Literature Review - Senior Project

8/7/2019 Literature Review - Senior Project

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Literature Review fo

Procedures

Mayincludeabriefabstract

MontanaTech

Pro

fessorChadOkrusch

PTCDepartment


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Table of Contents

Beginning the Process ..............................................................................................................................1

Addressing the Audience ..................................................................................................................... 3

Problems ......................................................................................................................................... 4

Information Design ................................................................................... ............................................... 5

Content Consideration ............................. ............................................................................................ 7

Proper Style ......................................................................................................................................... 9

Purpose of the Manual ......................................................................................................................11

Readability and Comprehension ........................................................................................................12

Document Design ..................................................................................................................................13

Proper Layout ....................................................................................................................................13

Visual Communication .......................................................................................................................14

Editing ...................................................................................................................................................15

Conclusion .............................................................................................................................................16

Sources ..................................................................................................................................................17


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Review of Literature

Writing a procedural and policy manual is no easy task. Before preparing the literature

review, I just assumed that I would sit down, grab my computer and begin writing. This

document has provided me with a complete digest of knowledge that will assist in writing a

clear and concise document that will serve the purpose of a how-to guide.

This document includes steps on how to begin the process of building the foundation,

constructing the framework, and completing the structure of a manual. It lays out idea

generation, organizing the ideas, proper language and style to be applied, how to address a

read, and of course, how to write a manual.

Beginning the Process

Inner work is the first step in beginning the writing process. Carol Rosenblum Perry,

author of The Fine Art of Technical Writing, refers to inner work as preparing of the mental

ground. She explains that this is achieved by stockpiling ideas gathered from research,

previous work, or synthesized from thinking. Once that step is completed, the next step is

to arrange the ideas by importance or the information hierarchy (Perry, 1991). Nancy White

authored an article featured in PT in Motion. She concurs with Perry that gathering ideas

or brainstorming is the best way to begin stockpiling ideas and using them to generate a

list of key points (White, 2010). The next step, according to Perry, is determining the main

point to begin building the information hierarchy. There are several ways of beginning the

organization process, such as, time, sequence, progression, space, importance, and concept

(Perry, 1991).


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Once the basis for organization has been determined, it is time to erect the remaining

component of the information hierarchy. When dealing with large documents it is very

important to approach it piece by piece rather than biting off a huge chunk. To begin,

categorize information according to its relative importance then follow up by deciding on

the sequence. Ranking and sequencing is not a two-step process, rather they are

constructed simultaneously. Once these items are completed, it is time to focus on the

outline. Creating the perfect outline is done through trial and error and there is no definite

way to approach it (Perry, 1991).

During construction of the outline, topic headings will need to be decided upon and when

designing headings for a manual the use of some paralleling is important. . If the reader

knows what to look for, where to find it, and clarify information, they can learn a great deal

about the document (Hutchinson, 1996). Susan Lester, an author featured in the STC

proceedings, advises that the headings be organized logically and consistently which will

allow users to locate the information quicker and easier (Lester, 2000).

The last step of the process before beginning to write is choosing the correct channel or

medium delivery option is vital to the delivery of the message. The two choices that I will be

faced with include print or online delivery (Smart, Whiting, & DeTienne, 2001).

The information listed above sums up the steps involved in the beginning process of

constructing a document. The commonality among the given information is the importance

of organization of the key elements. By utilizing the information, I will approach the

beginning steps of constructing the manual in a methodical well thought out approach. All

of the authors provide a clear view of how construct a strong and useful outline while

helping to weed out any potential for error.


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Carol Rosenblum Perry offers ways of beginning the organization process, but fails to

thoroughly explain the practical use of each. Granted, many of them are self explanatory,

but space needs further explanation and the difference between sequence and progression

would help to clear up my confusion. I did not locate any other authors that shared the

ideas posed by Perry or that could further elaborate or add to her concepts. However, time

or chronological order and importance is often mentioned in many articles.

Perry described the process of organization as constructing a skeleton. This is a rather

creative way of relating key concepts to a visual element. She coined the main point as the

backbone of the skeleton and headings and subheadings as the bones. Together these items

make up the foundation of a document. These concepts appear to be developed by Perry, but

I plan on adapting her method to my beginning process.

Addressing the Audience

Before writing, it is important to define the audience in order to determine what needs to be

said and how to say it. Having a general idea about who the audience is can help determine

what type of writing style should be used. There are some common guidelines to follow to

ensure proper message delivery to the intended audience.

