Lmasters evolution presentation

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The Evolution of Extension Research & Education Methods From Colonialism to Participatory

Linda Masters, Sabrina TuttleUniversity of Arizona – USAPresented at the 2011 AIAEEConference; Windhoek, Namibia

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The purpose and objectives of this paper were to examine the evolution of indigenous research and educational programs and review the extent to which these programs considered the needs of the subject communities - as defined by those communities.

Purpose and Objectives



• Literature review:– 21 journal publications, – excerpts from 3 books and – proceedings from 2 conferences

• One-on-one interviews with 5 Federally Recognized Tribal Extension Agents in North America

Methods

• Personal Interview with an Ag Educator from the 1950’s era of British sponsored Extension education in Africa.



Colonialism or Imperialism?

Colonialism is a term where a country conquers and rules over other region’s, exploiting the resources of the conquered country for the benefit of the conqueror. Building and maintaining colonies in one territory by people from another territory. Colonialism can altogether alter the social structure, physical structure and economics of a region. It is quite normal that in the long run, the traits of the conqueror are inherited by the conquered.Term used to describe the settlement of places like India, Australia, North America, Algeria, New Zealand and Brazil, which were all controlled by the Europeans Imperialism means creating an empire, expanding into the

neighboring regions and expanding its dominance. - A foreign government governs a territory without significant settlement. The scramble for Africa in the late 19th century and the American domination of Puerto Rico and the Philippines can be cited as examples of Imperialism.

Colonialism can be thought to be a practice and imperialism as the idea driving the practice



Agrawal (2008) description of evolving education

Indigenous education has evolved in the decades since worldwide colonialism from focusing on exploitation to

economic growth, to growth with equity, to basic needs, to participatory developmentto sustainable development



Era of ColonialismNo Regard for Indigenous Populations or their culture

• Education wasn’t even considered for indigenous peoples

• Exploitation: How can we use these people or resources for our benefit?

• How do we remove these people if they are in the way of our developments?

• Use of phrases such as: “White man’s burden” to educate and Christianize “uncivilized” and “primitive” peoples of the world.




It probably never occurred to the colonizing people that the indigenous people they were killing, displacing, or at best marginalizing were people who had a culture that was of value or that the conquered people themselves should be an equal partner. They truly believed themselves to be superior




Extension Experiment Stations were developed in Africa in



• Entire communities suppressed/marginalized • Not allowed to speak their language• Forced to accept a new social & cultural order• Loss of Sovereignty or right to self determination• Loss of traditional lands, cultural sites

Colonialism: Impacts on Indigenous Peoples



Barriers to Education

• Biased ‘Education’ might be offered in order to acculturate or religiously convert people

• Disconnect between educators and government/political powers:

• Education may have been withheld because of the fear that education would provide a means for the conquered people to revolt.

Resources not allocated for education or the betterment of indigenous communities



most colonial governments did little to support schools. Most formal schooling in colonies was a result of the work of missionaries.

However, in spite of lack of support for public education, schooling had a dramatic impact on children who were fortunate enough to attend school. Indeed, most of the leaders of independence movements, leaders of post-independent governments and economies, were products of one of the few mission or fewer government schools.

idea is the concept of 'ways to help people to helpthemselves' in order to improve their level of living by aided self help througheducation. This concept is popularly expressed globally by the term 'ExtensionEducation'



During Colonial times, Extension through experimental stations was introduced in many Asian, African and Latin America countries by the ruling colonial power.

The focus ofattention, first, was on agricultural extension with more emphasis on exportcrops such as rubber, tea, cotton, and sugar. Technical advice was providedto plantation managers and large landowners. Assistance to small farmersand marginalized people who grcw subsistence crops and livestock was rare,except in times of crisis. Colonial powers also started education and familyhealth care extension through the establishment of schools and hospitals.



Using Guam as Education Evolution Model

Guam's history of colonialism is the longest among the Pacific islands

It is believed that Guam was first discovered by sea-faring people who migrated from Southeast Asia around 4000 BC.

