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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The purpose of the study is to investigate the relationship between a supervisor’s emotional

intelligence, and leadership styles and between a supervisor’s emotional intelligence and

leadership effectiveness in the software industry in India. In this chapter review of literature is

presented mainly in three areas, (1) the topic of emotional intelligence including an overview,

theoretical construct, historical overview, models, and emotional intelligence measurement

instruments; (2) the topic of leadership including theoretical evolution, leadership styles,

leadership effectiveness and leadership measurement instruments; and (3) studies of EI and

leadership styles and leadership effectiveness.

2.2 THEORETICAL FOUNDATION AND EVOLUTION OF

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

Emotion was not considered part of the intelligence domain for two millennia, as evidenced

by historical accounts of philosophical debates that occurred among early Roman and Greek

philosophers who thought emotion was too unpredictable to be part of rational thought [28].

Scholarly discussions treated emotions with a negative connotation early to mid 1900’s.

Emotions were thought of as overcoming and ruling individuals. Emotions were to be

controlled by the individual or he or she would succumb to their influences [29] [30].

Emotions were later thought of as positive aspects of humans helping to prioritize tasks,

organize, focus, and motivate oneself. It was also realized that emotions are holistic in nature

as they involve the whole human, mind and body [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37]. Research

also suggested that emotions emerged in the human species through the evolutionary process

“to provide new types of motivation and new action tendencies as well as a greater variety of

behaviors to cope with the environment and life’s demands” [37].

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In 1920, Thorndike pointed out principles of psychology used in military to understand how

to manage personnel efficiently. Thorndike noted that individuals do not consist of one form

of intelligence, but rather different intelligences that vary based upon life experiences. He

suggested that an individual’s level of intelligence be examined in three forms; abstract,

mechanical, and social intelligence, because people are not equally intelligent in all areas.

Thorndike noted intelligence involves the ability to understand and manage ideas (abstract),

environmental objects (mechanical), and people (social). He defined social intelligence as

“the ability to understand and manage men and women, boys and girls—to act wisely in

human relations”. The underpinning of the EI construct can be traced back to Thorndike’s

theory of social intelligence [38].

More than 60 years after Thorndike, H. Gardner [39] explored the mind of an individual using

the construct of social intelligence in terms of independent cognitive abilities rather than

general intelligence. Gardner included interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences that are

closely related to social intelligence in his theory of multiple intelligences. In Gardner’s

theory of multiple intelligences, intelligence is defined as “a biopsychological potential to

process information that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create

products that are of value in a culture” [40].

Gardner contended that individuals have a variety of intelligences that interact with one

another to produce different outcomes. He noted that an individual may have more than one

intelligence interacting together to produce a successful action or result. Multiple intelligences

theory consists of linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic,

naturalistic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and existential intelligence. To illustrate the concept

of multiple intelligences, a successful musician may utilize a different mix of intelligences

than a business leader or law enforcement executive [39]. Gardner’s interpersonal and

intrapersonal intelligences became two of the foundational elements of the initial EI

constructs.

Based upon Gardner’s principles of intrapersonal (emotional) and interpersonal (social)

intelligences, Bar-On [41] [42] developed a construct called emotional-social intelligence.

Bar-On [42] professed that effective human behavior is determined by combining emotional-

social intelligence with other skills and attributes. The model of well-being involved the

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noncognitive skills or competencies that allow an individual to understand, control, and adapt

to environmental stressors [42] [25].

The five components of Bar-On’s model are (a) intrapersonal skills, (b) interpersonal skills,

(c) adaptability skills, (d) stress management, and (e) general mood, which are measured with

the self-report Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) instrument.

Bar-On [42] defined emotional intelligence as a multifactorial array of interrelated emotional

and social competencies, skills and facilitators that influence one’s ability to recognize,

understand and manage emotions, to relate with others, to adapt to change and solve problems

of a personal and interpersonal nature, and to efficiently cope with daily demands, challenges

and pressures.

In 1990, Salovey and Mayer first formally identified the term Emotional Intelligence (EI) and

defined it as ‘the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to

discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions’ [2].

Salovey and Mayer used earlier research on social intelligence to underpin the development of

the EI ability model, which correlates more with cognitive abilities than with personality traits

and centers on a person’s ability to perceive, express, assimilate, understand, reason, and

regulate emotions in themselves and others [25] [43] [44].

Mayer et al. [43] first attempted to measure and operationalize EI. The four components of the

EI ability model are (a) emotions perception, (b) facilitation, (c) understanding, and (d)

management, which are measured via the self-report Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional

Intelligence Test (MSCEIT). Goleman [45] [46] popularized EI thorough his works

Emotional Intelligence (1995) and Working with Emotional Intelligence (1998). Goleman

defined emotional intelligence as “the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of

others, for motivating ourselves and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our

relationships” [46].

Goleman later states that emotional intelligence is the “sine qua non” of leadership and

without emotional intelligence, a person can have the best training in the world, an incisive,

analytical mind, and an endless supply of smart ideas, but he still will not make a great leader

[47]. Goleman [46] separates emotional intelligence into five components: self-awareness,

self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skill. Later, Goleman’s theory evolved to four

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Ph. D. Thesis   13 

overarching clusters of EI skills: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and

relationship management [48] [49] which are measured with the 360- degree multirater

Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI) or Emotional and Social Competence Inventory

instruments [25] [45].

The most recent EI construct, the trait EI model is developed by Petrides and Furnham [50]

[51]. The trait EI model includes individual qualities of the earlier EI constructs [74] [25].

Petrides [51] [52] focused on the personality facets of EI rather than competencies, cognitive

abilities, or facilitators. The four components of the trait EI model are (a) well-being, (b)

sociability, (c) self control, and (d) emotionality, which are measured via the self-report

TEIQue instrument.

2.3 EI MODELS

There has been some lack of clarity in the field of research on the definitions, constructs, and

measures of EI [53] [25] [54] [55] [56] [57]. The four major models of emotional intelligence

are: the ability model, by Mayer, Salovey & Caruso [58]; the Bar-On [59] [42] model of

emotional-social intelligence (ESI); the emotional and social competencies model focused on

a theory of performance in the workplace [46] [60] [61] [8]; and the model by Petrides and

Furnham [50] [51] [62] of trait-EI.

Bar-On defined EI as noncognitive skills or competencies that allow an individual to

understand, control, and adapt to environmental stressors. Mayer et al.’s definition of EI

centered on individuals’ ability to perceive, express, assimilate, understand, reason, and

regulate emotions in themselves and others. Goleman’s definition focused on a person’s

capability to understand his or her own feelings and those of others to motivate and manage

relationships. Petrides and Furnham definition of trait EI is “a constellation of emotion-related

self-perceptions and dispositions (e.g., emotion perception, emotion management, empathy,

impulsivity)” [50].

2.3.1 Bar-On’s Model

Bar-On’s [41] [59] mixed model construct of EI includes emotion and personality combined

into noncognitive components and competencies that explore how individuals adapt to

environmental stressors. The five components of Bar-On’s mixed model are intrapersonal

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skills, interpersonal skills, adaptability, stress management, and general mood [41] [59] [44].

Bar-On’s model contained the following subcomponents [42]:

• Intrapersonal component (internal intelligence): self-regard, self-awareness, assertiveness,

independence, and self-actualization.

• Interpersonal component (external intelligence): empathy, social responsibility, and

interpersonal relationships.

• Adaptability: reality testing, flexibility, and problem solving.

• Stress management: stress tolerance and impulse control.

• General mood: optimism and happiness [44]

Bar-On [41] [59] utilized these components to examine the individual behavior in relationship

with personal success, happiness, and well-being. In the work environment, the focus of Bar-

On’s model is employee self-awareness and how employees understand and relate with each

other in stressful situations.

2.3.2 Mayer-Salovey-Caruso’s Model

This popular construct of EI is the ability model developed by Salovey and Mayer [2].

Salovey and Mayer viewed EI as the “recognition and use of one’s own and others’ emotional

states to solve problems and regulate behavior”, not the “general sense of self and appraisal of

others”. They define emotional intelligence as “the subset of social intelligence that involves

the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among

them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions” [2].

Mayer et al. [43] contended that EI involved individual aptitude or intelligence and cognitive

abilities. The model correlates more with cognitive abilities with than personality traits and

centers on an individual’s ability to interact within an environment [43] [25] [44]. The model

has four key emotion components: perception, facilitation, understanding, and management.

Perceiving emotion: represents an individual’s ability to detect and interpret the emotions of

others as well as their own [44] [57].

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Facilitating emotion: involves an individual’s ability to control his or her own emotions to

solve problems [44] [57].

Understanding emotion: represents an individual’s ability to comprehend the way people

combine, progress, and transition emotions with each other [44] [57].

Managing emotion: is the ability to situationally regulate emotions in self and others [44]

[57].

2.3.3 Goleman & Boyatzis’s Model

Goleman & Boyatzis’s theory proposes that an emotionally intelligent individual has learned

and refined their skills in a series of emotional competencies that are part of an awareness or

regulation of emotions within the self or others [63] [45] [46]. The model has grown from its

introduction in Goleman’s book in 1998. Goleman [46] proposed a model of Emotional

Intelligence in his book Working with Emotional Intelligence and defined emotional

intelligence as “managing feelings so that they are expressed appropriately and effectively,

enabling people to work together smoothly toward their common goals” [46]. It consists of

five dimensions of EI: self awareness, self regulation, self motivation, empathy, and social

skills.