Dont make assumptions about what your audience knows or who they are. It is good to

know the general direction, but becoming too focused on a specific group can bind the writer

from others that may be interested. Perry notes that there is sometimes an unintended

audience that will be addressed so. When planning what to say, remember to keep in mind

that the intended audience may have an idea of what is being explained but they do not

reside in your head; they are not intimate with the ideas being expressed (Perry, 1991).

Other things that the writer should never assume include: Readers specialists in the field,


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that document will be used for a limited amount of time, that the readers are familiar with

the situation, and that readers have time to read the manual (Mathes & Stevenson, 1991).

Carol Perry proposes the idea of dynamics and applies it to a written document. As in

music, Perry emphasizes the need to cue the audience when to pay close attention to main

points. This is achieved through making main points seem louder than the rest of the text

and information that is not as important sound softer. By equally distributing main points

and loudness the manual will not get bored with the manual (Perry, 1991).

In my opinion, addressing the audience is just as important as determining the structure of

the document. Without readers the manual serves no purpose. Marilyn Cooper discusses in

great length, exactly what a writer should consider to be common sense among readers and

she pretty much points to the simple things such as the meaning of cat or the usage of

common words like people. From what I understand from the few authors that I found that

has advice on addressing the audience in a technical document is keep it as simple as

possible, highlighting the main points, and avoiding making assumptions.

Problems

Just because every ounce of information and research that has been discovered discussing

how to properly address an audience in a written document, there are still problems that

relate directly to audience members.

The number one problem that exists among the intended audience is the increasing

reluctance to read instructions. People also believe that the lack of understanding of a

manual is due to the ineffectiveness of the writer to properly deliver the message. This is

due to the past manual being unclear to the reader. Another contributor is people do not

want to spend countless hours learning something that they view as easy or quick to


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accomplish (Cohen & Donald H. Cunningham, 1984). The author of Managing effective

knowledge transfer: an integrative framework and some practice implications, Swee Goh,

states that the audience not only displays a lack of motivation to read, but also the

absorptive and retentive capacities contribute to audience lack of interest.

Problems within the organization of the document can cause setbacks. The first thing to do

is to establish adequate lines of transmission; a way to connect the information and main

points. Readers will not relate the information themselves and they usually end up in

confusion. Paying close attention to the organization of the document can also help keep the

readers attention and interest (Goh, 2002). The second item that deserves attention is to

make the writing persuasive. If the manual does not persuade the reader to take action,

then there was no point in writing it (Mathes & Stevenson, 1991).

There is absolutely nothing I can do about the internal factors that rest with the audience,

but my job as the writer is completely bypass all problems with addressing the audience

and focus on constructing a well organized document that utilizes the idea of dynamics. If I

can alter the sound or tone of the document and focusing on my writing style being informal

and simple then I may have a chance at enticing and keeping the interest of the audience. I

do feel that I need further research on techniques for addressing the audience. The material

that I gathered covers what not to do, points to particular areas to focus on, and internal

factors among the audience, but it did not provide techniques in applying these concepts.

Information Design

Information design is very broad and combines skills in graphic design, writing and editing,

illustration, and human factors. Design is a problem solving discipline. If information

design strictly focused on appearance and text there would be no difference between it and


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document design. It includes performance objectives that presents goals for the user to

accomplish and able to perform, and steps or conditions for completing tasks. Using the

idea of a blueprint, information design provides a detailed plan for a document that

discusses the content and the format of the presentation (Albers & Mazur, 2003).

Most manuals lack clear, step-by-step, instructions and are in an unorganized fashion.

Crowded paragraphs are constructed in narrative form that builds in a small part, usually

located in the middle, explaining how to complete instructions by using non-instructional

language. This can cause problems. The reader can become confused where the narrative

stops and the instructions begin, which can result in delayed response or completion of the

process. The fact that I have never written a procedural manual, explaining instructions

could pose some frustrations. It will be important to keep in mind to set aside the narrative

and focus on the instructions (Cohen & Donald H. Cunningham, 1984).

The problems I face with the manual are getting the reader to act. Taking into

consideration what the authors explain above, there is a fine line of clear and clouded

understanding and it all relies on how the content is constructed or used. Albers & Mazur

state that design is a problem solving discipline, therefore, it is written to help the reader

accomplish a task they are unfamiliar with and possess no solutions themselves. The

manual provides a set of instructions to achieve a goal and the presentation of the

instructions is crucial to whether or not the reader accomplishes the task. All of the authors

share the common understanding of the presentation of content and point out its

importance.

Knowing the problems I have in front of me helps to be determining a solution or a proper

approach to constructing the manual. Much of what the authors recommend that be


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Wrong

The corners of the building should be squared.