They have linguistic and cultural similarities to Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines.



cultivate maizeraise cattletan hidesadopt western-style clothing

1668: Spanish galleons brought Jesuit missionaries to Guam. They introduced Christianity and taught Chamorros to:



GUAM - 1899:

The U.S. took possession of Guam from Spain and the control was handed over to the Department of the Navy as part of the settlement of the Spanish/American War.

Missionary educators were deported


Almost all of Africa was colonized by various countries of Europe, the areas they occupied were determined in the Berlin Conference in the late 1800s.

The continent was divided between European imperialists in an attempt to reap the benefits of its natural resources, without any regard for “the linguistic, cultural or political state of affairs on the continent”.

Uganda Extension• 1898—1907: Early Colonial Period: importation

of cash crop planting materials: coffee, cotton, rubber, and tobacco Establishment of research stations to carry out agriculture and forestry research

• 1920—1956: Extension Service through Chiefs: Chiefs assisted by a few field officers and African instructors

• 1956—1963: Extension through Progressive Farmers:Expectation: improved performance of progressive farmers would have a demonstration and multiplier effect

• 1964---1972: Extension Methods Phase: “helping farmers to help themselves” through tours & field days

• 1970 – 1980 – Political Turmoil

Uganda Extension

• 1981—1991: Recovery Period: duplication, conflict, confusion World Bank policies resulted in the beginning of recognition of indigenous knowledge through participatory approaches.

• 1992 – 1997: Agriculture Extension Reforms:NGOs era, decentralization, privatization, reduction in farmer access to extension – step back

• 1998 – 2002: Crossroad & Possible Solutions:Extension approaches not effective, efficient, sustainable:Ministry-based extension downsized. The National Agricultural Advisory Services (NAADS) was created to empower farmers, especially women, to demand and control agricultural advisory services in the country.


Guam:

1900 to 1904: The American public education system banned the use of the language

1902 - Schools closed due to lack of facilities and English teachers

In 1922 the naval administration collected and burned many of the Chamorro-English dictionaries that remained from the Spanish period.


North America

• Students were severely punished for speaking their native language

• Aboriginal languages and heritage were lost and continue to disappear

The linguistic dilemma facing African countries can be very simply stated: should African countries (themselves colonial creations) continue using the languages and systems of education inherited from colonialism or jettison these as undesirable colonial legacies in preference for indigenous languages and systems of education ?

Legacy of language restrictions in education efforts

Eurocentric belief: Natives lacked school buildings and other signs of ‘white-man’s education system; therefore, Tribal youth were un-educated.

Actually education was often highly structured where family members and other elders who had specialized knowledge (e.g. economic activities, art, warfare, and spirituality) systematically educated their children in the course of daily life, through ceremonies, and through allegorical stories.

Our response was to take children away from their parents and place them into Christian boarding schools. These children were sometimes kept away from their “deficient” family settings until they were converted to Christianity and able to carry this new religious message home.

By around 1900 the vast majority of the 20,000 school-going Native Americans attended a government day school, on-reservation or off-reservation boarding schools.

Assimilation Goals of Bureau of Indian Affairs Schools

What constitutes successful education programs???

Native Americans todayTitle VII Indian Education

“To provide the kinds of programs needed to address the educational needs of native learners, school districts need to explore systemic ways of effectively meeting the linguistic and cultural needs of Native American learners.” Nice rhetoric. What is reality?

Big variety across the nation. In the west, children on reservations may live in remote rural areas with poor access to education.

South American ColonialismColonialism era last approximately 300 years during which time a huge %of the native populations were wiped out due to disease or over-work as

as slaves working on haciendas, in gold & silver mines, at sugar mills, or

The natives had no natural defenses against these new diseases, which killed them far more efficiently than the conquistadors ever could.

Under Colonial rule, native religion and culture were severely repressed. Whole libraries of native codices were burned by zealous priests

During colonialism, there were occasional efforts to educate Upper-class mestizo men and some women in monastery schools. The goal was to have convent-trained women and monastery-trained men marry and live by Christian ideals and ideas.