Goleman’s original introduction of EI competencies included both personal and social

competencies. Three competencies were identified as personal competencies: self-awareness,

self regulation, and motivation. Two competencies were identified as social competencies:

empathy and social skills. Later, Goleman’s model evolved to four overarching clusters of EI

skills: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management [25]

[8] [48] [49].

The self-awareness cluster includes the competencies: emotional self-awareness, accurate

self-assessment, and self-confidence. Self-management cluster includes the competencies:

emotional self-control, trustworthiness, conscientiousness, adaptability, achievement drive,

and initiative. Moving into the social competence clusters; Empathy, service orientation, and

organizational awareness are all social awareness competencies. Relationship management

cluster is comprised of the following competencies: developing others, influence,

communication, conflict management, visionary leadership, change catalyst, teamwork and

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collaboration, and building bonds [48]. The clusters of EI were further revised by Haygroup

and competencies in the revised clusters are listed below [64]:

1. Self Awareness: Recognizing and understanding our own emotions and it includes the

competency: Emotional Self Awareness.

2. Self Management: Effectively managing our own emotions. It encompasses the

competencies: Emotional Self Control, Achievement Orientation, Positive Outlook,

and Adaptability.

3. Social Awareness: Recognizing and understanding the emotions of others. It

comprised: Empathy, and Organizational Awareness.

4. Relationship Management: Applying our emotional understanding in our dealings with

others. It includes the competencies: Influence, Coach and Mentor, Conflict

Management, Inspirational Leadership, and Teamwork.

As the Boyatzis and Goleman model is more applicable to workplace, I will use this model of

emotional intelligence in order to examine the relationship between emotional intelligence

and leadership effectiveness and between emotional intelligence and leadership styles.

2.3.4 Petrides’s Trait EI Model

The model by Petrides and Furnham of trait-EI, derived through a content analysis of the

three previous models [50] [51] [62] [65]. Petrides and Furnham [50] [51] proposed the

establishment of a theoretical distinction between trait and ability intelligence. “Trait-EI

appertains to the greater personality realm whereas ability EI is an attempt to chart new

territory in the field of human mental ability” [50].

Petrides’s [52] [66] model consisted of four components with 15 facets of the personality

domain:

Emotionality: individuals who are in touch with their own feelings and those of others.

The facets include empathy, emotional perception, emotional expression, and

relationships.

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Self-control: individuals in control over their desires and impulses. The facets consist

of emotional regulation, impulsiveness, and stress management.

Sociability: individuals engaging in social relationships and influence. The facets

involve emotional management, assertiveness, and social awareness.

Well-being: individuals who feel positive, happy, and fulfilled based upon past actions

and future expectations. The facets include optimism, happiness, and self-esteem [52].

2.3.5 Theory of Emotional Intelligence proposed by Dr. Dalip Singh

Singh [67] defined Emotional intelligence as “the ability of an individual to appropriately and

successfully respond to a vast variety of emotional stimuli being elicited from the inner self

and immediate environment. EI constitutes three psychological dimensions—emotional

competency, emotional maturity and emotional sensitivity—which motivate an individual to

recognize truthfully, interpret honestly and handle tactfully the dynamics of human behavior.

The three dimensions of Emotional Intelligence by Singh are described below.

Emotional Competency: It constitutes the competencies to tackle emotional upsets, having

high self esteem and optimism, tactfully respond to emotional stimuli elicited by various

situations, and handling self interest and egoism. Tackling emotional upsets such as

frustrations, conflicts and inferiority complexes, and emotional self-control, capacity to avoid

emotional exhaustion such as stress, burnout, learning to avoid negativity of emotions.

Emotional Maturity: It constitutes competencies of dealing with inner self and the immediate

environment. Some important aspects of emotional maturity are self awareness, delaying

gratification, adaptability & Flexibility, and developing others.

Emotional sensitivity: It includes understanding threshold of emotional arousal, improving

interpersonal relations, empathy, and communicability of emotions. It helps in maintaining

rapport, harmony, and comfort with others, and having an insight into how others evaluate

and relate to you. [67].

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2.4 INSTRUMENTS TO MEASURE EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE Several measures of emotional intelligence are used rather widely and reported in the

literature. The consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations has listed

ten instruments for measuring emotional intelligence [68]. These ten instruments are:

1. The Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i)

2. The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT)

3. Emotional and Social Competence Inventory (ESCI)

4. The Genos Emotional Intelligence Inventory (Genos EI)

5. The Group Emotional Competence (GEC) Inventory

6. The Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT)

7. Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue)

8. Wong's Emotional Intelligence Scale (WEIS)

9. Work Group Emotional Intelligence Profile (WEIP)

10. Emotional & Social Competence Inventory - University Edition

Of these ten, eight instruments are used to measure individual emotional intelligence. The

Group Emotional Competence (GEC) Inventory and Work Group Emotional Intelligence

Profile (WEIP) are used to measure group or team emotional intelligence. The Emotional

Quotient Inventory, Emotional & Social Competence Inventory, and The Genos Emotional

Intelligence Inventory (Genos EI) are available in self report and multi-rater versions.

Emotional & Social Competence Inventory - University Edition is used to measure emotional

intelligence of students in schools, colleges, and universities

2.4.1 The Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i)

The EQ-i was originally constructed by Bar-On to analyze a concept of emotional and social

functioning. The test was developed to assess the Bar-On model of emotional-social

intelligence. The EQ-i is a self-report measure designed to measure a number of constructs

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related to EI. The EQ-i consists of 133 items and can be completed using a five-point Likert

scale extending from 1 = “very seldom or not true of me” to 5 = “very often true of me or true

of me” in approximately 40 minutes. It is appropriate for persons 17 years of age and older. It

gives an overall EQ score as well as scores for the five composite scales and 15 subscales [59]

[42].

EQ-360 is a multi-rater version of EQ-i which takes others feedback also in completing the

instrument.

EQ-i: YV is a youth version of EQ-i and measure the level of emotional and social

functioning in children and adolescents. It is appropriate for age ranging 8 to 18 years. As a

strength based assessment, this product highlights areas of positive functioning as well as

areas for development [69].

EQ-i Composite Scales and Subscales [42]

1. INTRAPERSONAL (self-awareness and self-expression)

Self-Regard: To accurately perceive, understand and accept oneself

Emotional Self-Awareness: To be aware of and understand one’s emotions

Assertiveness: To effectively and constructively express one’s emotions and oneself

Independence: To be self-reliant and free of emotional dependency on others

Self-Actualization: To strive to achieve personal goals and actualize one’s potential

2. INTERPERSONAL (social awareness and interpersonal relationship)

Empathy: To be aware of and understand how others feel

Social Responsibility: To identify with one’s social group and cooperate with others

Interpersonal Relationship: To establish mutually satisfying relationships and relate well with

others

3. STRESS MANAGEMENT (emotional management and regulation)

Stress Tolerance: To effectively and constructively manage emotions

Impulse Control: To effectively and constructively control emotions

4. ADAPTABILITY (change management)

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Reality-Testing: To objectively validate one’s feelings and thinking with external reality

Flexibility: To adapt and adjust one’s feelings and thinking to new situations

Problem-Solving: To effectively solve problems of a personal and interpersonal nature

5. GENERAL MOOD (self-motivation)

Optimism: To be positive and look at the brighter side of life

Happiness: To feel content with oneself, others and life in general Source: [42].

This instrument has shown reliability and validity. The average Cronbach’s alpha coefficients

range from a low of .69 to a high of .86 for all subscales of the instrument, with an average

overall internal consistency coefficient of .76 [59]. Validity studies have been conducted in

more than six countries demonstrating good estimates of validity [59].

2.4.2 The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT)

MSCEIT is an ability-based test developed on the basis of the EI model of Mayer and

Salovey. MSCEIT is a self-report test and consists of 141 items. It takes 30-45 minutes to

complete the instrument. It is designed to measure the four branches of the model. MSCEIT

provides total EI score, two Area scores, four Branch scores, and eight Task scores making

these total 15 scores. In addition to these 15 scores, the instrument provides three

Supplemental scores also [70] [71].

The MSCEIT standardization sample (approximately 2000 individuals), reported, full-test

split-half reliabilities of .93 and .91 for consensus and expert scoring, respectively.

Experiential and Strategic EI area scores reliabilities were .90 and .90 for consensus scoring,

and .88 and .86 for expert scoring. The reliabilities of the four branch scores (perceiving,

using, understanding, and managing emotions) for both methods of scoring were between .76

to .91 [72] [73]. A number of studies have shown that the MSCEIT has discriminant,

convergent, predictive, and incremental validity [73].

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Ph. D. Thesis   21 

Table 2.1: Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) Branch Title Measured Through Definition

1 Perceiving Emotions Faces Participants are asked to identify the

emotions in faces.

2 Using Emotions to Sensations Participants are asked to compare

Facilitate Thought emotions to sensory stimuli.

3 Understanding Emotions Changes One’s ability is tested to recognize

under what circumstances lessen or

increases emotional intensity.

4 Managing Emotions Emotion Participants are asked how they

Management would respond to hypothetical

situations either by maintaining or

changing their feelings.

2.4.3 Emotional & Social Competence Inventory (ESCI)

The Emotional & Social Competence Inventory (ESCI) is a “360°” survey developed by Prof.

