WARFARE
B
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
42/54
Page 42
When one poisons a well all the water that
is drawn from it becomes poisoned andunpotable.
The fallacy of poisoning the well works
similarly. It happens when one
discounts in advance theopponent's evidence, proof, or
counter argument, thereby
preventing him from employing
them.
B.PSYCHOLOGICAL
WARFARE
B
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
43/54
Page 43
When a biblical fundamentalist says "theories are
speculations, and speculations are alwaysunreliable, now how do you prove your theory ofevolution?," he is already discounting in advancethe value of a theory and has prevented hisopponent to argue in favour of it. Hence, he haspoisoned the well from which his opponent maydraw his evidences, proofs and counter arguments.
When your biology professor exhorts the class thatonly lazy students ask for examinations with opennotes, then asks later on who wants an examinationwith an open notes he is using the same ploy.
B.PSYCHOLOGICAL
WARFARE
B
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
44/54
Page 44
Aesop, a 6th century Greek folk hero and
teller of animal fables, had a story about afox who felt so bad because he could notgrab the hanging bunch of grapes. Aftersome more tries the fox finally gave up
and comforted himself, saying, "Anyway,those grapes are sour. Who would like toeat sour grapes?"
When one's ego is placed in an
unpleasant situation one canspin untrue, but pleasant,
reasons to settle things.
B.PSYCHOLOGICAL
WARFARE
B
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
45/54
Page 45
Some teachers who were driven into their
profession by circumstances wouldrationalize that it is their decision to be intheir profession because moulding theyouth into better citizens is the noblest
task a man could ever dream of. If realreasons are not available, pleasantreasons can always be made.
This is the fallacy of rationalization, itmakes a clearly delicious bunch of grapessour, and the obviously sour lemon sweet.
B.PSYCHOLOGICAL
WARFARE
B
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
46/54
Page 46
B.PSYCHOLOGICAL
WARFARE
B.
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
47/54
Page 47
This fallacy still bears its classical Latin
name. Baculummeans a club or staff, andargumentum ad baculum roughly meansan argument accompanied with athreatening blow of a club.
This fallacy happens when force orthe threat of force is used instead
of proper reason.
B.PSYCHOLOGICAL
WARFARE
B.
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
48/54
Page 48
A professor who is bombarded with
numerous questions regarding acontroversial subject matter can easilycontrol everything by screaming "shut up,or else I'll flunk you all," but he commits
this fallacy.The father who says "you better study
well, or I'll cut your allowance," is as guiltyas the board room strategist who insists"all executives should act in accordancewith this proposal, otherwise the CEO willrecall their appointments.
B.PSYCHOLOGICAL
WARFARE
B.
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
49/54
Page 49
Maybe the most famous and the mostdramatic example of this fallacy in moderntimes is the life of Galileo Galilei (1564-1642). With the use of the newly inventedtelescope, Galileo compiled mathematicaland empirical data supporting the
Copernican heliocentric world system,which unfortunately was seemingly incontradiction with the bible. Instead ofarguing with him on scientific and
mathematical grounds, Rome merelyissued an edict condemningCopernicanism in 1616, then tried andsentenced Galileo to life imprisonment for"vehement suspicion of heresy" in 1633.
B.PSYCHOLOGICAL
WARFARE
B.
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
50/54
Page 50
Argumentum ad hominem is another
fallacy that still bears its classical Latinname. It simply means argument againstthe person. Normally, arguments attackthe opponent's arguments and counter-arguments.
The fallacy of argumentum ad hominemattacks the person of the opponent
himself. It wrongly assumes that if
you discredit a person, hisargument is also discredited.
PSYCHOLOGICALWARFARE
B.
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
51/54
Page 51
Person P claims that C is true.
But, Person P has a certain quality.Therefore, C is false.
There are two forms of this fallacy--theabusive form and the circumstantial
form. The abusive occurs when you claim that
what someone says is false becausethere is something wrong with him or her.
The circumstantial form occurs in acouple of ways. This fallacy occurs whensomeone claims that what someone saysis false, because of the circumstances ofthe speaker.
PSYCHOLOGICALWARFARE
B.
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
52/54
Page 52
A special type of circumstantial ad
hominem argument is called the tuquoque ("you too") fallacy. It occurswhen someone claims that the speaker ismistaken because the speaker does not"practice what he/she preaches."
PSYCHOLOGICALWARFARE
B.
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
53/54
Page 53
However, in court adjudications
argumentum ad hominem may bereasonably used. Lawyers may attack thetestimony of witnesses by focusing ontheir character, credibility and expertisebecause witnesses and experts likedoctors, and psychologists often presentopinions which we cannot argue withdirectly. The next best way then is toevaluate their credibility, integrity, and
judgment. (ex. The movie, Enemy of theState.)
PSYCHOLOGICALWARFARE
B.
-
8/3/2019 LOGIC - Module 4b the Fallacies of Content
54/54
When reasons, evidences, proofs and
answers are unavailable, one can still foolothers by using proper gestures, wellcalculated intonations and positivelanguage.
The fallacy of confident manner issaying too little or nothing at all in
so much impressive words and
body language.
PSYCHOLOGICALWARFARE