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L e g i t im i z in g L o c a l K n o w le d ge : F r o m D i sp l a c e m e n tt o E m p o w e r m e n t f o r T h ir d W o rld P e o p l e

L o r i A n n T h r u p p

Lo ri A n n Th ru pp i s p resen t l y a pos tdoc to ra l research f e l l ow a t t he U n ive rs i t y o f Ca l i f o rn ia B e rke ley ( in t he E ne rgyand Resou rces P rog ram ) , pu rsu ing w o rk e n sus ta inab le ag r i cu l t u ra l deve lopm en t s t ra teg ies . S he rece ived he rdoc to ra l an d m as te rs deg ree in D eve lopm e n t S tud ies f rom the U n ive rs i t y o f S ussex (U .K . ), a nd he r bache lo rs fromS tan fo rd Un ive rs i t y in H um an B io logy and La t in A m er ican S tudies . He r in te res ts a re na tu ra l resou rce m ana gem en t ,sus ta inab le deve lopm en t , po l i t i ca l eco logy , ag r i cu l t u ra l t echno logy t rans fe r , i nd igenous know ledge , and env i ron -menta l po l icy issues in deve lop ing count r ies. Her doctora l d isser ta t ion research was on "The Po l i t ica l Eco logy o fPest ic ide Use in Costa R ica , " sup por te d by a F u lb r ig h t Scho la rsh ip . She has a lso rece ived gra n ts f rom th e N at io na lW i ld l i fe Fede ra t ion , M a rsha l l Founda t ion , an d Dud ley S ee rs Fund . He r p ro fess iona l expe riences inc lude consu l t ing ,t each ing , an d resea rch on na tu ra l resou rce i ssues and ag reeco logy f o r o rgan iza t ions such as CA TIE (a T rop ica lA g r i cu l t u re I ns t i t u te ) i n Cos ta R ica , t he P rogm a C o rpo ra t ion , US A ID , t he O rgan iza t ion o f T rop ica l S tud ies , t heIn te rna t ion a l I ns t i t u te f o r E nv i ronm en ta l a nd D eve lopm en t (on a f ue lw eod en e rgy p ro jec t in K e r jya ), t he I n te rm ed ia teTechno logy Deve lopm en t G roup , t he W or ldwa tch I ns t i tu te , Resources f o r t he Fu tu re . S he has pub l i shed in bo thS pan ish and E ng l i sh ( inc lud ing co -au tho rsh ip o f a b ook on "E l Use de los p lagu ic idas en Cos ta R ica ", and co -ed i t i nga book w i t h Robe rt Cham bers and A rno ld P acey on " Fa rm er F i rs t: Fa rm er I nnov a t ion a nd A g r i cu l t u ra l Resea rch ).

A B S T R A C T I n crea s in g a t t en tio n h a s b een g i ven to " in d ig en o u s" k n o w l e d g e i n Third W orld rura l socie ties as a po ten t ia lbasis for susta inable ag ricu l tura l development. I t has been fou nd tha t ma ny people have func t iona l knowledge system sperta in ing to the ir resources a nd env ironme nt , w hich are based on experience a nd ex perimenta t ion , and which are som et imesbased on un ique ep is temologies . Ef forts have been made to inc lude such know ledge in part ic ipa tory research and pro jec ts .This pap er discusses socio-political, insti tu tiona l, an d ethical issue s that need to be considered in o rder to und ers tan d theactual l im i ta t ions and contr ibu t ions o f such knowledge system s. I t rev iews the na ture o f loca l knowledge a nd suggests theneed to recognize i t s u n ique va lues ye t avo id romant ic ized v iews o f i t s po ten t ia l . L ocal knowledge and a l ternat ive bo t tom-upprojec ts cont inue to be ma rginal ized because o f the dom inance o f convent ional top-dawn R&D approaches, pressures o fagrochemical f i rm s, sc ien t if ic pro fess ional ism, and for o ther po li tical -economic reasons. I t i s argu ed tha t the exp lo i ta t ionof loca l knowledge by for m al ins t i tu t ions should be avoided; ins tead , people need to es tab l ish leg i timacy o f ths ir knowledgefo r th emse lves, a s a fo r m o f emp o w ermen t .

I n t r o d u c t i o n 1In c re a s i n g a t t e n t i o n i s b e i n g g i v e n to t h e k n o w l -e d g e a n d c a p a b i li ti e s o f sm a l l- s c al e f a rm e r s i n T h i rdW orld coun t r i es as a po ten t i a l bas i s fo r sus t a inab lea g r i c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t . A l t h o u g h a n t h ro p o l o -g i s t s have exam ined ind igenous know ledge for man yd e c a d e s, t h e r e h a s b e e n a r e c e n t u p s u r g e o f i n t e r e s ti n t h i s t o p ic b y r e s e a rc h s c i e n t i s ts a n d e x t e n s i o nw o r k e r s , w h o a r e r e c o g n iz i n g t h a t r u r a l p e o p l e inm a n y d e v e l op i n g c o u n t r ie s h a v e a r i c h u n d e r s t a n d -i n g o f t h e i r r e so u rc e s a n d o f t e n a r e a d e p t a t e x p e r i -

m e n t i n g a n d a d a p t i n g to c h a n g e s o v e r ti m e . S o m e o ft h e se s c i e n ti s t s h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o i n c o rp o ra t e lo c a lk n o w l e d g e in r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t (R & D ) , a sa n a l t e rn a t i v e a p p ro a c h t o t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l t o p -d o w n s t r a te g i e s o f te c h n o l o g y tr a n s f e r ( w h ic h a r eo f t e n i n a p p ro p r i a t e fo r t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e ru ra lpoor ) .T h i s p a p e r a d d re s se s so c i o p o l i t i c a l , i n s t i t u -t i ona l, an d e th i ca l i s sues co ncern ing the ro l e o f loca l(o r " i n d ig e n o u s" ) k n o w l e d g e i n R & D e f fo r t s . I n p a r -t i c u la r , i t d i s c u s se s q u e s t io n s r e l a t e d t o t h e a p p ro -

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A G R I C U L T U R E A N D H U M A N V A L U E S - - S U M M E R 1989

pr i a t i on o f l oc a l know l e dge a nd e s t a b l i s h i ng l eg i t i-m a c y o f s u c h k n o w l e d g e t o s e r v e t h e i n t e r e s t s o fpoo r m a r g i na l i z ed pe op l e i n T h i r d W or l d s oc i e t ie s .T h e s e i s s u e s n e e d t o b e a d d r e s s e d i n o r d e r t o u n d e r -s t a nd t he f e a s ib i l it y a nd po t e n t i a l c on t r i bu t i on o fs uc h i nd i ge nous c a pa c i ti e s i n a g r i c u l t u ra l de ve l op -m e n t .P a r t A o f t he a r t i c l e s um m a r i z e s c ha r a c t e r i s ti c so f l oca l know l e d ge ( e m pha s i z i ng i t s c om pl e x i t y a ndd i ve r s i t y ) , a nd " pa r t i c i pa t o r y" p r o j e c t s t ha t g i vea t t e n t i o n t o s u c h k n o w l e d g e . I t s t r e s s e s t h e n e e dt o r e j e c t r o m a n t i c o r p r e s e r v a t i o n i s t v ie w s a b o u ti nd i ge nous know l e dge , a nd i n s t e a d , t o r e c ogn i z ebo t h i t s l i m i t a ti ons a nd i t s po t e n t i a l c on t r i bu t i onst o de ve l o pm e n t . P a r t B t he n d i s c us s e s f a c t o r s c a us -ing th e m argina l iza t ion of loca l capac i t i e s in R &Dpr og r a m s . T h e n i t is a r gue d t h a t l e g i ti m i z i ng t h i sk n o w l e d g e c a n b e a u n i q u e p o t e n t ia l s o u r c e o f em -p o w e r m e n t f o r T h i r d W o r l d p o o r p eo p l e. P a r t Cou t l i ne s pos si b l e w a ys t o e s t a b l i s h t h i s l e g i ti m a c y ,in e f fo r t s to fu l fi l a lms o f sus ta ina ble eq ui tab le d e -v e l o p m e n t .T he que s t i ons w i l l be r a i s e d : I n o r de r t o l e g i ti -m i z e s uc h know l e dge fo r t he pe op l e , i s i t n e c e s s a r yf o r w e s t e r n s c i e n t i s t s t o m e a s u r e a nd " s c i e n t i z e "t h i s kno w l e dge ? A nd , i s i t a pp r op r i a t e f o r s c i e n t i s t st o v i e w t h i s k n o w l e d g e a s a n u n t a p p e d m i n e t o b ee x t r a c t e d a n d u s e d ? I t w i l l b e a r g u e d t h a t a n e x t r ac -t i ve a pp r oa c h p r e s e n t s a d a ng e r t ha t l oc al know l -e d g e b e c o m e s a p p r o p r i a t e d a n d e x p l o i t e d b y F i r s tW o r l d i n s t i t u t io n s a n d " p a c k a g ed " i n t o t h e m o d e l so f w e s t e r n s c i e n t is t s ; and t h i s a pp r oa c h m a y d i s t o r tt he kno w l e dg e a nd be i n a pp r o p r i a t e f o r l oca l ne e ds .I t i s a ls o s u g g e s t e d t h a t a p r o m i s i n g w a y t o b u i l dpeop le s ' ow n capac i t ie s i s to l eg it imizea n d s t r e n g t h e ns uc h know l e dge a s a w a y f o r poo r r u r a l pe op l e t oe m p o w e r t h em s e l v e s. S u p p o r t i n g a n d e x p a n d i n gt h e i r o w n k n o w l e d g e s y s t e m s m a y h e l p s o m e p eo p l et o " d e f e n d t h e m s e l v e s a g a i n s t" o r t a k e a d v a n t a g eo f fo r e i gn t e c hn i qu e s a t t h e y c hoos e . A c h i e v i ng th i sf o r m o f e m p o w e r m e n t r e q u i r e s c h a l l e n g i n g i n -s t i t u t i ona l s t r uc t u r e s a nd c onve n t i ona l s c i e n t i f i cm o d e l s , a n d i t a l so m a y r e q u i r e m a t e r i a l a n de c onom i ct r a n s f o r m a t i o n s i n o r d e r t o b e t r u l y s ig n if -i c a n t. T he p a pe r doe s no t p r ov i d e '% l ue p r i n t " so l u -t i o n s f o r e m p o w e r m e n t , b u t p r e s e n t s a p l e a t ope op l e w o r k i ng i n t h i s f ie l d t o g i ve f u r t h e r c ons i d -e r a t i on t o s uc h e t h i c a l a nd s oc i op o l i t i c a l i s s ue s t i e dt o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f l o c a lk n o w l e d g e .A . O v e r v i e w o f t h e Na t u r e o f L o c a l Knowledgeand Researchers' Rea ct ions1 . Genera l Character i s ti c s o f In d igenousKnowledge