Right

Square the corners of the building

Writing procedural tasks can be difficult but by using imperative verbs and saving

conditional statements for desired results, content consideration is off to a good start

(Cohen & Donald H. Cunningham, 1984).

The authors of Content and Complexity purpose an approach to information design based

on three levels: physical, cognitive, and affective. Michael Albers and Beth Mazur learned

about the three level system from the book The Systematic design of instruction, that has

been adapted by theorists when design instructional courses (Albers & Mazur, 2003).

The physical level is designed to address help offered to users for finding information. When

considering the users perspective, a good physical design allows for information to be found

easily. Cognitive level aids users in understanding the material. This level is also referred

to as the intellectual level primarily focuses on defining the users performance goals and

preparing a solution for them. The last level motivates the users to perform and is referred

to as the affective level. The main goal is to design the manual for its optimum emotional

impact (Albers & Mazur, 2003).

When content consideration is important in the design processes because if the content is

not effective, the entire document is useless. Readers must be able to understand the

material, how it relates to them, and how to perform a task. Anyone can write, but to


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construct a document from the ground up, the smallest, most important things must be

considered for a writer to do their job well.

Proper Style

Choosing the proper style to use for a document is not as simple as picking a gumball from

a machine. It takes strategic thought with the content and audience in mind. Many authors

suggest that writers make use of the active voice. Gary Blake and Robert Bly wrote a book

titled The Elements of Technical Writing, explains that using the active voice expresses

action and gives the document a direct and vigorous sound. They urge to use plain language

which allows for less confusion by the reader and helps guide the flow of the content and to

include present tense in most writing.

Marilyn Cooper, a professor at Michigan Technological University, agrees with Blake and

Bly and adds that the major concern when writing how-to instructions or procedures is to

be clear and use an understandable style. She insists on using active voice as well as

familiar and direct language, the use of action verbs, such as addressing the reader as you,

and avoiding the use of jargon (Cooper, 1996).

Blake and Bly also caution against using jargon and technical words. If the audience is not

strictly a specific field familiar with the material, avoid using jargon and technical words at

all costs. It can cause confusion among the audience if they are not familiar with the

content. Jargon is not something that should be tossed around because it sounds good.

Part of being a technical writer is being able to recognize when it is appropriate to use

proper terms (Blake & Bly, 1993).


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Don Bush agrees with the above authors as far as using jargon but understands that

sometimes it isnt avoidable. He suggests providing explanations for words that need

defining but states that it is better to explain them through the use of text rather than

including the literal definition (Bush, 1992). Bush is offering a solution or option if the

writer is forced to use jargon where as the other authors completely caution against it and

offer no solutions.

There is also concern about using too many words because it can cause the reader to become

bored, it is a waste of space, and can make writing appear weak. Blake and Bly offer a bit of

advice: after the first draft has been written, go back over it, slowly and with the use of a

pencil. Cross out all unnecessary words and phrases. Remember to make sure the meaning

is still apparent, if not the entire document is useless (Blake & Bly, 1993). Bush backs up

Blake and Bly in re-reading the first daft and taking out any unnecessary words is the best

technique for eliminating wordiness. He further concurs that it is a waste of time for the

reader to read excessive sentences. He points out that too many words can result in lack of

communication and can allow for wrong interpretation (Bush, 1992).

Karl Smart, Matthew Whiting, and Kristen Bell DeTienne conducted a study that focused

on assessing the need for printed material and online documentation. They studied

customer preference and use of a document. Area that users found to be difficult to

understand or follow included terminology, assumptions made by the writer about what the

users knowledge, the layout or organization of the document, and the misuse of or poorly

stated metaphors (Smart, Whiting, & DeTienne, 2001). The results of the study back up all

concerns discussed when choosing the correct style for manual and procedural writing.


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Bush describes a good manual as smooth and crisp and written to satisfy the readers

needs. It presents good detail, is logically arranged, and explains processes or procedures

down to the tiniest detail. Good manuals do not talk down to the reader, use rigid

parallelism and pronouns (Bush, 1992). Writers need to be capable of using a variety of

styles, but be sure to emphasize the central attribute, clarity. If a reader cannot understand

your writing style or the content, the manual is useless (Cooper, 1996).

All of the authors offer good suggestions that will help to pave the way to a successful

manual. Many of the authors cross over with similar information.From what I gathered a

respectable manual should steer clear of jargon but if needed, explain it through the

content rather than including definitions and wordiness can hinder the manual by

confusing the reader. It is important to keep the readers attention and using too many

words or jargon can result in loss of interest. This will be something to pay attention to

when constructing the content of my manual and special attention during the editing

process.