Richard Boyatzis and Dr. Daniel Goleman and published by Hay group, USA. ESCI is

designed to assess competencies that differentiate outstanding from average performers. The

ESCI measures the demonstration of individuals’ behaviors, through their perceptions as well

as those of their raters [64]. The ESCI assesses 12 competencies: Emotional Self-Awareness,

Achievement Orientation, Adaptability, Emotional Self-Control, Positive Outlook, Empathy,

Organizational Awareness, Coach and Mentor, Conflict Management, Inspirational

Leadership, Influence, and Teamwork. The 12 competencies cover four distinct areas of

ability: Self Awareness, Self-Management, Social Awareness, and Relationship Management

[22]. ESCI contains 68 items and for each of the 68 items, peers and subordinates of the

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executive described how frequently he or she typically demonstrated the behaviour described

in the item.

2.4.4. The Schutte Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SSEIT)

It is a 33 item self-report measure of emotional intelligence developed by Schutte et al. The

SSEIT has been designed to measure four facets of emotional intelligence model defined by

Salovey and Mayer (1990). The four facets of emotional intelligence given by SSEIT are:

1. The appraisal of emotion in self and others

2. The expression of emotion

3. The regulation of emotion in self and others

4. The utilization of emotion in problem solving. [74] [75]

2.4.5 Wong's Emotional Intelligence Scale (WEIS)

Wong's Emotional Intelligence Scale (WEIS) is a self-report EI measure developed for

Chinese respondents. WEIS consists of 40 choice items divided in to two parts. The first part

contains 20 scenarios and respondents are required to choose one option that best reflects their

likelihood of reacting to each scenario. The second part of the scale contains 20 ability pairs

of which respondents are required to choose one out of the two types of abilities that best

represent their strengths [76].

WEIS has four ability dimensions described in the domain of EI [76]:

(1) Appraisal and expression of emotion in the self

It is an individual’s ability to understand one’s deep emotions and to be able to express them

naturally. The individuals who have high ability in this area, sense and acknowledge their

emotions well before most people.

(2) Appraisal and recognition of emotion in others

It is an individual’s ability to perceive and understand the emotions of other people.

Individuals who are high in this ability will be much more sensitive to the emotions of others.

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Ph. D. Thesis   23 

(3) Regulation of emotion in the self

This relates to the ability of an individual to regulate his/her emotions and to come out more

rapidly from emotional climax and distress. Individual high in this ability can control their

behavior in extreme moods.

(4) Use of emotion to facilitate performance

This ability relates to making use of their emotions by individuals towards constructive

activities and performance. Persons high in this ability use their emotions to facilitate high

performance.

2.4.6 The Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue)

TEIQue developed by K. V. Petrides, is an integral part of a scientific research program at the

London Psychometric Laboratory in University College London. Petrides’s [52] [66] model

consisted of four components with 15 facets of the personality domain.

• Emotionality: individuals who are in touch with their own feelings and those of others. The

facets include:

empathy,

emotional perception,

emotional expression

relationships.

• Self-control: individuals in control over their desires and impulses. The facets consist of:

emotional regulation,

impulsiveness, and

stress management.

• Sociability: individuals engaging in social relationships and influence. The facets involve:

assertiveness,

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  Ph. D. Thesis 24

social awareness.

emotional management

• Well-being: individuals who feel positive, happy, and fulfilled based upon past actions and

future expectations. The facets include:

optimism,

happiness,

self-esteem

• Auxiliary facets

self motivation,

adaptability,

2.4.7 The Genos Emotional Intelligence Inventory (Genos EI)

This measure is developed by Dr Benjamin Palmer and Professor Con Stough from

Swinburne University, Australia, to measure emotionally intelligent workplace behavior. This

is a 360-degree instrument and it measures how often individuals display emotionally

intelligent workplace behavior according to a taxonomic seven-factor model of emotional

intelligence, which, are identified by Palmar & Stough. Both self and multi-rater formats

comprise a total of 70 items and it requires approximately 12-15 minutes completing the test

by respondents. Each of the seven factors of the model is measured by 10 homogeneous

emotionally intelligent workplace behaviors [77] [78].

Seven key areas Measured by Genos EI are:

1. Emotional Self Awareness

Perceiving and understanding one’s own emotions

2. Emotional Expression

Effectively expressing one’s own emotions

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Ph. D. Thesis   25 

3. Emotional Awareness of others

Perceiving and understanding others’ emotions

4. Emotional reasoning

Utilizing emotional information in decision making

5. Emotional Self management

Effectively managing one’s own emotions

6. Emotional Management of others

Influencing the moods and emotions of others

7. Emotional Self control

Effectively controlling strong emotions experienced

2.4.8 Group Emotional Competence (GEC) Inventory

The GEC inventory is based on the work of Vanessa Druskat and Steven Wolff. They have

pioneered the application of emotional competence concepts at the group levels. The

instrument contains 57 items and measure nine dimensions of group emotional intelligence

[79].

The nine dimensions of GEC are:

Interpersonal understanding

Confronting members who break norms

Caring Behavior

Team self-evaluation

Creating resources for working with emotion

Creating an affirmative environment

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Proactive problem solving

Organizational understanding

Building external relationships

2.4.9 The Work Group Emotional Intelligence Profile (WEIP)

WEIP a self-report measure was developed by Jordon et al. and is designed to measure

emotional intelligence of individuals in teams.

The WEIP captures two dimensions of emotional intelligence:

Scale1: Ability to Deal with Own Emotions (18 items)

Subscales

Ability to Recognize Own Emotions

Ability to Discuss Own Emotions

Ability to Manage Own Emotions

Scale 2: Ability to Deal with Others' Emotions (12 items) [80]

Subscales

Ability to Recognize Others' Emotions

Ability to Manage Others' Emotions

2.4.10 Emotional & Social Competence Inventory –University Edition (ESCI-U)

ESCI-U is a student version of Emotional & Social Competence Inventory developed by

Boyatzis and Goleman. This multi-rater test comprised of 70 questions takes approximately

30-45 minutes to complete. ESCI-U assesses 14 competencies comprised of 5 emotional

intelligence competencies, 7 social intelligence competencies, and 2 cognitive competencies.

The instrument has shown sufficient reliability and validity [81] [82]

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Ph. D. Thesis   27 

2.5 BACKGROUND OF LEADERSHIP

Leadership is defined as a process of social interaction where performance outcomes are

strongly influenced by the leader’s ability to influence the behavior of their followers.

Emotions play an important role in understanding leadership and in being a good leader [83].

Kouzes and Posner define leadership as a set of behaviors that anyone in a leadership capacity

can be taught and become skilled at to achieve excellence [84]. Burns [85] offered a definition

that encompasses the initial conceptualization of transformational leadership. He defined

leadership as:

“Leadership is defined as leaders inducing followers to act for certain goals that represent the

values and the motivations—the wants and needs, the aspirations and expectations—of both

leaders and followers. In addition, the genius of leadership lies in the manner in which leaders

see and act on their own and their followers’ values and motivations”.

In 1990, Bass offered a more comprehensive definition of leadership similar to Burn’s

definition of leadership. Bass defined it as follows:

“Leadership is interaction between two or more members of a group that often involves

structuring or restructuring of the situation and the perceptions and expectations of the

members. Leaders are agents of change—persons whose acts affect other people more than

other people’s acts affect them. Leadership occurs when one group member modifies the

motivation or competencies of others in the group”.

2.5.1 Leadership Theories

Chemers claimed that early scientific study of leadership focused around three periods. The

trait theory studies started from 1910 to World War I and further studies during a second

period from a behavioral perspective from World War II to the late 1960s. Lastly, the

contingency theory started in the late 1960s and beyond with a focus on contingency-oriented

leadership theories in addition to more contemporary theories. These early periods of

leadership studies are important to discuss to understand the origin of transformational

leadership [86].

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  Ph. D. Thesis 28

2.5.1.1 Trait Theory

Trait theory focused on identifying superior and specific traits or characteristics of effective

leaders. Early leadership research began with the “Great Man” theories of leadership with a

focus on who the leader “was” by identifying traits of a leader critical to a leader’s success

[87]. Traits such as high energy, social skills and adaptability, among others were included.

Initially the study of leadership assumed that leaders were somehow “different” and therefore

much of the research focused on identifying this distinguishing, seemingly mythical set of

traits. Stogdill concluded that traits alone do not identify leadership and he further predicted

that personal and situational characteristics be taken into consideration before adequately

theorizing leadership further [87].

2.5.1.2 Behavioural Theory

Behavioral theories research focused on two styles important for effective leadership; task

oriented or people oriented. This was influenced by research done at Ohio State University in

the 1960s and later by research conducted at the University of Michigan. These earlier studies

included: (a) the importance of a leader’s interpersonal relationship with their followers as

well as their concerns for accomplishing tasks toward goals or initiating structure and (b) the

leadership behaviors necessary for effective leadership or patterns of communication termed

consideration [88]. Therefore, behavioral theories focused on a leader’s stable style of action

often categorized as an orientation to either task or people.

2.5.1.3 Contingency Theory

Although behavioral theories in leadership explained leadership effectiveness, the research

shifted to theories that could explain why leadership behavioral styles were not always

effective in all settings. Identified leader behavior patterns also showed inconsistency when

related to organizational outcomes such as follower satisfaction and productivity [86]. After

the trait and behavioral research failed to identify a leadership style that worked best in all

situations, contingency leadership theories arose to explain the appropriate leadership style

based on the leader, the follower, and the situation [89]. The contingency theory literature

focused on the assumption that leaders draw on their attributes and behavioral styles to meet

the needs of a particular situation or followers. The contingency theory brought focus to

various aspects of contexts like the favorableness of the environment, the complexity of task

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Ph. D. Thesis   29 

and knowledge of the followers, the relationship between leaders and followers, and the

effects of specific leader behaviors on follower motivation and satisfaction [86].