N u m e r o u s a n a l y s t s h a v e d i s c u ss e d t h e k n o w l -

e dge , p r a c t i ce s , a nd be l i e fs o f poo r r u r a l f a r m i n gp e o p l e s i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s . S u c h p h e n o -m e na ha ve be e n t e r m e d ' ~ oc al know l e dge , " '2nd i-gen ous sk i l l , " '%radi t iona l" kno wled ge , or e thno sc i -e nc e . W i t ho u t dw e l l i ng on s e m a n t i c c on t r ove r s i e s ,t h i s a r ti c le u s e s t h e t e r m ' % c a l k n o w l e d g e " b r o a d l yt o e x p r e s s th e s e p h e n o m e n a .E a r l y d i s c us si ons o f s uc h l oc a l kno w l e dg e con -v e y p e j o r a t i v e o r d e r o g a t o r y v i e w s ( e x p r e s s e d b ym a ny c o nve n t i ona l W e s t e r n s c i e n t is t s ), c ha r -a c t e r i z ing f a r m e r s ' t r a d i t i ons a s '%a c kw a r d , " c on -se rv a t ive , ine f f ic ien t , in fe r ior , and bas ed o n '~ignor-a nc e " o r m y t hs . 2 I n t h i s pe r s p e c t i ve , i t i s a s s u m e dt h a t n a t i v e p e o p l es a r e s t u p i d a n d b a r b a r i o u s a n dt h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n s s h o u l d b e r e j e c t e d a n d a b a n -d o n e d i n d e v e l o p m e n t p r o c e ss e s , a n d r e -p l a c e d by ne w f o r e i gn " e f fi c ie n t " t e c hno l og i e s . S uc hp r e j u d i c e s o r g i n a t e i n t h e v i e w s o f e a r l y e x -

p lore r s , mis s iona r ie s , and co lonia l s c ien t i s t s , anda r e t i e d t o t h e p r e d o m i n a n t im a g e s o f " p r o g r es s "a nd s u pe r i o r i t y o f " c i v il i ze d" c oun t r i e s . N i n e t e e n t hc e n t u r y p r i nc i p l e s o f e vo l u t i on a nd " s c i e n t i f i cr e a s on , " w h i c h w e r e e x t e nde d t o S oc ia l D a r w i n i s m ,s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e v i ew s o f th e n e e d t o c o n v e r t a n di m pr o ve t he 'U nc iv i li z ed s a va ge s , " a n d t o a bo l is ht he i r p r i m i t i ve " c h i ld l ike " w a ys . T he s e pe j o r a t i veb i a s e d v i e w s , t he i r h i s t o r y , a n d t he i r e x t e ns i o n in t op r e s e n t s c i e n t i f i c t h i nk i ng ha ve be e n d i s c us s e de l s e w he r e a t l e ng t h ( s e e , e g , W a r r e n , 1989 ; S l i kke r -vee r , 1989; J igg in s , 1989; Go sse t , 1965) .H o w e v e r , i n v i e w o f ev i d e n c e f r o m n u m e r o u sr u r a l s t ud i e s , p r og r e s s i ve s oc ia l s c i enc e a na l y s t sha ve i nc r e a s i ng l y re a l i z e d t ha t t h i s de n i g r a t i ng a t -t i t ude i s f a ll a ci ous a nd n a i ve . 3 F o r e xa m pl e , i t h a sbe c om e w i de l y r e c ogn i z e d t ha t f a r m e r s ' " i gno r -a n c e" a b o u t n e w o r w e s t e r n t e c h n o l o g i e s i s n o t am a t t e r o f " s t u p i d i t y , " b u t i s l a r g e l y a m a n i f e s t a t io nof po ve r ty , soc ial inequ i t i e s , and inaccess ib i l i ty tor e s o u r c e s . I n m a n y c a s e s , n e w m e t h o d s a r e n o ta d o p t e d b e c au s e t h e y a r e u n s u i t e d to t h e n e e d s a n de n v i r o n m e n t s o f r e s o u r c e -p o o r f a r m e r s o r a r e i n-

f e r i o r t o t he e x i s t i ng t e c hn i que s ( e . g . , C ha m be r sa nd G h i l dya l, 1985, C ha m b e r s e t a l . , 1989) . M ore -ove r , t he s o - ca l le d " c ons e r va t i ve " o r '%a c kw a r d"p r a c t i c e s a r e o f t e n r a t iona l r e s p ons e s t o l oca l c on -d i t i ons a nd a r e l og i c a l a da p t a t i on s t o r i s k s . D e s p i t et h i s r e c o g n i t io n , m a n y d e v e l o p m e n t a n a l y s t s s t il lt e n d t o a s s u m e t h e m a i n s t r e a m v i e w t h a t t h e s e" o l d" p r a c t i c e s s hou l d be r e p l a c e d t o a c h i e vee c o n o m ic p r o g r e s s .O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i n r e c e n t y e a r s , w i t h t h ee m e r g e n c e o f i n c re a s i n g a n t h r o p o l o g ic a l an d a g r o -e c o l o g y s t u d i e s f r o m t h e T h i r d W o r l d , g r o w i n gn u m b e r s o f a n al y s ts a n d d e v e l o p m e n t p r a c t i t i one r sh a v e e x p r e s s e d p o s i t iv e o r l a u d a t o r y v i e w s o f lo c alk n o w l e d g e a n d c a p ac i ti e s. T h e y u s u a l l y c h a r a c t e r-

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i ze cu l ture-based kno wledg e and prac t i ces as eff ec-t ive , e f f ic i en t , and funct ional. M any s tud ies o f th i sk ind r efer to t echnica l sk i l l s , such as cu l t iva t ionm et ho ds o r a r t i s an r y f o r too l -m ak i ng , and t he r e f o r ehave us ed t he ac r onym " I TK " i e , ' 2nd igenoust echn i ca l kno w l ed ge" - - t o des c r ibe t h i s . ' Fo r exam -p l e s, s ee Fa r r i n g t on and M ar ti n , 1987; H ow es andCh am bers , 1979; Bigg s , 1980a &b; Ric hard s , 1979,1985; Swi f t, 1979). Ho we ver , s eve ra l s tudies hav er evea l ed t ha t s uch know l edge ex t ends bey ond on l y'%echnical" aspe cts , and a lso include s non - techn icalins ight s , wi sdom, ideas , percept ions , and innova-t ive capab i l i ties whic h per ta in to ecological, biolog-i ca l, geographica l , and ph ys ica l phe nom ena (Toledoet al . , 1985; Ju m a, 1989; No rga ard , 1984; Kle e 1980;B r o k e n s h a e t al . , 1980). Ex am ples of loca l knowl -edge have been f ound i n ag r o f o r es t r y , m u l t i p l ecropping pat t ern s , pes t - cont ro l methods , so il f e r -t i li za t ion a nd t i ll ing , polycul tures , smal l an im alhus -band r y , s eed / va r i e t y s e l ec ti on , u s es o f w i ld p l an tspecies , unique botanica l t axonom ies , and cu ra t ivequa l it ie s o f he r bs ; and t hes e h ave b een des c r i bedby sev era l au tho r s ( as in Al t i e r i, 1988, 1983a &b;Al t i er i and An der son , 1985; Cha mb ers e t al . , 1989;Toledo et al . , 1985; Ju m a , 1989; Roche leau , 1987;Richa rds , 1979, 1985; Ho we s and Cham bers , 1979;Br okens h a et al . , 1980; Ca r l ier , 1987.)The se ins ight s an d ada pt ive sk i l ls of f arm ers areo f te n d e r i v e d -~ o m m a n y y ~ f e x p e ri en c e a n dmay be ca l l ed cul tura l t r ad i t ions which havecoevolved wi th the local environments . They of tenhave b een com municated and l earned throu gh f ami lymem bers over genera tions . Such know ledges ys t em sm ay per tain to var ious cu l tural norm s, social roles ,or ph ysical condit ions such a s c l imate or luna r cycles .Obviously, decis ions to use th ese ideas are not bas edon em pir ical m easu rem ents o r cos t-benef it anal-yse~ ~ in convent ional m ode rn science. In som ecases , t he know ledge is based on unique epi s temol -ogies, philosophies, intuit ions, a nd principles, w hichdif fer f rom m ode rn scienti fic tenets . In som e cul tures ,the ins ights a re t i ed to m ys t i c~ or r e l ig ious be li ef s,or ideas about sp i r it s or ance s t r a l ghos t s - -w hich a reus ua l l y i ncom pr ehens i b l e t o W es t e r n s c i en t i s t s .Thi s i s wel l - i l l us t r a t ed in Rappapor t ' s c l as s i cana l ys is o f r i tua l and i ts com pl ex m ean i ng i n t hel ives o f N ew G u i nean na t i ves ( P i g s f o r t h e A n c e s -tors , 1968) . I n a l l cas es , t h e know l edge o f loca lg r oups i s no t a s t a t i c body o f w i s dom , bu t i n s t ead ,usua l ly cons i s ts o f d y n a m i c i n s i gh ts and t echn i quesw h i c h a r e c h a n g e d o v e r t i m e t h r o u g h e x p e r i m e n t a -t i on and adap t a t ions t o e nv i r onm en t a l and s oc io -econom i c changes .

A n o t he r f e a t u r e o f s uch l ocal know l edge i s t ha ti t is pos s es s ed no t on l y by m en . I n m any cu l t u r e s ,w om en have pa r t icu l a r l y r ich i n s igh t s abou t ce r t a i n

Thr upp : Leg i t im i z i ng Loca l K now l edge

r es ou r ces , p l an t and t r ee species , and l ives tock andf a r m i ng t echn i ques . Fo r exam pl e , s eve r a l s t ud i e sh a v e f o u n d t h a t E a s t A f r ic a n w o m e n h a v e r e m a r k -ab l e know l edge abou t qua l it ie s and us es o f d i f f e r en ti nd i genous t r ee s pec ie s f o r d i f f e ren t pu r pos es s uchas fuel , me dicines , and co nst ru ct ion (eg,~luma, t989;Roche leau, 1987; Thru pp, 1984). W om en in C entra lAm er ica have be en a l so found to hav e r emark ableins ight s about an imal husbandry , herbal r em edies ,and polycul ture- -which has se ldom been s tudied(Thrupp, 1985) . Thi s know ledge per t a ins to th ewom en ' s cu l tura l ro les and i s of t en unkno wn by m en.In som e societies , e lders have profound wisdo m aboutphenom ena such as medic inal p l ant s, s eed sources ,valuable crop species , or natural resource con-s t raints , and the i r functions in rural societies. In som ecul tures , special informat ion (such as ins ights re late dto medicinalp lant s ) i s know n onlyby specific individu-als such as midwives , rel igious leaders , or heal inga r ti s ts . Res ea r che r s have s om e t i m es been un aw ar eo f s uch pe r cep t i venes s am ong r u r a l peop l e s duepar t ly to the i r biased focus on only land-ow ning ma lefarmers , neglec t ing o ther m em bers o f socie ti es .Som e ag r oeco log i s ts and popu l a r r epo r t s on t h i ssubject h ave pres ente d ideal is tic or roma nt ic visionso f s uch know l edge and capac it ie s . Som e convey i m -ages o f " nob le s avages , " l i v i ng " in ha r m ony" w i t hN a t u r e i n peace f u l s t a te s , s I n f ac t , how ever , t h i sv i ew can be m i s lead i ng and i napp r op r i a t e . I t s hou l dbe s t r e s s ed t h a t t he t ype , e x t en t and d i s t r ibu t i ono f know l edge va r y g r ea t l y i n Th i r d W o r l d s oc ie t ie s .Simi: lar ly the capa ci t ies of individua ls to in no vate ,u t il ize , and t r ans f e r s uch kn ow l edge a r e d i ve r s e ,and are r e l a t ed par t ly to the socio-economic andenv i r onm en t a l cond i ti ons o f each pa r t i cu l a r g r oupof people . N o t a l l r e s ou r ce - poor peop l e have va l u -ab l e i nd i genous know l edge t ha t i s d i s t i nc t f r omW es t e r n s c ience ; and s om e peop l e have r e l ied onbe l ie f s t ha t a r e i ne f fec t ive f o r t he peop l e 's ow n i n -t e r e s t s . ( Exam pl es o f dys func t iona l p r ac t i ce s a r es om e k i nds o f he r ba l f o lk r em ed i es , s uch a s i nges t -i ng po i s onous p lan t s i n t ended f o r hea l ing . ) Som e-t i m es , kno w l edge t ha t w as once w e l l- adap t ed andef fec t ive for s e cur ing th e people ' s l ive l ihoods sev-e r a l cen t u r i e s ago becom es i napp r op r i a te w hen con -f r on t ed by r ap i d s oc io - econom ic changes and i n t e r -ven t i ons . A n exam pl e i s t he p r ac t i ce o f bu r n i ngc r op r e s i dues t o c l ea r land , w h i ch unde r l ow dens i t yswidden a gr i cul ture wa s usefu l and p roduct ive ( e .g .,for pes t cont ro l) , bu t i s d e t r im enta l to so i ls if doner e p e a t e d l y u n d e r c o n d it io n s o f p e r m a n e n t f a r m i n gand con cen t r a t ed l and t enu r e s t r uc t u r e s ( Conk li n ,1957; Tu rne r and Brus h , 1987).

