The Neo-Romantic Wagnerian influences on the film

music of John Williams: Star Wars

David Quinn

September 2011

Thesis submitted for Licentiateship Diploma at the

London College of Music, University of West London

Contents

Abstract

Acknowledgements

Chapter: 1.0 Introduction

1.1 Neo-Romanticism

Chapter: 2.0 Wagner

2.1 The Music Drama

Chapter: 3.0 Wagner’s Stylistic Developments

3.1 Melodic Traits

3.2 Tonal and Harmonic Traits

Chapter: 4.0 The Leitmotif

4.1 The Tristan Motif

Chapter: 5.0 John Williams

5.1 Star Wars

5.2 Synergy Between the Music and Motion Picture

2

Chapter: 6.0 Leitmotifs or Film Themes?

6.1 Star Wars: Dynamic Leitmotifs

6.2 Star Wars: Other Main Leitmotifs

6.3 Division into Light and Dark Leitmotifs

6.4 Thematic Unity Through Leitmotifs

Chapter: 7.0 Williams’ Stylistic Traits

7.1 Melodic Traits

7.2 Tonal and Harmonic Traits

Conclusion and Recommendations

Bibliography

Appendices: 1 CD of Track Examples from Star Wars

2 Main Title Score from Star Wars

3

Abstract

This dissertation examines the Neo-Romantic Wagnerian influences on John

Williams’ film scores of Star Wars. The discussion is centred around a statement by

Williams in which he states that he intended the scores to be written in a Wagnerian

idiom.

The first chapters create a working definition for the term ‘Neo-Romanticism’ and

present Wagner’s creation of the music drama and overall stylistic developments,

focusing on the Leitmotif, with the Tristan motif presented as a prime example.

The following chapters provide the context for the film saga, alongside Williams’ own

adoption of the Leitmotif technique, discussing his modifications to the technique.

Williams’ overall stylistic tendencies are then presented, based on the ‘Main Title’

score and other tracks from the Soundtrack.

The conclusion recognises that Wagner had a profound impact on Williams’ stylistic

leanings in terms of melody, harmony and the use of the Leitmotif, however noting

that Williams’ was not limited to Wagner’s idiom and modernised the Leitmotif,

making it more suitable for the genre of Film music.

4

Chapter One

Introduction

5

1.0 Introduction

First and foremost, it must be stated that many factors contributed to my decision to

present this discussion, including a keen interest in film music in general and the way

in which composers write for this genre. However, undoubtedly the most influential

factor was an intense curiosity as to the musical influences which impacted John

Williams’ writing of the music of the Star Wars saga. Through initial research, I

discovered a comment made by Williams in an interview by Craig Byrd (1997), in

which he states that he intended to write “music that would put us in touch with

very familiar and remembered emotions, which for me as a musician translated into

the use of a 19th Century Operatic idiom, if you like, Wagner and this sort of thing.”

This resulted therefore in the decision to examine the Wagnerian influences on

Williams’ writing and the degree to which he succeeded at creating a Wagnerian

sound.

Whilst the musical era in which Wagner wrote has often been described as Post-

Romantic, or ‘Neo-Romantic’ (Samson, 2011; Dahlhaus, 1979), he himself hated the

term and used it to malign the French romanticism of the 1830s and 40s (Dahlhaus,

1979). Due to the disparity in the usage of this term then, it will be necessary to

provide a working definition for the term ‘Neo-Romanticism’ as well as an informed

discussion of the degree to which Wagner’s music is typical of this idiom. These will

be presented in Chapters 1.2 and 3, respectively.

In order to provide a comprehensive discussion of the influence of Wagner on

Williams’ scoring of the Star Wars saga, it will be necessary to present an in-depth

overview of Wagner’s contribution to the overall development of music and his

1

stylistic tendencies. This includes his redevelopment of Opera into the Music Drama

and the associated musical devices and techniques which he embedded within this

newly-founded genre. These points will be presented throughout Chapters two,

three and four.

The discussion will then focus on Williams’ scoring of Star Wars in Chapter five,

mentioning how the music interacts with the motion picture and comparing this to

Wagner’s music dramas. An in-depth analysis of Williams’ themes will then be

presented in Chapter six, forming a significant part of the discussion, alongside

examining their functions both musically and dramatically; they will then be

compared with Wagner’s ‘Leitmotifs’ and any similarities will be critically evaluated.

Finally, Williams’ overall stylistic traits will be examined in Chapter seven,

mentioning any notable Wagnerian influences, after which the conclusions of the

discussion will be presented in Chapter eight.

Note: When the phrase ‘Star Wars’ is used throughout this discussion without

referring to a specific episode, it is to be assumed that its usage is in reference to the

entire saga, or to the music thereof.

2

1.1 Neo-Romanticism

As much has been written about the term ‘Neo-Romanticism’ from very different

perspectives it is necessary to provide a thorough working definition of the term,

mentioning both sociological and political issues which must be addressed.

Therefore, in attempting to determine exactly what the term means, it is necessary

to first decide whether most emphasis is going to be placed on musical style and

stylistic tendencies, or on the place of music in the context of contemporary ‘art

culture’ (as opposed to contemporary popular culture). If the place of music in

contemporary ‘art culture’ is studied, then philosophical considerations must be

made as to when musical Romanticism in a Romantic era became musical Neo-

Romanticism in a Modernist era. In other words, the importance here lies on when

contemporary art culture turned away from Romantic ideologies, leaving music to

continue in the by now ‘old’ tradition – a revolt against modernist principles.

Scholars such as Lang (1941), Dahlhaus (1979) and Rummenhöller (1995) describe a

fragmentation of aesthetic arts which occurred around the middle of the 19th

Century, creating a huge gulf between music and the literature and art of the same

period. Music still had its stylistic roots in traditional Romanticism, whereas the art

and literature of the day had progressed to contemporary, modernist principles and

thus music was considered retrospective, or ex post facto. According to Dahlhaus

(1979), it was this gulf which prompted the afore-mentioned scholars to attach the

label ‘neo-romantic’ to music written post-1850.

Whilst these musical historians may have used the term ‘neo-romantic’ to classify

music composed after 1850 as conservative, so to speak, it also served to create a

3

distinction from the music of the ‘old guard’ of Romantic composers who either died

or stopped composing around the middle of the century: Chopin, Mendelssohn,

Schumann, etc. (Samson, 2011). There is no dispute that the years after 1950

constitute a separate and distinct era, with Samson (2011) referring to the new

generation of composers which came to maturity around this time – Brahms,

Bruckner and their ilk – as neo-romantic. However, whilst both Liszt and Wagner

were musically active in both eras, the mid-century point heralded a new creative

direction, a “self-conscious working-out of the ideals of Romanticism” (Samson,

2011), which included an overemphasis on forms and theories, resulting in an

abandoning of the spontaneity and exuberance of the original, pre-1850

Romanticism.

This neo-romantic period is characterised by the development of an extended

tonality1, strong motivic integration as well as the rise of nationalistic elements in

music. However, the obvious characteristics of this era focus on the developments of

early Romanticism: the colourful harmonic palette, imaginative rhythmic patterns

and an expanded use of the orchestra; these developments were then stretched to

the extreme, pushing the boundaries of what was either possible, or musically

acceptable. Composers such as Richard Strauss, Ravel and Rimsky-Korsakov are

representative of this idiom, however none represents the exaggeration of Romantic

ideology more so than Mahler – his ‘Symphony of a Thousand’ standing as a

testimony to this – see figure 1.2.1 showing the extensive orchestra and choir

required.

1 The term ‘extended tonality’ here refers to the fascination with chromatically derived chords, non-diatonic harmonic progressions and frequent modulations to unrelated keys (Gilliam, 1998, pp. 56–57).

4

His seventh Symphony also makes use of cowbells, featuring ‘interlocking tonal

structures’, moving away from the traditional view of tonality as a unifying element

in a work (George, 1970). This pushing to the extremes eventually led to the

breakdown of tonality and functional harmony altogether, moving away from

Romantic ideals and towards modernist principles of atonality and serialism,

epitomised by composers such as Webern and Schönberg.

Figure 1.2.1 showing the Orchestra and Choir for Mahler’s ‘Symphony of a

Thousand’

Tonality in the neo-Romantic period is indeed very complex and requires at least a

brief mention. Oxford Music Online provides a definition of tonality as “…musical

phenomena (harmonies such as the tonic, dominant and subdominant, cadential

formulae, harmonic progressions, melodic gestures, formal categories) arranged or

understood in relation to a referential tonic, which imbues the music – in the case of

C major – with ‘C-ness’” (OMO, 2011). Tonality must be analysed within the context

of a single centre point, thus the question for this era is how to analyse works which

5

do not have a clear tonal centre, as so much of analysis is dependent upon

contextually determined factors (Morgan, 1999).

Musical theorists and historians such as Bailey (1977) and George (1970) have

criticised views of tonal centricity as being too rigid for Neo-Romantic music,

preferring instead to use labels such as ‘multitonal’, or ‘progressive tonality’ in an

attempt to provide a stable platform from which to interpret tonally ambiguous

music. However in reality it amounts to nothing more than trying to interpret such

music against a different set of theoretical ideals, or practice – this word suggesting

well-defined principles belonging to a ‘body of music’ which has its own relatively

common conventions – yet most Neo-Romantic music cannot be assigned to a single

practice or convention.

Morgan (1999) argues that 19th-Century music ought not to be deemed polytonal (or

any derivative to this effect), arguing that any derivative of the term ‘tonal’ implies a

central reference point to which each triad in a structure is related either strongly or

weakly. If this does not exist then the only alternative is a system of ‘equal

temperament’ (Morgan, 1999) in which each triad is potentially a tonic triad, any

two of which can be used over time to control the overall harmonic structure.

However, whilst these tonal ‘developments’ indisputably led to the breakdown of

tonality (George, 1970) they work within and are dependent upon – with a few

exceptions – an overall tonal system.

As for a working definition of the term Neo-Romanticism, it can be said to refer to

music written after 1850 which was still very much romantic, whilst art and literature

had embraced modernism. It also implies a wider spectrum of harmonic language,

6

openly embracing chromatically derived chords and harmonic progressions, as well

as frequent foreign modulations. The degree to which Wagner (and consequently,

Williams) can be classified as Neo-Romantic remains to be discussed in the following

chapter.

7

Chapter Two

Wagner

8

2.0 Wagner

Wagner, who thought of himself as “the most German of men,” (Salmi, 2011) was

born into a theatrical family of singers and actresses and was taught piano by his

sisters. Often referred to as a genius, his other accolades include the labels of

anarchist, socialist and even anti-Semite (Salmi, 2011) with his ideologies, writings

and Music Dramas having directly influenced Hitler, who himself claimed, “with the

exception of Richard Wagner, I have no forerunner…whoever wants to know

National Socialist Germany must first know Wagner” (Zalampas, 1990, p.60).

Wagner was formally trained in music at the University of Leipzig and it was here

that he first encountered the music of Beethoven for which he quickly developed an

obsession. He was fascinated by Beethoven’s music, having transcribed his ninth

Symphony for piano and written his own Symphony as a pastiche of the classic

master’s style. This is particularly evident from the first movement sonata in which

he repeatedly uses and develops fragments and motifs which have previously

occurred in the music. In other words, the thematic material of the whole movement

originates from a single motif, a technique which Wagner later capitalises on and

develops into the Leitmotif.