2.5.2 Theoretical Foundation of Leadership Styles

Hersey and Blanchard’s situational leadership model addressed how particular leader

behaviors are necessary to manage a particular situation. Hersey and Blanchard contended

that a leadership style was defined by how the followers perceive the leader behaviors; which

led to the classification of behaviors as either task or relationship oriented. Task behavior

involves the leader clearly defining the goals of the individual or group, which includes telling

people what, when, where, and how to accomplish a task. Relationship behavior consists of

the leader listening, facilitating, and supporting the communication process of the group [90].

According to Burns, one of the true failures of research was the separation of the relationship

between leaders and followers. Burns defined leadership as the collective and purposeful

engagement of leaders and followers to accomplish mutual goals. The leader–follower

relationship encompasses the interaction of people with various degrees of motivation and

power. Burns’s seminal work on political leaders solidified this concept [85]. Burns noted that

the leader–follower relationship takes place in either a transactional or a transformational

form. Burns described transactional leadership as a leader’s ability to motivate a follower

based upon economic, political, or psychological rewards. Both parties understand each

other’s role and what is at stake; however, the bargaining process was not based upon a true

relationship. In contrast, Burns asserted that transformational leadership involves the leader

and follower engaging in a purposeful relationship to achieve a higher level of motivation and

ethical aspiration. Burns purported that power alone does not make a person transactional or

transformational, whereas leadership does.

Bass extended the work of Burns and developed a formal theory, model, and measurement of

transformational leadership to explore factors of leadership behavior [91]. Bass and Avolio

expanded the model further by creating full range leadership, which includes

transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire styles [91] [92]. Transformational leadership

is the most effective managerial behavior, in which a leader builds positive relationships with

followers to move lower level objectives to higher levels of performance [91] [92] [93] [94].

Transactional leadership centers solely on the leader’s ability to set up agreements or

contracts with followers to accomplish specific goals based upon rewards and punishment

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  Ph. D. Thesis 30

rather than a relationship [93]. Laissez-faire leaders passively manage employees using a

hands-off approach [91] [92] [93] [94]. Although transactional leadership can be effective in

certain environments, research has shown that transformational leadership positively

influences extra effort, commitment, and job satisfaction [94].

2.5.2.1 Transformational Leadership

Transformational leadership is a term coined by Burns, who believed that leadership is

inseparable from the goals and needs of followers. Burn’s work emphasized interactions that

are necessary for purposes of pursuing a common goal. Burn’s initial studies viewed those

interactions as either transactional, using rewards or punishment to motivate followers or

transformational, inspiring and exciting followers to higher levels of performance and

morality through a clear vision. Burns claimed that transformational leaders are attentive to

follower needs and motivations and help them reach their highest potential [85]. Later, Bass

[95] popularized and expanded the transformational leadership concept and discussed the

importance and distinction between transformational leadership and transactional leadership.

He theorized that leaders who use transformational approaches to leadership change inspire

and excite followers to great performance through vision and leaders who use transactional

approaches do so by managing and manipulating rewards to motivate followers. Bass [96]

argued that transformational leaders do more with others than establish simple exchanges or

agreements. He further argued that transformational leaders operate from a deep personal

value system that is not negotiable in contrast to a more traditional exchange relationship

between the leader and follower [95].

Transformational leaders have the ability to stimulate other leaders, colleagues, and followers

to embrace new organizational perspectives, support the vision of the organization, achieve

higher level of performance, and adopt higher levels of moral and ethical standards [91] [92]

[93] [94]. Transformational leaders enhance follower satisfaction and performance by

demonstrating idealized leadership, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and

individualized consideration or what Bass and Avolio called the four I’s [91] [92].

• Idealized leadership: Leaders who demonstrate self-confidence and power by acting as role

models for their followers. Idealized leadership is displayed in two forms:

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Ph. D. Thesis   31 

Idealized attributes: These leaders are admired, respected, and trusted by their colleagues and

followers because they perform in ways that are beneficial to followers, teams, and the

organization.

Idealized behaviors: These leaders seek to obtain follower buy-in, share risks, and

consistently handle issues related to conduct, ethics, standards, and values.

• Inspirational motivation: These leaders motivate and inspire their followers by providing

meaning and understanding to the objectives and work environment. The leaders use effective

communication to create a team atmosphere with a shared vision for the future.

• Intellectual stimulation: These leaders stimulate their followers to use innovation and

creativity to develop new ways of accomplishing goals and objectives. The leaders encourage

critical thinking and problem solving to improve performance.

• Individual consideration: Transformational leaders are attentive to the needs of others to aid

followers in reaching a higher level of performance. The leaders focus on employee

development through mentoring and coaching [91] [92].

2.5.2.2 Transactional Leadership

Transactional leadership emphasizes the contract, agreement, or exchange between a leader

and a follower to achieve common goals based upon contingent reward or management-by-

exception [91] [92] [94]. The leader and follower both understand the exchange requirements

necessary to receive a reward or corrective action. Consequently, the follower may receive a

positive contingent reward for successful performance or discipline for poor performance,

which constitutes negative active or passive forms of management-by-exception [92] [94].

Transactional leadership consists of two core behaviors:

• Contingent reward: the leader provides the follower clear performance objectives and

expectations that will lead to a specific reward or recognition. The leader establishes (a) what

is to be accomplished, (b) who is responsible for the performance, and (c) what will be given

to the followers when goals are successfully completed.

• Management-by-exception: the two forms of management-by-exception are active and

passive management. MBEA, Active management involves the leader monitoring and taking

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  Ph. D. Thesis 32

immediate corrective action to address ineffective performance or noncompliance of

followers. MBEP, passive management is a more reactive approach to dealing with

irregularities, mistakes, errors, and deviations. Passive leadership often leads to poor

performance or noncompliance because leaders fail to set clear expectations, goals, or

objectives [92] [94].

Transactional leadership may be effective in certain situations, but, it will not work when the

leader does not have oversight of the reward process [92] [94]. MBEA may contribute to

leader satisfaction, but it is less effective than transformational leadership. MBEP often

produces ineffective leadership and dissatisfaction. In the final analysis, transactional leaders

may have a marginal effect on follower performance but are more effective when using

transformational leadership behaviors [92] [94].

2.5.2.3 Laissez-faire Leadership

Similar to MBEP, laissez-faire leadership is another form of passive or avoidant leadership.

Laissez-faire leaders do not demonstrate transformational or transactional behaviors, and,

which means laissez-faire leadership is the most ineffective or inactive leadership style.

Laissez-faire leaders commonly avoid problem solving, making decisions, or dealing with

poor performance [92].

Laissez-faire leadership style can be effective when addressing incremental change rather than

major organizational change. Avolio and Bass contended that all leaders have some level of

transactional, transformational, and laissez-faire behaviors in their leadership style and there

are certain situations in which each style may be appropriate [94].

2.6 INSTRUMENTS TO MEASURE LEADERSHIP

2.6.1 LMX Questionnaire

LMX theory describes the dyadic relationship between an individual member and his or her

supervisor, and describes reciprocal fulfillment of expectations. The LMX 7 scale assesses the

degree to which leaders and followers have mutual respect for each other’s capabilities, feel a

deepening sense of mutual trust, and have a sense of strong obligation to one another. Taken

together, these dimensions determine the extent to which followers will be part of the leader’s

in-group or out-group [97] [98].

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Ph. D. Thesis   33 

2.6.2 Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI)

The Leadership Practices Inventory developed by Posner & Kouzes, [99] [100] [101] assesses

a leader’s practices and competencies. The Leadership Practices Inventory contains 30

statements – six statements that measure each of the five key practices of exemplary leaders.

A self-report measure and an observer measure of the LPI have been developed and used for

various populations and organizations. The LPI assesses leaders’ and observers’ responses to

statements using a 10-point Likert scale. The scale used in LPI is as follows: (1) almost never

do what is described in the statement; (2) rarely; (3) seldom; (4) once in a while; (5)

occasionally; (6) sometimes; (7) fairly often; (8) usually; (9) very frequently; and (10) almost

always do what is described in the statement.

The leadership practices identified by Kouzes and Posner include:

Modeling the way:

This practice involves finding one’s voice as well as setting the example through aligning

actions with values. This includes the leader’s ability to clearly communicate an authentic

message and engage others toward common goals and aspirations.

� Inspiring a shared vision:

This practice supports articulating an envisioned future and enabling others to a common

vision. This includes the leader’s ability to build a sense of unity among the followers toward

that vision in ways that are enthusiastic and igniting.

� Challenging the process:

This practice includes searching for innovative ways to change and improve through

experimentation and risk-taking. This also includes the leaders’ ability to receive ideas from

all constituents and utilize every opportunity to learn from and develop their followers.

Enabling others to act

This practice is enhanced by fostering collaboration and trust and sharing power. A leader’s

ability to promote trust and collaboration enables followers to work effectively.

� Encouraging the heart

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  Ph. D. Thesis 34

This practice is cultivated when leaders recognize contributions and show appreciation for

individual excellence as well as celebrate accomplishments to create a spirit of community.