A ckno w l edg i ng s uch va r i a t ions , i t i s neces s a r yt o r e j ec t r om an t i c ized o r i dea l is t ic v i ew s o f l oca lkno wled ge and t r ad i t ional socie ti es . Hi s tor i ca l and15

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A G R I C U L T U R E A N D H U M A N V A L U E S - - S U M M E R 1989

a n t h ro p o l o g ic a l e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t t h a t e v e n a n c i e n ti n d i g e n o u s p o p u l at i o n s w h o p r a c ti c e d s w i d d e n a g -r i c u l t u r e - - s u c h a s t h e M a y a n s i n M e s o a m e r i c a a n dI n c a s o f a n ci e n t P e r u - - w e r e n o t a l w a y s " i n b al an c e "w i t h t h e i r n a tu r a l e n v i r o n m e n t s i n i de a l s u s t a ina b l ec ond i t ions . E v e n t hou gh t he s e e a r l y s oc i et i es ha da ba s i s o f f unc t i ona l i nd i ge nous know l e dge , t hep e a s a n t r y i n t h o s e t i m e s ( a s i n t h e m o d e r n e r a )o f t e n w e r e i m po ve r i s he d , s u f f e r e d f r om de b i l it a t -i ng d i s e a s e s a nd c l i m a t i c e x t r e m e s , a nd a l s o ha dp r o b l e m s f r o m s e v e r e s oi l e r o s io n a n d r e s o u r c e d e -g r a d a t io n . A g o o d e x a m p l e o f t h i s c o m e s f r o m a r -c he o log i c al s t ud i e s o f t he M a ya n I nd i a n s oc i et i es ,s how i ng no t on l y a h i gh l y h i e r ar c h i c a l s t re s s - r i dde ns oc i e ty , b u t a l so s e r i ous s o il e ro s i on a nd l a nd de g r a -da t i on , w h i c h w a s a l i ke l y c a use o f t he c o l la ps e o fthe c iv i li za tion (Culbe r t , 1974 ; Eck holm , 1976).M or e ove r , a s i n r e c e n t ye a r s , s om e e a r l y s oc i et i e sw e r e s oc ia l ly s tr a t i f ie d , a nd r u r a l pe op l e s w e r e s ub -j e c t t o e xp l o i t a t i on . T he r e w e r e a nd s t i l l a r e i n -e qu i t i e s i n r e s ou r c e d i s t r i bu t i on , a nd a l s o d i s -pa r i t i e s i n a c c e s s t o i n f o r m a t i on a nd know l e dge ,w h i c h c o n t r ib u t e t o p r o b l e m s s u c h a s e n v i r o n m e n -t a l de g r a d a t i on . T he r e c ogn i t i on o f s uc h r e a l it i e sc ha l l enge s i de a li s ti c a nd f a l s e v i e w s he l d b y a u t ho r sw ho r om a n t i c a l l y e nv i s i on t he pa s t i n a L udd i t em a n n e r .T h e r e a r e a l so va r i a t i ons i n pe op l e s ' w i l l ingne s st o d i s c u ss a n d s h a r e t h e i r k n o w l e d g e . F o r e x a m p l e ,p o s s e s s o r s o f i n f o r m a t i o n m a y n o t a l w a y s o p e n l yd i s c lo s e t he i r i de a s a nd i n f o r m a t i on t o s c i e n t i s t s .U n d e r s t a n d a b l y , p e o p l e m a y c o n ce a l c o v e t e d i n fo r -m a t i o n f ro m s t r a n g e r s , o r k e e p c e r t a in s e c r e t s c o n-f id e n ti a l. E v e n a m o n g c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s , t h e r ei s o f t e n d i f f e r e n t i a l a c c e s s t o va l ue d know l e dge ,w h e r e b y c e r t ai n p e o p l e c o n t ro l m o r e i n f o r m a t io nt h a n o t h e r s. K n o w l e d g e i s t h u s a s o u r c e o f p o w e ro r p r i v i l e ge , a nd m a y c on t r i bu t e t o s t r a t i f i c a t i ona nd d i s pa r i t i e s o f s oc ia l g r oup s . A n e x a m p l e o f t h i sconf ident ia l i ty i s fo u n d in E a s t e r n K e n y a , i n a s t u d yo f t h e n a t i v e p e o p l e s ' i n d i g e n o u s k n o w l e d g e o fp l a n t s a n d s e e ds ( J um a , 1989) , w he r e on l y pa r ti c u -l a r e l d e r m e m b e r s o f a t r i b e k n o w a s p e c ts a b o u tt he m e d i c i na l qua l i ti e s a nd c o l le c t ion s i te s o f va l ue dp l a n t s , a n d h a v e h i g h s t a t u s i n t h e g r o u p b e c a u s eo f t he i r s pe c i al s e c r e t know l e dge . T h i s ha s a l s o be e nf o u n d in t h e a r e a o f h e a l t h c a r e a n d m i d w i f e r y i ni s o l at e d c o m m u n i t i e s o f C e n t r a l A m e r i c a a n d I n -d o n e s ia . F u r t h e r m o r e , d i f fe r e n c es in d i s cl o s u re o fi d ea s a ls o m a y d e p e n d o n w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e i d e asa r e u s e d f o r c o m p e t i ti v e p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t s. I n d i -v i d u a l k n o w l e d g e t h a t i s u s e d f o r a i m s o f ac c u m u l a-t i o n o r m a r k e t c o m p e t i t i o n t e n d s t o b e k e p t m o r ec o n f i d e n t i a l t h a n k n o w l e d g e t h a t i s n e e d e d f o rm u t u a l i n t e r e s t s o f s u r v i v a l am o n g a c o m m u n i t y .F o r e xa m pl e , i t i s fo t / nd i n C os t a R i c a t ha t c o f fe e

f a r m e r s w h o f e el c o m p e t i t iv e w i t h t h e i r n e i g h b o r sa r e w a r y a b o u t s h a r i n g s p e ci fi c i d e a s o f p e s t c o n t r o lt e c hn i qu e s ( T h r upp , 1985) .P e o p l e ' s k n o w l e d g e is a ls o s h a p e d b y t h e w i d e rpo l i ti c al e c onom i c c on t e x t o f t he s oc i e ty . I n m od e r nt i m e s , i t h a s be c om e inc r e a s i ng l y r a r e t o f i nd g r ou pso r t r i be s t ha t a r e c om pl e t e l y i s o l a t ed o r c u t o f f f r omt h e m a r k e t e c o n o m y a n d f ro m W e s t e r n c u l t u r e .T r a d i t io n - b a s e d i n s i g h t s t h u s b e c o m e m o d i f ie d a n dm i x e d w i t h " e x t e r n a l " i d e a s a n d t e c h n o l o g ie s , ast he na t u r e o f soc i o -e c onom i c a nd t e c hn i c a l cond i -t i o n s a r e t r a n s f o r m e d . T h e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f n e wt e c hno l og i e s a nd s c i e n ti f ic a pp r oa c he s ha s undo ub-t e d l y b e n e f i t e d s o m e p o o r r u r a l p e o p l e . B u t s u c hc h a n g e s a ls o h a v e l e d t o d o c u m e n t e d e n v i r o n m e n t a land soc io-economicp r o b l e m s ; a n d u s e f u l in d i g e n o u skno w l e dg e ha s be c om e d i s p la c e d , de l e g i t im i z e d , o rl o s t w i t h t h e g r o w i n g d o m i n a n c e o f i m p o r t e dt e c hno l og i e s , W e s t e r n s c i e n t i f i c p r i nc i p l e s , a ndc o n v e n t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t s t r a t e g i e s ( R i c h a r d s ,1979 ; T h r up p , 1985 , R ho a de s , 1984) . F u r t h e r m or e ,m a r g i n a li z e d p o o r p e o p l e o f t en a r e u n a b l e t o t a k ea d v a n t a g e o f e x t e r n a l t e c h n o l o g i e s a n d i n f o r m a t i o nt ha t c ou l d be po t e n t i a l l y be ne fi c ia l , pa r t l y be c a us eo f s oc ioe c onom i c c ons t r a i n t s s uc h a s i ne q u i t i e s i na c c es s to r e s ou r c e s . I n s om e ca s e s , how e v e r , pe op l et he m s e l ve s ha ve s uc c e s s f u l l y a nd s e l e c t i ve l y" m i xe d" t he " o l d" a nd " ne w " i de a s in dyn a m i c de ve l -op m e n t p r oc e s s e s ( e . g . , R ho a de s , 1984 ).R e c e n t l y , m a n y w e s t e r n r e s e a r c h e r s h a v ea n a l y z e d l o c a l k n o w l e d g e s y s t e m s , a n d h a v eb e c o m e d i s c o n c e r t e d b y t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t o f s u c h'~i n ta ng ib l e" r e s ou r c e s . U s i ng c onve n t i ona l e xpe r i -m e n t a l m e t h o d s , s o m e h a v e d i s c o v e r e d sc i en t if icr e a s o n s t o v e r i f y t h a t t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s a n d k n o w l -e dge s y s t e m s a r e l og i c a l o r e f f e c t i ve . H ow e ve r ,regardless of s uc h f o rm a l i z e d e xp l a na t i ons , t he s ep e o p l e ' s o w n k n o w l e d g e s y s t e m s a n d i d e a s h a v eva l i d i t y in themselves, in t e r m s o f t h e i r o w n p r in c i -p l e s a n d f u n c t i o n f o r t h e p e o p l e 's o w n p r o p o s e s . I no t h e r w o r d s , t h e y a r e l e g i t im a t e f o r t h o s e c u l t u r e s ,i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e " p r o o f ' b y s c ie n t if ic m o d e l s a n dpa r a d i gm s . I n s uc h c a s e s , s c i e n t i s t s a nd e x t e n -s i on i s ts a r e l e a r n i ng a g r e a t de a l f rom T h i r d W or l dpe op l e s ' a l t e r na t i ve pe r c e p t i o ns a nd p r a c t i c e s. 6

2 . E x a m p l e s : T r a d i t io n a l U s e s o f T r e e sa n d L u n a r C y c l e sE x a m p l e s o f r e m a r k a b l e i n s i g h t s a n d c a p a c i ti e sr e l a t e d t o f a r m i n g a n d r e s o u r c e c o n d i t i o n s w e r ef o u n d i n t h e a u t h o r ' s r e s e a r c h i n C o s t a R i c a, e n t a i l-i ng i n t e r v i e w s o f s m a l l - s c a l e f a r m e r s ( T h r upp ,1 98 5, 1 9 8 0) . R u r a l p e o p l e t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r yw e r e f o u n d t o h a v e n o t e w o r t h y t r a d it i o n - b a s e d in -s i g h t s a b o u t p e s t c o n t r o l p r a c ti c e s, i n t e r c r o p p i n g