Although considered by many to be the ‘grand master’ of late Romantic Opera, his

first attempt at writing for the genre was a complete failure, in which he only

managed to write one scene. His next attempt, Die Feen, he at least completed,

owing much to the influences of Weber and Marschner (OMO, 2011), yet it

foreshadowed certain features of the mature Wagnerian Opera: lengthy expository

narratives and simple recurring themes, or Leitmotifs (Prefumo, 1984).

9

After coming into contact with Junges Deutschland, which rejected the Romanticism

of Hoffmann, Weber, and the like, he eventually wrote Der Ring des Nibelungen – a

cycle of four ‘music dramas’ as they were eventually to be known. However,

reactions to his works were generally polarised, with Strauss stating that his music

gathered the “yearnings of the entire 19th Century in one focal point”

(Westernhagen, 1981, p. 68), whilst others argued that his works were not nationally

edifying and simply present “the ruination of the life of heroes by sensuality” (Barth

et al., 1975, p. 208).

Wagner arguably had a more profound impact than any other composer on the

entire concept of Opera: no longer was it a structured work of separate arias,

recitative and dialogue; rather it became a continuous, through-composed drama, or

‘Music Drama’.

10

2.1 The Music Drama

The term ‘music drama’ was never used by Wagner himself, who preferred to simply

refer to his works as ‘dramas’, which where to be a return to the artistic synthesis of

the Greek Drama in which dance, music and poetry were seamlessly integrated

(Wagner, 1895b, p.28).

He intended the ‘Music Drama’ to be a revival of ‘true art’ and one which would not

sell out to the popular demands of its audience, which he vehemently condemned

composers such as Meyerbeer and Berlioz for doing, denigrating their work by

labelling it “the direct antithesis of art” (Wagner, 1895a, p.12).

Thus, the Music Drama became an embodiment of his Gesamtkunstwerk concept –

or ‘united art-work’ – in which the landscaped scenery, dramatic action, dance and

music lose their separate faculties and synergistically combine to become an artistic

embodiment of the World (Wagner, 1895a).

The essential ‘mission’ of music, in Wagner’s eyes is “to place the spectator in direct

communication with the very spirit of the characters, to reveal their most secret

thoughts, and to render them transparent, so to speak, to their hearers, who will

thus often come to know them better than they know themselves” (Lavignac, 1897,

p.235). The music doesn’t necessarily have to reflect the sentiment or mood of the

poetry – but it must be in step with the overall dramatic action – for example, should

a shrewd or deceitful character emerge with flattering guile, the music ought to

reveal his dubious character and inform the audience of his real motives.

11

Whilst the ‘Music Drama’ may seem to have certain features in common with the

melodrama (for which idiom Meyerbeer was one of the first to write), Wagner made

several notable developments: In the ‘Music Drama’ even the intonation of the

declamation is regulated by musical notation and so the spoken words and the music

converge on the same end, yet both retain their independent expression and

autonomy. A clear example of this can be seen in Act II Scene V of Götterdämmerung

(see scores overleaf), where Brünnhilde is betrayed by Siegfried (under the influence

of a love potion) and so she tells Hagen how to kill Siegfried. A series of chromatic

progressions at the bottom of page 864 lead into an emotionally-charged, lyrical

passage where Brünnhilde reflects on her past love for Siegfried. Here the orchestra

supports the dramatic action with bassoons and violas playing cantabile figurations,

leading into the second line in which fragments of the love motif (see figure 2.1.1

below) appear in a flurry of brass and woodwind activity. The presence of the love

motif together with the lyrical melodic line which Brünnhilde gently proclaims,

suggests that she may be feeling rather

nostalgic and looking back with fondness on

her love for Siegfried – how she protected him with her magical charm.

Figure 2.1.1 showing Brünnhilde and Siegfried’s love motif

However, this fondness is short-lived as the implied modulation to E minor in bars 3-

5 of pages 866-867 casts a shadow over her brief love-reminder and suggests her

realisation that her magical protection of him will prove to be an obstacle. The

12

modulation to the solemn key of E minor and Brünnhilde’s falling melodic phrase

fuse together to insinuate her lamentation and hence change of dramatic condition.

Either the music or the libretto on its own would suffice to inform the listener of the

general dramatic action and in this sense, the music and the drama are partners of

equal stature. However, when both combine in synergy2 they communicate

something of much greater significance: “In this drama, each separate art can only

bare its utmost secret to their common public through a mutual parleying with the

other arts; for the purpose of each separate branch of art can only be fully attained

by the reciprocal agreement and cooperation of all the branches in their common

message” (Wagner, 1895b, p.76).

Thus, the success of the Music Drama lies in Wagner’s craft of intimately uniting “the

absolute sincerity of dramatic accent in every case with the symphonic tissue”

(Lavignac, 1897, p.238).

2 Synergy, as described by the New Oxford American Dictionary: “The interaction or cooperation of two agents, to produce a combined effect greater than the sum of their separate effects”

13

Chapter Three

Wagner’s Stylistic Traits

3.0 Stylistic Developments

Wagner’s music has often been described as “obeying no law…a breaking free of

every rule and school, from every authority and conventional practice” (McClatchie,

1998, p. 58), therefore it is necessary to provide a discussion of the stylistic

developments that Wagner contributed which resulted in his being labeled as the

rebel of conventional practice. Firstly, a brief mention will be made on his concept of

melody and its function, followed by his pioneering developments in relation to

tonality and its associated harmonic language.

15

3.1 Melody

“In music, all is melody” (Wagner, cited in Lavignac, 1897, p.236). According to the

Wagnerian realisation of melody, pure melody is complete within itself and is

independent of any harmonic support nor does it move solely within the constraints

of a single tonality. Because of this, it is free and infinite and has a much looser and

wider framework of chords with potentially unlimited modulations.

The melodic contour is often asymmetrical and often doesn’t reach closure within

itself, instead evolving into a new melodic fragment/structure in a sort of

metamorphosis. As such, Wagner’s melodies are more uninterrupted melodic

fragments than traditional, cantilena-like constructions. Tristan und Isolde is full of

such melodic structures, a prime example found in Act II scene 2, see figure 3.1.1

below. Here, Isolde’s melody is echoed by Tristan with several alterations, however

neither melody reaches a convincing closure or cadence point within itself, instead

‘modulating’/morphing into another melodic fragment akin to the previous.

16

Figure 3.1.1 showing Tristan and Isolde duet

Another notable point of interest in this melody is that it is clearly constructed on a

chromatic scale instead of a diatonic, resulting in its floating in and out of several

keys (see overleaf for full score). Due to the loose tonal construction of the melody,

the harmonic progression is also very unusual, essentially bereft of any form of

tonic–dominant relationship and therefore resulting in a very unstable tonality.

Although Wagner’s melodies are indeed fundamental and essential to his style, it is

arguably the advances which he made with regard to harmony and tonality that

distinguish his idiom.

17

3.2 Tonality and Harmony

One aspect of musical development Wagner is most famous (or perhaps, infamous)

for is his colourful harmonic language and complicated tonality (Westernhagen,

1981), with many critics looking unfavourably upon his music because of this. Clara

Schumann described his music as “repugnant” (Rummenhöller, 1995) due to the

unconventional freedom with which he experimented with dissonance. However, he

also made several notable developments with regards to the way in which he used

tonality in his works for his own specific purposes.

Throughout the Ring cycle, Wagner employed an ‘associative’ use of tonality which

functions on two levels: firstly, whereby motifs are associated with specific keys and;

secondly, in which individual characters are associated with a given key. Although

this idea originated with Weber, Wagner further developed this idea by ensuring

that each motif was equipped with one specific key as well as having a fuller melodic

line (Bailey, 1977). The horn call in Der Fliegende Höllander is a prime example of this

idea, as every time it appears it rings with the definite sonority of B minor (see

Appendix 3.1 for score examples of motives which use tonality associatively). A

further example being the ‘sword’ motif (see figure 3.2.1 below), first appearing at

the end of Das Rheingold in C major and bearing that same key at each

reappearance, until the end of the first act of Siegfried, where it becomes associated

with D major. According to Bailey (1977), the motif is used in the prelude to Act II of

Die Walküre to move the Brünnhilde-Wotan story away from D minor and into A

18

minor, thus the motif becomes the bearer of the tonality used to mark a structural

point of significance.

Figure 3.2.1

showing the ‘Sword’ motif from Das Rheingold

Wagner also used tonality as a structural signpost throughout the Ring cycle: Das

Rheingold begins and ends in D flat, thereby linking the work with Die

Götterdämmerung which also concludes in Db. Bailey (1977) reasons that Wagner

chose this tonality to draw a link with the Valhalla motif (see Appendix 3.1 for score

example) which belongs to the realm of D flat, noting that this structural link is

further intensified by the fact that it both opens and concludes the Ring cycle in its

entirety.

The second manner in which Wagner employed tonality associatively is through

reserving the use of particular keys for thematic material representing specific

characters or personalities. He used this method mostly in Lohengrin, where F#

minor represents Ortrud, the demonic creature, Ab major representing Elsa, the

main protagonist and A major for Lohengrin, the divine figure (see Appendix 3.2 for

score examples).

What is interesting is that in Wagner’s music, tonality is no longer a unifying ‘force’,

but rather a colour of the overall musical ‘spectrum’ of a work. With tonality

decentralised and no longer providing the overall framework for the construction of

melodies, it is hardly surprising that his harmonic palette also began to shift more 19

and more away from a diatonic base and towards that of a chromatic one.

Throughout Parsifal, a contrast can be heard between the diatonic and chromatic

elements: the music of the Grail and that of Parsifal is inherently diatonic, whereas

the music representing Amfortas’ suffering and Klingsor’s castle is conveyed by

unmistakable chromaticism (see Appendix 4 for score examples).

Wagner’s exploration of chromaticism resulted in his recurrent use of unstable

diminished seventh chords, evident from the Overture to Tannhäuser (see figures

3.2.2 and 3.2.3 below) and as these chords simultaneously belong to at least four

different keys, they tend to cast an ambiguous shade over the tonal centre.

Furthermore, due to its symmetrical chromatic construction based on tri-tones, a

fully diminished seventh chord can resolve to any of the 12 diatonic chords, allowing

modulation to virtually any key and further breaking down any functional tonic-

dominant relationship.

Figure 3.2.2 from Overture to Tannhäuser

Figure 3.2.3 from Overture to Tannhäuser

Scholars such as Pratt (1907, p.569) argue that Wagner actually contributed little to

the overall sound of Neo-Romanticism in terms of harmonic language or textural

20

developments, describing his stylistic tendencies as “…more or less plain extensions

of antecedent practice.” However, this has to be disputed, as although most of

Wagner’s music is indisputably tonal (albeit with a colourful use of the word), at

times he goes much further than simply creating a chromatically imbued tonality,

with Abel (1944) arguing that the harmonic framework of Tristan und Isolde is

essentially atonal. That is to say that there is no convincing tonal centre throughout

the work, or constant tension toward resolution (see Chapter 4.1 on Tristan motif).

However as an example of 19th-Century tonality, Tristan was unprecedented and

remains the quintessential example of how Wagner stretched the boundaries of

tonality and harmony to breaking point, providing the first paradigm of atonality and

paving the way for the modernist ideologies of Debussy and Schoenberg.