2.6.3 Leadership Quotient (LQ)

Leadership Quotient is a recent development in the measurement of leadership effectiveness,

developed by Robert Service. It comprised 12 dimensions for measuring and improving

leadership. Service suggested leadership is not a position or title but a living influence where

a person or persons move others into the unknown [102] [103]. Service argued that the

Leadership Quotient is a methodology or model to measure leadership for its understanding

and improvement and provides a more comprehensive formula and depiction of leadership

effectiveness. He argued that since much of the leadership research has focused on

intelligence and emotional quotients or a combination of traits that produce effective

leadership; the Leadership Quotient provides a natural evolution to measure leadership

effectiveness. This model consists of leader angle, follower and environment quotients.

Service suggested that the need to identify, understand, change and direct yourself, others and

corresponding situations toward becoming more of what one can become as a leader. It is not

how the leader thinks he communicated, but how the followers think the leader

communicated; it is not how the leader think he treat and read people, it is how the followers

think you are a people person; it’s not how the leader look or behave, it’s how the followers

see leader and leader’s behavior [102].

2.6.4 Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire

The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) is a validated instrument created by Bass

and Avolio in 1995 to measure transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership

styles and leadership outcomes. This is a 45- item instrument and it measures nine leadership

components (idealized influence attributed, idealized influence behavior, inspirational

motivation, intellectual stimulation, individual consideration, contingent reward,

management-by-exception [active], management-by-exception [passive], and laissez-faire

leadership) categorized into the three leadership styles. The instrument also measure three

outcomes of leadership namely extra efforts, effectiveness, and satisfaction.

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Ph. D. Thesis   35 

2.6.5 Organizational Leadership Questionnaire (OLQ)

The OLQ is a self reported inventory and was developed and standardized by Pareek. This

inventory is comprised of 12 situations. This scale measures four styles of leadership. Style 1

has been named as ‘Directive’ and is representative of persons who display behaviors to be

considered high on regulating, but low on nurturance. Style 2 is named ‘Supportive’ and is

characterized by leader who is high on both regulation and nurturance behavior. Style 3 is

named ‘Consulting’ and is characterized by low on regulation but high on nurturance

behavior. Finally, Style 4 is named as ‘Delegating’ which is characterized by leadership

behaviors that are low on both regulation and nurturance [104].

2.7 EI AND LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS

A review of literature revealed mix findings of the relationship between Emotional

Intelligence and leadership effectiveness and performance. Some studies supported the theory

that EI positively affects leadership effectiveness [1] [8] [105] [106] [107] [108] [109] [110]

[24] [111] and performance [1] [45] [112] [55] [113] [114], others disputed the relationship

between EI and leadership effectiveness [115] [116] [117] [118] [119].

Several studies have provided evidence that a significant relationship exists between EI and

leadership effectiveness [1] [8] [63] [14] [107] [110]. Leaders with higher EI tend to have

impacted leadership effectiveness in a better way and impacted the leadership outcome of

extra effort, effectiveness, and satisfaction [24] [46] [120]. Research has shown that the EI of

an organizational leader correlates with the quality of the leader’s relationship with

subordinates [121]. Emotional Intelligence is found to be related to organizational relevant

outcome [122]. Research has also indicated that high EI positively influenced workplace

stress, perceived control, satisfaction, and commitment [123]. Research has also shown that

emotional intelligence has also impacted leadership in family business [124]. Emotional

Intelligence has also been found related to job performance in many studies [45] [46]. Koman

and Wolff conducted a study on military organizations and found that team leader EI levels

significantly related to team performance [55]. Emotional Intelligence has been found

significantly related to leadership effectiveness in some studies in India also [110] [125]

[122].

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  Ph. D. Thesis 36

Antonakis purported that academicians, practitioners, and organizational leaders have

embraced the concept of EI without empirical evidence to support the construct [115].

Antonakis et al. consequently noted that further research was necessary to support the role of

EI and leader success, but argued that scientific advancement in all areas of research comes

from the rigorous testing and discarding of theories [117]. Antonakis et al. concluded that EI

becomes less of a factor when relationship outcomes are not the main objective, but

emphasized that EI was more essential in social situations and IQ was more essential in

cognitive tasks [117].

A review of the literature indicated that a relatively small number of studies focused on the

relationship between EI and leadership effectiveness have been conducted on Indian software

industry supervisors. The current study addresses this gap in the literature through an

examination of the relationship between EI and full range leadership in the Indian software

industry.

2.8 EI AND LEADERSHIP STYLES

Many researchers have conducted studies to understand the relationship between emotional

Intelligence and leadership styles namely transformational, transactional, and Passive

Avoidant. There have been mix findings of the relationships. Although some studies have

supported the relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational style [126]

[127] [128] [120] [129] [130] [131] [132] [133] [134] others found no relationship between EI

and transformational leadership [135] [136] [137] [138] [139].

Some studies also supported the relationship between emotional intelligence and transactional

leadership style [126] [129] [128]. In India, a study by Srivsastava and Bharamanaikar

supported the relationship between EI and transformational leadership [110] and a study by

Modassir and Singh did not find any relationship between EI and transformational leadership

[140]. Some studies found negative relationship between passive avoidant leadership styles

and other did not find any relationship between these two variables [126] [120] [128] [141].

A review of the literature indicated that a relatively small number of studies focused on the

relationship between EI and leadership styles have been conducted in Indian software

industry supervisors. The current study addresses this gap in the literature through an

examination of the relationship between EI and leadership styles in Indian software industry.

Chapter 2

Ph. D. Thesis   37 

2.9 STUDIES OF EI AND LEADERSHIP STYLES AND LEADERSHIP

EFFECTIVENESS

Transformational leadership theory is based primarily on Bass’s work [96]; although Burn’s

earlier work [85] influenced the thinking behind its development. The dynamics of

transformational leadership involve strong personal identification with the leader, joining in a

shared vision of the future, or going beyond the self-interest exchange of rewards for

compliance. Transformational leaders, aim at reaching followers’ emotional drivers to achieve

results [142]. An effective transformational leader understands the needs and motivations of

others and tries to help them reach their full potential [91].

Goleman finds that truly effective leaders are distinguished by a high degree of emotional

intelligence [46]. Cherniss Suggested that a person’s ability to perceive, identify, and manage

emotions provides the basis for the kinds of social and emotional competencies that are

important for success in almost any job [143].

Barling et al. in 2000 conducted an exploratory study on the relationship between EI and

transformational leadership [126]. The study was conducted in a Single Organization with 49

Supervisors and 187 Subordinates. They were administered three questionnaires a)

Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ 5x short) to assess the four components of

transformational leadership and transactional leadership, b) EI inventory of Bar-on to assess

EI, and c) Seligman attribution style Questionnaire to measure attribution [144]. The findings

showed that idealized influence, inspirational motivation, individualized consideration (MLQ

characteristics of transformational leadership style), as well as contingent reward have

significant relationship with Emotional Intelligence. It was also found in the study that

Intellectual stimulation aspect of transformational leadership did not have any relationship

with Emotional Intelligence. There was no significant association between active and passive

management–by- exception, laissez-faire and emotional intelligence. The leaders who report

exhibiting these behaviors were assumed to be more effective in the workplace.

Palmer et al. [129] in 2001 studied the relationship between EI and effective leadership. The

researchers used the Trait Meta Mood Scale (TMMS) [145], a predecessor of the MSCEIT

that included emotional as well as cognitive items, and the MLQ to examine the relationship

between leadership style and EI. Self report versions of both the questionnaires were used in

Literature Review

  Ph. D. Thesis 38

the study. They assessed 43 past and present students in one of Swinburne University’s

(Australia) Center for Innovation and Enterprise Programs. About two-thirds of the

participants held middle or upper level manager positions.

They did find relationships between some of these sub-scales of TMMS, such as between

emotional monitoring and inspirational motivation and between idealized influence and

emotional monitoring. The researchers also found a positive relationship between the

contingent reward component of transactional leadership and the emotional monitoring

subscale, and with contingent reward and the total transformational leadership score,

concluding that “perhaps ‘contingent reward’ overlaps considerably with the transformational

leadership component”

Gardner and Stough [120] in 2002 examined the utility of emotional intelligence in

predicting effective leaders. They employed the Swinburne University Emotional Intelligence

Test for measuring emotional intelligence and the MLQ to assess leadership style. Self report

versions of both the tests were used in this study. The sample consisted of 110 senior level

managers.

Researchers found a significant positive relationship between emotional intelligence and all

components of transformational leadership. The relationship was further supported for all five

EI factors from the SUEIT, as well as with contingent rewards (part of the transactional

leadership style). A strong negative relationship was found between for laissez-faire

leadership and total emotional intelligence score. The outcomes of leadership (extra effort,

effectiveness, and satisfaction) were all found to be significantly correlated with components

of emotional intelligence as well as total emotional intelligence. They also recommended for a

360-degree measure of emotional intelligence to complement the self report measures of

emotional intelligence.

Goleman, Boyatzis and Mckee in 2002, concluded that the fundamental task of leaders was

to prime good feelings in those they lead. [8]. Goleman et al. assert that it is the level of a

leader’s understanding of the powerful role emotions play in the workplace that separates the

best leaders from the rest.