One of the radical ideas of increasing number juntas- which evolved into a wave of independence movements - in the early 1800s was free access to public education.

The destruction of whole cultures – in every sense – left the majority of the population lost and struggling to find their identities, a struggle which continues to this day.

This marginalization of native people and culture is ending, and as it does many in the region are trying to find their roots.

Indigenous people only make up about 10% of today’s South American population. The generally have fewer years of education, and education outcomes are substantially worse.May be indicative of poorer education quality.

For those interested, it sometimes may be difficult to get a true grasp of their cultural heritage.

Cultural artifacts and codices were destroyed and pre-Columbian civilization history has been re-written by conquistadors and colonizers who sometimes portrayed native leaders and cultures as bloody and tyrannical. This justified their conquest as being a liberation.These loses

Under Colonial rule, native religion and culture were severely repressed. Whole libraries of native codices were burned by zealous priests

South American Colonialism


Globalization can be defined as ‘the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by the events occurring many miles away and vice versa’.

In the realm of education, globalization has its own impact, which raises significant questions such as- who has access to what levels of education and with what outcomes? What types of jobs will be available for whom? What is the ‘mainstream’ and how do we integrate rural youth into this ‘mainstream’? Has the mainstream been accepted as the English-speaking white-collared jobs that are enabling a growing middle class in India?

INDIA – globilizaiton – became the “service” country



The Philippines & South Pacific Islands

The Spanish and American colonization of the Philippines set up “Development Activities”through laws that

• Formalized distinction between Christian/Muslim mainstream and indigenous populations

Marginalization, dispossession and other forms of injustices continued long after colonial rule had gone.

Tribal/ minority/indigenous communities were deprived of the right to their ancestral domains.



Almost all of Africa was colonized by various countries of Europe, the areas they occupied were determined in the Berlin Conference in the late 1800s.

No African Leaders were present at the Berlin ConferenceEuropean countries simply divided the continent into whatever pieces they wanted



Kenya may have gained dependence from British rule in 1963, but like most postcolonial countries, the effects of colonization remained intact. How is an independent country able to establish and maintain its own identity when language, education, religion, and economic and political structures are left tarnished by the caprices of former oppressors? It was then mandatory that educational institutions referred to the department of "Literature" as "English" as a means to ensure national pride in the formerly colonized Kenya by the colonizers, Britain. The imperialistic agenda set forth by the British continued through literature and language and this agenda was upheld by government and educational officials in Kenya for reasons which are questionable.

Their insistence that the English Department should be titled African Literature to supersede the reigning label of "English" was more than a proposed change of name, but of values.



South America

In response to the failure of Top-down Research projects, communities began to look at participatory methods which led them to “Farmer Participatory Research” (FPR) which usually takes place with a community development context. Based on the roles played by participants (farmers, researchers, scientists) and the style of research being conducted, 3 approaches were identified:

1. Scientist-led2. Farmer- led3. Interactive research



“White man’s burden” was a phrase coined by author Rudyard Kipling at the end of the 19th century. It referred to the idea that white races in Europe and the United States had a responsibility to educate and Christianize “uncivilized” and “primitive” peoples of the world. The term “burden” had the added implication that this was a Christian duty, thus lending a moral rationale to the phrase. The “white man’s burden” became one of the primary justifications for British and American overseas imperialism during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

Imperialists characterized colonized peoples in Africa, Asia, the South Pacific, and the Caribbean as incapable of self-government. Only once these peoples had been guided towards British and American models of government and democracy would they be ready for independence. In such ways, imperialists depicted their endeavors as morally righteous.



As indigenous peoples become aware that their rights are being ignored, they are increasingly frustrated. Today, many of the world’s conflict zones are inhabited by indigenous communities. Areas where ethnic minority groups are subjected to extreme forms of civil rights violations have become flashpoints of insurgency. The geographical overlap between areas of on-going conflicts and areas where indigenous peoples live suggests that ending their marginalization would promote the stability that the poor need to take advantage of development opportunities.