Concerning Wagner’s overall stylistic framework, it may be noted that his

contribution to melodic developments centres around two main practices: his

construction of ‘infinite’ melodic fragments of any desired character or purpose from

a simple phrase or motif – these fragments generally being free from cadential and

tonal constraints. Secondly, his use of the chromatic scale as the basis for

constructing the melody, rather than the diatonic scale is of profound interest and

likely contributed to the overall breakdown of tonality.

Wagner’s associative use of tonality was also innovative, establishing a new way of

manipulating tonality. As previously mentioned, Wagner developed a highly

chromatic harmonic palette, pushing the boundaries of tonality to the extremes – at

times, breaking it altogether. It is likely that Wagner’s melodic, harmonic and tonal

21

developments influenced and impacted Williams’ stylistic tendencies and therefore

the scores to Star Wars – this will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter seven.

These stylistic developments formed the backbone of his musical language, his

development of the Leitmotif as a musical device is of equal, if not greater,

importance.

22

Chapter Four

The Leitmotif

4.0 The Leitmotif

Whittall (2011) states that a Leitmotif is a “theme, or other coherent musical idea…

whose purpose is to represent or symbolize a person, object, place, idea, state of

mind, supernatural force or any other ingredient in a dramatic work. (It) may also be

combined with other leitmotifs in order to suggest a new dramatic situation.”

It is arguable that the convention of imbuing a melodic fragment with some sort of

concept or meaning (thus becoming its ‘quasi-hieroglyphic representation’ (Lavignac,

1897, p.241)) is common to all composers, yet before Wagner nobody had elevated

this to a specific practice which was fundamental to a genre or form (Barth, 1975).

In order to effectively describe the nature of the Leitmotif, Lavignac’s method of

comparison (1897, pp.239-240) proves useful: when reading a novel its characters

become firmly established in our minds – the essence of which will have originated

from some creation of the writer’s imagination – however the construction of the

characters’ images pertains to our individual, and therefore unique, perspective. This

perspective becomes unchangeably engraved on our minds no matter how many

times we re-read the novel; our first impression of the characters, under the

influence of the writer, remain surely fixed. This perspective may be altered slightly

by reflection or by reading works in which the characters are portrayed in a new

light, however the underlying impression remains. So it is with the Leitmotif: every

idea conceived by Wagner, objective or subjective, was embodied in a musical

expression which cleaves to the idea, and although Leitmotifs are rarely repeated

24

unaltered, the modification serves to present the idea in a new light and its essence

remains intact.

The Wagnerian Leitmotif is always short, simple and memorable; almost always

presented in full on its first sounding with words determining the meaning attached

to it, or when the scene makes its meaning clear. After this, it may be presented with

potentially unlimited variations and transformations in: rhythm, pitch (melodic

contour), harmony or instrumentation. It may also be fragmented, changed in

character (major/minor), emboldened by augmentation or shrunk by diminution, yet

it is always instantly recognisable and evokes a throng of images within just a few

notes of its sounding – herein lies the ingenuity and craftsmanship of its design.

Wagner intended the Leitmotif to be the unifying element of his Music Drama and he

first began to use the Leitmotif (albeit, modestly) in Der Fliegende Höllander. The

first piece of music he wrote for this work was Senta’s Ballade (quite surprisingly

found in Act II), which he described as “the thematic seed of the whole of the music

in the Opera…” (Westernhagen et al., 1981, pp.127-129). In this ballade, a call, an

accompaniment and two melodic contours unite to form a basic leitmotif from which

he later builds a web of motifs:

The accompaniment motif from Senta’s Ballade (see figure 4.0.1 below) is used

throughout the Opera to represent the Dutchman as an eternal wanderer over the

seas (M.O.I.R.B.I.C., 2011).

Figure 4.0.1: Wanderer motif from Senta’s Ballade

25

Senta’s call is also used throughout the work to signify the presence of the

Dutchman, his crew or his ship (see figure 4.0.2 below). It first appears in the

Overture played by French horns and other brass, likely symbolising the ship’s horn,

also appearing in Act III (see appendix 4.1 for score) where it signifies the arrival of

the Flying Dutchman.

Figure 4.0.2: Senta’s Call from Senta’s Ballade

Another motif Wagner uses throughout the work is Senta’s theme of Redemption

(see figure 4.0.3 below). First heard played by woodwind in the Overture, this motif

embodies Senta’s power to free the Dutchman from his wandering and can be heard

most convincingly at the end of the work when she frees him from his own curse

(see appendix 4.2 for score).

Figure 4.0.3: Senta’s theme of Redemption from Senta’s Ballade

From this point on, Wagner began to understand the extraordinary potential of his

newly-formed device/machinery and he proceeded to use it purposefully and

systematically in Tristan, Die Meitersinger, Parsifal and the ‘Ring’ cycle.

One way in which he utilised the Leitmotif effectively was by creating a ‘web’ of

Leitmotifs originating from a single musical idea, the best example of which can be

26

seen in Das Rheingold. The nature motif (see figure 4.0.4 below), representing the

elemental origin of things, becomes a ‘thematic image’ from which each of the other

motifs originate.

27

Figure 4.0.4: Nature Motif

The motif of the Götterdämmerung, or twilight of the gods (see figure 4.0.5 below) is

also clearly derived from the nature motif, although inverted to represent the

downfall of the gods.

Figure 4.0.5:

Götterdämmerung Motif from Das Rheingold

Erda’s theme (see figure 4.0.6 below) is essentially identical, however featuring a

change to the minor mode.

Figure 4.0.6:

Erda’s Motif from Das Rheingold

The motif of Wotan’s endless wandering (see figure 4.0.7 below) is a rhythmically

diminished derivative of the Nature motif and expresses Wotan’s fear after hearing

Erda’s prophesy regarding the fate of the gods (Lavignac, 1897).

Figure 4.0.7:

Motif of Wotan’s endless wandering from Das Rheingold

28

From these few examples it is clear to see how Wagner used a single thematic idea

to spawn webs of intricately related Leitmotifs which would serve to integrate and

unite his music dramas. These Leitmotifs, which worked together with the drama

and paintings to convey the overall purpose and expressive intent of the writer,

would eventually become one of Wagner’s most lasting contributions to music.

29

4.1 The Tristan Motif

One Leitmotif of particular importance to the Wagnerian style is the Tristan motif

(see figure 4.1.1 below), heard at the beginning of Tristan und Isolde and commonly

known as the ‘Tristan chord’. The chord was considered to be innovative, forward-

looking and almost unnerving, often considered to mark the beginning of the

disintegration of tonality in its persistent voice leading and avoidance of cadence (Du

Pré Cooper, 1933). For these reasons it is a profound chord and one which requires

specific attention in detail.

Figure 4.1.1: The first phrase

of the Tristan motif

If analysed harmonically, the notes aren’t necessarily unusual; the chord could easily

be re-spelled to form a half-diminished 7th chord on E# (see Figure 4.1.2), however

this would be a very unusual chord indeed, given its relationship to the implied tonic

– considered by many theorists to be A minor (Hindsmith, 1940) – as a raised

dominant. This is precisely what distinguishes the ‘chord’ in this respect – its unusual

relationship to the implied tonic, if indeed there is a

relationship at all.

Figure 4.1.2 showing the Tristan chord respelled

30

Schering (1935) notes that the chord has been used in early works of Bach, Mozart,

Beethoven and Chopin, albeit within more functional harmonic progressions.

See Figure 4.1.3 below, where Beethoven repeatedly uses the chord in an imperfect

cadence on a fully diminished 7th chord (the alto minim analysed as a suspension).

Figure 4.1.3: Beethoven’s Piano Sonata No. 19, Allegro bars 33–42

Many music theorists have conceived various possible harmonic and melodic

functions of the chord, however most methods of interpreting it tend to be overly

contrived, as Réti (1951, p.337) suggests, “in accepted theoretical, that is, harmonic

terms, this chord cannot be explained.” Noske (1981, p.117) does suggest, however,

that the notes of the Tristan ‘chord’ should not be considered with reference to their

position within a harmonically functional chord, but rather as “simultaneous

sounding components of melodic lines.”

Concerning its melodic function, the motif consists of two chromatic fragments in

contrary motion: the cellos introduce the descending chromatic motif, which is

finished by Cor Anglais (see Figure 4.1.4 below) and the oboes respond by repeating

31

the motif in canonic fashion, this time ascending and with a shortened, stretto-like

A# resolving upwards to form a dominant 7th.

The lower voices are also derived from the same melodic fragment; the bass line

played by second bassoon repeats the opening chromatic fall of F to E, with the first

bassoon summarising the ascending melody in retrograde. From this then, it is clear

to see how the Tristan ‘chord’ functions as separate melodic lines interwoven and

sounding simultaneously, rather than as a traditional chord in the functional sense.

Figure 4.1.4: The Tristan motif in open score

As with any Leitmotif, the music serves to express an idea or dramatic condition,

however in the Tristan leitmotif there are two versions of the same motif,

representing two contrasting dramatic subjects: the descending motif represents

sorrow, whereas the ascending motif represents desire. It is interesting to note that

the melodic structure deals with this dramatic antithesis very effectively: the

contrary motion of both fragments accurately depicts the opposing ‘directions’ of

the emotions of sorrow and desire – the first fragment has a definite beginning (F) 32

however it is difficult to predict when it will end (like sorrow), whereas the second

has an unclear origin but clearly directed towards a specific end (like desire).

As for the overall meaning of the Tristan motif, Wagner himself said of it that there is

“no end to the yearning, longing, rapture, and misery of love…one thing alone left:

longing unquenchable, desire forever renewing itself, craving and languishing; one

sole redemption: death, surcease of being, the sleep that knows no waking!” (Bailey,

1986, p. 47). The motif then clearly represents the struggle of Tristan and Isolde:

their yearning for each other, yet also the reality of their impossible situation –

Isolde is betrothed to King Marke, who’s service Tristan is in. The only solution to

their dilemma is found in death, in a suicidal union satisfying their ‘unquenchable

longing’ and therefore the resolution at Liebestod (see figure 4.1.5 below) is

concerned more with the dramatic condition than a functional resolution in a key.

Figure 4.1.5:

Resolution of the Tristan Chord at Liebestod

Whilst several musicologists, such as De La Fuente (2010), suggest that its influence

is overrated and is perhaps more a ‘catalyst’ for atonality, it is undeniable that its

relentless harmonic suspense and chromatic construction decimates any audible

sense of tonal centre and thus was a giant stepping stone away from tonal practice.

Wagner successfully achieved what he set out to do with the Music Drama, which

was to create a unified art-work free from both the constraints of Opera and the

33

liberalism of Neo-Romanticism – yet one which insists on heroic and ideal topics, rich

in moral symbolism and implication, much in the same way as the Greek Drama to

which he aspired.

The greatest achievement of the Wagnerian idiom is arguably the development of

the Leitmotif: from its origins in simple type-motives to fully-fledged melodic

signposts entwined within the fabric of the Music Drama.