Sivanathan and Fekken [130] in 2002, studied the relationship of emotional intelligence and

moral reasoning to leadership styles and effectiveness. This study was conducted among 58

Chapter 2

Ph. D. Thesis   39 

residence staff of Ontario University. 232 subordinates and 12 supervisors of residence staff

rated on leadership behaviour and effectiveness. The researchers used four questionnaires in

this study, Bar On EQi, The Defining Issues Test (DIT) [146], the Multifactor Leadership

Questionnaire (MLQ 5x), and two external criterion to minimize the effect of monomethod

bias.

Transformational leadership positively correlated to emotional intelligence and leadership

effectiveness. It was also found that transactional leadership was positively correlated with

superior rating of don effectiveness and leaders displaying greater moral reasoning were not

found to display rater transformational leadership behaviour.

Mandell and Pherwani [147] in 2003 conducted a small study consisting of 13 male and 19

female managers in mid- to large-size companies. The goal of the study was to examine the

gender differences in the relationship between EI and transformational leadership. Emotional

intelligence was measured using the EQ-I and leadership was measured with the MLQ (5x-

Rev.). The study found that females were significantly higher in emotional intelligence than

males, but there were no gender differences when comparing the relationship between

emotional intelligence and transformational leadership. There was an overall significant

positive relationship between the total EI scores and transformational leadership scores of the

managers.

Duckett and Macfarlane [148] in 2003 examined the relationship between emotional

intelligence and transformational leadership relationships in a UK based retailing

organization. 13 store managers participated in the study. The results showed a strong

connection between the theory of EQ and transformational leadership.

Weinberger [141] in 2003 investigated the relationship between EI, leadership styles and

perceived leadership effectiveness in a single US based manufacturing organization. The

Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) was used to measure

emotional intelligence and the multifactor leadership questionnaire, was used to assess

leadership styles and leadership outcomes. MSCEIT was administered to 138 top managers of

the organization and MLQ 5x was administered to subordinates of the 138 managers.

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  Ph. D. Thesis 40

No significant correlations were found between emotional intelligence and leadership styles.

In addition, no significant relationships were found between emotional intelligence and

leadership outcomes.

Prati et al. [149] in 2003 proposed that the emotionally intelligent team leader will induce

collective motivation in team members and the emotionally intelligent leader uses charismatic

authority and transformational influence in order to improve team performance. They

formulated 10 propositions. They proposed that emotional intelligence is particularly essential

to effective team interaction and productivity. The leader serves as a motivator towards

collective action and relationship among team members.

Antonakis J wrote a critique of the article by Prati et al. He concludes that excitement over

the use of EI in the workplace is premature [150]. He underlines contradictions and

inconsistencies which may cast doubt on the necessity of EI for understanding and predicting

leadership effectiveness [28].

Leban & Zulauf [151] in 2004 studied 24 project managers and their associated projects in

six organizations from varied industries to link emotional intelligence and transformational

leadership styles. The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Ability Test (MSCEIT)

and the multifactor leadership questionnaire (MLQ) Form 5x instruments were used for data

collection. Project managers completed the emotional intelligence ability test (MSCEIT)

during project planning. Team members and stakeholders responded to questions addressing

the project manager’s leadership style between four to nine months after project activities

began and at the designated end of a project phase.

The results of the study found that there are a number of linkages between emotional

intelligence abilities and transformational leadership style. The ability to understand emotions

and overall emotional intelligence were significantly related with the inspirational motivation

component of transformational leadership. Emotional intelligence was found to relate

significantly with the idealized influence and individual consideration components of

transformational leadership. Management-by-exception component of transactional leadership

and laissez-faire or non-leadership were found to have a significant negative relationship with

the strategic emotional intelligence and understanding emotions component of emotional

intelligence. The study recognizes that transformational project leader behavior has a positive

Chapter 2

Ph. D. Thesis   41 

impact on actual project performance, and emotional intelligence ability contributes to

transformational project leader behavior and also to subsequent actual project performance.

Burbach [152] in 2004 examined the effect of emotional intelligence on full-range

leadership. The moderating effects of leaders' cognitive style and direction of self-concept

(internal vs. external) on the relationship of emotional intelligence and full-range leadership

were also examined. 146 self-identified leaders and their 649 raters participated in the study.

Emotional intelligence was measured with Mayer-Salovey Caruso emotional intelligence test

(MSCEIT), full range leadership was assessed with The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire

(MLQ 5x), and The Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) measured cognitive style.

A significant relationship was found between emotional intelligence and all the full-range

leadership from leaders' perceptions. Significant variance to the relationship between

emotional intelligence and transformational leadership and outcomes of leadership from

leaders' perceptions was added by Cognitive style. This indicated that the combined

extraversion and intuitive cognitive style is related with transformational leadership over and

above emotional intelligence. The leader's direction of self-concept added significant variance

to the relationship between EI and transformational, management by exception (MBE) and

laissez-faire leadership from leaders' perceptions. This showed that internal self concept is

associated with transformational leadership over and above EI and external self-concept is

associated with management by exception and laissez-faire leadership over and above

emotional intelligence. No significant relationship was found between cognitive style or

direction of self-concept and emotional intelligence while predicting full-range leadership

style from leaders' perceptions. A significant predictive association was found between

emotional intelligence and laissez-faire leadership and outcomes of leadership from raters'

perceptions. Significant interaction was found between direction of self-concept and EI while

predicting transformational leadership, contingent reward leadership (a component of

transactional leadership style) and outcomes of leadership from raters' perceptions. This

showed that the leader's internal self-concept moderates the relationship between EI and

transformational leadership, contingent reward leadership (a component of transactional

leadership style) and leadership outcomes (extra efforts, effectiveness, satisfaction) from

raters' perceptions.

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  Ph. D. Thesis 42

Higgs [106] in 2004 explored the association of emotional intelligence and performance

ratings of call center agents. This study used EIQ measure developed by Dulewicz and Higgs,

and ratings of their performance. 289 agents from three organizations participated in this

study. He suggested an array of both skills and characteristic relationships be present within

the framework of effective performance. The results suggested a robust relationship between

emotional intelligence and individual performance. There was also exploratory evidence

suggesting that organizations can achieve overall improved performance if the emotional

intelligence elements (self awareness, motivation, interpersonal sensitivity, emotional

resilience, and conscientiousness) are included in their selection criteria.

Rahim and Psenicka [105] in 2005 carried out a comprehensive international study

involving participants from the United States, Greece, Bangladesh, and China. Their

hypothesis was that empathy would mediate between social skills and effective leadership.

Participants were 1182 dyads, consisting of MBA students designated as target leaders, and a

peer in their MBA program. Researchers employed a self-developed instrument, which

specifically measured subordinates’ perception of their supervisor’s empathy and social skills.

They also used a subscale of McCall & Sergist instrument to measure leadership

effectiveness, which was also completed by the subordinates.

The authors found a positive association between social skills and leadership effectiveness in

each of the four countries. They also found that there was a positive association between

empathy and social skills in each country. Finally, they controlled for social skills and found

that there was a positive association between empathy and leadership effectiveness in all of

the countries except China. The relationship between empathy and leadership was strongest

among the U.S. leaders (MBA students), moderate among leaders in Bangladesh and Greece,

and non-existent in China. The study’s weakness was in not having true subordinates for the

rating process.

Rosete and Ciarrochi [107] in 2005 conducted a study to investigate the relationship

between emotional intelligence (EI), personality, cognitive intelligence and leadership

effectiveness in a large Australian public service Organisation. The sample consisted of 41

executives who volunteered to participate in a career development centre. They were

administered Mayer-Salovey Caruso emotional intelligence test Version 2.0 an ability

measure of Emotional intelligence, a measure of personality test 16 PF, and a measure of

Chapter 2

Ph. D. Thesis   43 

cognitive ability – The Wechsler abbreviated scale of intelligence (WASI). Leadership

effectiveness was assessed using an objective measure of performance and a 360- degree

assessment involving each leader’s subordinates and direct manager (n=149).

The results from the investigation revealed that EI was related to a leader’s effectiveness in

being able to achieve organisational goals. Higher EI was associated with higher leadership

effectiveness, and EI also explained variance not explained by either personality or IQ. The

ability to perceive emotion and understand emotion of a leader had an impact on core

leadership behaviour. Perceiving emotion was the strongest predictor of “how” measures

leadership effectiveness. Dominance – a personality factor is the strongest predictor of the

‘what’ measure of leadership effectiveness. There is no significant co-relation between total

EI and any of the 16 personality factors. Vigilance; a personality factor co-related

significantly with perceiving emotion. There was significant relationship between total EI

score and verbal IQ, performance IQ, full scale IQ. The findings suggest that executives

higher on EI are more likely to achieve business outcomes and be considered as effective

leaders by their subordinates and direct manager.

Kerr, Garvin, Heaton, and Boyle [1] in 2006 conducted their study in a single organization

with a sample size of 38 supervisors (37 males and 1 female) and 1,258 employees. The

Supervisors took the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) an

ability-based test, which measures overall EI and and four branches. And the measure of

leadership effectiveness was a 24-item Likert scale constructed by a third party consultancy

specifically for this organization, of which nine of the items related to rating supervisory

leadership. The MSCEIT scores were stratified into three factor levels. The correlation results

yielded significant relationships between MSCEIT scores and supervisor ratings for only two

of the EI branches: perceiving emotions and using emotions.