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p a t t e r n s , p l a n t s p a ci n g , u s e s o f t r e e s a n d s h r u b s ,s o il qua l i t ie s , op t i m a l u t i l i za t i on o f li gh t a nd na t u r a lnu t r i e n t s , a nd c h i c ke n r a i s i ng . F o r e xa m pl e , 35%of a s a m p l e o f 120 pe a s a n t s m a l l - ho l de r s s u r v e ye di n 1 9 80 i n t h e r e g i o n o f P u r is c a l w e r e f o u n d t o h a v ev a r i o u s t r e e s p e c ie s p l a n t e d i n t h e i r c r o p p i n g sy s -t e m s , w h i c h w e r e b a s e d o n a t r a d it i o n - b a s ed p r a c -t i c e . L ong be f o r e f o r m a l l y - t r a i ne d s c i e n t i s t s " i n -v e n t e d " a n d p o p u l a r iz e d t h e t e r m " a g r o f o r e s t r y ,"t h e s e f a r m e r s c l e ar l y e x p l ai n e d a n d r e c o g n i z e d t h em u l t i p l e u s e s a n d a d v a n t a g e s o f t he t r e e s i n po l yc u l-t u r e f a r m i ng s y s t e m s , i nc l ud i ng ' 2 i ve " f e nc e s ,s ha de f o r c o f f e e p l a n t s , f o r a ge , na t u r a l f e r t i l i z e rf r om t he t r e e - l i t t e r , e r o s i on con t r o l f r om t he r oo t s ,t he nu t r i t i ona l a nd e c onom i c va l ue o f d i f f e r e n t i nd i -ge no us t r e e s pe c i e s a nd t he i r f unc t i ons . T h i s k i ndo f k n o w l e d g e a b o u t t r e e s w a s f o u n d t o b e a c o m m o np h e n o m e n a i n m a n y p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d . ( eg ,R o c h e l e au , 1 9 8 7; T h r u p p , 1 9 8 5; B r o k e n s h a e t a l . ,1980; W ilken , 1977) .A n o t h e r f a sc i n at in g e x a m p l e c o m m o n a m o n gC os t a R i c a n s m a l l f a r m e r s i s t he p r a c t i c e o f u s i ngl una r c yc l es a s a ba s i s f o r de c i s ion - m a k i ngf o r p r u n -i n g a n d p l a n t i n g , a n d h a r v e s t i n g c r o p s. M a n y fa r m -e r s e x p l a i n t h a t t h e y d e c id e o n t h e o p t i m a l t i m e sf o r p r u n i n g c o f fe e p la n t s a n d s o w i n g c r o p s s e e d sa c c o r d in g t o t h e s t a g e s o f t h e m o o n . I n p a r t ic u l a r ,t h e y k n o w t h a t p r u n i n g s h o ul d b e d o n e w h e n t h em o o n i s w a n i n g ( ie , " m e n g u a n t e " ); a n d t o p l a n t c o r nw h e n t h e m o o n i s w a x i n g o r n e w ( i. e. , " c r e c ie n t e" ) .W h e n a s k e d w h y t h i s p r a ct i c e i s u s e d , t h e f a r m e r se xp l a i n t ha t i t i s a t r a d i t i on l e a r ne d f r om a nc e s -t o r s - - w h i c h " w o r k s " f o r i m p r o v i n g t h e o u t c o m e o fc r ops . F o r t he m , t h i s ba s i s o f de c i s i on - m a k i ng ha sb e e n s u c c e s s f u l a n d h a s f u n c t i o n e d b e t t e r t h a no t he r p r a c t i c e s , ba s e d on e xpe r i e nc e s a nd t r i a l so v e r t im e . I n r e s p o n s e t o f u r t h e r q u e s t io n i n g , s o m ef a r m e r s d i s c u ss e d t h e i r r e a s o n i n g f o r t h i s : D u r i n gt h e m e n g u a n t e , t h e y e x p l ai n , t h e p l a n t i s " d r y " - -h a v i n g l i t tl e s a p , m e a n i n g t h a t p r u n i n g is p r e f e r a b led u r i n g t h i s ti m e t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e n a t u r a l m o i s t u r ed o e s n o t f l o w o u t a n d w e a k e n t h e p l a n t . I n c o n t r a s t,d u r i n g t h e n e w m o o n , t h e b r a n c h e s a r e " w e t " a n dt h e s a p i s a b u n d a n t , w h i c h i s v i e w e d a s t h e b e s tt i m e f o r s e e d i n g t o e n c o u r a g e m a x i m u m g r o w t h ,b u t i s i n a p p r o p r i a t e f o r p r u n i n g , s i n c e t h e l i q u i d sf lo w r a p id l y f r o m t h e p l a n t i f t h e s t e m s a r e c u t .T h e u s e o f l u n a r c y c le s f o r t im i n g o f f a r m p r a c -t i ce s is n o t u n i q u e t o C o s t a R i c a n f a r m e r s . F a r m e r si n m a n y p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d u s e t h e i r k n o w l e d g e o ft he m oon ' s c yc l e s a s a ba s i s f o r va r i ous f a r m i ng ,f i sh ing , and cu l tura l p rac t i ce s . The spec i f i c ac -t i v i ti e s b a s e d o n l u n a r s t a g e s v a r y i n d i f f er e n t r e -g i ons , bu t s om e a s pe c t s a nd p r i nc i p l e s , s uc h a s ha r -ve s t a nd s e e d i n g t i m e s , a r e s i m i l a r c r o s s - c u lt u r a l ly .( T r i pp , 1988 ; L i e be r , 1980 ; K o l i s ke , 1 936 ; A n i l

T h r u p p : L e g i t i m i z in g L o c al K n o w l e d g e

G up t a , p e r s ona l c om m un i c a t ion , 1987; M . A l t i e ri ,pe r s ona l c o m m un i c a t i on , 1988 .)M a n y w e s t e r n - t r a i n e d s c i e n t is t s o r a g r o n o m i s t ss c o f f a t t he s e m oon- b a s e d be l ie f s . H ow e ve r , r e -s e a r ch b y w e s t e r n s c i e n t i st s o n t h is i s s u e s h o w st ha t i n f a c t , u s e o f l una r c yc l e s ha s " s c ie n t if i ca l ly -ba s e d" e xp l a na t i ons w h i c h s ubs t a n t i a t e s i t s l og i ca n d f u n c t io n . S o m e b o t a n i s ts h a v e s h o w n t h a t t h eg r a v i t a t i ona l pu l l o f t he m oon a f f e c t s t he f l ow o fl iq u i d s i n p l a n t s d u r i n g d i f f e r e n t s t a g e s - - j u s t a s i ta f f e ct s t he e bb a n d f l ow o f t i de s i n t he s e a ~ - w h i c ha l so c on t r i bu t e t o d i f f e r e n t l eve l s o f m o i s t u r e i n t h ep l a n t s ' s t e m s , j u s t a s t h e f a r m e r s o f C o s t a R i c akno w ( L i e be r , 1980 ) . I n f a c t , s om e ho r t i c u l t u r a ls c i e n t i s t u s e l una r s t a g e s a s a ba s i s o f c hoos i ngo p t i m a l t i m e s f o r g r a f t i n g p l a n ts . T h e b e s t r e s u l t sf r o m g r a f t s a r e a c h i e v e d d u r i n g t h e n e w m o o n ,w h e n t h e r e i s t h e g r e a t e s t m o i s t u re a t t h e u n i o nb e t w e e n t w o j o i n e d s t e m s ( L i e b er , 1 9 80 ). A n o t h e rW e s t e r n - s c i e n c e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e v a l i d i t y o fu s i n g l u n a r p h a s e s p e r t a i n s t o t h e f l ig h t p a t t e r n so f s o m e i n s e c t p e s t s w h i c h s y c h r o n i z e w i t h t h em o o n ' s c y cl es ( J. V a n d e r m e e r , p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i -ca t ion, 1989) .I n C o s t a R i c a, a s i n m a n y c o u n t r i e s , i t w a s f o u n dt ha t t he r e a r e va r i a t ions i n pe op l e' s a t t i t ude s t ow a r dt h e i r o w n e x p e r i e n c e- b a s e d k n o w l e d g e v e r s u s t h e" e x t e r n a l" k n o w l e d g e a n d i d e a s b e i n g i n t r o d u c e da l ong w i t h f o r e i gn t e chno l og i e s . A t l e a s t f i ve k i nd so f a t t i t u d e s o r p e r c e p t io n s a r e e x p r e s s e d b y r u r a lpoo r . T he s e a t t i t ude s ( w h i c h ove r l a p ) i nc l ude : 1 )P r i d e a n d p r a i s e o f t r a d i ti o n a l m e t h o d s a n d t h e i ruse~fuiness , some t imes a s soc ia ted wi th a sense ofc u l t u r a l i n t e g r i t y ( T h r up p , 1984 ); 2 ) ou t r i g h t r e j e c -t i o n o f o r a v e r s io n t o " m o d e r n " o r c h e m i c a l i n p u t sp r o m o t e d b y f o r e i g n e x p e r t s , s u c h a s a g r o c h e m i c a lsa nd h i gh - y i e l d va r i e t y s e e ds ; 3 ) s ke p t i c i s m a bou tt he va l ue o f f o r e i gn t e c hno l og i e s , a long w i t h he s i -t a nc y t o e xp r e s s c r i t i c i s m s ; 4 ) i r on i c a t t i t ude s o re m b a r r a s s m e n t o r s h a m e t o d i s cu s s t h e i r o w n id e a s ,kno w l e dg e , a nd p r a c t i c e s , o r c r i t ic i z i ng t he m s e l ve s ,expla in ing apologe t ica l ly tha t " I don ' t p rac t i ce them o de r n t e c hn i que s l ike t he e x pe r t s s a y I s hou l d do . . ; " a n d , a t t h e o t h e r e x t r e m e , 5 ) a d m i r a t i o n o ri d o li za ti o n o f m o d e r n t e c h n i q u e s a n d a s p i r a ti o n s t oa c qu i r e t he ' ~ ne w e s t a nd be s t " f o r e i gn s c i e n t i f i ci de a s w h i c h a r e c om m on l ya dve r t i s e d ( T h r up p , 1985 ,1988 ). T h i s f i na l c om m o n a t t i t ud e , a s w e l l a s e m -b a r a s s m e n t o r u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t t h e i r p r a c t i c e s ,s u g g e s t s t h a t f a r m e r s o f t e n a r e l o s i n g c o n f id e n c ea n d t h e s e n s e o f l e g i ti m a c y i n t h e i r o w n k n o w l e d g ea n d b e l i e f -s y s t em s . T h e s e a t t i t u d e s e m e r g e p a r t l yb e c a u s e f a rm e r s h a v e b e e n p r e s s u r e d a n d i n d o c t r i-n a t e d t o b e l i e v e t h a t d o m i n a n t p r a c t ic e s p u s h e d b ya g r oc hem i c a l s a l es m e n , a dve r t i s e m e n t s , s t a t e a ge n -c ie s , a nd W e s t e r n - t r a i ne d s c i e n t i s t s a r e ' 2 "igh t" a nd

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A G R I C U L T U R E A N D H U M A N V A L U E S - - S U M M E R 1989

s upe r i o r ( a l though a c t ua l l y t h i s i s no t a l w a ys t r ue ) .F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e p r e s e n c e o f p e o p l e 's a t ti t u d e s o fs ha m e c r e a t e d i f fi c u lt ie s fo r s c i e n t i s t s t o d i s c ove ri nd i ge nous i n s i gh t s . Y e t , w i t h pa t i e n t que s t i on i nga n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f t r u s t w i t h r u r a l p e o p le , r e s ea r -c he r s h a ve e l ic i te d va l ua b l e a nd f a s c i na t ing know l -e d g e .

3 . Efforts to U t i l i ze Loca l K n o w l e d g eS o m e r e c e n t a n a l y s ts o f th i s s u b j e c t s u g g e s tt ha t s uc h loc al know l e dge c ons t i t u t e s a n i m p or t a n ts ou r c e o f i nnova t i ons a nd s k i ll s t ha t c a n be " u s e d"a n d d e v e l o p e d f o r i m p r o v i n g a g r i c u l tu r a l p r o d u c -t i on a nd upg r a d i ng poo r pe op l e s ' l i vel ihoods i n r u r a ld e v e l o p m e n t p r o c es s e s. T h e k n o w l e d g e i s s e e n b ys o m e a s a p o t e n t ia l ly i m p o r t a n t s u b s t i t u t e o r c o m -p l e m e n t t o f o r m a l s c ie n t if i c know l e dge a nd t e c h -no l og ie s . A t t e m p t s t o i nc o r po r a t e a nd e xpa nd s uc hk n o w l e d g e h a v e b e e n m a d e i n s e v e r a l p a r t s o f t h ew o r l d; a n d s u c h p r o j e c ts h a v e g a i n e d g r o w i n g p o p u -l a r it y . T he y a r e u s ua l l y c a ll e d " F a r m e r - P a r t i c i pa t -o r y R e s e a r ch " ( F P R ) o r " F a r m e r - F i r s t " p r o j ec t s ,o r o t h e r f o r m s o f O n - F a r m e x p e r i m e n t s t h a t p r o -m o t e t he pa r t i c i pa t ion o f l oc a l pe op l e ( F a r r i n g t ona nd M a r t i n , 1987 ; C ha m b e r s a nd G h i ldya l, 1985;C h a m b e r s e t a l . , 1989) . The ro le of n o n - g o v e r n m e n -t a l o r ga n i z a t i ons a nd de c e n t r a l i z e d c om m un i t yg r oups i s s e e n t o be i m por t a n t i n t he s e e f f o r t s .T h e r e i s a r a p i d l y - e xpa n d i ng bod y o f l i t e r a t u r e ons u c h d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m s a n d t h e i r s t r a t eg i e s .E x a m p l e s a r e de s c r i be d i n T r i pp , 1988; C h a m b e r se t a l . , 1989 ; R hoa d e s , 1984; F a r r i ng t o n a n d M a r t i n1987, Coh en and Up hof f , 1980; M cNe e ley and P i t t ,1985 . S up po r t i ve o r ga n i z at i ons i nc lude t he I n s t i -t u t e f o r N a t i on a l A g r i c u l tu r a l R e s e a r c h ( I S N A R ) ,t h e I n t e r n a ti o n a l P o t a t o C e n t e r , a n d m a n y s m a lln o n - g o v e r n m e n tg r o u p s s u c h a s W o r l d N e i g h b o r s .A f e w o f t he s e i nno va t i ve e f f o r ts ha ve be e n s uc -c e s s fu l i n e na b l i ng r u r a l pe op l e t o b e h i l l y i nvo l ve di n t he R & D p r oc e s s , a nd ha ve e xpa n de d pe op l e s ' e x -pe r i m e n t a t i on , a da p t a t i on , a nd d i f f u s ion o f f a r m i n gt e c hn i que s a nd r e s ou r c e m a n a ge m e n tm e t hods . S uc hp r o j e c t s ha ve he l pe d t o i m pr ove t he l i vel i hoods o ft he be ne f i c ia r i e s a nd t o de ve l op be ne f i ci a l c ha nge st h a t a r e s u p p o r t e d b y t h e r u r a l p e o p l e t h e m s e l v e s .D r a w i n g f r o m e a r l y e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h i s k i n d , s o m ea na - l y s t s a nd p l a nne r s ha ve d i s c ove r e d s pe c i f i ci nnova t i ve s t r a t e g i e s o fr e s e a r c h a n d e x t e n s io n t h a tf a c i l i t a t e t he s e pa r t i c i pa t o r y p r o j e c t s , a nd t r y t or e p l i c a t e s uc c e s s e s t o bu i l d l oc a l know l e dge a nds u s ta i n a b le i m p r o v e m e n t s . ( C h a m b e r s a n d J i g g i n s,1986 ; F a r r i ng t on a nd M a r t in , 1987 ; C h a m be r s e ta l . 1989).