34

Chapter Five

John Williams

35

5.0 John Williams

As with Wagner, Williams was born into a musical family and had an intensely rich

musical upbringing, studying with Italian composer Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco

(Sony Classical, 2011). From an early age, he arranged and conducted music for the

U.S. Air Force Band and later studied piano with Rosina Lhévinne at the Juilliard

School. After studying at Juilliard, he worked as a studio pianist and orchestrator for

composers such as Mancini, Goldsmith and Bernstein (Dyer, 1999). He was

eventually approached by several directors, including Spielberg, to compose entire

film scores on his own, which led to his recommendation to George Lucas, who

needed a composer to score his forthcoming ‘space saga’, Star Wars.

The music of Star Wars is also credited by some (Byrd, 1997 and Paulus, 2000) for

bringing about a Renaissance of symphonic orchestral scores in soundtracks, which

was considered dated even by the 1960s. Williams brought a fresh approach to the

symphonic sound through the scores of Star Wars, for which he earned an Academy

Award. Williams’s scores for Star Wars are often referred to as bearing a striking

resemblance of Neo-Romanticism (Adams, 1999), which may be due to his

“pervasive harmonic language” and “postmodern Neo-Romantic orchestration”, as

Adams (1999, p. 22) suggests.

36

5.1 Star Wars

George Lucas, the director of Star Wars, refers to the first Star Wars trilogy as his

“space opera” (Dyer, 1999, p. 12), which includes many mythic and narrative

parallels to Wagner’s ‘Ring’ cycle. The saga is essentially a tragic series examining

Anakin Skywalker’s fall to the ‘Dark side’, beginning with his youth (Episodes I to III)

and ending with his death (Episode VI), incorporating two generations of

protagonists. As with Wagner’s music dramas, heroic ideals are very much at the

fore, with Williams (cited in Byrd, 1997) commenting that one of the reasons for its

success must be the “aspects of journey and heroic life and aspiration and

disappointment, all of the great human subjects that this seems to touch and tap in

on” (Byrd, 1997). These overall themes, which include amongst others, those of love,

betrayal and redemption, were largely built on previous theatrical ideals which had

become entrenched in everyday life, with Lucas maintaining that the simple, direct

emotional appeal to these themes was responsible for its success (Byrd, 1997).

Whilst the films themselves presented unknown (and at times, very inhuman)

heroes, unimagined planets and altogether futuristic technology, the music for the

films was very much ‘non-futuristic’. Under Lucas’s request, Williams wrote works

which would firmly ground the unfamiliar space scenes and otherworldly characters

in the emotionally familiar neo-romantic music: “…It was not the music that might

describe terra incognita, but the opposite of that: music that would put us in touch

with very familiar and remembered emotions, which for me as a musician translated

into the use of a 19th Century Operatic idiom, if you like, Wagner and this sort of

thing” (Byrd, 1997). 37

The degree to which Williams succeeded in creating a Wagnerian sound in the scores

will be discussed in greater detail in subsequent chapters, however what is

immediately apparent is the distinction in purpose for which Williams and Wagner

intended their music. Wagner intended his music dramas to be the highest form of

artwork (Wagner, 1895b), whereas Lucas and Williams – whilst still aiming to create

a work of art – aspired to reach out to popular appeal. Whilst the music idiom

chosen may not have been considered popular, it was the highest grossing non-

popular music recording of all-time (Burlingame, 2000, p. 17).

The films had a colossal impact on popular culture and whilst it is not within the

remit of this discussion to present this in detail, several notable examples include:

endless popular culture quotes and parodies including: Volkswagen’s “The Force”

commercial; the use of the phrase ‘May the Fourth be with you’ in a Westminster

Parliamentary debate (UK Parliament, 2011); and in the 2001 census in England and

Wales almost 400,000 citizens reported their religion as ‘Jedi’ (Office for National

Statistics, 2001). Concerning sports teams using music from the films, Tottenham FC

feature Duel of the Fates from Episode I as their theme; during the 2003 Super Bowl,

ABC Sports used the Imperial March as a Leitmotif for the Oakland Raiders (Urbanksi,

2007). What is interesting is that even in popular quotations and parodies, when a

character such as Darth Vader or Luke Skywalker is depicted, they always appear

with their associated music. This alone highlights the popular attachment and

success of William’s mastery and development of the Leitmotif technique, which will

be discussed in detail in subsequent chapters.

38

The idea of using neo-romantic music in a Space-age saga unquestionably came from

Kubrick. Kubrick dropped the commissioned soundtrack for 2001: A Space Odyssey in

favour of the temporary soundtrack consisting solely of neo-romantic music such as

Richard Strauss’s ‘Also Sprach Zarathustra’ (relatively unheard of prior to the film)

and Johann Strauss’s ‘Blue Danube Waltz’ (Snyder, 2011).

Whilst Wagner’s music was considered modernistic and forward-looking at the time

of writing, Williams’s musical language was very much retrograde (see chapter 7.0

for this discussion). However, the way in which he fused the scores to the drama and

manipulated the orchestral sounds was revolutionary and led to the rebirth of the

symphonic score (Paulus, 2000).

39

5.2 Synergy Between the Music and the Motion Picture

Music has been used as accompaniment to many forms of media for hundreds, if not

thousands, of years due to its ability to characterise a setting and enhance the

emotional experience of spectators (Skelton, 2011). This psychological connection

between music and emotion is further supported by Bullerjahn and Guldenring

(1994, p. 118) who state that film music “polarizes the emotional experience and

influences the understanding of the plot.” This is essentially the same aim which

Wagner had for the music in his music dramas (see Chapter 2.1), which was to reveal

every aspect and nuance of both the characters themselves and the underlying

dramatic condition of the scenes in which they found themselves.

Wagner also argued in Das Kunstwerk der Zukunft (Wagner, 1895b) that individual

arts had already reached their highest possible form of development and that the

‘artwork of the future’ was to be a union of the arts, as presented in Chapter 2.1.

Although these arguments were presented 80 years previous to the making of Star

Wars, it is clear to see that Wagner’s ideology still influenced filmmakers’ thinking,

evidenced by the following statement by Williams: ”when all aspects (of an art form)

come together to form a humming engine that works and the audience is ready and

willing to embrace it – that is a kind of miracle also” (Byrd, 1997).

Whilst the ‘requirements’ for the composer of film music and that of the music

drama may appear mostly identical, one area in which the prerequisites differ is that

concerning the process of deciding when music will be played and what function it

will serve. With Wagner’s Ring cycle (and indeed all of his music dramas), he was the

40

sole director, making every artistic decision of his own accord and thus ensuring an

‘artistically unified work’ (Lavignac, 1897). In the case of Star Wars (or indeed any

film), the degree to which the director communicated his intentions effectively with

his composer and vice versa very much determined whether or not they were

‘singing from the same hymn sheet’, so to speak. This is crucial as it ultimately affects

the synergism of the music and the motion picture (Cohen, 2001).

It is interesting to note that Lucas and Williams’ 20th Century ‘Space Operas’ contain

mostly the same elements as Wagner’s Music Dramas, however instead of uniting

painting and art with music and drama, its modern equivalent of special effects is

substituted. An effective example of this being the final fight scene between two Jedi

knights and an evil Sith apprentice at the end of Episode I: the scene features a fierce

battle scene further intensified by the ominous music with its unrelenting string

ostinato, haunting choral passages and intense dissonance (see Appendix 1, track 1).

The special effects together with the drama grab the attention of the audience,

whilst the music creates the necessary tension, binding the scene together to create

the overall intense emotional experience.

However, whilst it may be correct to observe that there is indeed a strong synergistic

element to the films which binds the ‘art’ forms together throughout most of the

work, it would be incorrect to assume that this synergy was the same kind that

Wagner intended. This reason is simple: Wagner intended that no single art form

would ever be dominant throughout a work, rather that they would merge together

into a single art form. However, it is clear to see throughout the Star Wars saga that

41

in certain scenes, the music plays a greater role than the drama (Binary Sunset, for

example) or sometimes the music is even faded to focus on dialogue or drama (??).

One of the ways in which music interacts with film is by highlighting the unspoken

thoughts of a character or unseen implications of a situation (Copland, 1941). In the

case of Star Wars, Lucas notes that “(Williams’) music tells the story. Each character

has a theme that develops and interacts with the themes of the other characters;

the musical themes connect the themes of the stories and make them resonate”

(Dyer, 1999). Lucas is here referring to the way in which characters are represented

by musical themes which change alongside the storyline and interplay with other

themes, bringing a new ‘synergistic’ life to the overall dramatic experience. This

concerns Williams’ adoption of Wagner’s Leitmotif device, however the degree to

which Williams, and indeed other film composers used genuine Leitmotifs in their

scores must first be addressed.

42

Chapter Six

Filmic Leitmotifs

6.0 Leitmotifs or Film Themes?

The Leitmotif technique was used to describe film characters by early composers of

film music, such as Shostakovich, Steiner and Korngold (Karlin, 2004). Steiner argued

that every character should have a theme and that this theme should be used

primarily to identify the character (Larsen and Irons, 2007), with one such example

seen in his score to The Informer: throughout this film he used a particular theme

simply to communicate when the main character, Gypo, was on screen (Larsen and

Irons, 2007). However, these early film ‘Leitmotifs’ were generally referred to as ‘film

themes’ as they were much more musically and dramaturgically simplistic than

Wagner’s and the ways in which they were varied and transformed tended to be in

the simplest manners possible (Paulus, 2000). Furthermore, Eisler (1947) argued that

the parallels between ‘film themes’ and Wagnerian Leitmotifs were few and far

between: whilst they had the role of signpost for spectators, they lacked the deeper

connection to the symbolic and “metaphysical implications found in Wagner’s Music

Dramas” (Paulus, 2000, p. 157).

Therefore, the question naturally arises as to what extent Williams’ Leitmotifs should

be classified as either simplistic ‘film themes’ or fully fledged Wagnerian Leitmotifs.

In order to answer this question fully, it will be necessary to examine both Williams’

construction and use of Leitmotifs throughout the entire Star Wars saga against the

characteristics of the Wagnerian Leitmotif (see chapter 4.0). This will include

whether: there are changes and modifications to the motif to give insight into

character developments; the melodic construction is sufficiently memorable so as to

create instant associations with a character or idea upon hearing a fragment of the 44

motif; the motifs are rarely repeated, rather fragmented and matched with other

Leitmotifs; they create a sense of thematic unity throughout a work.

45

6.1 Star Wars: Dynamic Leitmotifs

Williams is often associated with the revival of the ‘symphonic score’ in Hollywood

films, not neglecting his adoption of various techniques more characteristic of Opera

– the technique he is most widely regarded as having regenerated being, of course,

the Leitmotif (Franklin, 2007). Franklin (2007, p. 14) further highlights the

importance of the Leitmotif in the Star Wars saga in commenting that it bears “more

than accidental Wagnerism.” Although, as previously stated, Star Wars was not the

first film to reintroduce the leitmotific idea, it was the first to incorporate more than

20 individual Leitmotifs with hundreds of fragments, variations and transformations

thereof (Paulus, 2000).

According to Williams, these Leitmotifs primarily needed a very strong and instantly

recognisable melody, so that upon hearing even a fragment of the theme it would be

associated with its character (Byrd, 1997). However, as Paulus (2000) correctly

reasons, Wagnerian Leitmotifs are not just thematic ideas which are linked to certain

characters from time to time, rather they change to reflect every aspect of dramatic

action or the character’s integrity – this too shaping its musical design, harmonic

language and orchestration (see Chapter 4.1). Williams’ adopted these practices very

clearly throughout the sagas, two clear examples being the Leitmotifs for Anakin

(later Darth Vader) and the Leitmotif representing Luke.