Active voice, pronouns, present tense, and parallelism are highly encouraged. My manual is

somewhat of a how-to guide, a way to offer solutions and explanations to problems. Active

voice is described as expressing action and I need to evoke action in the reader. As Bush

stated, my manual needs to be smooth and crisp and written to satisfy the readers needs.

I intend on attempting to use an informal writing style but still providing technical

information in its simplest form.

Purpose of the Manual

The study discussed early concerning customer preference and use of printed and online

documentation, explored what purpose a manual serves. This answer is obvious, but is now


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confirmed by Smart, Whiting, and DeTienne. For the purpose of this paper, I explored user

preference for printed documentation. There are many reasons users prefer printed

documents. For instance, people turn to printed manuals for assistance in learning a task

and help when encountering a problem. Many people feel that they can trust printed

manuals because they have helped others in the past and usually provides answers to

problems (Smart, Whiting, & DeTienne, 2001).

I would like to further explore human reactions related to the trust users possess for

printed manuals. If trust is gained in the manual the longevity of the material is prolonged.

This where the whole document is formed as a whole; much thought went into the planning

of the ideas and main points, the audience was addressed properly, the style was designed

to make the material easy to comprehend and provided instructions that allowed for little

reading but induced action.

Readability and Comprehension

When addressing readability and comprehension the reader is the number one person to

focus on. If they cant read it, they cant comprehend it, therefore it is important to produce

a clear and concise document. Something to bear in mind is time. Not your time but the

readers time. Not many people devote much time to reading materials therefore getting the

message across clearly is vital.

The reader will more than likely dedicate 20 minutes or less to reading the manual. Cohen

and Cunningham emphasize not wasting the beginning of the manual. Use it wisely and to

get across the purpose of the manual while delivering the message. Write in a way that

sparks interest in the reader and promotes production of tasks. If the reader is likely to

know the material, dont include it and if the reader doesnt need to know it, leave it out.


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This is a way of respecting the readers time (Cohen & Donald H. Cunningham, 1984).

Marilyn Cooper states that readers rarely read instructional material from beginning to

end. She reminds us of the importance of organization to ensure the reader will be able to

easily find desired information. She recommends chunking the manual information in a

logical way to help with the navigation process (Cooper, 1996).

The old saying of show the reader rather than tell your reader plays a large role with

manual writing. Dont just list technical procedures; relate them to the reader in a

meaningful manner. But remember to bridge the gap between the old and the new, the

known and unknown. As said numerous times through this paper, do not leave making the

connections up to the reader. Confusion will be gained and interest lost (Cohen & Donald H.

Cunningham, 1984).

Document Design

Document design has been around since the 1980s and was originally introduced by Felker,

Pickering, Charrow, Holland, and Redish in their book Guidelines for Document Designers.

According to Felker, document design is a field concerned with creating text that integrates

words and pictures for the purpose of creating a document that is clear and easy to

understand (Albers & Mazur, 2003).

Proper Layout

When writing a manual, much attention is dedicated to the content and properly delivering

the message. But there is an area that can go overlooked; that is graphic impact. This term

is not reserved for images or graphics but rather the typographical layout of the page and

its information (Cohen & Donald H. Cunningham, 1984).


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To achieve the appropriate graphic impact, Cohen and Cunningham recommend mapping

the information. This is a three step process. First, analyze the information to determine if

it can be divided into categories (i.e. important vs. unimportant, action vs. result). Once the

first step is complete, analyze the information for any graphic possibilities. Finally, enter

the graphical ideas and see if it works. This step displays the qualities of trial and error

(Cohen & Donald H. Cunningham, 1984).

Albers and Mazur believes that too much talk about the use of document design being

developed to make documents pretty, when in fact it should be considered a way of problem

solving. There are many limitations involved with document design but for the purpose of

this document, we will only look at two: task-oriented writing and user-centered design.

According to Albers and Mazur, task-oriented writing should be structured to assist people

with specific tasks to be accomplished. They warn against using the documentation of

features and functions. Again, this can cause confusion. User-centered design speaks for

itself; its main purpose is to make information easier to use (Albers & Mazur, 2003).

Visual Communication

Working in the field of technical writing you must understand not only the importance of

the presentation of text but also graphics. It is highly encouraged to use visuals, to help to

audience relate the information. Visuals can serve the place of the final puzzle piece; it can

bridge the connection.

Mathes and Stevenson, authors of Designing Technical Reports, state the use of graphics to

be essential to a document. They believe that the use of images is not just complementary

or supplementary aids to texts; instead they are considered working graphics. Working


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graphics are used for presenting substantive information that would be difficult for the

reader to imagine by themselves (Mathes & Stevenson, 1991).