B. M argina l iza t ion o f Indigenous Know ledgeand of "Participatory" Approaches: Political,Phi losoph ica l & Ins t i tu t iona l ReasonsD e s p i t e t h e i nc r e a s i ng nu m be r o f s t ud i e s il lu s -t r a t i ng t he va l ue o f s uc h l oc al know l e dg e c a pac i ti e s ,t he s e i s s ue s o f t e n ha ve be e n m a r g i na li T ~ da n d g i v e nl o w p r i o r i ty i n m a i n s t r e a m a g r i c u lt u r a l s t u d i e s a n di n R & D i n s t i t u t i ons . R e s e a r c h e r s a nd e x t e ns i on i s t si nvo l ve d in f a r m e r pa r t i c i pa t o r y a pp r oa c he s o f t e nf a ce he a vy c o ns t r a i n t s o r c a n no t r e c e i ve s u f f ic i e n tf und i ng . S uc h a pp r oa c he s a r e o f t e n r e j e c t e d by c on -ve n t i ona l s c i e n t i st s a nd de ve l opm e n t " e xp e r t s . "S e ve r a l i n t e r r e l a t e d c a us es - -- w h i c h a r e l a r ge l ypo l i t i c a l , e c onom i c a nd i de o l og ic a l i n na t u r e c on -t r i bu t e t o t h i s m a r g i na l i z a t i on a nd ne g l e c t o f loc a lk n o w l e d g e a n d p a r t i c i p a t o r y a p p r o a c h e s . T h e s er e a s ons i nc l ude t he f o ll ow i ng :1) I nd i ge n ous kno w l e dg e c on t i nue s t o l a c k l e g i ti -m a c y in m a i n s t r e a m t h i n k i n g . F r o m t h e p e r s p e c -t i ve s o f m os t p r o f e s si ona l s , w ho a r e t r a i n e d i n s pe -c i f i c t echnica l and sc ien t i f i c d i sc ip l ines , Wes te rns c ie n t if i c p r i nc i p l e s a nd t h e o r i e s a r e s e e n a s ob j e c-t i ve '%r u t h s , " s upe r i o r t o a l t e r na t i ve e p i s t e m o l o -g i e s a n d k n o w l e d g e sy s t e m s . T h u s , m a n y w e s t e r ns c i e n t i s t s r e j e c t t r a d i t i ona l know l e dge be c a us em a ny o f t he i de a s do no t f i t i n to f o r m a l a c c e p t e dm od e l s o f s c ie nc e , a r e be yo nd s c ie n t if ic unde r s t a nd -i ng , o r a r e s e e n a s c ha l l e nge s t o t he i r c on ve n t i ona lt h e o r ie s . E v e n t h o u g h f o rm a l st u d i e s h a v e d e m o n -s t r a t e d t he va l i d i ty a nd u t i l i t y o f l oca l kno w l e d ge( B r o k e n s h a e t a l . , 1980; R icha rds , 1 979,19 85;Jum a ,1989 ; C h a m be r s e t a l . , 1989 ; T h r up p , 1985 ), m a nypr o f e s s i ona l e xpe r t s s t il l t e nd t o s c o f f a t o r c r i t ic i zes uc h know l e dge s y s t e m s , v i e w i ng t he m a s nons e ns i-ca l, supe r s t i t iou s , i r r a t iona l , o r myth ica l . S imi la r ly ,p r o j e c t s a t t e m p t i ng t o i nc o r po r a te l oc al know l e dgea r e o f t e n s e e n a s uns y s t e m a t i c , uns c i e n t i fi c , a nd ,t he r e f o r e , una c c e p t a b l e . T he s e b i a s e s o f e l i te p r o -f e s s iona l i sm a nd t h e f i r m be l i e f i n t he s up r e m a c yof s c ie nc e - ba s e d t e c hno l og i c a l p r o g r e s s a r e de e p l ye m be d de d i n t he m e n t a l i t i e s o f s c i e n t i s t s a nd i n t oi n s t i t u t i ona l s t r uc t u r e s . S uc h b i a s e s al s o m a n i f e s td o m i n a n t d e v e l o p m e n t m o d e l s i m p o s ed i n m o s tT h i r d W or l d c oun t r i e s , a nd a r e r oo t e d h i st o r i c a ll yi n pe r va s i v e v i e w s o f " p r og r e s s " a n d c iv i li z at ion .2) S imi la r ly , p rofe s s iona l s be l ieve th a t p a r t i cu-l a r e m p i r i c a l m e t ho ds a nd c on t r o l l e d l a bo r a t o r y s e t -t i n g s a r e t h e o n l y " c o r r e c t" a n d s u p e r i o r w a y s t ode t e r m i ne p r e s c r i p t i ons f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l a dva nc e -m e n t . T h e s e i d e a s a r e t r a n s m i t t e d in t h e t o p - d o w na p p r o a c h o f t h e " G r e e n R e v o l u t i o n " t e c h n o l o g y -t r a n s f e r p a t t e r n s , w h i c h a r e a i m e d t o u p l i f t a n de n l i gh t e n T h i r d W or l d r u r a l s oc i e ti e s w i t h s t a n d -a r d i z e d m ode r n t e c hno l og i e s a nd s c i e n t i f i c s o l u -

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T h r u p p : L e g i t im i z i n g L o ca l K n o w l e d g e

t i ons . I n r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t i ons , j ob i nc e n t i ve s a ndo r ga n i z a ti ona l s t r uc t u r e s t yp i c a l l y upho l d a nd p r o -m o t e s uc h p r o f e s si ona li s m a nd s t a nda r d a pp r oa c hesf o r r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t . W o r k i n r u r a l r e -s e a r ch a n d d e v e l o p m e n t i n s t i t u t i ons i s u s ua l l y s e e na s a c on t e x t f o r pe r s ona l l a dde r -c l i m b i ng , no t a spub l i c se r v i c e . S c i e n t i s t s a r e e xp e c t e d t o pub l i s hp a p e r s a n d d e v e l o p r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s t h a t f it a n dp e r p e t u a t e t h e s e i d ea s . E x t e n s i o n i n s t i tu t i o n s al sop e r p e t u a t e a n d i m p o s e t h e s e p a t t e r n s a t t h e f a r ml e vel . E x t e n s i on i s t s a s w e l l a s s c i e n t i st s o f t e n m i s -t a k e n l y v i e w f a r m e r s a s b e i n g u n i n t e l li g e n t an di n e p t. S u c h s t r u c t u r e s a n d n o r m s t e n d t o t h w a r ti n n o v a t iv e a p p r o a c h e s t h a t a r e a i m e d a t b u i l d i n gl oca l know l e dge .3 ) I n m a ny c oun t r i e s , c om pa n i e s t ha t s e l l a g -r oc he m i c a l s a nd h i gh - y i e l d i ng va r i e t y s e e dss t r e n g t h e n t h e d o m i n a n c e o f w e s t e r n s c i e n ce a n dp e r p e t u a t e c o n v e n t i o n a l m o d e l s o f t e c h n o l o g yt r a n s f er . T h e s e N o r t h e r n - b a s e d c o m p a n i e s s t r e s st h e " i m p e r a t i v e " t o u s e t h e i r p r o d u c t s t h r o u g h a g -g r e s s i v e a d v e r t i s i n g a n d m a r k e t i n g . T h e y h a v ec om m e r c i a l i n t e r e s t s i n r e p l a c i ng r u r a l pe op l e ' s t r a -d i t i ona l t e c hn i c a l know l e dge w i t h t he i r t e c hno l -og i e s. I n s om e c a se s , t he s e f i r m s p r ov i de f i na nce s ,s upp l i e s , o r e xpe r t a dv i s i ng t o a g r i c u l t u r a l R & Di ns t i t u t ions . T h i s i nvo l ve m e n t c a n he l p c ons o l i da tep o w e r b e h i n d c o n v e n t io n a l t o p - d o w n a p p r o a c h e sa nd s i m u l t a ne ou s l y c on t r i bu t e t o t he m a r g i na l i z a -t ion of a l t e rn a t ive '~ fa rmer -based" appro aches .

4 ) I n s om e c a s e s, s c e p t i c is m a bou t l oc al know l -e d g e a n d p a r t i c i p a t o r y a p p r o a c h e s h a s e m e r g e d a sa r e a c t io n t o s h o r t c o m i n g s o f t h e e a r l y F a r m i n gS y s t e m s R e s e a r c h ( F S R ) p r o j e ct s . A l t h o u g h so m eF S R h a s a t t e m p t e d t o g i v e a t t e n t i o n t o l oc al p e o -p l e s' p e r c e p t i o n s , m a n y o f t h e s e p r o j e c t s h a v e n o ts u c c e e d e d in e f fe c ti v e ly u s i n g a n d s t r e n g t h e n i n gl oca l kno w l e dg e s y s t e m s a nd c om pl e t i ng t h i s w i t hn e w e x t e r n a l te c h n o l o g ie s . F u r t h e r m o r e , F S R e f-f o r t s ha ve be e n c r it ic i z ed f o r va r i ous w e a kne s s e sa nd m e t hodo l og i c a l p r ob l e m s , w h i c h i nc l ude : a )ma in ta in ing a " technica l f ix" approach; b) in -a d e q u a t e a r ti c u l at i o n w i t h t h e b r o a d e r p o l ic y st r a t -e g i e s; c ) m a n a ge m e n t d i ff i c u lt i es ( suc h a s r e l i a nc eon l a r ge f o r e i gn t e a m s a n d l a c k o f i n t e r d i c i p l i na r ycol labora t ion) ; d ) in f lex ib i l i ty of mo de ls and dom i-nance of r educ t ioni s t s c ien t i f i c me thods ; e ) in -a de q ua t e d i a l ogue w i t h f a r m e r s ; f ) f oc us on m a l el a n d - o w n i n g f a r m e r s t o t h e n e g l e c t o f w o m e n ; g )t e nde nc y t o c o l l e c t a n unw i e l d l y m a s s o f d i f f u s ed a t a ; a n d h ) i n s u f f ic i en t u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h er ea son s w h y p e o p l e u s e c e r t a i n p r a c t i ce s a n d t e c h -n iqu es (Ch amb ers and J iggins , 1986; B iggs , 1985;F a r r i ng t on a nd M a r t i n , 1987) . T he p r ob l e m s ha ve