The Leitmotifs which represent Anakin Skywalker’s fall to the ‘Dark side’ are perhaps

the greatest examples of Leitmotifs representing character developments. In

Episodes I and II, his leitmotif (see figure 6.1.1 below) appears ostensibly innocent

46

and pure, reflecting his predominantly good, youthful character. However, upon

further inspection, we see that the melody is clearly constructed from the chromatic

scale, and whilst it may not be a complete tone row – contrary to Dyer’s suggestion

(Dyer, 1999), as three pitches are missing: B flat, C# and G – the melody is clearly not

restricted by any diatonic harmonic framework.

Figure 6.1.1: Anakin’s Theme

The first ‘phrase’ (marked above) appears to be based on the bright Lydian mode of

A which then merges into the second ‘phrase’ without any convincing close or

cadence, suggesting instead a single-phrase, Wagner-influenced ‘infinite’ melody

(see Chapter 3.1). However there are two features which provide justification for

analysing this apparent unending melody as having two distinct phrases: the clear

shift in harmonic language from diatonic (bars one and two) to chromatic (bars three

and four); and the change in melodic contour from mostly symmetrical (bars one and

two) to asymmetrical (bars three and four). The rising first phrase would seem to

suggest his youthful good nature, with the second phrase perhaps casting a shade of

obscurity over his (future) character.

47

This obscurity of his future character is given further credence later in Episode I

when, after winning the pod race and freeing himself from slavery, his mother says

to him, “you have brought hope to those who have none” (Lucas, 1999) – a variation

of Anakin’s theme is played here, with a fragment of Darth Vader’s theme fused at

the end of the phrase (see figure 6.1.2 below; Appendix 1 track 2 1:38 – 1:58). This

reference is a definitive example of the Wagnerian Leitmotif: as Episodes I to III

formed the prequel trilogy, the audience would already be familiar with Darth

Vader’s theme (see figure 6.1.3 below) and upon hearing the haunting four-note

fragment of the ending of the theme (marked ‘C’ below), a throng of associations to

Darth Vader’s character would be made – either consciously, or subconsciously – and

therefore the audience is instantly aware that Anakin somehow relates to Darth

Vader. This variation of Anakin’s motif almost seems to prophesise his fall to the

‘Dark

side’, beginning with the first phrase of the original motif, marked ‘A’, followed

by a descending chromatic sequence marked ‘B’, likely representing his “clouded

future” (Lucas, 1999) leading to the Imperial March fragment, marked ‘C.

Figure 6.1.2: Variation of Anakin’s Theme

The music therefore serves to convey a higher level of insight into the drama than is

provided by the narrative: Anakin’s mother mentioned that he had brought hope to

48

the hopeless, however the music prophesies his future character and the suffering

he will bring to the Galaxy in the form of Darth Vader, thereby “communicating

nuances which can’t be seen” (Dyer, 1999).

Williams further intensifies this prophesy in that his theme gradually becomes more

ominous throughout Epiode III culminating in his rebirth as Darth Vader, after which

Anakin’s theme gives way to the malicious Imperial March.

Concerning the Imperial March (see figure 6.1.3 below), its melodic identity was so

strongly imprinted with the character of Darth Vader and the Galactic Empire as a

whole that it has transcended the world of film and has become entrenched in

Western culture as a theme synonymous with the epitome of evil (Kendall, 2005).

Whilst it is almost solely used in Episodes III, V and VI to represent Darth Vader and

evil itself, it surprisingly appears in full in Episode II in the ‘Confrontation with Count

Dooku’ track (see Appendix 1, track 3, 3:17 – 3:28), long before Anakin’s near death

and rebirth as Darth Vader. Its appearance here is therefore representing the

essence of evil itself, embodied in the form of Count Dooku.

Figure 6.1.3: The Imperial March/Darth Vader’s Theme

Its evil character is most likely due to: its foreboding chromatic melodic contour,

with the second phrase aiming towards the tri-tone interval; its rhythmic and

49

harmonic parallels to Chopin’s ‘funeral’ march (see figure 6.1.4 below), which also

alternates between the tonic and submediant chords – the imperial march

alternating between the tonic and submediant minor; its unrelenting militant

rhythm; the intense, piercing brass orchestration and its ominous non-diatonic

harmonic progression (see Appendix 1 track 4 for original track).

Figure 6.1.4: Chopin’s ‘Funeral’ March from Sonata Op. 35, No. 2

Analysing the melody on its own without its harmonic context would seem to

suggest that the first phrase is constructed from the major scale of E flat, however,

contrary to Paulus’ (2000) argument that this major/minor superimposition creates

some sort of tangible tension, no hint of brightness in any way derived from the

major scale can be heard – the theme is inherently minor and bound to its harmonic

surroundings.

Whilst the Imperial March goes through very little character changes throughout

Episodes III to VI (more so due to Vader’s fairly static character than being a poor

Leitmotif), there is one notable change in mood which occurs at the end of Episode

VI in which Darth Vader turns from the Dark side and sacrifices his own life for Luke:

the melody is still the same, however played by woodwind and in a much softer,

sober manner, reflecting Anakin’s return to the Light side just before he dies in his

son’s arms (see Appendix 1, track 8: 6:20 – 6:45).

50

Luke’s theme (see figure 6.1.5 below), otherwise known as the ‘Main Title’ is the

distinguishing theme from the saga and its melodic identity is equally effective and

as instantaneously recognisable as the Imperial March. Conceived very grandly in the

manner of a military fanfare, it features a flourishing upward-reaching melody

played by brass with Williams’ characteristic upbeat starting on the dominant degree

and travelling to the tonic. The motif is clearly built around these degrees and

therefore features an intensely strong tonic to dominant relationship, characteristic

of William’s grand themes and likely influenced by his early career as director of a

military band (Byrd, 1997).

Figure 6.1.5: Luke’s Theme/Main Title Theme

The theme goes through countless variations and transformations, a notable

example found in Episode V when Luke attempts to rescue Leia and Solo from Cloud

city: the first two bars are heard in the trumpet and immediately echoed by

woodwind and horn – the bright (albeit, soft) orchestration symbolising his courage

and valiant defiance against the Empire (see Appendix 1, track 4: 0:03 – 0:23).

A very different variation of the motif notably appears in the minor mode in a scene

on Dagobah in which Luke is being trained as a Jedi (Lucas, 1980) This change of

mode is unusual, given its usual triumphant character, however it serves to

51

emphasise Luke’s struggle and momentary disappointment in failing to accomplish a

task (see Appendix 1, track 5: 1:48 – 1:57).

Although the theme is used to represent Luke throughout the six episodes, it is also

considered by Williams to be the principal theme of the entire saga and thus more

represents the heroic idealism and triumph of the Light side over the Dark side which

would later come to be embodied in Luke (Paulus, 2000; Byrd, 1997). Furthermore, it

is used more as an anthem3 of the Galactic Republic than as a simple film theme

representing a single character. Examples of this are too numerous to mention in

detail, however several notable uses include: Episode III just after the birth of Luke

and Leia the theme sounds in its most lyrical manner yet, roaming through several

keys effortlessly, likely representing the ‘new hope’ which will come to restore the

Galactic Republic (see Appendix 1, track 5: 0:23 – 0:45); Episode V just before the

Betrayal at Bespin, the main motif is played in its usual bright character, representing

the excitement and relief of the protagonists on their welcome in the foreign city

(see Appendix 1, track 6: 0:02 – 0:15).

A notable point of interest is that this notion of a Leitmotif representing a higher-

level idea which happens to become embodied in a character is a direct nod towards

Wagner, who used his ‘sword’ motif (see Chapter 3.2) every time the sword was

present in the Ring cycle – however as Bailey (1977, p. 55) points out, it is better to

see “the sword as a visual symbol of the motif, rather than the motif as a musical tag

for the sword”, the same applies to Luke and his associated them.

3 “A rousing or uplifting song identified with a particular group, body or cause” (Oxford Dictionary Online, 2011)

52

Through briefly examining these three main Leitmotifs, it is clear to see that Williams

uses them in a mostly Wagnerian way to ‘prophesise’ future character developments

through both melodic and harmonic functions. He also fragments and transforms

these themes to work in synthesis alongside the drama, conveying a higher level of

insight than is possible with either medium alone. Williams also uses fragments of

new Leitmotifs and matches them with fragments of already established Leitmotifs

to foreshadow character developments; the seamless and subtle way in which he

does this is unique to his writing, it is not present in this form in even Wagner’s

works and is therefore an example of Williams’ development of the device.

The use of Leitmotifs to represent abstract ideas is also profoundly Wagnerian,

raising the question as to whether other Leitmotifs stand for equally abstract ideas.

53

6.2 Star Wars: Other Main Leitmotifs

Whilst it is necessary to study Williams’ Leitmotifs in detail in order to determine

whether they are genuine Leitmotifs, there are simply too many to mention in detail,

therefore for the purposes of this discussion, the remained of this study will be

limited to the other Leitmotifs which are markedly dominant throughout the saga:

The Force theme; Princess Leia’s theme; Solo & Leia/‘Love’ theme; The Rebel

fanfare; Yoda’s theme; and The Emperor’s theme.

The ‘Force’ theme (see figure 6.2.1 below) is perhaps the most widely used and

consistently developed theme, hence it is difficult to attach a singular, specific

meaning to it. It was originally used to represent the ‘Force’, a mythical and

ubiquitous energy from which the Jedi draw their power, with the first fragment

sounding any time the phrase ‘may the Force be with you’ is spoken (Lucas, 1977–

2005) However, Williams extends its usage to include references to the Jedi knights

and Obi-Wan Kenobi, much in the same way as Wagner’s Leitmotifs in the Ring

became multivalent4. Its first (and most famous) appearance occurs in Episode IV

during the Binary Sunset scene, directly after Luke’s aunt and uncle mention that he

has “too much of his father in him” (Lucas, 1977). Its purpose in this instance may be

twofold: either referring to his descent from Anakin, the embodiment of the force,

or suggesting that Luke himself will become a Jedi knight.

In Episode I, the first phrase of the motif appears as a Jedi master comments of

Anakin that “the force is unusually strong with him” (Lucas, 1999) with the rest of

4 “Having or susceptible of many applications, interpretations, meanings, or values” (Oxford Dictionary Online, 2011)

54

the theme following as Anakin’s mother explains that he (Anakin) was conceived by

the Force, suggesting that he is a physical embodiment of the Force. The force theme

mostly appears in a solemn statements, usually by oboe or french horn, marking

intense trial or character struggles, an example being in Episode III where Anakin is

tempted to the Dark side in order to save Padme’s life – the sombre bass line and

tremolo strings portraying the sorrow that this choice will bring (see Appendix 1,

track 7: 2:59 – 3:14). However, sometimes it appears in a defiant brass fanfare

suggesting conflict between the two sides of the force, as is heard in the

‘Confrontation with Count Dooku’ track, in which a Jedi Master becomes embroiled

in an intense struggle with the recently revealed Sith apprentice (see Appendix 1,

track 3: 0:05 – 0:22).