Butler and Chinowsky [127] in 2006 extended the research of Gardner and Stough by

examining 132 leaders in the construction industry. This research investigated emotional

intelligence and leadership behavior profiles of leaders in the construction industry. The Bar-

On EQ-i test was used to measure of EI and the MLQ 5x was used to measure

transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership. It was found that five of the

fifteen subscales of emotional intelligence were related to transformational leadership

behavior at a statistically significant level. The construction leaders, as a group, viewed

Literature Review

  Ph. D. Thesis 44

themselves as transformational leaders who sometimes behaved as transactional leaders, with

laissez-faire leadership behaviors seldom used. Inspirational leadership was reported as the

most commonly employed transformational behavior and employing contingent reward

behavior was viewed as the most frequently used transactional leadership behavior

Vrba [128] in 2007 conducted a research in a South African insurance company to study the

relationship between emotional intelligence skills and leadership behaviours. The sample

consisted of 60 first line managers and 314 close associates of these managers. The Emotional

Intelligence Appraisal (EIA) survey was used to measure EI Skills of the managers. The

Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ 5x) was used to assess managers’ leadership

profiles. The study showed a positive correlation between all the EI skills and all the

transformational styles. EI skills also had a positive correlation with contingent reward; a

component of transactional style. All the EI skills also had a positive correlation with the

outcomes of leadership (extra effort, effectiveness, and satisfaction). A negative correlation

was found between EI skills and laissez-faire style.

Sunindigo et al. [153] in 2007 studied the benefits of emotional intelligence to project

management. They investigated the relationship between emotional intelligence and

leadership style in Thailand. They interviewed project managers and engineers. The results of

the study showed that emotional intelligence affected leadership behaviour of project leaders.

Project leaders with higher emotional intelligence tend to use open communication and

proactive leadership styles. It was also found that EI generated delegating, open

communication, and proactive behaviour, which could bring positive outcomes to the

organization.

Koman and Wolff in 2008 conducted a study in military organizations [55]. The objective of

this study was to assess the relationship between individual emotional intelligence

competencies, team level emotional intelligence, and team effectiveness. 70 team leaders and

73 managers (team leaders’ supervisors) rated team leaders’ emotional intelligence. A total of

349 aircrew and maintenance team members participated representing 81 aircrew and

maintenance teams. To assess team leader emotional intelligence, the emotional competence

inventory (ECI-2) was administered. Each team leader had 2-14 raters rate their behaviors,

with an average of 4.34 ratings completed for every team leader, excluding the self-rating.

Chapter 2

Ph. D. Thesis   45 

Team level emotional intelligence was assessed using the Group Emotional Intelligence

measure developed by Druskat and Wolff and later refined based on work by Hamme [154].

Team member participants self rated their team’s behavior according to each of the nine

emotionally competent group norms measured by the instrument. The objective performance

rating was calculated from the percentage of goals attained by each team on measures used in

respective military organization. Subjective performance measures were gathered from upper

level officers who had observed multiple teams within the command over time. This study

showed that a team leader’s emotional intelligence affects team level emotional competence

and team performance through the development of emotionally competent group norms.

Team leader EI levels were significantly related to performance

Williams [155] in 2008 studied the leadership characteristics of urban principals that were

identified as outstanding. Twelve outstanding and eight typical principals were identified by

nominations by peers, supervisors’ nominations and teachers’ ratings. Data from behavioral

event incident interviews (BEI) were used as the major source for exploring the study. The

BEI, is designed to get the participant to vividly and accurately describe real experiences in

his/her job, is a well established qualitative research method for assessing individual

competencies [156] [157] [158] [159]. Each incident was analyzed using a code derived

directly from a model of emotional and social intelligence competencies that has been widely

used and its validity and reliability well documented [49] [160].

Outstanding principals demonstrated a broad and deep repertoire of competencies related to

emotional and social intelligence. Williams discovered emotional and social intelligence

competencies that significantly differentiated outstanding principals from typical principals.

The competencies were (a) self-confidence, (b) self control, (c) conscientiousness, (d)

achievement orientation, (e) initiative, (f) organizational awareness, (g) developing others, (h)

influence, (i) analytical thinker, (j) leadership, (k) teamwork/collaboration influence, (l)

change catalyst, and (m) conflict management.

Ramo, Saris, and Boyatzis [112] in 2009 studied Spanish executives. The data were

collected from three medium sized Spanish organizations with (n=223). Emotional

Competence Inventory a 360-degree instrument was used to measure emotional intelligence,

Personality was measured with the NEO-FFI, a shortened version of the Revised NEO

Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) [161]. Nominations from subordinates, peers, and bosses

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  Ph. D. Thesis 46

or nominations in concert with other output measures were used to measure performance

effectiveness. In the study, it was found that emotional competencies and personality traits are

valuable predictors of job performance. In addition, competencies were found to be more

powerful predictors of performance than global personality traits.

Mills [162] in 2009 conducted a meta analysis of relationship between emotional intelligence

and effective leadership. The results of his study suggest that emotional intelligence may now

need to be considered as a component of leadership effectiveness and as such, changes need

to be considered in the preparation for and practice of educational leadership. Developing

skills associated with emotional intelligence, and implementing a leadership style in practice

that is reflective of emotional intelligence may support greater levels of effectiveness.

Cote et al. [111] in 2010 reported findings from two studies of examining the relationship

between emotional intelligence and leadership emergence in small groups. Overall emotional

intelligence and some of its dimensions were associated with leadership emergence over and

above cognitive intelligence, personality traits, and gender. Among the dimensions of

emotional intelligence, the ability to understand emotions was most consistently associated

with leadership emergence.

Tang at el. [163]. In 2010 explored the relationship between the emotional intelligence and

transformational leadership practices of academic leaders in Taiwan and the USA. The

objective of the study was to investigate whether cross-cultural differences exist in academic

leaders’ EI, leadership practices, and the relationship between them. Emotional intelligence

and Leadership effectiveness were measured with Nelson and Low’s Emotional Skills

Assessment Process (ESAP) and Kouzes and Posner’s Leadership Practices Inventory-Self

(LPI-Self).

The study employed a casual-comparative approach to draw cross-cultural comparisons.

Convenience samples of 50 academic leaders in Taiwan and 50 in the USA were selected as

two comparison sample groups in these two different cultures. Results of the correlation

analyses indicated that the Taiwanese participants’ overall EI was found to have a positive

significant correlation with all five areas of leadership practices. The US participants were

also found to have statistically significant positive relationships between overall emotional

intelligence and all areas of leadership practices except challenging the process, and inspiring

a shared vision.

Chapter 2

Ph. D. Thesis   47 

Hebert, E B, in 2011 conducted a study with school principles [164]. The research sample

was composed of 30 elementary, middle, and high school principals and five to seven teachers

who worked with each principal from schools in the United States. An emotional intelligence

score for the principals was obtained by administering the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional

Intelligence Test (MSCEIT). Teachers who worked with each principal completed the rater

form of the Multi-Factor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ-5X) also. Correlations were

analyzed to conclude that there is a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and

transformational leadership. A positive correlational relationship between effectiveness and

emotional intelligence was found. Analyzing the relationship between emotional intelligence

and different non-transformational leadership styles yielded mixed results. Findings also

indicated a relationship exists between emotional intelligence and contingent reward

leadership, while no significant relationship was found between emotional intelligence and

other leadership styles. It was concluded from the study that principals and future principals

could better develop effective leadership skills by becoming more aware of their strengths and

weakness in the area of emotional intelligence, along with improving their transformational

leadership behaviours.

Jordan and Troth [165] in 2011 conducted a study to examine the mediating effect of leader

member exchange (LMX) on the relationship between followers’ emotional intelligence and

the outcomes of turnover intention and job satisfaction. They used a longitudinal design.

Survey data were collected from 579 employees within a private pathology company.

Measures of emotional intelligence and LMX were collected at Time 1 and employee

turnover intentions and job satisfaction were collected at Time 2. Turnover intention was

measured with three items developed by Colarelli (1984) [166]. Job satisfaction was measured

using three items developed by Caplan et al. (1975) [167].

Emotional intelligence was assessed using the self-report Workgroup Emotional Intelligence

Profile – Short Version (WEIP-S, Jordan and Lawrence) [168]. LMX was assessed using a

scale developed by Liden and Maslyn [169]. Negative affect was assessed using ten items

from Watson et al.’s [170] PANAS scale. The results of this study showed that followers’

emotional intelligence was related to employee turnover intentions, was linked to higher

levels of job satisfaction, and was related to higher levels of quality LMXs. Their underlying

premise was that these relationships occur as a consequence of the higher quality relationships

more likely to be formed by employees with higher emotional intelligence abilities.

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  Ph. D. Thesis 48

Boyatzis et al. [24] in 2012 conducted a study to assess the role of the behavioral level of

emotional and social competencies on leader performance. The objective of the study was to

test how emotional & social competencies, cognitive intelligence (g), and personality would

affect sales leadership. 60 divisional executive (leaders) participated in the study.

Performance of the leaders was measured through recruitment of financial consultants by

these participating leaders. “g” The Ravens Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM) was used

to measure cognitive intelligence [171]. The NEO Personality Inventory–Revised was used to

measure personality traits [172]. The emotional & social competencies demonstrated by each

subject were assessed with the Emotional and Social Competency Inventory (ESCI) and the

“others” feedback was used in analysis [22]. The findings of the study showed that emotional

& social competencies significantly predicted leader performance (i.e., recruitment) whereas

measures of generalized intelligence and personality did not. Adaptability and influence were

two competencies distinctively predicting sales leadership performance.