s o m e t i m e s h a r m e d t h e r e p u t a t i o n o f l a t e r f a r m e r -p a r t i c i p a t o r y e f f o r t s w h i c h h a v e i m p r o v e d a p -p r oa c he s t o bu i l d loc al know l e dge .5 ) I n s om e c oun t r i e s , e s pe c i a l l y t hos e ha v i nga u t ho r i t a r i a n r e g i m e s , t he s up po r t o f l oca l know l -e d g e a n d p a r t i ci p a t o r y a p p r o a c h e s m a y b e s e e n a sthrea ten in g or susp ic ious , involv ingpeasa nt organiz-i n g . I n s u c h c a se s , g o v e r n m e n t s m a y d i s c o u r a g es uc h p r o j e c t s , r e g a r d i n g t he m a s c ha l l enge s t o po l i t -i ca l s t r uc t u r e s o r a s s ubv e r s i ve a c t ions g i v i ng t hep o o r t o o m u c h p o w e r .6 ) T h o s e s u p p o r t i n g p a r t i c ip a t o r y a p p r o a c h e st e nd t o h a ve d i f fi c u lt ie s i n de m ons t r a t i ng " s uc c e s s"and cos t -e ffec t iveness of the i r p ro jec t s us ing conven-t iona l c r i t e r ia of success . S imi la r ly , such pro jec t ss o m e t i m e s l a c k q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a o n t h e p r o j e c tr e s u l t s . T h i s s i t ua t ion m a y be pa r t l y be c a us e p r o -j e c t s a r e u s ua l l y r e l a t i ve l y ne w , a nd be c a us e t he i rr e s u l ts t e n d t o e m e r g e i nc re m e n t a l ly ove r t he l ong e rt e r m a n d a r e q u a l i t at iv e i n n a t u r e - - s u c h a s e n a b l-i ng pe op l e t o ga i n c on t r o l ove r t he i r ow n de ve l op -m e n t p r oce s s- -- w h ic h c a nno t be j ud ge d u s i ng s t a nd -a rd empi r ical ind ica tor s . Su ch pro jec t ou tcom es m ayn o t s a t i sf y t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s s e t b y p l a n n e r s a n da d m i n i s t r a t o r s o f R & D , w h o d i s b u r s e f u n d s a n dw h o o f t e n j u d g e " s u cc e ss " i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e f a r m -e r s ' v i e w s o f suc c e s s. T he d i f fi c u lt y i n m e e t i n g c on -ve n t i ona l c r i t e r i a a l so m a y h i n de r i n s t i t u t i ona l sup -po r t a nd f i na nc e s f o r i nnova t i ve e f f o r ts .7) Add i t iona l po l icy r ig id i t i e s , po l i t i ca l i s sues ,o r c o ns t r a i n t s w i t h i n f o r m a l i n s t i tu t i ons ( s uc h a sr u l e s s e t by i nd i v i dua l c ons e r v a t i ve d i r e c to r s ) m a ya l so d i s c ou r a ge r e s e a r c h e r s a nd e x t e ns i on o f f i ce r sf r o m p u r s u i n g i n n o v a t i v e a p p r o a c h e s . I n s u c hc a s e s , a t t e m p t s by s c i e n t i s t s t o de ve l op non - c on -ve n t i ona l p r o j e c t s s uc h a s bu i l d i ng loc a l kno w l e dg em a y b e p e r c e i v e d b y e m p l o y e r s a s u n a c c ep t a b l ed e v i a ti o n s fr o m n o r m s ; a n d t h o s e w h o v e n t u r e t ot r y s u c h w a y s m a y b e o s t ra c iz e d o r m a y f a ce p e r -s ona l r i s k s o f lo s i ng t he i r j obs .

8 ) F i n a ll y , t r a d i ti o n a l k n o w l e d g e m a y b e m a r -g i na l i z e d o r l o s e i t s va l ue w he n w e l l - i n t e n t i one ds c i e n t i s t s a nd r e s e a r c he r s " s c ie n t i ze " i t by e x a m i n -i ng i t w i t h f o r m a l e m p i r i c a l m e t hodo l og i e s a ndus i ng l a bo r a t o r y c on t r o l l e d t r i a l s . A l t hough s uc hs t u d i e s c a n b e s o m e w h a t u s e fu l to v e r i f y o r d e m o n -s t r a t e t he f unc t i on o f l oca l pe op l e s ' p r a c t i c e s a ndi de a s, t h i s f o r m o f s y s t e m a t i z a t i on c a n be i na pp r op -r i a t e t o a n a p p r e c i a ti o n o f t h e t r u e f u n c t io n a n d t h es u b t l e c o m p l e x n u a n c e s o f s u c h k n o w l e d g e s y s t e m s .T h i s " s c i e n t i z a t i on" i n W e s t e r n t e r m s , t he r e f o r e ,i s n o t a t r u e f o r m o f l e g it i m i za t io n , an d i s a b s t r a c t e df r o m t h e v a l u e o f t h e p e o p l e 's k n o w l e d g e o n t h e i ro w n t e r m s . F r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f s m a l l f a r m e r s

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A G R I C U L T U R E A N D H U M A N V A L U E S - - S U M M E R 1989

w h o h a v e b e e n su b j e c t e d t o t h i s k i n d o f s c ru t i n y ,the " sc i en ti za t ion" of t rad i t i on-base d prac t i ces b yfo re i g n r e se a rc h e r s i s a f a r c e .A n e x a m p l e o f t h is s i tu a t io n h a s o c c u r r e d fo rw h a t i s n o w c a ll e d " a g ro fo re s t ry sy s t e m s" b y W e s t -e rn sc i en ti s ts and deve lopm ent exper t s . E ven thou ght h o u sa n d s o f f a rm e r s t h ro u g h o u t t h e T h i rd Wo r l dh a v e m i x e d t r e e s a n d c ro p s fo r m a n y c e n t u r i e s , i twa s n o t un t i l t he l a t e 1970 's and e ar ly 1980's -- -whent h e i n t e rn a t io n a l s c ie n t if ic c o m m u n i t y b e c a m e c o n -cern ed abou t defores t a t ion , eco log ica l degrada t ion ,a n d r e fo re s t a t i o n m t h a t so m e sc ie n ti fi c r e se a rc h e r ssu d d e n l y " d i s c o v e re d " t h a t f a rm e r s h a d t r a d i ti o n a lt r e e -p l a n t i n g p ra c ti c e s . H o w e v e r , i n o rd e r t o ' U se "a n d v a l i d a te t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t r e e -p l a n t i n g a n dm i x e d c ro p p i n g fo r t h e i r p u rp o se s , t h e y c o i n ed t h en a m e s " a g ro fo re s t ry sy s t e m s , " " p o l y c u l t u re s , " a n d"agroecolog ica l sys t e m s, " and d id sys t em at i c s tud-i es t o fo rmal i ze and sc i en t i ze the t rad i t i ona l p rac-t i ces . Sc i en t i s t s t hen form t ech nica l "packages" ofp a r t i c u l a r t r e e m i x e s , b a se d o n l a b o ra t o ry a n a l y se sof spec ies com pat ib il i ty , b iomass an d nu t r i en t con-t en t , p roduct iv i ty , e t c . Then sc i en t i s t s and ex ten-s io n a g e n c i e s a t t e m p t t o u se , t r a n s f e r , o r " se l l " su c ha g ro fo re s t ry p a c k a g e s t o f a rm e r s . 7Th ere i s , undou bted ly , some va lue in th i s k indof sc i en ti f ic i nves t iga t ion . H ow eve r , p rob lems ar i seb e c a u se m o s t o f a g ro fo re s t ry r e se a rc h ( li k e o t h e rk i n d s o f r e se a rc h ) i s a b s t r a c t e d f ro m sm a l l f a rm e r s 'condi t ions and neg lec t s t he cu l tu ra l and h i s to r i ca lk n o w l e g e b a s i s o f t h e l oc a l p r a c t ic e s . F u r t h e rm o re ,f a rm e r s o f t e n r e fu se t o a d o p t i d e a s t h a t m a y b e"sc i en t i fi ca lly sound , " bu t which of t en a r e un su i t edto the i r i deas o r des i res . Thus , t h i s k ind of exp lo i ta -t i v e a n d s c i e n t iz e d a p p ro a c h t o t h e s t u d y a n d u seo f in d i g e n o u s c a p a c it ie s p e rp e t u a t e s t h e u su a l p a t -t e rn s o f m a rg in a l iz a t io n a n d d i sp la c e m e n t , a n d i tse ldom improves par t i c ipa t ion and l i ve l ihoods ofru ra l p e o p le .

C . L e g i t i m i z i n g L o c a l K n o w l e d g e :C h a l l e n g e s a n d O p p o r t u n i t i esIn v i e w o f t h e f a c t o rs o u t l i n e d a b o v e , i t i s e v i -d e n t t h a t t h e re a r e n o e a sy so lu t io n s to su p p o r t t h el e g i ti m a c y a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f l o ca l k n o w l e d g e fo rru ra l p o o r c o m m u n i t i e s. E s t a b l ish i n g t ru e c o m m i t -m e n t t o p a r t i c i p a t o ry a p p ro a c h e s i s l ik e l y t o r e q u i r em a j o r r e fo rm s a t s e v e ra l l e v e ls a n d i n v a r io u s i n -s t i t u t i o n s , r a n g i n g f ro m l o c a l n o n -g o v e rn m e n tgrass - roo t s o rgan iza t ions , t o na t iona l and in t e rna-t io n a l R & D i n s ti tu t io n s . E x p e r i e n c e s o f t h i s k i n da l r e a d y a r e b e i n g d e v e l o p e d in T h i rd W o r l d c orn-m u n i ti e s , a n d r e l e v a n t . s t r a t e g i e s fo r t h i s p ro p o seh a v e b e e n d e sc r i b e d i n s e v e ra l r e c e n t s t u d i e s ( e g ,Alt i er i , 1 9 8 8 ; C h a m b e r s et a l . , 1 9 8 9 ; R o c h e l e a u ,1 98 7, F a r r i n g t o n a n d M a r t in , 1 9 87 ). H o w e v e r , p r e -

v ious ana lyses ra re ly cons ider key po l i t i ca l andphi losophica l ques t ions- - - to be d i scussed be low--w h i c h a r e c ru c i al in d e v e l o p i n g s t r a t e g i e s o f th i sk ind .1 . L o c a l - L e v e l A c t i o n s : K n o w l e d g e a s P o w e rB o t h n o n - g o v e r n m e n t a nd g o v e r n m e n t o r g an i -za t ions can he lp to bu i ld the l eg i t imacy of l oca lk n o w l e d g e b y d e v e lo p i n g s t ro n g R & D p ro j e c ts . Y e t ,i m p ro v e m e n t s a n d r e o r i e n t a t io n s o f t h e se p ro j e c t sa r e o f t e n n e e d e d i n o rd e r t o a v o id t h e m i s t a k e s o fe a r l i e r F S R e f fo r t s . S o m e o f t h e k e y n e e d e d r e -fo rm s a r e a ) r e v e r s i n g t h e t o p -d o w n h i e r a r c h i c a lt e c h n o l o g y - t r a n s fe r a p p ro a c h ; b ) c e a s i n g t o i m p o sesc i en t if i c mod el s and redu c t ion i s t p r inc ip l es ; c ) p re -ven t ing th e hom ogeniza t ion of l oca l -l eve l p rac t i ces ;d ) fu l ly r e sp e c t i n g t h e i d e a s , r e a so n i n g , i n n o v a t i v ecapac i t ies , nee ds and asp i ra t ions of loca l people ; e )encourag ing d ivers i ty o f ac t iv i t i es ; and f ) g iv ingp e o p l e c o n t ro l i n t h e p ro c e s se s o f p ro b l e m -so l v -i n g - - a i m i n g fo r g o a l s o f su s ta i n a b l e a n d e q u i t a b l ed e v e l o p m e n t .C h a n g e s i n t h e se a p p ro a c h e s u su a l l y r e q u i r et h a t s c i e n t is t s a n d e x t e n s i o n i st s r i d t h e m se l v e s o ft h e i r c o m m o n a t t i tu d e s o f h a v i n g " su p e r i o r " s c i-e n c e , a n d i n s t e a d d e v e l o p h u m b l e a n d o p e n a t ti -t u d e s a b o u t t h e l i m i ta t io n s o f t h e i r k n o w l e d g e a n dt h e p o t e n t i a l v a l u e o f o t h e r s ' i d e a s . T h i s c h a n g ere q u i r e s u n d e r s t a n d i n g n o t o n l y w h a t l o c a l p e o p l ed o a n d w a n t - - i . e . , t e c h n i q u e s , c ro p s , a n d a c t i v i -t i e s - - b u t a ls o why t h e y u se p a r t i c u l a r p r a c ti c e s o rv a r i e t ie s , a n d w h y t h e y b e l i e v e p a r t i c u l a r p r a c t i c e sw o rk o r d o n ' t w o rk m i . e . , t h e p r in c i p le s , k n o w l e d g esy s t e m s , a n d e p i st e m o l o g ie s t h a t u n d e r l i e t h e p h y s -i ca l r e su l t s . S i m i l a rl y , su c h r e fo rm s r e q u i r e t h a tsc i en t i s t s and ex ten s ion i s t s focus a t t en t io n on ther i c h k n o w l e d g e a n d ro l e s o f w o m e n , c h i l d r e n , a n de l d e r s , a s w e l l a s m e n , i n su c h p ro j e c t s , a n d a l sot h a t t h e y e n a b l e t h e l o ca l p e o p l e t o b e i n c h a rg e a ta ll s t a g e s i n d e v e l o p m e n t p ro c e s ses .P e rh a p s t h e m o s t p ro m i s i n g w a y t o b u il d a n d l e -g i ti m i z e t h e se ru ra l p e o p l e s ' c a p a c it i es i s t o u n d e r -s t a n d t h a t l o ca l k n o w l e d g e an d c u l t u r e -b a se d c a p a -c i ti e s a r e a m e a n s of power, a n d c a n t h e r e f o r e b e aso u rc e o f empowerment. T h i s m e a n s t h a t t h e s e i n-n o v a t i v e R & D p ro j e c t s a r e l i k e ly t o b e m o s t b e n e -f i c i a l i f t hey he lp people to deve lop se l f - respec t ,c o n f id e n c e , a n d p r i d e i n t h e i r o w n k n o w l e d g e a n dc a p a b i l i t i e s - - t o b u i l d t h e i r o w n se n se o f p o w e r .E m p o w e r m e n t a l s o c a n e n h a n c e t h e s t r e n g t h o ft h e i r o w n p ra c t i c e s a n d i n s i g h t s , w h i c h o f t e n b e -c o m e d i sp l a c e d b y i m p o se d t e c h n o l o g i e s a n d fo rm a lsc i en c e . T h i s a p p ro a c h t o e m p o w e rm e n t al so m i g h th e l p p e o p l e t o s e l e c t iv e l y i n c o rp o ra t e , a d a p t , a n dt a k e a d v a n t a g e o f e x t e rn a l t e c h n o l o g ie s a n d i d e a s ,i f t h e y w a n t t h e m . I t a ls o m i g h t h e lp p e o p le avo id