Figure 6.2.1: The ‘Force’ Theme

Concerning its melodic construction, the theme consists of four even phrases

(marked out above) and each, excluding the last, begins with an upbeat on the

dominant degree returning to the tonic degree. As each phrase is clearly and evenly

shaped, it enables the composer to use as much of the theme as is necessary for a

particular scene. An example of this can be found in Episode VI, ‘Brother and Sister’

55

track (see Appendix 1 track 8: 0:28 – 5:01), in which phrases of the Force theme are

interplayed with both each other and other Leitmotifs – including the ‘brother and

sister’ motif, Hans Solo’s motif and fragments of the Imperial March theme – likely

portraying the Force as a binding, or unifying energy between each of the characters.

The melody also consists almost entirely of notes derived from the tonic (C minor)

and dominant (G major) chords and modulates only once: to the subdominant key

(Bb) of the subdominant chord (F minor) at the end of the second phrase. Together

with the interval leap at the beginning of each phrase, this establishes a very strong

tonic to dominant harmonic relationship and as such is immediately striking and

memorable in its solemn minor mode.

Princess Leia’s theme (see figure 6.2.2 below) is used throughout Episodes IV to VI to

represent her character. The theme is very soft and gentle and although at first it

seems not to be particularly well matched to her character – who appears at first to

be headstrong and independent (Lucas, 1977) – we later see that the Leitmotif

conveys the romantic and caring traits of her character, which is only hinted at in the

drama (Dyer, 1999). As such, this is an example of where the music and drama

combine in synergy, fusing separate aspects of a character together and

communicating the entire ‘picture’ to the audience.

56

Figure 6.2.2: Leia’s Theme

As for its melodic construction, it consists of four roughly even phrases with

symmetrical melodic contours. Apart from the last phrase, each appears to be

structured around a call and response device, perhaps suggesting her calling out to

her lover, whom she has not yet found. Concerning harmonic features, the first two

phrases are thoroughly grounded in D (modulating briefly to G minor at the end of

the second phrase), whereas the last two phrases are in the unrelated key of Gb.

In Episodes V and VI, Leia’s theme is mostly succeeded by the Han Solo/Love motif

(see figure 6.2.3 below), which is used both to represent the love between Leia and

Han Solo, and simply Han Solo alone.

Figure 6.2.3: Han Solo/Love Motif

The motif is clearly based on the first fragment of Leia’s theme, the significance of

which will be discussed in Chapter 6.4. It most commonly appears in fragments,

usually played by oboe or French horn and almost always in a sentimental, lyrical

style, reflecting the delicate love which exists between the two characters (Lucas

1977, 1980). However when Han becomes frozen in Episode V, the motif is played in

57

a minor, sorrowful variation with a soaring violin melody representing the anguish of

Leia (see Appendix 1, track 4: 3:21 – 4:01).

The Rebel fanfare (see figure 6.2.4 below) is a fairly simple theme used throughout

Episodes I to VI to represent the Rebel Alliance. The bold brass chords are used to

symbolise the Rebels’ defiance of the Empire and is used extensively throughout

Episodes IV to VI.

Figure 6.2.4: Rebel Fanfare

As a leitmotif, the melodic and harmonic structures are seldom altered, instead the

instrumentation is frequently alternated between brass (for militant resistance

against the Empire) and woodwind (for subtle conspiracy). A prime example being

the Imperial Attack in Episode IV, in which the Rebel base is attacked by the Imperial

forces: the theme takes its usual defiant, brass-dominated variant, frequently using

rhythmic augmentation for suspense (see Appendix 1, track 9: 1:41 – 1:58).

Yoda’s theme (see figure 6.2.5 below) is primarily used throughout the saga to

represent the Jedi master himself, however it is also used to represent his teachings

and abilities. A clear example of this found in Episode V, ‘The clash of Lightsabers’

(see Appendix 1 track 10: 1:41 – 1:59): the motif represents Luke putting Yoda’s

teaching of the Force into practice when duelling with Darth Vader – the motif is

played in the form of an augmented trumpet fanfare, the last two notes of which are

58

altered to resolve unexpectedly in a minor key, set against an ominous string

ostinato and signifying the clash between the Light and Dark sides of the Force.

Figure 6.2.5: Yoda’s Theme

Its melodic and harmonic construction is somewhat akin to that of Anakin’s theme

(see figure 6.1.1) in that the first two phrases (marked above) are built on a Lydian

mode (C), whilst the following phrase uses a different scale – in this case, C major.

The Emperor’s theme (see figure 6.2.6 below) is used to represent Emperor

Palpatine, whose alter ego is the evil Darth Sidious. It is also used in Episode IV to

represent the entire Dark side, before the Imperial March was written (Byrd, 1997).

The theme is used to represent the growing power of Darth Sidious as Emperor

Palpatine throughout Episodes I and II (Lucas 1999, 2002) – through this usage of the

theme, the audience are made aware of his true character, not yet revealed by the

drama.

Figure 6.2.6: The Emperor’s Theme

The theme consists of an ominous melody built over alternating non-diatonic chords

and is sung by bass voices, however it never undergoes any meaningful leitmotific

transformations and as such is a fairly minor example of the Wagnerian device.

59

Concerning the extent to which the Leitmotifs in Star Wars should be considered

Wagnerian, or simple Film Themes, it was noted that almost all of the Leitmotifs

were frequently fragmented and transformed, including both melodic, harmonic and

modal modifications to give further insight into the dramatic condition. Furthermore,

it also occurred that the meaning which the Leitmotif was intended to convey

determined in every case its overall tonal, harmonic and melodic construction: ‘Light’

themes were all presented in major keys (apart from the ‘Force’ theme) and had

fairly symmetrical melodic constructions; themes conveying hope (Yoda’s theme and

Anakin’s theme) were constructed using the bright Lydian mode; ‘Dark’ themes were

always presented in minor keys, featured asymmetrical and chromatic melodic

construction and were intensely dissonant.

The presence of rhythmic augmentation and diminished was also noted, including

the endless instrumentation and tempi alterations to synergise with the drama.

Williams plays leitmotifs against each other to communicate a ‘higher level’ of

information not present in the drama; ‘light’ motifs and ‘dark’ motifs to signify clash

between the Light side and Dark side.

Williams’ Leitmotifs are generally constructed from three or four melodic fragments,

bearing their own distinct melodic ‘hooks’ which evoke associations with a character

or other remembered experience within just a few notes of their sounding. This is

notable in that his melodies have a more distinct ‘shape’ than Wagner’s and

therefore tend to be much more memorable, resulting in a more effective use of the

device.

60

61

6.3 Division into Light and Dark Leitmotifs

According to Paulus (2000), there is a strong similarity between Williams’ and

Wagner’s Leitmotifs at a narrative level: both have a clear division of Leitmotifs into

‘good’ (light) and ‘bad’ (dark) themes. However, with Wagner the division tends to

be somewhat blurred as characters will sometimes be morally ‘grey’, an obvious

example being the character Elsa, from Lohengrin. Whilst generally considered to be

a good, or innocent character, she has notable character flaws and cannot overcome

her inner struggle to ask the fatal question for which she loses both her husband’s

life and her own (Lavignac, 1897).

In Star Wars, the division is more obvious due to the clear division of characters into

‘Light’ and ‘Dark’ (see figure 6.3.1 below). Whilst there also exists several ‘battle’

themes, such as Duel of the Fates and Battle of the Heroes, they are generally used

for one specific track, portraying the clash between the Light and the Dark side and

as such are representative of the traditional film theme and should not be

considered as genuine Leitmotifs.

62

Figure 6.3.1: Table listing the 15 main Leitmotifs from Star Wars

Good/Light Themes Evil/Dark Themes

Luke’s Theme

Force/Obi-Wan Kenobi’s Theme

Rebellion Fanfare

Princess Leia’s Theme

Hans Solo/Love Theme

Luke & Leia Motif

Yoda’s Theme

Anakin’s Theme

Imperial March/Darth Vader’s Theme

The Emperor’s Theme

Death Star Theme

Jabba the Hutte Theme

Boba Fett Motif

Although it may be argued that Anakin ought to be labelled a ‘grey’ character, given

his future character, it is nevertheless evident that the Leitmotifs which represent

him are clearly divided into Light (Anakin’s Theme) and Dark (Imperial March). As

such, his character undergoes transformations from being solely associated with the

Light side (Episodes I and II) to being solely associated with the Dark side (Episodes III

to VI) and eventually back to the Light side again (end of Episode VI).

63

6.4 Thematic Unity Through Leitmotifs

Upon examining any of Wagner’s celebrated music dramas, what becomes

immediately apparent is the thematic unity which exists and binds the work together

musically through his use of Leitmotif ‘webs’ (see Chapter 4.0). Whilst Wagner

intentionally planned thematic integration of his works from the outset, Williams

was originally assigned to score only the first film of the Star Wars saga, which then

evolved into the Trilogy of Episodes IV to VI, and eventually the Sextet, including the

prequel Trilogy of Episodes I to III. As such, Williams did not intentionally plan

musical unity throughout the scores, rather he intended each score to be a separate

work (Byrd, 1997). However, Williams does recognise the unity, albeit unintentional,

which exists throughout the scores stating that “the scores are all one thing and a

theme that appeared in film two that wasn’t in film one was probably a very close

intervallic relative to a theme that we’d had” (Byrd, 1997). Here Williams is clearly

talking about thematic, or Leitmotific, webs and thus it begs a brief mention as to the

extent to which Leitmotifs act as a unifying ‘force’ throughout the scores.

The most obvious example of a Leitmotif web can be seen originating from the Force

theme: Leia’s theme is unmistakably identical to the first phrase of the Force theme

played in retrograde (see figure 6.4.1. below).

64

65

Figure 6.4.1: Comparison between retrograde Force Theme and Leia’s Theme

Further to the observation made in Chapter 6.2 regarding the Leia and Solo Love

theme as a derivative of Leia’s theme, both motifs begin with an identical interval

leap from the dominant degree to the mediant; both are transported to a foreign,

unrelated key in the second half of the motif; both, during the second half, feature a

disintegration of the symmetry of the melodic contour which existed in the first half

in favour of a whimsical, fantasy-like figuration (see figures 6.2.2 and 6.2.3 above).

From briefly analysing the Leitmotifs used in Star Wars, one point of interest is

immediately apparent: whilst Wagner created webs of leitmotifs so similar to each

other that it is often difficult to distinguish between them (see Chapter 4.0), Williams

created individual Leitmotifs which were distinctly unique and matched meticulously

to their subject – yet not at the expense of the generic origin of the Force theme,

Leia’s theme and the Love theme.

As has already been mentioned in detail in Chapters 6.1 and 6.2, Williams uses

Leitmotifs to represent character developments, transforming alongside them. As

such, this creates a sense of unity throughout the saga by developing and extending

Leitmotifs. Williams describes this as a “natural but unconscious metamorphoses of

musical themes that created something that may seem to have architectural and

conscious interrelatedness” (Byrd, 1997).