These views have informed a number of traditions: a paternalistic form of welfarism; assimilation, which seeks to institutionalise colonial mimicry; cultural relativism, which promotes cultural sensitivity and tolerance; and radicalism, which seeks to invert colonial power relations.

For many indigenous peoples, culture and traditions are exceedingly important. If poverty is to be eradicated in their communities, indigenous cultures, value systems, knowledge and aspirations must form the basis of all actions. Indigenous peoples’ value systems are often based on a close relationship with natural resources, for both subsistence and spiritual needs. Consequently, indigenous peoples play a crucial role in the stewardship of the Earth’s natural resources and biodiversity. Indigenous peoples, in particular women, have rich and varied local systems of traditional knowledge. These systems include vast knowledge about ecosystem management, technologies, medicinal plants and local crops



IFAD has experience in initiating culturally sensitive approaches, in revitalizing traditional knowledge systems and in blending them with modern technology in a broad range of areas, including:• soil and water conservation• crop and livestock husbandry• participatory research• traditional medical practices

Resolution on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (1998),

Support local ownership of projects Support to bilingual and cross-cultural educationEnhancement of indigenous identity and self-esteem


http://data.ei-ie.org/Contents/Document.asp?ID=821&LogonName=Guest



19th-century Kingdom of Madagascar when the support of successive kings and queens produced the most developed public school system in precolonial Sub-Saharan Africa. However, formal schools were largely limited to the central highlands around the capital of Antananarivo and were frequented by children of the noble class (andriana). Among other segments of the island's population, traditional education predominated through the early 20th century. This informal transmission of communal knowledge, skills and norms was oriented toward preparing children to take their place in a social hierarchy dominated by community elders and particularly the ancestors (razana), who were believed to oversee and influence events on earth.



ChinaEducation in the hands of missionaries seemed designed to complete the job begun by gunboats. For nationalists in China as elsewhere, with their ideological investment in state-directed education as the most effective instrument of creating a homogeneous culture and loyal citizens, foreign involvement in education meant ideological subjugation and, consequently, compromise of national sovereignty.



history of colonialism disappearing into a new teleology of globalization,

If Africa's debt were cancelled it could almost double its spending on education.

colonialism and 'colonial mentalities' others have effectively worked in the opposite direction. The particular power of non-formal education (and things like community schooling) in this respect isn't just the content of the programme, but also the extent to which it draws into state and non-governmental bodies various institutions and practices that were previously separate from them; and perhaps resistant to the state and schooling.



http://www.ei-ie.org/websections/content_detail/3277found on 5/22/2011EDUCATION INTERNATIONAL WEB PAGEIntroductionEI participates in the activities of the United Nations' bodies organised for the issue of indigenous peoples. Examples are the Working Group on Indigenous Populations and the Permanent Forum of Indigenous Issues. EI attends the Forum's annual sessions since its creation in 2002.PolicyEducation International supports the UN initiative in the declaration of the first (1995-2004) and second (2005-2014) Decade of Indigenous Peoples. EI also supports the ILO Convention 169 "Indigenous and Tribal Peoples" (1989).The EI World Congress passed various resolutions concerning indigenous education. The resolutions acknowledge that the distinct cultures and languages of indigenous peoples enrich the cultural heritage of humankind and deserve protection as vehicles of culture and identity. As such, EI recognises the role that teachers, education support personnel and their organizations in the education system have in ensuring the promotion and preservation of cultural identity of indigenous peoples:


http://www.ei-ie.org/websections/content_detail/3277


Resolution on Indigenous Education (1995), Resolution on Indigenous EducationThe Education International First World Congress meeting in Harare (Zimbabwe) from 19 to 23 July 1995:Recommends that:





Our paper…..Even into the 21th century, extension transfer-of-knowledge was based on the belief that: “scientists know best, new technology is better than old, technology is needed, innovators will transfer information to laggards and many people are not information seekers” (Chamala 1999). Eventually, researchers and educators working with indigenous populations began to realize that failures of their programs could be attributed to the lack of participation by local communities and the omission of traditional knowledge and cultural expression in program planning and implementation.