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s u f f e ri ng f rom t he nega t i ve i m pac t s o f t hos e t echno-l og ie s t ha t a r e i napp r op r i a te f o r t he i r p a r t icu l a rcondi t ions ,sT h i s k i n d o f e m p o w e r m e n t c a n b e d e v e l o p e dt h r ough bu i ld i ng l eg i ti m acy o f l oca l know l edge andthrough people ' s ac t ive par t i c ipa t ion in deci s ion-m ak i ng p r oces s es and g r a s s -r oo t s ac t i ons , m ak i nge f f ec t i ve u s e o f t he i r know l edge . Em pow er m en tthrough ef f ec t ive par t i c ipa t ion can cont r ibute tocom mu ni ty s t r en gth . In ad di t ion , i t can enta i l soc io-pol i ti ca l d imens ions in some cases , enab l ing group sof people to dev elop a se nse of sol idar i ty, poli ticiza-t ion , or pol i ti ca l barg ain ing po we r throug h ef f ec t ivepar t i c ipa tory prog rams . Thi s approach to bui ld ingknow l edge con t r a s t s w i t h and r e j ec t s t he s t a t ic r o -m an t i c v i ew o f t r ad it i ona l know l edge he l d by s om eana l ys t s w ho p r om ot e t he " p r e s e r va t i on" o r is o la -t ion of cu l tura l va lues .

F o r e x a m p le , a s t r a t e g y o f e m p o w e r m e n t f o rf a r m er s m en t i oned ea r l i e r s hou l d encour age fa r m -e r s t o deve l op r e s pec t and con f idence i n t he i r ow nknow l edge abou t l una r cyc l e s and o t he r i n s i gh ts onfarm ing prac t i ces . Thi s approach should help themga i n con f i dence t ha t t he i r k now l edge i s va l id andl eg i t im a t e and ove r com e t he i r s ens e o f s ham e abou tt he i r ow n p r ac t ice s and i n s igh t s , w h i ch t hey havebeen l ed t o be l i eve a r e i n f e ri o r t o f o rm a l t echn i quest ha t a r e pus hed by " expe r t s " and p r i va t e f i r m s .P e o p l e c a n b e c o m e e m p o w e r e d in t h i s w a y i f t h e ya r e enab l ed t o dem ons t r a t e t he va l i d i t y o f t he i rknow l edge t o o t he r f a r m er s , t h r ough f a r m er o t o -f a r m er - ex t ens i on p r o j ec t s and g r oup w or ks hops .M a k i n g s u c h c h a n g e s f o r e m p o w e r m e n t r e -qui r es more f l ex ib le methodologies tha t enabler u r a l peop l e t o becom e f u l ly invo l ved in ev e r y s t ag eo f gene r a ti on , expe r i m en t a t i on , deve l opm en t o f i n -nova t ions and i deas on a bas i s o f t he i r ow n know l -edge s ys t em s . Thes e s hou l d al low peop l e t o choos e ,t r y ou t , and adap t e x t e r na l i deas and techno l og i e si f t hey w an t and un de r s t and t hem . M et hodo log i e s,des igns , an d expe r i ences which fi t t o th i s approachhave b een des c r i bed in p r ev ious s t ud i e s ( Cham ber se t a l . , 1989; Con way, 1985). Such me thods can bes een a s pos s ib l e gu i de li nes t ha t need t o be f lex i b lei n na t u r e and adap t ed t o l oca l c i rcum - s t ances. H ow -e v e r , t h e s e m e t h o d s a r e m e r e l y a t t e m p t s - - n o t'~rec ipes" for success . T he r es ea rch er o r s c i ent if i cexpe r t s hou l d u s ua l l y have m i n i m a l in t e r ven t i on i nt hes e p r o j ec t s . The i r invo l vem en t s hou l d cons is t o fl ea r n i ng f r o m f a r m er s ( no t t each i ng i n a t op - dow ndogm at i c w ay) , s ug ges t i ng ( bu t no t i n s i s t i ng on)new ideas, and supp or t ing or ca ta lyz ing ac t ions andexpe r i m en t s o f the peop l e . The r e s u l t s a r e l i ke lyt o b e m os t e f f ec t ive i f s uch e f f o rt s a r e m o t i va t ed ,i n s t iga t ed , and d i r ec t ed by l oca lpeop l e them s e l ves .Then , " s uccess " in pa r t i c i pa t o r y p r o j ec t s can he l p

Thr upp : Leg i t im i z i ng Loca l K now l edge

es t ab li s h t h e l eg i ti m acy o f loca l know l edge and canhe l p ju s t i f y r ece i v i ng m o r e f unds a nd r e s ou r ces t oexpand s uch ac t i v i t i e s . I t i s i m por t an t t ha t t hecr i t e r i a for eva luat ing "success" co incide wi th t hepr ior i ty needs an d aspi r a t ions of rura l people .H o w e v e r , i t m u s t b e s t r e s s e d t h a t 'i n o r d e r fo rs uch e f fo r ts t o be t r u l y " em pow er i ng , " t hes e m e-t h o d s m u s t b e a c c o m p a n i e d b y m a t e r i a lt r a n s fo r m a -t ions o f economic oppo r tuni t i es and access to r e-s o u r c e s . E v e n i f t h e r e a r e n u m e r o u s m e e t i n g s ,w or ks hops , and i n t e r ac t i ons w i t h f a r m er s , m a l -nou r i s hed poo r f a r m er s w i t h t i ny p l o ts o f l and w i llno t be ac t ua ll y "em p ow e r ed" by s u ch expe r i ences ,w i t hou t add i ti ona l s ubs t an t i ve changes . I f t he r ea r e i m pr ovem en t s o f p r oduc t i on and o f i ncom e-ea r n i ng oppo r t un it e s , a l ong w i th r ed i s t r i bu t ion o fl and , an d cor rec t ions of socia l i nequi t i es , t hen the rei s grea ter potent i a l for t ru ly ef f ec t ive pol i t i ca l -econom ic em pow er m en t o f poo r r u r a l peop l e.2 . Leg i t im iz ing Loca l Knowledge: Explo i ta t iveSc ient i f i c Approaches, Poten t ia l forEm p o we r me n t , a n d Po l it i c a l Ch a n g e s

T o a t t a i n l e g i t i m a c y o f l o c a l k n o w l e d g e , a d d i -t i o n a l si g n i f i ca n t r e o r i e n t a t i o n s a n d s t r o n g a c t i o n sa r e need ed i n na t i ona l and i n t e r na t i ona l ag r i cu l-t u r a l R & D i ns ti tu t ions . D eve l op i ng s uch change sof t en r equi res chal l enges to ex i s t ing o rganiza t ionals t r uc t u r e s and t o f o r m a l s c i en ti fi c t h i nk i ng . M a j o rchanges a r e a ls o needed i n t he bus i nes s p r ac t i ce so f ag r ochem i ca l f i rm s and s eed com pan i es , t o con -s t r a i n t he dom i na t e p r e s s u r es w h i chusua l ly conf l ic tw i t h t h e a i m s o f f a r m er s ' pa r t i c i pa t o r y e f f o rt s .I n m any cas es , ach i ev i ng s uch m a j o r t r ans f o r -m a t i ons i s l i ke l y t o b e un r ea l i s ti c and una t t a i nab l e ,s i nce i t con f ron t s deep l y - em b edded s t r uc t u r e s o fsc ient if i c profes s ional i sm a nd ves ted pol i ti ca l i n-t e r e s ts . N e v e r t h e l e s s , th e r e m a y b e r o o m to w i d e nt he s cope o f R& D appr oaches and t o i m pr ove t hes t a t u s o f l oca l know l edge and pa r t i c i pa t o r y ap -p r oaches in t he p r e s e n t s y s t em s . Sugg es t ed s t ra -t eg ies fo r th i s purpo se co ns i s t of ins t i tu t ional ad-j u s t m en t s i n R& D and ex t ens i on agenc i e s , s uch a sa ) changes i n j ob r ec r u i t m en t t o h i r e m o r e peop l ew ho em phas i ze peop l e - cen t e r ed app r oaches ; b )t r a in ing e f for t s for profes sional s ; c) ad ju s tm ent s ofi ncen t i ve s ys t em s ( t o r ew ar d t hos e w ho ach i evesuccess in such inno vat ive pro jec t s ); d) demo ns t r a-t ions o f pa r ti c i pa t o r y expe r i ences ; e ) i nco r p o r a t i ngs ys t em a t i c m e t hods t o m on i t o r thes e k i nds o r p r o -g r am s ; and f) inc r eas i ng f unds f o r p r o j ec t s s uppor t -i ng l oca l know l edge ( Cham ber s e t a l . , 1989; Bigg s ,1980a; Roch eleau , 1987; N orga ard , 1984) .

A l t h o u g h t h e s e k i n d s o f s u g g e s t e d c h a n g e scou ld po t en t i a ll y he l p t ow ar d s bu i l d ing t hes e k i ndso f ef f o rt s , t he y s t il l m ay be w e ak an d i n s u f f ic i en t21

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A G R I C U L T U R E A N D H U M A N V A L U E S - - S U M M E R 1989

t o b r i n g a b o u t t r u l y s i g n i fi c a n t r e f o r m s . S u c h a d -j u s t m e n t s m a y s t i l l m a i n t a i n p a r t i c i p a t o r y a p -p r o a c h e s a n d l o ca l c a p a c i t i e s m a r g i n a l i z e d i n s m a l ln e g l e c t e d d e p a r t m e n t s . O r , t h e p r o j e c t s m i g h t b e -c o m e c o - o p t e d b y c o n v e n t i o n a l a p p r o a c h e s , f o c u s e di n t o a d o p t i n g c o n v e n t i o n a l s t a n d a r d i z e d m o d e l sa n d c r i - t e r i a , w h i c h c o u l d h i n d e r t h e w e l l - i n t e n -t i o n e d " F a r m e r - f i r s t " a p p r o a c h e s t h a t h a v e b e e nd e s c r ib e d . T h e r e f o r e , s t e p s m u s t b e t a k e n t o a v o i ds u c h a d v e r s e o u t c o m e s , a n d i n s t e a d t o o p e n u p o p -p o r t u n - i t i e s a n d s u p p o r t f le x i b il it y , to e n a b l e t h el oc a l f a r m e r s a n d c o m m u n i t i e s t o e m p o w e r t h e m -s e l v es i n t h e R & D p r o c e s se s .F i n a l l y , c a r e f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n n e e d s t o b e g i v e nt o e t h i c a l i s s u e s o f h o w s c i e n t i s t s o r r e s e a r c h e r ss h o u l d ( o r s h o u l d n o t ) e x t r a c t , s t u d y , a n d " u s e "k n o w l e d g e o f T h i r d W o r l d r u r a l p e o p l e s . F o r e x a m -p l e , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o c o n s i d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s -t ions :

I n o r d e r t o l e g i ti m i z e su c h k n o w l e d g e fo rt h e i n t e r e s t o f r u r a l p e o p l e , is i t n e c e s s a r y f o rs c i e n t i s t s a n d e x t e n s i o n i s t s t o e m p i r i c a l l ya n a l y z e , v e r i f y , a n d " s c i e n t i z e " t h e i n d i g e n o u sk n o w l e d g e i n t e r m s o f f o r m a l W e s t e r nm etho ds , s c ien ti fi c p r inc ip les , and parad ig ms?I s i t a p p r o p r i a t e f o r s c i e n t is t s a n d d e v e l o p -m e n t a g e n c i e s t o v i e w l oc a l k n o w l e d g e sy s -t e m s a s u n d e r u s e d r e s o u rc e s - - -g e m s o r m i n e so f in f o r m a t i o n t o b e e x p l o i t e d - - t o b e " p a ck -a g e d " a n d " s o ld " in d e v e l o p m e n t p r o j e c t s?