However, what sets Williams’ realisation apart from Wagner’s is not just the

extension and development of characters’ Leitmotifs, but rather the utter ease and

fluidity with which he matches motific fragments, plays them against each other and

fuses them together in a melting pot of music and meaning. A prime example of this 66

‘leitmotific fusion’ is found in ‘The Clash of Lightsabres’ track from Episode V (see

Appendix 1, track 10): from the backdrop of ungrounded dissonance a fragment of

the ‘Duel of Fates’ motif appears (see figure 6.4.1 below), representing a clash

between the light and dark side. This immediately moves into a trumpet statement

of the Imperial March against a flurry of hectic string activity, from which Yoda’s

theme emerges valiantly against the ominous chromatic string ostinato, leading into

a brief fragment of the grand ‘Throne Room’ motif. This progresses straight into the

Han Solo/Love motif in brass and evolving into a brief polyphonic modal passage in

two-part imitative counterpoint between French horn and trumpet, signifying the

struggle between Luke and Darth Vader. The music then moves straight back into

Han Solo/love motif, modulating rapidly and culminating with intense orchestral

flourishes and a single sustained brass note fading into the background dissonance.

Figure 6.4.1: Fragment of

Furthermore, throughout the entire saga, Williams presents both Luke’s theme and

the Force theme (see figures 6.1.5 and 6.2.1 respectively) well over 100 times in

various fragments and variations (Lucas 1977 – 2005). The constant presence and

appearance of these central Leitmotifs throughout the films and the way in which

Williams weaves them in and out of the musical fabric undoubtedly creates a sense

of unity, binding the entire saga together in one unified, master tapestry. One scene

in particular which merges these two main themes together is found in Episode V,

where Yoda reveals his true identity: the premature sounding of his Leitmotif is

67

heavily sandwiched between two solemn statements of both the force theme and

Luke’s theme in a minor variant (see Appendix 1, track 11: 0:08 – 1:58).

What is also notable is that most of the 12-hour long music of Star Wars is derived

from Leitmotifs, with Wagner’s Der Ring des Nibelungen standing as its only rival at

15 hours. However, Brown (1994) argues, symphonic film music has a much higher

concentration of leitmotif-derived music than even the music drama, perhaps

suggesting that Williams’ music is potentially more thematically unified than that of

Wagner (in so much as the presence of Leitmotifs and their variations unifies a work

thematically).

As for the extent to which Williams achieves overall thematic unity in Star Wars

through the use of the Leitmotif, it was noted that a strong sense of thematic

integration was created through the development and use of related themes, or

Leitmotif webs – the Force theme being a prime example of a thematic ‘seed’. The

accidental architectural unity through developing and extending Leitmotifs was also

presented, mentioning how Williams was a master at fusing themes together and

weaving themes in and out of the music, creating an overall unified structure.

Concerning individual themes, it was observed that the predominance of both Luke’s

theme and the Force theme throughout the entire saga acted as a unifying ‘force’ in

itself, further tying the works together. Finally, it was also noted that the scores to

Star Wars likely have a higher concentration of Leitmotif-derived music than most of

Wagner’s works, due to the medium for which they were written.

68

Chapter Seven

Williams’ Stylistic Traits

7.0 Williams’ Stylistic Traits

Whilst the Wagnerian influences on Williams’ scoring of the Star Wars saga may be

centred around his adoption and development of the Wagnerian Leitmotif

technique, it is nevertheless imperative to briefly examine Williams’ other stylistic

traits to gauge the impact which Wagner had on his melodic, tonal and harmonic

tendencies. Due to the limits of this discussion however, it will be possible to analyse

only one track in full: The Main Title (see Appendix 1, track 12).

This track was chosen due to its success at representing the entire Star Wars saga

and becoming commonplace in popular culture (Byrd, 1997). However, it is also

recognised that reference will need to be made to other works to ensure an accurate

study of his stylistic tendencies. The piece is essentially a Rhapsody5 based on

thematic material from the overall score and the music is characteristically free-

flowing, with highly contrasted moods and was designed to have an “idealistic,

uplifting but military flare to it” (Byrd, 1997).

5 “A large-scale epic for orchestra” (Oxford Music Online, 2011)70

7.1 Melodic Traits

As the main title is essentially a leitmotific Rhapsody, most of its melodic features

will have to be viewed within the context of their associated Leitmotifs previously

discussed in Chapters 6.1 and 6.2.

The track opens with brief canonic fanfare entries in brass (see Appendix 2, p. 3) and

moves straight into Luke’s theme, which as described in Chapter 6.1 consists of a

very evenly phrased melody built primarily around the tonic and dominant degrees.

It also features a military-like bass line which further emphasises the strong tonality

through emphasising the dominant and tonic degrees (see Appendix 2, pp. 5–6). As

such, the theme is more likely influenced by Williams’ brass band upbringing than by

any music of Wagner (Byrd, 1997).

Luke’s theme is then succeeded by a softer, cantabile string theme (see Appendix 2,

pp. 7–9), again with a largely symmetrical construction, however the last phrase

culminating with what can only be described as a C# locrian mode (with raised

supertonic) scale in contrary motion (see bars 32–33, Appendix 2, p. 9).

In bars 59–61 (see Appendix 2, pp. 14–15), Williams features a soaring triplet

figuration built on the mixolydian mode of B flat which crashes in bar 62, fading into

a mysterious mini-section.

The Rebel theme then appears in bars 90–97 (see Appendix 2, pp. 21–22), featuring

a rather unusual harmonic progression and definite chromatic wavering towards the

latter half of the motif, including a tri-tone leap in the melody in bar 94.

71

Following from this, the Main title theme is then grandly restated a fourth lower,

moving into a statement of Princess Leia’s theme initially by Cello (see Appendix 2,

bars 129–145). What is interesting about this melody is that it is not grounded in one

sole tonality, rather as discussed in Chapter 6.2, its phrases float between the keys of

D and Gb. This independence of tonal constraint is characteristic of Wagner’s ‘free

and infinite’ melodies and is present throughout most of the melodies of Star Wars,

the most notable (and previously discussed) example being Anakin’s theme:

featuring unstable chromaticism and floating between various modes and keys

(score overleaf; Appendix 1, track 2: 0:23–0:51). Furthermore, this melody has more

links to the Wagnerian idiom in its perceived lack of functional cadence and

resolution, the only obvious one occurring in bar 14.

After Leia’s theme, Williams drives the music forwards through persistent semi-

quaver figures leading to another restatement of the Main theme. However, this

time the softer half of the theme undergoes what appears to be a Wagner-inspired

transformation typical of Williams whereby a fragment of the first phrase is stated,

however the motif then progresses in a completely different direction: in bars 161–

166, the strings cut out the second half of the motif fragment and instead embark on

a soaring fantasia-like cadenza, merging into the last fragment of the original motif.

Following this, several restatements of the Rebel fanfare are heard and the piece

culminates with brass chords and a triplet figure ending.

Further to the soaring string melody mentioned in bars 161–166, a very similar

example is found in the ‘Light of the Force’ track (see Appendix 1, track 13: 2:30–

72

3:10) in which the Force theme is developed and extended by violins in a similar

soaring, fantasia-like, asymmetrical melodic fragment (see figure 7.1.1 below).

Figure 7.1.1: ‘Free’ Melody from Variation of Force Theme

A further example can be found in bars 25–34 of Anakin’s theme (see score overleaf;

Appendix 1, track 2: 1:25–1:58) in which the melody floats endlessly without clear

resolution (the apparent cadence in bar 28 possibly presenting the B flat root as a

tritone substitution6); modulating back to A without any clear break in the phrasing;

and finally passing through descending sequences to resolve chromatically into the

Imperial March fragment. These are two clear examples of the way in which Williams

takes the principle of Wagner’s infinite and unending melody and uses it in his own

idiom to create soaring melodies which seem independent of any symmetrical

phrasing structure or tonal constraints.

However, one area of contrast between Wagner and Williams concerning melodic

constructions is the degree to which they are dependent on harmonic support. As

discussed in Chapter 3.1, Wagner’s melodies were independent of harmonic support

6 A tritone substitution has its root a tritone away from the dominant chord and functions as a substitute for that chord (Morgan and Gerrity, 2000).

73

and tonal constraint due to their overwhelmingly chromatic construction. However,

whilst Williams’ melodies may be free in the sense that when the drama requires,

they are not bound by tonal constraints or phrasing structures, apart from Anakin’s

theme, almost all of Williams’s melodies work within their harmonic context to

achieve the desired sound. A prime example of this found in the Love theme (see

Appendix 1, track 8: 2:17–2:55) in which the lyrical melody would be flat and lifeless

without the harmonic context.

74

7.2 Tonal and Harmonic Traits

As with the Main titles’ melodic features, its tonal and harmonic tendencies also

need to be observed within the context of their Leitmotif fragment.

The work opens with a very strong relationship between the tonic and dominant

chords, further strengthened by Luke’s theme with its bass instruments alternating

between the tonic and dominant degrees (see Appendix 2, p. 4). This tonal

relationship is weakened however at bar 62 where figurations based on D flat appear

superimposed on figurations based on C, creating an intense dissonant tension and a

sense of tonal ambiguity (see Appendix 1, track 12: 1:20–1:42).

What is immediately notable at this point – whilst not solely concerned with

harmonic and tonal devices – is that the orchestration for the Rebel fanfare between

bars 82 and 97 (see Appendix 1, track 12: 2:04–2:17) is almost lifted directly from

Holst’s Planet Suite: Mars, the Bringer of War (see Appendix 1, track 14: 1:17–1:47).

From bar 129, Leia’s theme can be heard floating in between E major and G flat

major, partially destabilising the tonal centre, however it soon returns to G major in

bar 152 for the final statement of the Main theme.

Whilst the music for Star Wars is mostly grounded in clear tonalities and harmonic

progressions, when the dramatic condition requires, Williams is not at all

apprehensive about using unusual chromatic progressions and unsettling dissonance

– the track ‘Anakin’s Betrayal’ being an excellent example of this (see Appendix 1,

track 15). The track features modern harmonic language not heard in Episodes IV to

VI, including lush harmonic suspensions involving an abundance of 2nds and 7ths,

75

creating intense dissonance and tension towards resolution (see Appendix 1, track

15: 3:30–3:40). However, tonal resolution is occasionally avoided by unexpected

modulations (see Appendix 1, track 15: 1:20–1:35), which is quite common

throughout the saga and especially evident in the Immolation scene (see Appendix 1,

track 16) in which resolution is avoided to further intensify the emotional

atmosphere. The emotional effectiveness of this avoidance of resolution and

prolonged dissonance is supported by Cohen (2001, p. 264) who states that “the

emotion generated by music is governed by the tension and resolution established

by the music of which the audience is unaware.”

Whilst Wagner was renowned for avoiding resolution and employing an intensely

chromatic harmonic palette (see Chapters 3.0–3.2), it is unclear whether this directly

influenced Williams’ adoption of these stylistic traits, or whether he adopted them

from others, including Holst, who also had an impact upon his stylistic leanings.

Nonetheless, one thing is certain: had Wagner never developed and employed the

harmonic tendencies present in Tristan, we would not hear the sustained dissonance

and tonally ambiguous, atmospheric masterpieces that currently exist in the scores

of Star Wars.

76

Chapter Eight

Conclusion

8.0 Conclusion

This discussion began by providing the background context of Wagner’s musical

idiom, arguing that it was necessary to be able to gauge the impact his music had on

Williams’ scoring of the Star Wars saga. Wagner’s main musical developments were

summarized as those concerning: melody, harmony/tonality, the Leitmotif and

thematic unity.