Stanescu, and Cicei [18] in 2012 conducted a study by taking 101 Romanian Public

Managers to explore the relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership styles and

between emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness. Emotional intelligence of

managers was assessed using Bar-On EQ-i and leadership styles were assessed using MLQ-

5x. It was found that there are significant positive correlations between transformational

leadership and emotional intelligence and between leadership effectiveness and emotional

intelligence. Transactional leadership was also found correlated with EI score, and with the

Adaptability and Interpersonal scale of EQ-i. Total EQ-i score and the EQ-i subscales were

found negatively significantly correlated with Passive/Avoidant leadership. Interpersonal,

Stress Management and General Mood scales of EQ-i predicted 47.5% of the total variance of

transformational leadership and Interpersonal and Stress Management scales of EQ-i

predicted 38.2% of the total variance of leadership effectiveness. The results offered a clearer

perspective on the relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership styles, and

leadership effectiveness.

Zhang and Fan [173] in 2013 studied the relationship between project manager’s emotional

intelligence and project performance. They used a modified Boyatzis Goleman model of

emotional intelligence for measuring emotional intelligence score of the project managers.

Project performance was assessed using a 13 point criteria. 112 project managers participated

in the study. The participants rated themselves on both the scales. The findings of the study

Chapter 2

Ph. D. Thesis   49 

showed a positive relationship between total EI and project performance. Six factors of

emotional intelligence were found significantly correlated with project performance.

Boyatzis et al. concluded in a recent publication in 2013 that emotional and social

intelligence competencies have been shown to predict effectiveness in leadership,

management and professional jobs in many countries of the world. To be an effective leader,

manager or professional, a person needs to understand and skillfully manage his emotions

appropriately based on each person or situation and understand the emotional cues of others

in order to effectively interact with others [7].

2.10 EI AND LEADERSHIP- INDIAN STUDIES

Srivsastava and Bharamanaikar [110] in 2004 examined leadership effectiveness with a

unique population of 291 Indian army officers. EI was measured using a self-report measure,

the Work Profile Questionnaire Emotional Intelligence version (WPQei) and Leadership

styles were measured by the 5x-short version of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire

(MLQ 5x). Perceived success of the leaders was measured by a questionnaire developed by

Pareek and Rao and job satisfaction was measured by the Job Satisfaction Survey developed

by Spector. MLQ 5x was completed by subordinates allowing subordinates to determine the

extent that transformational and transactional leadership style was displayed in the leaders.

The results significantly supported the connection between leader’s EI and all of the

components of the transformational leadership style. Higher EI scores were also found for the

contingent reward component of transactional style. EI was not related to job satisfaction, but

was related to perceived success. EI was not related to job satisfaction, but was related to

perceived success. There was a strong relationship between transformational leadership

behaviors and the leader’s self-reports of being innovative, intuitive, self-aware, motivated,

socially adept, empathic, and managing emotions. The army officers who rated themselves

high on EI also perceived themselves to be more successful in their careers.

Sinha & Jain [122] in 2004 studied emotional intelligence and organizational relevant

outcomes in two-wheeler automobile manufacturing organizations. The sample consisted of

250 male middle level executives. Emotional intelligence was measured through a

questionnaire adapted from the writings of Bar On [59]. Job satisfaction was measured

through a questionnaire consisting of three items adapted from the work of Cammann,

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  Ph. D. Thesis 50

Fichman, Jenkins, and Flesh [176]. Personal effectiveness was measured through a

questionnaire consisting of four items based on work of Sutton and Ford [177].

Organizational commitment was measured through a questionnaire adapted from the writing

of Meyer and Allen [178]. Reputational Effectiveness was measured through three items

taken from the writing of Tsui [179]. The general health (lack of strain) was measured

through the General Health Questionnaire–12 (GHQ-12) variant of General Health

Questionnaire by Goldberg, [180] consisting of 12 items. Trust questionnaire was taken from

the work of Gabarro and Athos [181] consisting of seven items. The 3-item scale from

Cammann, Fichman, Jenkins, and Klesh [182] was used to measure turnover intention.

Organizational effectiveness was measured through a 22 items questionnaire taken from Sinha

[183] and based on the work of Sutton and Ford [184]. Organizational productivity was

measured through five items scale based on the work of Spreitzer and Mishra [185].

Results showed that the dimensions of emotional intelligence turned out to be significant

predictors of the organizationally relevant individual level, and organizational level outcome

variables. Job Satisfaction was predicted by one dimension (of EI), Personal Effectiveness

was by two dimensions, Organizational Commitment aspects by two dimensions, General

Health by two, Vertical Trust by three, Turnover Intention by one, dimensions of

Organizational Effectiveness by two, and Organizational Productivity by one dimension of EI

respectively. The results showed that the construct of emotional intelligence may be taken as

meaningfully related to the organizationally relevant outcome variables [122].

Singh [125] in 2007 studied 210 males and 130 females in an Indian software organization.

Emotional Intelligence was measured by Emotional Competency Inventory – V2 (Self

Version) and leadership styles and leadership effectiveness were measured by Organizational

Leadership Questionnaire [104]. All the dimensions of EI have been found to be positively

associated with leadership styles as well as effectiveness of the male software professionals.

EI of the male software professionals is significantly as well as positively related with their

supportive and delegating styles of leadership, but their overall leadership effectiveness has

been found to be significantly as well as positively associated with all the dimensions of EI

and total EI. Results also depicted positive relationships of EI with leadership styles and

effectiveness of the female software professionals. But here the supporting and the consulting

styles of leadership as well as overall leadership effectiveness that obtained positive

relationships with EI have been found to be significant.

Chapter 2

Ph. D. Thesis   51 

Modassir and Singh [140] in 2008 studied Relationship of Emotional Intelligence with

Transformational Leadership and Organizational Citizenship in Different industries in Goa

and daman, India, with a sample of 57 managers 57 subordinates. EQ scale developed by

Schutte et al. (SSEIT Self rater) was used to measure emotional intelligence, The Multifactor

Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ 5x rater form) was used to measure transformational

leadership style, and a scale devised by Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman, and Fetter [174]

was used to measure Organizational Citizenship behaviour. The study supported no relation

between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership style.

Mishra and Mohapatra [20] in 2010 studied Relevance of Emotional Intelligence for

Effective Job Performance in Various Organizations in Delhi NCR having a sample of 90

executives. They used EI Test by Chadha & Singh (Self rating) [175] for measuring emotional

intelligence and Formal Appraisals of executives’ job performance. Emotional intelligence

was found to be a predictor of job performance. Through personal interviews and discussion

with these executives, it was realized that role plays, simulations, games, and cognitive

exercises are more appropriate than lectures when dealing with emotional learning. It was also

recommended to carry out studies in various organizations using EI measure and performance

appraisal instruments of high technical standards and also using “others” feedback.

Raina & Sharma [134] in 2013 conducted a study to examine the relationship between

emotional intelligence and transformational leadership with entrepreneurs in Rajasthan in

India. The research sample was composed of 47 entrepreneurs. An emotional intelligence

score for the each entrepreneur was obtained by administering the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso

Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT). Multi-Factor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) was

used to measure the leadership of entrepreneurs and each entrepreneur completed a self form

of MLQ 5x.

Correlations were analyzed to conclude that there is a positive relationship between emotional

intelligence and transformational leadership. A positive relationship was found between

effectiveness and both emotional intelligence and transformational leadership. Analyzing the

relationship between emotional intelligence and different non-transformational leadership

styles yielded mixed results. Findings indicated a positive relationship exists between

emotional intelligence and contingent reward leadership, while no significant relationship was

evident between emotional intelligence and other leadership styles. Using the results of the

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  Ph. D. Thesis 52

study, it was concluded that entrepreneurs and future entrepreneurs could better develop

effective leadership skills by becoming more aware of their strengths and weakness in the

area of emotional intelligence, along with improving their transformational leadership

behaviors.

Srivastava, Sibia, & Misra Conclude that the study of EI in India has taken off with a good

start and it will be premature to draw any conclusion at this juncture [21]. Mishra and

Mohapatra also recommended to carry out studies in various organizations using EI measure

and performance appraisal instruments of high technical standards and also using “others”

feedback. There are a few published studies in India which have used the variables of

emotional intelligence and leadership styles and leadership effectiveness. The present study

can add in to the existing knowledge of the relationship between the variables. Mills [162]

also offered several directions for future research in his Meta analysis of relationship between

emotional intelligence and effective leadership. Given the availability of several models of

emotional intelligence in the literature, studies of the effectiveness of specific models and

their impact on leadership effectiveness should be conducted. Studies focusing on emotional

intelligence and leadership effectiveness that examine these outcomes incorporating different

methodological should be conducted.

2.11 CONCLUSION

The chapter reviewed the literature of emotional intelligence, leadership effectiveness, and

three leadership styles namely transformational, transactional, and passive avoidant. The

chapter reviewed the literature of relationships between emotional intelligence and leadership

effectiveness and between emotional intelligence and leadership styles.

Overall, the literature revealed mixed findings of relationship between these variables. But

major findings indicate a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership

effectiveness, between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership, and between

emotional intelligence and transactional leadership. The findings also revealed a negative

relationship between emotional intelligence and passive avoidant leadership style. There are a

few published studies in India which have used the variables of emotional intelligence and

leadership styles and leadership effectiveness. Some Indian studies also revealed mixed

findings of the relationship between these variables.

Chapter 2

Ph. D. Thesis   53 

Chapter 3 presents the population and sample, tools used for data collection, and statistical

techniques and procedures used to analyze the data.