As stated numerous times throughout this document, the audience is an important factor

when considering any aspect of manual writing. Designing or the use of graphics is just as

imperative as constructing the content. The audience needs to be considered, just as some

content can cause confusion, so can the use of visuals (Mathes & Stevenson, 1991).

Editing

Editing is one of the most important and final steps in the completion of a manual. When

putting the final touches and making corrections Perry recommends focusing on consistency

of the format and terminology. When formatting, Perry provides a few items that should be

structurally parallel. These include headings, listings, and tables. Using inconsistent

terminology can cause confusion and may lead to the wrong meaning. Perry advises to

minimize the number of different technical terms used throughout the manual. Try to use

no more than two terms to describe one object (Perry, 1991).

Another item to pay attention to when revising is if the document is too wordy. If the reader

feels over whelmed by an information overload, the interest will be lost and the document

will go unread. This does not mean that sentences be short and lack meaning, simply said,

if less words can be used to describe something, choose that route. Perry assigns a

definition to the term information load; how much meaning words carry. The first draft is

usually too wordy and needs some cutting down, but the more the revision, the more concise

the document will be.


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Editing your own work can sometimes prove to be pointless. Some authors refuse to revise

on the basis that the document will not sound the same if any information is taken out.

Before beginning to edit, take a cool-down period for as long as time allows. Then take the

first run-through of revision. Once that is complete seek outside review. The input of others

can prove to be very useful. Once the outside reviewers provide feedback, go through the

document once again, paying close attention to errors. Read through one last time and proof

for euphony (the rhythm and melody of the words). But remember to proofread when you

are fresh or had a cool down period. If you jump right in with no breaks, many errors can be

overlooked.

Conclusion

Creating a policy and procedural manual is not an easy task, but knowing all the details

that deserve attention will assist in breaking down the document into parts to be addressed

individually. All items discussed in this document will aid any writer to know the ins and

outs of what makes up an effective manual. Everything from what words to use, what

meaning to assign, the tone to use to communicate, and the overall appearance of the

document are all elements that are involved. If one item is overlooked, the writer faces the

possibility of producing a document that will never be used and that in itself is

disappointing.


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Sources

Albers, M. J., & Mazur, B. (2003). Content and Complexity. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence

Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Blake, G., & Bly, R. W. (1993). The Elements of Technical Writing. New York City:

Macmillan General Reference.

Bringhurst, R. (1993). Concrete Methods that Promote Active Learning in Software

Manuals. Society of Technical Communicators , 18-20.

Brocett, S. H., & Katz, S. (1996). Figuring Out What Your Customers Really Need. Society

of Technical Communication , 526-528.

Burnham, C. (1992, October). Improving Written Instruction for Procedural Tasks.

Berkeley, California, United States.Bush, D. (1992). Software Manuals. Technical Communication , 1-4.

Cohen, G., & Donald H. Cunningham, P. D. (1984). Creating Technical Manuals. McGraw-

Hill, Inc.

Cooper, M. M. (1996). The Postmodern Space of Operator's Manuals. Technical

Communication Quarterly , 385-410.

Farkas, D. K. (1999). The Logical and Rhetorical Construction of Procedural Discourse.

Technical COmmunication , 42-54.

Goh, S. C. (2002). Managing effective knowledge transfer: an integrative framework and

some practice implications. Journal ofKnowledge Management , 23-30.

Hutchinson, T. A. (1996). What toLook for in the Technical Manual: TwentyQuestions for

Users. Languages, Speech, andHearingServices in Schools , 109-121.

Lester, S. M. (2000). ApplyingMinimalistPrinciples, Strategies, andTechniques. STC

Proceedings .

Mathes, J., & Stevenson, D. W. (1991). DesigningTechnical Reports. New York: Macmillan

PublishingCompany.

Mulford, C. (2010). Choosingthe RightStyle Manual(s). WritingthatWorks .

Penrose, J. M. (2000). The "Build-the-Box" Lesson. Business Communication Quarterly, 60-

65.


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Perry, C. R. (1991). The Fine ArtofTechnicalWriting. Hillsboro, OR: Blue Heron

Publishing, Inc.

Smart, K. L., Whiting, M. E., & DeTienne, K. B. (2001). Assessingthe Need for Printed and

Online Documentation: A Study ofCustomer Preference and Use. The Journalof

Business Communication , 285-314.

Weber, J. (1989). Alternatives tothe Paragraph. Journalofthe Australian Society of

TechnicalCommunication , 14-16.

White, N. (2010). Compliance Matters. PT in Motion , 54-57.

Literature Review - Senior Project

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