A l t h o u g h s o m e a n a l y s t s w o u l d a n s w e r t h e q u e s -t i o n s a f f i rm a t i v e l y , t h e v i e w h e l d h e r e i s t h a t t h e s ea p p r o a c h e s t o u s i n g l oc a l k n o w l e d g e a r e i n a p p r o p -r i a t e a n d o p p o s e t h e i n t e r e s t s o f lo c a l p e o p l e , a n di n f a c t, d e f e a t t h e a i m s o f e m p o w e r m e n t t h a t w a sj u s t e x p l a in e d . I n o t h e r w o r d s , a l t h o u g h s c ie n t i st sm a y " n e e d " t o c a r r y o u t s u c h v a l i d a ti o n e x e rc i s e st o c o n f o r m t o f o r m a l re s e a r c h r e q u i r e m e n t s , t h i sk i n d o f s c i e n t iz a t i o n o f lo c a l sk i ll s a n d k n o w l e d g ei s u n n e c e s s a r y t o " p r o v e " t h e u t i l i t y o f s u c h f a c t o r s.I n f a c t, t h i s a p p r o a c h t o u t i li z a t io n i s e x p l o i ta t i v e - --v i e w i n g t h e k n o w l e d g e a s a m i n e t o b e e x p l o i t e d , fo l-l o w i n g a f a m i l ia r p a t t e r n o f o u t s id e r s e x t r a c t i n graw mater i~ l.% wh ich a re ana lyzed e l s ew here . M ore-o v e r , a t t e m p t s a t s c i e n ti f ic s y s t e m i z a t i o n m a y m i s -i n t e r p r e t t h e c u l t u r a l v a l u e a n d s u b t l e c o m p l e xn u a n c e s o f s u c h k n o w l e d g e s y s t e m s t h a t a r e i n c o m -p r e h e n s i b l e i n t e r m s o f W e s t e r n s c i e n t if i c th e o r i e s .R a t h e r t h a n t r y i n g t o e x a m i n e a ll e n v ir o n m e n t s ,p r a c t ic e s , a n d p e o p l e s ' k n o w l e d g e i n t e r m s o f s t a n d -a r d i z ed m o d e l s a n d s e ll in g t ec h n i c a l p a c k a g e s g e n -e r a t e d i n la b o r a t o r i e s o fi n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r i e s , a m o r ee f fe c t iv e s t r a t e g y i s to a p p r e c i a t e s u c h k n o w l e d g ea n d s k i ll s i n t h e l o c a l p e o p l e ' s o w n t e r m s , a n d t o

b u i l d e m p o w e r m e n t o f t h e i r k n o w l e d g e a s d i s -c u s s e d a b o v e . I t i s a l so e f f e c ti v e t o s u p p o r t a d i v e r -s i t y o f k n o w l e d g e s y s t e m s a n d o f " sc i e n c e s" o f m a n yc u l t u r e s , w h i c h h a v e v a r y i n g v a l u e s a n d p u r p o s e s .M o r e o v e r , a m a j o r c h a l l e n g e i s t o p r e v e n t l o c a lk n o w l e d g e s y s t e m s a n d u n i q u e in f o r m a t i o n s o u r c e sf r o m b e i n g s u b j e c t e d t o t h e p a t t e r n s o f e x p l o i ta t i o na n d d e g r a d a t i o n , l i k e t h o s e t h a t h a v e a f f e c t e d t h em a t e r i a l r e s o u r c e s o f p o o r T h i r d W o r l d c o m -m u n i t i e s . S u c h k n o w l e d g e s y s t e m s p r o v i d e p o t e n -t i a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s t h a t n e e d t o b e s u p p o r t e d a n dc o n t r o ll e d b y t h e p e o p l e th e m s e l v e s , i n p r o g r e s s i v ea n d d y n a m i c f o r m s o fe q u i t a b l e s o c ia l d e v e l o p m e n t .

No t e sI . T h e a u t h o r ex p r e s s es t h a n k s t o R o b e r t C h a m b e r s , R i c h a r d

N o r g a a r d , M i g u e l A l ti er i, M i k e W a r r e n , S h a r a d L e l e , a n dJ e s se R i b o t f o r c o m m e n t s o n d r a f t so f t h i s p a p e r . A n e a r li e rv e r s i o n o f t hi s p a p e r w a s p u b l i sh e d in : D . M . W a r r e n e t a l . ,(eds), 1989, Indigeno us Kn owledge Systems: Implicationsfor Agriculture an d International Development.2 . Ex a m p le s o f su c h d e ro g a to ry p e r sp e c t i v e s a re fo u n d in t h eear l y l i te ra tu re of colonial explo re rs and sc ie n t is ts of the 18thand 19th centur ies , a s d iscussed by D. M. W arren , 1989, andBa k e r , 1 9 84 . Fo r e x a m p le , a n h i s to r i a n o f t h e Sp a n i sh c o n-q u e s t s t a t e d t h a t t h e In d i a n s w e re , "n a tu ra l l y la z y a n d v i c -ious, melancholic , cowardly , and in genera l a ly ing sh i f t lessp e o p le . . . " ( a s q u o te d i n Go sse t t , 1 9 65 , p . 1 2 ) Or , fo r e x a m p le ,Si r John Lubb ock (1884-1913) used th e w ords "s tupid ," '%m-c o u th , " a n d "a b o m in a b le " t o d e sc r ib e n a t i v e so c i e t i e s, a n dsta ted '~ t would be easy to f i l l a vo lume wi th the ev idence ofe x c e ss iv e s tu p id i t y re c o rd e d b y d i f f e re n t t r a v e l l e r s . " (q u ote din Wa r re n , 1 9 89 , p . 1 7 5) As e x p la in e d b y t h e se a u th o r s , t h e sek in d s o f v i e ws h a v e b e e n e x t e n d e d in to t h e p re se n t d a y , a n da re s t i l l c o n v e y e d b y d e v e lo p m e n t a n a ly s t s . Te rm s su c h a s'~pr imi tive" an d "c iv i l ized" have b een main ta in ed in a moresu b t l e wa y s t h ro u g h u se o f t e rm s l i k e 'Un d e rd e v e lo p e d " a n d"d e v e lo p e d . "3 . Studies of th is sub jec t inc lude : Al t ie r i , 1983a&b, 1988; Al t ie r iand Anderson , 1986; Ber l in e t al., 1973; Brok ensha e t al.,1980; Car l ie r , 1987; Biggs, 1980a , 1980b; Chamb ers , 1983,Ch a m b e rs e t a / . , 1 9 89 ; Fa r r i n g to n a n d M a r t i n , 1 9 87 ; Ho w e s ,1979; How es and Cha mbe rs , 1979; Klee , 1980; J igg ins , 1989;Ma rten , 1986; No rgaar d , 1984, 1987; Posey , 1983; Riehard s,1985,1986; T oledo et al., 1985; Thru pp, 1980,1985; McN eeleya n d P i t t , 1 9 85 , Co x a n d Atk in s , 1 9 79 ; W a r re n , e t al., 1989;W a r re n , 1 98 9.4 . Th e t e rm '~m d ig en o us" h a s b e e n r e j e c t e d b y so m e a n a ly s t so r i s se e n a s i n a p p ro p r i a t e , b e c a u se i t i s u su a l l y a s so c i a te dwi th b e in g o n ly '%ra d it i o n-b a sed " k n o wle d g e a m o n g sm a l l

n a t i v e g ro u p s , su c h a s In d i a n s o r t r i b e s . S o m e a l so se e t h isa s a p e jo ra t i v e t e rm . Al th o u g h th e t e rm '~n d ige n o u s , " i n m yv ie w, i s a c c e p t a b l e i n t h i s c o n t e x t a n d i s n o t n e c e s sa r i l y e x -c lusive to sm al l t r ibes , I u se "local" for lack of a be t te r te rm ,a n d i t i s i n t e rp re t e d b ro a d ly . Th i s i s n o t a s t a t i c b o d y o fk n o wle d g e ro o t e d i n "o ld " t r a d i t i o n s .5 . E x a m p le s o f t h e se i d e a s a re f r e q u e n t ly i n a r t i c l e s o f t h eb u l l e t i n s a n d m a g a z in e s o f Cultural Survival, ILEIA, anda re e x p re sse d i n c o n fe re nc e s an d se m in a r s (Fo r e x a m p le ,roma nt ic '~dolizing" perc ept ions wer e ex pres sed c lea r ly byso m e p a r t i c ip a n t s in t h e c o n fe re n c e o n " In d ig e n o u s Kn o wl -e d g e a n d I t s Im p l i c a ti o n s i n In t e rn a t i o n a l Re se a rc h & De v e l -o p m e n t , " De c e m b e r , 1 9 8 8, h e ld i n W a sh in g to n DC, Ac a d e m yfo r In t e rn a t i o n a l Ed u c a t io n /AID. ) .6 . In so m e c a se s a n d c u l tu re s , b e l i e fs o r m y s t i c a l i n s ig h t s a ren o t e f f e c t i v e, a s m e n t io n e d e a r l i e r i n t h e a r t i c l e .7 . Th i s s it u a t i o n h a s o c c u r re d in a g ro fo re s t ry p ro j e c t s in C A T I E(Ce n t ro Ag ro n o m ic o Tro p ic a l d e In v e s t i g a c io n y En se n a n z a )in Co s t a R ic a , a n d i n ICR AF , i n Ke n y a , a s o b se rv e d b y t h e

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author during field visits (end confirmed by D. Rocheleau,personal communication).8 . This approach of"e mp ow erm ent" with poli tical implicat ionshas been more popular for people in the Lat in Americancont inent tha n in Africa and Asia; but this ne vertheless de-serves a t ten t ion in various contexts .

Re f e r en c e sAltieri, M., 1983a.Agroecology: The Scient i f ic Bas is o fA l te r na-t ive Ag r icul ture . Boulder: We stview Press .Altieri, M., 1983 b." Th e question o f small farm development:Wh o teaches whom?" in A gr icu l tur e , E cos ys tems an d E nv i -r o n m e n t . 9, pp. 401405.Alt ier i, M. , 1988. 'qVhy Stud y Tradit ional Ag ricul ture , " in C. R.Carrol l et al. (eds), The E co logy o f A gr icu l tur a l S ys tems .Ne w Y ork: MacMil lan.Altieri, M. and M . Anderson, 1986. "A n ecological basis for thedevelopment of a lternat ive agricultural sys tem s for smallfa rmers in the T h i rd W or ld ," A m e r i c a n J o u r r u d o f A l te r na-t ive Agr icul ture . 1: 30-38.Bake r , R . , 1984 . "Pro tec t ing the E nv i ronm ent Aga ins t thePoor" , The E cologist. 11(2) pp. 53-60.Berlin, B . , D. Breedlove, and P. Ra ven , 1973. "General princi-ples ofclassification and nomenclature in folk biolo gy,"A me r-ica n Anthrcpologist. 75: 214-242.Biggs , S. D . , 1980a. " Inform al Research and Development ,"Ceres. July/Au g, 23-25.Biggs , S. D. , 1980b. "Sources of Innovat ion in Agricul tura lTechnology," Paper for the Development Studies Associa-t ion Worksho p on Science and Technology, Queen El izabethHouse, Oxford, 24-26 March, 1980.Biggs , S. D. , 1985. "A farming sys tems approach: Some un-answered questions," A gr icu l tur a l A dmin i s t r a t ion . Vo118:1-12.Brokensha, D. , D. W arren, and O. Werner, 1980. Indige nousKnowledge Sys tem s and Development. Lanham , Maryland:Unive rs i ty P re s s o f America .Carlier, H. , 1987. Unders tanding Tradit ional Agr icul ture .L eus den , T he N e the r lands : In fo rma t ion Cen t re fo