By the 1990s a new participatory research and education approach began to be implemented in several countries around the world. This method actively includes indigenous community members in; the identification of program needs, development and implementation of research or education programs, and evaluation of outcomes. In the past 20 years, use of participatory methods has become increasingly prevalent in extension efforts. The primary idea is that “community ownership and empowerment are crucial in supporting and effecting change” (Beilin 2001).



(Agrawal 2008).

Indigenous education and economic development has evolved in the decades since worldwide colonialism from focusing on exploitation to economic growth, to growth with equity, to basic needs, to participatory development and to sustainable development

In the decades since the second world war the rhetoric of developmenthas lumbered through several stages - from its focus on economic growth, togrowth with equity, to basic needs, to participatory development, tosustainable development

promote participatory approaches based on “what people know” and building on “what people have.”

Professionals must un-learn assumptions that “modern” must replace “traditional.” Outsiders (e.g. researchers, educators) must be willing to learn from local people.



. New postcolonialities require a rethinking of epistemological assumptions and the formulation of new legitimating conditions for Indigenous education, work that remains a challenge for us all in the millenium ahead.



In Sub Saharan Africa: The phrase, “Agricultural Advisory Services” instead of Extension may be used to avoid the association with Top-down approaches that ignore traditional knowledge. This results due to the shift from technology transfer to to facilitation; beyond training to learning.



Fiji

It is anticipated that experiences gained from the Drawa model area will help to institutionalize viable community-based sustainable forest management regimes for native forests in Fiji and contribute towards the mainstreaming of participatory rural land use planning in Fiji.



1900 to 1904: A series of executive orders were created and issued banning the use of Chamorro language

1899: The U.S. took possession of Guam from Spain and the control was handed over to the Department of the Navy.

1902: Schools closed due to lack of facilities and English teachers

1919: The Naval government decided to uproot centuries of tradition by making a policy that Chamorro culture be a patriarchy.



1920s: The Chamorro language remained the predominant language but by the 1930s, Chamorros were heavily influenced by American lifestyles and began mixing English words with the Chamorro speech.

1930’s Governing Americans argued that “Chamorros were nothing, other than an obstruction, an obstacle that stubbornly prevented the progress that America was working to bring to the island.

Therefore, as the navy positioned itself as a civilizing teacher to Chamorros, it crammed its spheres of influences with “lessons” on American greatness and Chamorro inferiority.


".... the right of our manifest destiny to over spread and to possess the whole of the continent which Providence has given us for the development of the great experiment of liberty and federaltive development of self-government entrusted to us. It is right such as that of the tree to the space of air and the earth suitable for the full expansion of its principle and destiny of growth."

Manifest Destiny


Agricultural extension for women farmers in AfricaAuthor info | Abstract | Publisher info | Download info | Related research | StatisticsAuthor InfoSaito, Katrine A.Weidemann, C. JeanAbstract

Women are responsible for at least 70 percent of food staple production in Africa. They are also important in other agricultural activities, including food processing and marketing, cash cropping and animal husbandry. Women's involvement is significant not only in terms of their labor input, but also in terms of their decision-making authority. This paper proposes a series of operational guidelines on how to provide agricultural extension services in a cost-effective way to women farmers. All small-scale farmers, regardless of gender, face constraints, but the focus here is on women farmers in order to foster a better understanding of the particular gender-related barriers confronting women and the strategies needed to overcome them. Attention is concentrated on sub-Saharan Africa in view of the crucial role of women in agriculture throughout the sub-continent. This paper addresses the question of why women need help -- the role women have in agriculture and the particular constraints they face in terms of access to resources and information. It examines the information needed to modify extension systems to better reach women farmers, to modify the focus of research to address women's activities and to monitor and evaluate programs. The paper also deals with the transmission of the extension message to women farmers and the formulation of the message to be delivered, and the linkage between extension and agricultural research and technology.


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