As for the degree to which Williams’ melodies were influenced by Wagner, it was

noted that concerning the original Leitmotif statements, Williams’ melodies was

generally much more evenly phrased with somewhat more symmetrical

constructions than Wagner’s. This allowed the composer to use only as much of a

theme as was needed for an individual scene. However, there were at times strong

similarities in that when fragmented and transformed, Williams’ melodies were

often free and unconstrained by a specific tonality, instead modulating freely

wherever the melodic shape determined. It was also argued that Williams’ melodies

were seldom as chromatic as Wagner’s, with Anakin’s theme proving to be an

exception which had a distinctly Wagnerian lyricism and chromatic freedom,

suggesting a direct nod to the neo-romantic composer.

It was stated that Wagner’s most notable influence on the development of music

was his intensely chromatic harmonic palette and persistent tension without

resolution, the notable example being the music in Tristan und Isolde. As for how

much this directly impacted Williams’ writing is difficult to discern, due to the vast

number of factors which influence harmonic language development. Nonetheless, it

was argued that without Wagner’s intensely harsh and chromatic works, such

dissonant – and at times tonally ambiguous – writing as can be found in many scenes

throughout Star Wars, simply would not have been written.

Concerning Williams’ adoption of the Wagnerian Leitmotif, it was argued that

Williams’ themes are not simple Film themes, but rather are Wagnerian Leitmotifs

which become fused to the character or idea they represent, undergoing various

transformations to represent their dramatic condition. It was also noted that

Williams’ used the Leitmotif (albeit mostly unintentionally) to create thematic unity

throughout the entire saga of Star Wars. The fact that he also employed at least one

Leitmotif web originating in the Force theme is significant, it suggests his

understanding and mastery of the neo-romantic master – and conversely – Wagner’s

direct influence on Williams’ scoring techniques.

Whilst it was stated that Williams’ use of the Leitmotif was at times more effective

than that of Wagner himself, it must be noted that for all the Wagnerian elements

he incorporated Williams took the Leitmotif in a different direction. Wagner’s

transformations were variations of the preceding one, each transformation moving

further away from the original motif, whereas Williams created variants which were

more easily recognisable without much conscious effort. Therefore, he took the

Leitmotif and shaped it into a much more relevant and accessible device for use in

the films, resulting in some of the most memorable music ever written (Terry and

Bowman, 2000).

Throughout this discussion, it has been clearly evident that Wagner had a profound

influence (both directly and indirectly) on the music of Star Wars in the form of:

endless and infinite melodies, freely modulating harmonic progressions, the creation

and preservation of thematic unity – however by far the greatest influence was in

the plethora of genuine, Wagnerian Leitmotifs which Williams employed throughout.

However, Williams was never constrained to write in the way which Wagner did,

rather he modernised Wagner’s old techniques and adapted them for the purpose

which he would use them for and therefore I am compelled to conclude with Paulus’

(2000) findings: “Alongside the old, Williams also used the new and brought the

traditionalism of his own style up to date. His themes are not mere banal film

themes that show up whenever the composer runs out of inspiration, but are

genuine filmic leitmotifs that with their manifold roles, transformations and mutual

kinship create a web of leitmotifs in a Wagnerian sense.”

Bibliography

ADORNO, T. W. AND EISLER, H., 1947. Composing for the films. New York: Oxford

University Press.

ALBRIGHT, D., 2004. Modernism and music: an anthology of sources. Chicago:

University of Chicago Press.

APEL, W., 1944. Harvard Dictionary of Music. Harvard: Harvard University Press, pp.

62.

BAILEY, R., 1986. Prelude and Transfiguration from Tristan and Isolde. New York: W.

W. Norton & Company.

BAILEY, R., 1977. The Structure of the "Ring" and Its Evolution. 19th-Century Music,

1(1), pp. 48-61.

BARTH, H. and MACK, D. AND VOSS, E., 1975. Wagner: A documentary study. Oxford:

Oxford University Press.

BROWN, R.S., 1994. Overtones and Undertones: Reading Film Music. California:

University of California Press.

BULLERJAHN, C. AND GULDENRING, M., 1994. An empirical investigation on effects of

film music using qualitative content analysis. Psychomusicology, 13(1), pp. 99-118.

BURLINGAME, J., 2000. Sound and vision: sixty years of motion picture soundtracks.

New York: Billboard Books.

BYRD, C.L., 1997. Interview with John Williams. Film Score Monthly, 2(1),.

COHEN, A.J., 2001. Music as a Source of Emotion in Film. Oxford: Oxford University

Press, pp. 249-272.

COPLAND, A., 1941. Our New Music. New York: McGraw-Hill.

DAHLHAUS, C., 1979. Neo-Romanticism. 19th-Century Music, 3(2), pp. 97-105.

DE LA FUENTE, E., 2010. Twentieth century music and the question of modernity.

USA: Routledge.

DU PRÉ COOPER, M., 1933. Atonality and 'Zwölftonmusik'. The Musical Times,

74(1084), pp. 497-500.

DYER, R., 1999. Making 'Star Wars' Sing Again. The Boston Globe, , pp. 12.

F. C., 1896. Richard Wagner's Methods: I. His Melody. The Musical Times and Singing

Class Circular, 37(644), pp. 649-652.

FRANKLIN, P., 2007. The boy on the train, or bad symphonies and good movies. In: D.

GOLDMARK and KRAMER, L. AND LEPPER, R. D., eds, Beyond the soundtrack:

representing music in cinema. Los Angeles: University of California Press, pp. 13-26.

GEORGE, G., 1970. Tonality and Musical Structure. London: Faber & Faber.

GILLIAM, B., 1998. Richard Strauss: new perspectives on the composer and his work.

Durham: Duke University Press.

GRIMBERT, J.T., 2002. Tristan and Isolde: a casebook. New York: Routledge.

HAAHEIM, J., 2001. Examining the tradition of borrowing in the film music of John

Williams. Colorado Springs: .

HINDEMITH, P., 1937. Unterweisung im Tonsatz. Mainz: B. Schott's Söhne.

HOOVER, K. AND CAGE, J., 1959. Virgil Thomson: his life and music. New York:

Thomas Yoseloff.

KARLIN, F., 2004. On the track: A guide to contemporary film scoring. London:

Routledge.

KENDALL, L., 2005. Remaking Star Wars. Film Score Monthly, 10(5), pp. 40-44.

LANG, P.H., 1941. Music in Western Civilization. New York: W.W. Norton.

LAROCCA, F., 1994. Frank LaRocca: Crossing the Rubicon. Available:

http://www.franklarocca.com/rubiconnotes.html [January/30, 2011].

LARSEN, P. AND IRONS, J., 2007. Film Music. London: Reaktion Books.

LAVIGNAC, A., 1897. The Music Dramas of Richard Wagner. New York: Dodd, Mead

and Company.

LUCAS, G., 2005. Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith. Los Angeles: 20th

Century Fox.

LUCAS, G., 2002. Star Wars Episode II: Attack of The Clones. Los Angeles: 20th

Century Fox.

LUCAS, G., 2002. Star Wars Episode II: Attack of The Clones. Los Angeles: 20th

Century Fox.

LUCAS, G., 1999. Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace. Los Angeles: 20th

Century Fox.

LUCAS, G., 1983. Star Wars Episode VI: Return of The Jedi. Los Angeles: 20th Century

Fox.

LUCAS, G., 1980. Star Wars Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back. Los Angeles: 20th

Century Fox.

LUCAS, G., 1977. Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope. Los Angeles: 20th Century Fox.

M.O.I.R.B.I.C., , Der Fliegende Holländer. Available:

http://archive.operainfo.org/broadcast/operaTeaching.cgi?

id=43&language=1&material_id=217 [May/4th, 2011].

MARTINEAU, J., 2008. The elements of music: melody, rhythm & harmony. New York:

Walker & Company.

MCCLATCHIE, S., 1998. Analyzing Wagner's Operas: Alfred Lorenz and German

Nationalist Ideology. Rochester: University of Rochester Press.

MCCRELESS, P., 1991. Syntagmatics and Paradigmatics: Some Implications for the

Analysis of Chromaticism in Tonal Music. Music Theory Spectrum, 13(2), pp. 147-178.

MORGAN, H. AND GERRITY, B., 2000. Tritone Substitution. Los Angeles: Alfred

Publishing, pp. 119-120.

MORGAN, R.P., 1999. Review: Are There Two Tonal Practices in Nineteenth-Century

Music? Journal of Music Theory, 43(1), pp. 135-163.

NOSKE, F.R., 1981. Melodic determinants in tonal structures. Musicological Annual

(Muzikoloski Zbornik), 17(1), pp. 111-121.

OFFICE FOR NATIONAL STATISTICS, 2001. 390,000 Jedis There Are. Available:

http://www.statistics.gov.uk/CCI/nugget.asp?ID=297&Pos=&ColRank=2&Rank=1000

[May/5th, 2011].

OXFORD DICTIONARY ONLINE, , Anthem. Available:

http://oxforddictionaries.com/view/entry/m_en_gb0030920#m_en_gb0030920

[May/15th, 2011].

PAULUS, I., 2000. Williams versus Wagner or an Attempt at Linking Musical Epics.

International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of music, 31(2), pp. 153-184.

PRATT, W.S., 1907. The history of music: a handbook for students. New York: G

Schirmer.

PREFUMO, D., 1984. Programme notes of 'Die Feen', Dynamic Recording Booklet. ,

pp. 7-10.

RÉTI, R., 1951. The thematic process in music. New York: Macmillan Company.

RUMMENHÖLLER, P., 1995. Romantik in der Musik. Berlin: Bärenreiter.

SALMI, H., , Richard Wagner Archive. Available:

http://users.utu.fi/hansalmi/wagner.html [February/22, 2011].

SAMSON, J., , Romanticism. Available:

http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/23751?

type=article&search=quick&q=neo-romanticism&pos=5&_start=1#firsthit [19th

April, 2011].

SKELTON, M.V., , Paths of Fantastic Film Music: Examining Film Scoring Techniques in

Films that Alter Space, Time and Death. Available:

http://www.filmscoremonthly.com/features/skelton.asp [May/5th, 2011].

SONY CLASSICAL, , John Williams. Available:

http://classic-web.archive.org/web/20071012155709/http://sonyclassical.com/

artists/williams_composer/adbio.html [May/4th, 2011].

TERRY, P. and BOWMAN, D., 2000. A Student's Guide to AS Music. London: Rhinegold

Publishing.

UK PARLIAMENT, , House of Commons Hansard Debates for 4 May 1994. Available:

http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm199394/cmhansrd/1994-05-04/

Debate-6.html#Debate-6_spnew7 [May/15th, 2011].

URBANSKI, H., 2007. Plagues, Apocalypses and Bug-Eyed Monsters: How Speculative

Fiction Shapes Our Nightmares. New York: McFarland.

WAGNER, R., 1895. Art and Revolution. Leipzig: .

WAGNER, R., 1895. The Art Work of The Future.

WAGNER, R., 1871. Gesammelte Schriftungen und Dichtungen. Leipzig: E. W. Fritzsch.

WESTERNHAGEN, C.V., 1981. Wagner: a biography. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

WHITTALL, A. Leitmotif. http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com edn.

ZALAMPAS, S.O., 1990. Adolf Hitler: A psychological interpretation of his views on

architecture, art, and music. USA: Bowling Green State University Popular Press.